Form & Pose
The ultimate guide to drawing anatomy
in perspective and pose with tomfoxdraws
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Simplificación
Todas las cosas se pueden dividir en
formas de cubo. Esta es la base para
entender el espacio 3D Por muy
complejo que parezca un subobjeto, es
la simplificación y el aprendizaje de "
ver· estas formas es una habilidad
que nos estamos ahogando en este
libro
modelo
final
detallado
modelo
de cubo
simple
xyz spacio & forma 9
x
menos detalles
demasiados
detalles
más
atractivo
demasiado
complicado
x
El error más común que veo en mi enseñanza
es que la gente quiere dibujar demasiados
detalles. Los principiantes suelen dibujar todos
los detalles y no dejar nada a la imaginación,
pero los profesionales dicen más con menos.
Reduzca la velocidad Tómese su tiempo y
haga marcas en los lugares correctos.
Esfuércese por dibujar de manera simple y no
se complique demasiado. No necesita agregar
más, hay belleza en la subestimación
10 competencias clave
Recuérdate que más líneas no siempre
es mejor. Más líneas no significa que su
trabajo tenga más "forma". Cuando
decimos 'forma' nos referimos a la
sensación que tiene el espectador de que
el sujeto es físico y 3d. Los principiantes
no se sienten seguros de sus decisiones,
si es que están tomando alguna, y se
nota en su trabajo de línea, a menudo
con múltiples líneas sin opciones claras
sobre la confianza
el arte
lineal
complej
o no
hace un
mejor
dibujo
estudiar
formas
básicas es
más
importante
líneas indecisas
estudiar formularios
líneas simples y seguras
x
xyz space & form 11
x, y & 2
El mundo que nos rodea es un espacio 3d y cada objeto existe en él. Cada objeto que vemos se ajusta
a estas tres dimensiones ancho, alto y profundidad. Podemos llamarlas dimensiones X, Y y Z. Esto es
cierto tanto para formas simples como para algo tan complejo como la figura humana. No solo los
objetos individuales, sino escenas enteras encajan dentro de estas dimensiones. Trate de imaginar que
cada objeto sentado dentro de él es su propia forma de cubo. Como nota al margen, notará a lo largo
de este libro que dibujo manos y pies demasiado grandes. Esto es intencional, en primer lugar porque
es divertido, y en segundo lugar porque es más fácil de aprender!
X = ANCHO
Y = ALTO
l = PROFUNDIDAD
12 key skills
Incluso escenas
enteras se
ajustan a estas
dimensiones
xyz
xyi! space & form 13
adición de formularios
con planos
Así que sabemos que el uso de las tres
dimensiones son la mejor manera de mostrar
forma (A 1-3), pero ¿cómo podemos usar esto
¿conocimiento? Mira esta forma de fréjol
(B). No está claro en qué ángulo estamos
viéndolo desde. Queremos que el espectador
sienten que están viendo estos objetos
desde una determinada posición
la mejor manera es agregar "lados
o planos" para ayudar a aclarar
(C). Apunta a por lo menos tres
planos para representar cada
dimensión (D) Pregúntate a ti
mismo. "¿este objeto tiene tres
lados claros? ¿Tiene altura, ancho
y profundidad?"
plano a 3d
los planos
dan forma
(
©
forma poco clara
al menos
tres
planos
14 key skills
Queremos incluir y visualizar
planos para ayudar a agregar la
forma (E, F), pero si dibujamos
demasiados
planos,
los
resultados
se
vuelven
visualmente confusos. No
queremos dibujar todo como si
estuviéramos dibujando las
escamas de un lagarto (G).
los planos nos
ayudan a
visualizar la
forma
©
comprender
los planos le
da más
profundidad a
una figura
¡demasiados
planos
pequeños!
xyz space & form
formas
superpuestas
Podemos añadir planos al formulario
pero otro método eficaz es la
superposición, en nuestros tiempos.
Este es uno de
las habilidades más esenciales para
transmitir la forma de manera clara y
exitosa al espectador ¿Ves cuánta
más forma se sugiere agregando
superposición (A)? Busque las
regiones con altos niveles de
superposición y notará que sugieren la
forma más claramente (B)
t1.1itn
ov e r t
ap
@ busque
puntos de
superposición
16 key Sk
ills
So we know we wont to odd overlop,
but how do we do it? The answer: Moke
©
O choice. Every line you drow will begin
either above or below the previous line
(C, D). Choose before you drow 1t.
end
()
start
~
below
same outline,
different overlaps
..)
·'
., ...,
some
overlap
points to
look out for
J
'ro not sure whether O line IS
If you ,
in front or behind, that orco ne.•ds
is the
depth and
positioning
of th ese
parts clear?
unclear
form
©
correction If you don t know then
,ewer woll be confused os well
onot her V
compared to E. F hos clearer overlap
ond less ornbogu1ty A fonoshed drol'.ong
/
is the occurnulot1on of hundr~d, or
thousands of decisions about whPther
each r,ne should go over or und•r
another (G) Chongong these dec,s,ons
_ ofwhot goes over or under
changes
the final result
©
clear
overlap
and form
inconsistent
overlap
which way
is this figure
facing?
18 key skills
consistent
overlap
So, now we know to overlop our lines,
let's think obout overlapping elements.
We need to think of not just each
individual line, but the actual object
we're drawing. If we're drawing a pair
of cubes, before we start the second
one, we need to ask, "Is this behind or
in front of the previous cube?" (H, I)
decide where
things are before
you draw them
overlap creates depth
between objects
xyz space & form 19
Overlopp,ng
pleos,ng
forrtis
~
Ore
They're ea~..
fo,
bro,n to Understand ""'t
-1
~;·,:.i
unsot1sfy1ng Make sure
ore ,n front of one onw,. 1 i:.r,,
..,r o"'l
create something that op"' ~,
""Ors
even ,f ,t doesn't rtioke on..,.
sub1ect! When we look at-~~r,)lo· 0\ •
11
~'l(J..
which orm 1s farther forw ra sIll,,
unclear
arm depth
0
other However, 111 K we kno, .~: ··*
arm ,s ,n front and the ottier11"U
b,. 4
the body Even when looking lJ,~
~
con clearly see Which l1r111Js ore01•
1•'l:,e,
forward or bock'
15
©
©
clear arm
depth
20 key skills
leave gaps
let's soy we're drawing several forms
the hnes don't actually touch When
1n front of each other As was said
drawing the ob1ect that's farther bock,
earlier, this overlap will give us a more
try stopping the hnes 1ust short of the
interesting image. One way to improve
nearer ob1ect, leaving o small gap. This
this feeling of depth is to make sure
makes the closer ob1ect stand out.
leave gaps in line art
so background objects
seem farther back
gaps help
create clear
foreground and
background
forms
x y z space & form 21
less is more
J
As with most things, less is more
Don't
show off
Remember thot
you're drowmg o figure, not trying
to demonstrate how many muscles
you know'
x
rrl
.YAt,~
' - .\
> - · •
too complicated
to be appealing
x
unnecessary
amount of
muscle detail
realistic
amount of
visible muscle
22 ke!:J skills
clear arid
appealing
messy,
irrelevant
internal
lines
minimal, relevant
internal lines
Internal lines. within the silhouette,
be helpful to descrobe form. but
con
.b
try to resist the temptation to descro e
everything Remember this motto·
"Indicate, don•t sto te.• Our natural
x
tendency is to descrobe every small
detail, like we're telling a very borong
story' The viewer doesn't octuolly wont
t his. They wont to be challenged to do
some of the work themselves'
the silhouette
is the same!
feet are a complex
subject, easy to
overcomplicate
streamlined,
simple linework
unnecessary
structural detail
x y z space & form
Slow ,,.,., Yo« '"'"" •• •lh•
w got thO '"""'g ''"' - '"' good,
"ght • wroog, '"' th• "'"'" '"
,o tho ,,ght
""'"' ,,••,g " ·""' ' '"'""'"'
mm"'""' '"" ''""
'""'' ' " "'"" thoO m"" """
pio<od w<th
<0re lFI I<'s oot , ""'
°"'
P"'• """"'"""' .,.,_
AgOO,
""gloo "" w,re """""g , """
''"'""""'' rush !ho """''"""' (G)
fewer
lines
carefully
placed
more
Lines, Less
carefully
placed
©
don't rush the
foundations!
26 key skills
accuracy
isn't everything
Hoke this your mantra: "Believable is
realism. That would be impractical
better than accurate.· Even though
and, worse, boring! We only need to
we're aiming to make "correct" choices,
achieve something that appears to
we're not always striving for exact
function mechanically.
memorizing
every muscle is
not our goal!
believable
figures are our
main aim
learning basic
structures
c onfid ent
final figure
xyz space & form 27
wedging
Aspire to show wedging in almost
"Wedging· builds on our concept of
everything you drew. The humon
overlopping lines ond elements. Think
body is oil wedge. There ore no
of two cube forms being pushed into
eoch other, ond see how they would
seporote pieces (B)!
wedge like two mechonicol pieces (A).
@
practice
wedging shapes
together
28 ke y skills
the human
body is full of
?verlapping,
interlocking
forms
We con wedge much more than simple
cube forms.
Throughout th'1 s book we'll
.
be using wedging to com b'1ne complex
forms as we approach a more reohst1c
. .
level of anatomy. Here• C, D• and E
show
.
• some examples of the d.1rect1on
we II go in later.
we'll explore
how the arm
works later
(
©
wedging the
muscles of
the leg
0
I
~I
I
J
example
mannequin
arms
xyz space & form
silhouettes
& outlines
Silhouette is a powerful tool in our
imaginations fill in the blanks, giving
drawing arsenal. A clear silhouette is
us something that's identifiable and
instantly recognizable and "readable."
appears to hove on orientation in 30
If we add some overlap to the
space. Our brains ore amazing.
contours, it becomes a 30 form. Our
figure
silhouette
addin g
overla p
figure
silhouette
detailed muscle
silhouette
silhouette, contour & proportion 31
However, if o silhouette is incorrect,
1t won't be identifiable as on object.
An incorrect silhouette 1s incredibly
confusing for the viewer's brain The
silhouette in Adoesn't read as on arm,
and neither does B\Ask yourself, ·ooes
\his silhouette look correct?'
this doesn't
seem correct
t~is,definitely
1sn t correct!
32 key s kills
@
x
correct
forms
Small changes in silhouette create
large changes in ident1ficat1on (C.
D). Don't think, "Is this too small to
bother changing?" It's always worth
bothering! Sometimes, the difference
between
a
successful
and
an
unsuccessful drawing is reviewing what
you've drawn, checking it, and asking,
small tweaks can
have huge effects
"How can I adjust this silhouette to
make it more believable?" (E)
('
_[
'""'
find areas
that need
improvement
or clarity!
\
silhouette, contour & proportion
contours & forms
Contours ore on essentJol tool for
representing forms
People often
talk about ·cross contours• or ·1ineor
contours· They're oil the some
thing lines across the sub1ect that
help descnbe form to the viewer. The
question to ask yourself here rs, ·con
I draw the contours around this fonn'"
If you cont. you don't know the form
well enough yet
figure
outlines
cross contours
help show form
contours.
.
in
isolation
~
test your form
knowledge
with contours
(
\
'\
,,,./ ~
~~~- ~
34 key skills
original
figure
®
slice a cro
se .
ssct1on out f
o
o
Y ur figure!
what
would
that slice
look like?
V1suolize tok,ng o cross-s
out of your
.
ect1on slice
sub1ects (
.
.
Con you
,mogme the sh
ope of th
yourself, ·0o
at slice7 Ask
I know ex
slice from h
octly whot o
ere would I
There will b
ook like?" (B C)
e gops ,n Y
For exomple
our kno1, ledge
, you moy k
of the orm well b
now the forms
· ut your k
the legs is
no\\ ledge of
weoker
silhouette, contour & proportion
So how con we use our knowledge of
technique is to ouUine your figure's
silhouette 1n our dro"',ng process'
silhOUette and look ot it without
Remember that the goal isnt to learn
esoteric mformotion about art - it's to
internal lines (D. E Any mistakes will
be more obVIOUS this way, and you con
develop skills ond techniques Agreat
then adjust them accordingly (F).
review original
drawing
36 ke y s kills
check silhouette
for mistakes
revise
drawing
Another woy to use contours for
onolysis is by doing o ·center-hne
check.· Drow the center hne down the
front or bock of your model and look at
1t separately Does 1t look correct or does
anything unexpected oppeor7 You'd be
surprised how much information 1s
included w1th1n this line This technique
allows you to look at your drawing
from onother perspective.
-
draw a line
down the ce nter
~--
(
<:does the
center
line seem
correct?
view the
center line
separately
silhouette, contour & proportion
d~t>es the twist much more dtorly
H~·s on example of that process.
HtrP I ch«ktd the center bne and
~tdtd I didn't Ike 11 because 1t was
than bef°'e
11onted o leaner look. so I red~ the
Are you see ng o pattern here' F,gure
drtJll.,ng ,s o constant process of
figure's midsect,on H and checked
ogo,n. To my eyes. the final center line
worfc,ng forword, then loolong bock.
then forword. then bock.
too omb,guous around the CO(e 'G) I
©
original
center Line
0
38 key skills
new
version
-
•
proportions
However
spend
volume meon thot the drowing 1s more
meosuring proportions when drawing,
much
time
you
appealing'" The onswer 1s. "No, not
double it. Careful measurement of
olways.· Sometimes Just the shapes
the proportions and silhouette will
themselves ore visually appealing
really elevate your work. A cartoon
because they represent the sub1ect in
and a figure drawing con be done with
the cleanest woy There is beouty in
the some skill, but the results will never
economy of line. Less is more.
bes1milor.
Before we get obsessed with form,
which is the mo1n focus of this book, it's
worth putting things into perspective.
Ask yourself, "Does more form and
different proportions
can make a figure
more realistic or
more stylized
same pose, different
proportions and
silhouette!
silhouette, contour & proportion
minor change can
~ake a drawing Look
like a completely
different person!
different
levels of
detail create
different
styles
Subtle changes in proportion make a
huge difference. Lengthening a nose
by a milhmeter doesn't seem like
much, but that doesn't mean it's a
smoll change. It's oll about context.
You've
changed
the
relationship
between the nose and the other
features. The difference may only be
a milhmeter or two, but the effect is
lorge (A). Similarly, reducing the size of
features by a fraction may change the
whole impression of a chorocter (B).
By changing the size of features, level
of detail, or both, you con change
o head's proportions, and therefore
its style. It's incredible to see the
differences these changes moke, even
on o heod of the some size (C).
40 key skills
We con change not only the features'
sizes and levels of detail, but the
distances between them. This provides
very different results, even when using
the some feotures. A larger forehead or
O higher nose are significant chonges!
different
face
placement
different
feature
spacing
different
feature size
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
silhouette, contour
&proportion
30 variables
Every 30 ob1ect has three components:
vertices, edges, and planes. In A we see
that vertices are the corners, planes
plane
are the · races· or "sides." and the
edges are the edges! The more of these
variables our subject has, the more
complex it is in terms of detail (B). A
cube has six planes, eight vertices, and
twelve edges, so it's more complex
vertex
than you'd think. We can break down
six planes
eight vertices
complex subjects into planes, edges,
and vertices to help us study them (C).
twelve edges
more variables
more detail
@ =
30 variables
help us
simplify
complex
anatomy
©
level of detail
level of detail
When we soy "level of detail" we're
high detail
referring to the total amount of 30
variables (planes, edges, and vertices)
As you con see 1n A, the some model
con be drown with different levels of
detail It's Just hke eorly video game
graphics - they hod to represent
something with o lower level of detail
because
computing
power
medium
detail
was
lower. See how lhe two skulls 1n B ore
1denlicol 1n size ond volume, but show
o different level of detoil.
low detail
®
blocky
and
planar
44 key skills
smooth
and
organic
Always work at a level of detail that's
oppropnote for you (C). To achieve
maximal growth in drawing, you
wont to work at o level that's just on
the edge of your comfort zone, a few
percent harder than you're capable of
doing comfortably. This is called "the
Goldilocks principle" - choosing a level
that's neither too hot nor too cold'
If you're working on exercises or trying
to achieve levels of detail that ore Just
too difficult for you, the process will
become frustrating and you won't
h igh le ve l of
detail and
nuance, achieved
w ith expe rie nce
learn as much. Try to access the
Goldilocks zone without pushing too
hard into frustration (D).
if you're really
struggling, reduce
the level of detail
low level of
d e ta il, perfect
for study and
pra ctice
------~
.-,
high detail
low detail
level of d etail
5
To find on appropriate level of detail,
rough
anatomy
sketch
ask, "Is this too complex for me7 ls this
too s1mple7" Many people feel on urge
to rush ahead in their study and try
to work at o level of detail that's too
complex Different levels of detail fulfil!
different purposes for v1suoliz1ng a
figure Is your chosen level of detail o
good match for the drawing'spurpose?
simple box
mannequin
high
detail
medium
detail
46 key skills
low
detail
You should also ask yourself, "Con I
rotote this ond draw 1t from my mind
ot any angle?· (E, F) Put yourself to
the test, and if you're not sure - which
you probably won't be - try opting for
simpler shapes and less detail!
low detail
= easy to
rotate
©
try multiple
angles!
level of detail 7
Here ore o few more exomplts
vorrous levels of deto1I (G HJ •t Of
' '• Ort1nn
with . blocky low·deto1I mOdels ~
O
building up to o more
'ld
organ
convincing figure (I). Remem"· I(
gool 1s beltevab,ltty, not realtsmver
II YO\J
subiect looks like 1t could work
t°'
reod os on oppeoling drawing,
. ,t.,
11111
~
d1v1ng into medicol levels of deto, 1
· i - - . l-
low detail
48 key skills
-
-
-
~
high detail
believable,
d e tailed
figure
flat vs 30 forms
~
=•~ino~
==-:,,.. ~,.
':i
con ~
°"°"'
~OOS>C.Sl.,~~
~ ~
· fecttns.
using flat
CTC"es :'Of ",!<?S. ho,o.1!',"e< ~ you
oei:xiet from cortooning. you ~ to
start th n ng of ,v~1yth,n9 1n te<ms
of 30 form. AsJ.. ~ , I f, · ~ t~s,
sho!)(!S symmetncol? Was thot o
~ 1ust o hoM?" Un~s t ~ o~
20 ,ho~.,. ''l'"""tncol ob1~h do,n
op~r s11mm,tncol whrn v1twtd from
d1tf,~nt onglrs
°'
symmetry
works for 20
shapes but
30 anatomy
works
differently
wrap features
around for a
more 30 effect!
level of detail
9
don't show off
Strive
to
drow representotionolly
and fo1thfully to your vision. In other
words, draw whot you see, not whot
you know! The loller 1s 1ust showing off
your knowledge. Don't drow individuol
muscle fibers ond striotions. Focus on
the silhouette ond the mojor forms,
ond the rest will toke core of itself.
SO key skills
avoid the temptation
to show off!
The sections of this book will be
focused on leading you, region by
region, through how to design models
with increasing levels of detail for the
anatomy of the body. We'll start with a
cube form for each region and end up
with something approaching a realistic
human body. Along the way, you'll
find a level of detail that works best for
you and your art.
L---->
building up
anatomy knowledge
level of detail 51
•
mannequins
We often begin leorning onotomy
gives them oppeol. They also seem to
organic mannequin? Let's examine
by using mannequins as simplified
make intuitive sense: if our gool is to
why using a hard-surface model, like
representations of the figure (A).
draw something organic and dynamic
a box mannequin, makes more sense
Why? For starters, they look good!
(B), shouldn't we start with on equally
for us (C).
They ore organic and flowing, which
complex
organic
mannequin
dynamic
©
simpler box
mannequin
the box mannequin 53
In this book, the base of our model will
be the standard box mannequin It hos
three bos1c forms the heod ,. chest
, and pelvis
These ore connected
by cylinders to form the trunk of
it's getting kind
of hard to rotate
me in space!
the body. So why would we use this
rather thon the more oppeohng
orgomc mannequin
' It's because
the orgomc one looks great in simple
views. but once the perspective gets
more complex. things quickly become
confusing for a beginner'
©
organic
mannequin
box
mannequin
detailed
figure
54 key skills
. you con focus
mannequin,
With o box the forms in space and
on rotot1ng
rtions correct. The
the propo
be
g
etting
1
·
.
f the I mbs needs to
tapering o
gher to drew than
d con be tou
t
subtle on
rt by forgetting obou
I We'll sto
· on
it looks.
. F and focusing
details seen in
the I r models (G).
s1mp e
©
F
ss through this book we'II
As we progre
d e end ability to
knowle g
.
improve our
·1 Eventually we
11
I ofdeto,.
raise the leve
mplex models from
be able to drow co
oil angles (H).
box ma nnequins
bu1.lding up .from
mannequin5
the box manneq uin 55
•
perspective
When 1eorn1ng oboul perspective,
mony students wor1y obout knowing
where the vanishing points ore. whet
type of perspective they ore using. ond
whet to measure angles from
the camera & perspective 57
In-depth explonot1ons of perspective
ore outside the scope of this anatomy
book, but we con keep things simple
for now and explain how to think about
your view of your sub1ect For starters,
imagine your own head 1s a camera
imagine your head
is a camera
~hat ea
1
"
Your,
range c
58 key skills
Whatever you're drow,ng, try
to
1mog1ne the subJect cx1st1ng within
o scene. so 1t hos context. Imagine
yourself walking through the scene
and looking around with your comeroheod, observing the sub1cct
imagine moving
through the scene and
around your subject
the camera & perspective 59
the camera will see
objects and forms
overlapping in space
Try to visuolize everything in the
scene, not just whot you're looking
ot "through the comero.· This helps
clarify the scene in your mind ond give
it context. Over/op creates depth within
o scene, just os it does within objects.
so don't forget to over/op elements.
60 key skills
..\l\,\h,' l"c.', t'11 n lJ,'llt In ,,d blJ \l,\.n,u
\J 't 1,t', t'\~' •, 1tllt • .\1n
11.,,~11,,1 up"''
,1\.'" l ,,t th' ,'bJt',t"" It ll\'l1 l11.' 1,,'1)..Ulq
w 11,,,1 1,·,,l,1blu ,,.,, th,, t,,,ti.,m <ll
1l
:>.' lt lh'U It' ,,._, 11\q d,,1\11 ljOll'ti
p,ob<1btu ''"'' th~ l<'P <lf ,t
looking up
-
looking down
the camera & perspective 61
Decide the ongle before you drow the
subject If you don't, you'll encounter
inconsistencies ot o later stoge, where
,t looks like you see the tops of some
ports ond the bottoms of other.; (Cl
Planning oheod and sticking to on
ongle woll help creole o consistent
finol figure (0).
x
mixed-up
viewing
angles
©
bottom
consistent
viewing
angles
top
62 key skills
foreshortening
we create depth and perspective with
foreshortening This is the illusion of
on ob1ect be,ng rotated toward the
viewer. changing the relative XYZ
measurements.
often
giving
the
t
1rnpressron of being larger and closer
to the ·camera· Foreshortening
,s generally quite hard, but the
re-~ord 1s that your figure looks more
dynamic and interesting to the vrewer
Foreshortening hides some ports of the
sub1ect, hke the upper arm in A and the
lower body in B. but as we've learned,
the viewer wants to do some work and
figure things out, like a puzzle
foreshortened parts
appear closer to
the viewer
overlaps
help create
foreshortening
the camera & perspective 63
Dore
to
foreshorten
that your figure ,s constantly subject
the
about tok,ng measurements'" or "I
you'd
don't know the rot,o of head heights
to change, depending on ,ts distance
normally feel comfortable with Try
to length of arms•· I don't believe in
from the camera and the camera's
to drow things from angles you don't
measuring your work like that. for
"lens" type So don't worry about
various reasons - the morn one being
measurements for now•
foreshortening
more
Push
than
often see Sometimes I hear. "What
be daring with your
foreshortening!
64 key skills
rovide context
Drow things in context. When the viewer
working, go through the elements of
looks ot your image, they should know
the image, osking yourself, ·is this in
instantly which objects ore in front of
front of thot? Which is bigger - this
which, and which ones ore bigger or
or that?" If you con't answer those
smaller To check 1f your drawing is
questions, neither will the viewer'
does the viewer
have enough
information?
the camera & p erspective 65
e yth1ng Cl'°1ly establish
C
ontcrt 1s cv i
b1ects in the
betweeno
the relationship
on to d1ow1ng
au move
S
cene ~fore y
II help the
ts This w1
the next elemen
nd nov19ote
vu:v.er t o understood o
your world
foreground
figure
6 6 key skills
Here is one final perspective tip I can
are all s1m1lar heights, the horizon hne
share: Ob1ects of the same height will
will cross through their bodies at the
cross the horizon hne at the same point
same ploces This 1s powerful because
on the body If the people in your scene
1t allows you to show context !
the camera & perspective 67
Now we're going to look ot the head
As we go along, don't forget to think
in form, not hne Every line should
represent a physical object, not a
symbol Imagine if you could "explode"
eoch form, and visualize what hes
beneath the surface (A)!
We'll start with a cube form, which
clearly represents the vvz
"' axes ,n
space. Take the cube and push it from
the sides ta give ·it more height than
(B)· Some people's heads a,e
width
.
quite square, but generally they ore
taller than they ore wide.
squash
a cube
every line we
draw should
represent a
physical object!
72 the body
remove
bottom
third
this shape
resembles th
skull much b etter
e
The skull ·IS the b .
understanding f
os,s of our
o the he0 d
· Because
the heod ·
,s covered b O
shallow depth f
Y
relatively
0 muscle
.
' you can't
,de your lo k
c of kn I
h
skull. But h
ow edge of the
ow con w
_e reshape our
squashed cube f
orm into
thot resembl
something
es reol bone 7 F
we con remove the bolt s. or starters,
holf ot the bock (C)
. om third of the
that's more reflect: This creates o dent
,ve of th
e shape of
the skull (D).
the skull isn't shar
at the back P
the head 73
joining head & neck
Removing the lower reor third of the
The neck isn't a stick. It's more tubular
block estoblishes a clear relationship
and flares out at the base {C). The bock
between the head and neck. This is on
of the neck isn't vertical but instead
important attachment region. Without
leans forward (D). The volume of the
that section removed, the head would
neck increases when the head leans
look like it's sot on the end of a stick
to one side, as the muscles ore pulled
{A). Instead, the neck wedges into the
tight, like o rope, between the skull and
bock of the head and the face sits on
the shoulders (E).
top of this •p • shape (B).
x
we now need to
attach the head
correctly to the
neck
head wedges
)
neck flares
out at base
the neck leans
forward
74 the body
neck is thicker when
leaning to the side
tip: how versus where
People ore o•ten rr,ore interested in
hoi> they ore drawing things than
where they ore drm•.ing them This is
O shame. because the where 1s much
more 1mportont1 For symmetncol
forms. os \\e find on the face. it's
even more important - the viewer is
making unconsc,ous measurements
constantly and will perceive even the
slightest error 1n symmetry
we unconsciously
notice off-center
features
Drawing something with o different
number of ltnes is 1ust o style change,
but drawing something 1n o different
place 1s the difference between 1t
•reading· os correct or not. '>. to B is
just o different style - o change 1n how
the sub1ect is drown. B to C 1s o change
of where things ore, ond 1t ruins the
drawing In
we see how moving o
feature throws off symmetry
-
same features,
different
placement
I~
placement
breaks
symmetry
the head 75
shaping the head
The heod tapers from top to bottom
Let's shce off the sides of our
squashed cube form with the reor
lower third removed ( ). Now the form
tapers from top to bottom, and we con
take off some of the herd edges (1-4i
This creates o much more head-like
shape [C)
@
head
tapers
downward
slice off sides for a
tapered shape!
refined head
shape
©
t
3
remove
hard edges
76 the body
joining neck &jaw
When you t111n, of neck muscles, you
h~ely th,n• of tl ,. sternocle1domosto1d
first - the lorqe d ogonul muscle on the
sternocleidomastoid
side of the neck Ho1wver. lets ignore
that (or n01', so \\l' con simplify the
neck and look ot its dPeper structure
(~ If we loc, "through" the muscles on
the surface, v.e con find the function of
the deeper muscle beneath This deep
muscle 1s the foundot1on that other
muscles ore lo1d on top of
~
· t
~
~-
Below the 1owbone (mond,ble) ,s o
·
-
second smaller 1ow coiled the hyo1d
bone
Imagine 11 collec!lng up the
muscles of the neck and holding them
toge ther like o sheaf of wheat C) The
1aw and hyo1d con be represented with
O lower level of detail by using two
,d ent,cal shapes of different sizes. each
with five planes that foce out word (D).
®
©
hyoid gathers
neck muscles
hyoid bone
under jaw
hyoid floats
below
mandible
mandible
and hyoid
the head 77
Now thot you know the structure of the
Tr<.> spine attaches into the oottom
of the skull, around tne m dd e of the
head - not anywhere near tre boc~
Note the volume underrieoth the
JON -
people often fcrget to give the
area beneath the JOW enough volume
spine inserts
near the
middle of
the head
tnot look very
Th s results in heods
angular and locK bel1evob I ty
more form
When the silhouette giveS
g muscles
to the hyo1d and ottochin
~
the result
between the head ond nec ·
looks much more noturol G)
neek.
don t overstate ,t' It's natural to
how off our understanding of
wont t o S
but less is more. The less of the
form.
show from above, the more
neek YOu
believable it usually looks
filling out
the neck
and jaw
©
believable,
fleshed-out
jawline
©
jaw
1
lacks C:~'7-.-'· ~
volume!
-'r
resist making
the neck
overly long
this neck is
far too
elongated!
80 the body
head vel 1t s essential to
To drow the
note thot the face wraps around the
When drawing faces from behind,
we usually draw too much distance
head ond isn ·1 flat ) Us,ng t he some
between the neck and edges of the
model, let's odd two extra planes to
face. This is because we underestimate
each side of the face to create some
how rounded the face is (K). Even
curvature (J).
x
from be low, you con see that the head
tapers toward the jaw (L).
don't make
the face flat!
add planes
to curve the
head block
we often draw too much of
the face from this angle
0
.\
from every angle, the head
tapers toward the jaw
the head 81
tip: useful tricks for
heads & faces
wrapping 1t around the form of the
When we drow the head, we con start
the some principles yourself Here ore
with defined blocks and chisel away
like O SCuIptor You don't need to follow'
o few more angles and example heads
these and thinking, ·rhot's only subtle
for you. Observe how curvature extends
- I don't need to worry about including
my exact f1gures, but you con apply
to olmost evef!:1 port of the foce.
always wrap
the features
around
the head
including
curvature
will give
your faces
realism
82 the body
head
If you're looking at some of
that!" - that'
s Where
you ore cortoonin the rea11
draw someth'
9. tliot's f, S/))11~
1ng op
1ne
4
you hove to lea~ Pr0oc'1in • btit ~
n the Sub 9 reo1 11
tfet;.,. f~
.,. !eJ .
houette check we
~enie be' the e 31' If you're unsuret
ve ed n pog
ve your drow,ng, JUS
h
t of"'IPIOmol hnes Drow out t e
h t Jumps out
e the nte seewo
•9 r>0uet te and h uctte of the bos,c
hO
s,
o: ~ou T~e sol oolreody looks qu,te
d 10,ms ,,
remove oil the
hell
le when we
I
t,thevob
teinol l,nes
•ofthe1n
•noise
I
the · mosk" of the reo
\ t con also loy
f ou, bos,c blackout to
'f()(C on top owell ond curves correctly
ste
thot ,t fits
(0 If ,t does.
. great sign If you
that s O
h hI
our own forms, w IC
Y use this as o check
oe designingthen
,ecommend proportion5 look correct.
tosee ,fyour
remove internal
lines and Jus
· t check
the silhouette!
©
even witho~~
internal deta1 '
this head
feels right
)@
"wrap" thed
face aroun
the blockout
k
like a mas
the head 83
Don't worry obout the style or quontity
correct and you con od1ust the style
of Imes you draw your heads with As
later The
we've seen, •style· is mostly just obout
oil work as drawings with form and
how many Imes you use, not about
believability, even though the styles
where they ore located! Get the where
ore different.
and • comparisons here
style is easy to change
- believable form is
the real challenge!
84 the body
c ipital bone
n,e head we ve designed so for looks
our model
real head
good from the front, but the rear
section 1s still locking Let's compare
O reel profile with the one we've got
so for
You con see that our design
looks different from o reol head in o
few oreos. port1culorly the bock of the
head ond where the neck attaches to
the skull This 1s because we need to
odd the occ1p1tol bone - the bone on
the bottom of the bock of the skull
The occ1p1tol bone hos o scoop shape,
almost like o trowel wrth o handle, and
the spine runs through the hole 1n 1t.
The "handle" shape isn't v1s1ble from
the exterior, so let's chop that port off
and fit the occ1p1tol bone to the bock of
our design's head ( :)
our head
model
still needs
work!
occipital
bone
imagine the
occipital bone
as a curved
trowel with the
handle cut off!
the head 85
Look at D to compare the "before and
after" of adding the owp1tol bone
The outline hos barely changed when
viewed from this angle, but the level
of realism hos hugely 1mproved1 We
ore looking for the subtlest of form
changes to improve how we capture
the human body, so don't skip small
adjustments like these
your skills at using the ffl axes Two
important points ore around two·
thirds bock from the front of the head,
and around two-thirds up from battom
of the head. These ore the widest
and highest points of the skull ( r).
Notice how the skull tapers from top to
I
\,,
battom. as we learned on poge 79
We hove now converted the skull
w ithout
occipital
shape into something planar, which 1s
bone
O challenge to draw and will sharpen
With
occipital
bone
©
highest point
of the skull
widest
point of
the skull
86 the body
"known variables"
The heed 1s curved on top, 1ncreosmg
plane on either side thot is perfectly
rehobly honzontol ond vertical across
height up to around two-thirds of
vertical (B) These ore essential os we
ony kind offigure.
the woy bock The sides of the heed
con use them os starting points to
hove O roundness. too We con locate
measure the other angles of the heed
The comer of the jow rises almost
I'd expect to see'" This one holds up
one key plane on top of the heed thot
I nickname them the "known vonobles'
vert1colly to meet the edge of the
well to the test.
is perfectly horizontal
because I know for o feet thot they ore
eye socket (C) Ago1n, we con test our
10
ond one
model by laying o foce onto the heed
shape, asking ourselves, ·ooes thot
silhouette look behevoble? Is thot whet
perfectly
vertical
plane
jaw connects
vertically to
eye socket
lay a face over
the head shape
as a test
the head 87
the next form to be tilted, I use rn
lines. These ore our known variables.
These "known vonobles· con also be
us what the perspective is for the whole
applied to building up a whole figure
obJect. If we start by drawing a shape
or scene. At the start of a drawing,
like D, we con pin our perspective to
your perspective is undefined. You
that, and use it to find our X and Z
con choose the angle you wont to see
axes. By the time we get to stage E,
something from, end at what angle it's
we hove used other Imes to establish
rotated. We con then choose to "pin"
the top of the Y axis. Now we hove
the perspective to certain lines that tell
pinned our perspective to a few key
known variables os reference .
Y
Points i
my measurements (H) If I k
or
.
nowtho
lines ore vertical, then we
se
con eas11
compare the other faces Ar
Y
We know these lines match up to the
vertical, horizontal, and depth lines on
this object (F).
.
.
·
oriented vertically, or tilted? (I)
For example, I begin drawing the top
e the
Y
section of a form and establishing my
known variables of XVZ (G). If I wont
we have
now
established
a 30 object
\
added depth
along the
Yaxis
x
:::::::::--
find the X and
Z axes first
y
~
eyeball t h ~
new angle
relative to xyz
~~
nowweca~,
easily create
angled forms!
w~ can n?w distinguish straight and
tilted obJects relative to each other
88 the body
When you create or learn a new form
hke this the hardest port 1s always
rnernor1z1ng 1t from multiple angles
0
A good design should be believable
from every direction Using our "known
variables" technique, let's draw out a
start with
a box
planar sub1ect 1n stages
First, we establish o box (J). Then we
measure out the key points K and L,
and a third (M) directly at the bock of
the skull There ore two L points. one on
each side of the skull. We know that all
of these planes are perfectly horizontal
©\
or vertical. so we con measure smaller
plones tilting from them
tallest point,
perfectly horizontal
These points represent our XYZ axis,
ond we also know that they ore the
widest. tallest. and farthest-bock ports
of the head We know that nothing will
go outside of these boundaries. Then
we con simply connect the dots using
our knowledge that the skull hos a
farthestback point
boll-like shape (N).
widest point,
perfectly vertical
©
rounding out the
head shape
the head 89
l
So we've estobhshed our three known
vonobles of the skull
the highest
bone O 4 In example P. there's o
sharper curve from
to 2 thon fl'QITI
\
2
cv,dest (2 • ond farthest-bock (3
to 4 Note how there ore only ever two
points But there's another key plane
planes ,n eoch d,rect,on between 1, 2.
ot the bottom of the skull. the occ1p1tol
3,ond 4
3
occipital
bone
2
@
4
l
l
®
3
2
count two planes in
each direction between
the known variables!
4
90 the body
tip: silhouette ends
When finishing a portrait, people
drawing the head that we simply draw
the perspective to us When we odd
often finish off the neck in o way that
a neck line, as 1f any line will dol Even
the other features, we draw them from
flattens the head's impression of form.
when the silhouette ends, 1t should
below, so that we know we're looking
to getting them correct If we're looking
Progressing from A to B, we con see the
agree with the rest of the form.
up (E). If you then drew a neck that
up or down at O head or other body
looks as though you're looking down
port, end the silhouette with a line that
suggests that d1rect1on (F)1
impression of looking up at this head
as we draw Then, by the time we get
Here's another basic head (0) The eyes
on 1t, it confuses the viewer, even 1f they
to c. we're so pleased to hove finished
give us o known variable that suggests
aren't conscious of the reason.
c.
I
-
As a golden rule, if you ore drawing
with fewer lines, pay closer attention
neck cuts off abruptly
and doesn't quite fit!
0@
the eyes help us
place the other
features at the
correct angles
~ ~
~
©
can you clearly
tell if you're
looking up or
down at these
cylinders?
the head 91
You ore the ort1st ond architect of the
world you ore building and sculpting
m Yes, you could draw shapes hke G,
but why would you choose to? The
·silhouette ends; shown m orange,
aren't visually pleasing They don't
flow with the form or match with each
other. Artists usually wont their work
to hove ·appeal" and do everything in
their power to achieve this. Use every
trick you conl Redesign and look for
©x
ends floUJ
Well UJith
form and
each
other
silhouette ends and edges that agree
with each other (H}
Why design base I when you con
design base J? Strive to match these
ports of the drawing with your known
ends don't
match form or
each other
variables - in this case, the eye and
brow sections -
to improve your
presentation (K)
base faces
same
direction as
eye plane
base is flat and
cuts off anatomy
base is organic and
fits with anatomy
92 the body
emask
t s look ot the foce, starting
Now le
with , t,ut's often coiled the ·mask•
worry 1f these sound o bit daunting -
the expectation thot 1f you aim for a
from challenging angles (B)I You're not
we'll cover them in on occess1ble woy
simple shope, 1t will be easier to draw
making the form any simpler with this
(A) The problem with this 1deo 1s that
method - you're 1ust trying to visualize
People will often suggest to ·drow the
simple shapes laid on complex forms
o sticker on top of 1t. We need a better
mosk· on the front of the foce, with
ore still difficult to draw, especially
way to approach this area
re<] n This includes the frontal bone,
ones maxilla (upper Jaw), and
nasa b
t,c bones (cheekbones) Don't
zygoma
,
the "mask" area
of the face
it's shaped like a
superhero's eye mask
- or a raccoon's!
@
challenging
angles can make
the mask method
ineffective
the mask method
doesn't help from here!
the head 93
frontal bone
wraps around, and also back, but has
ends thin, with muscle at the front
first examining the frontal bone (A).
clear brow ridges that ore sharper on
of the skull and tendons at the back.
This forms the forehead and is the
the outside and more gently curved
Imagine someone has laid a piece of
a model approximating E .
most important bone in the head to
on the inside (B). The occipitofrontalis
bacon over the top of your head (C)!
learn. Sadly, it's also the bone people
muscle, which connects the occipital
The frontal bone forms the roof of the
main sections angling u
PWOrd.
avoid studying the most! Note how it
and frontal bones, starts thick and
eye sockets (D). This bone has a large
Let's break down the mask area by
volume and many
9roceful cu
but these can be sirn 1.fi
rves
P 11ed dow
•
• With th
imagine the
occipitofrontalis
as a slice of bacon
on your head!
©
frontal bone forms
forehead and brow
brow ridges are gentler
on the inner edge
the frontal
bone also
forms part
of the eye
sockets
we can
simplify
the frontal
bone into
this form
94 the body
·
n to
ree
don't
socket hos a gentle curve inward, so
There is a sharp edge on the lateral
zygomotic bone below it. Remember
complete the inner-edge shapes (F).
When drawing
you don't need to draw a line there,
(outer) side of the eye socket, where
to clearly sort your downward planes
If you do that, it'll look like your skull
because you'd be representing a
the bone is very narrow (H). You con
from your upward planes. There's a
is weorong sunglasses! That's drawing
delicate curve with a harsh edge (G).
feel this on yourself quite easily. This
strong downward plane on the inner
is where the frontal bone meets the
edge of the eye socket (I).
O
the
brows,
shape not the form. The inner eye
draw sockets,
not sunglasses!
don't draw all
the way around
the eye socket
don't outline the
gentle inner edge
of the socket
---
the outer
side of the
eye socket
has a
sharp edge
the head 95
If you draw the eyes a s flat shapes
you're having difficulty 1udg1ng t he
on this backward-tilt ing plane. they
Let's move on to the region directly
angles of the slopes. 1t con be helpful
will look odd (M). Make sure they ore
below the brows Before we get into
to slide o completely vertical plane into
represented as spheres that stick out
the bones. it's worth noting thot the
place under the brows first (L). then
from this downward pla ne.
brow region tilts bockword 1n spoce
build the new plane out from there
ond so does the region below 1t
Plane J represents
zygomotic bone the
XillQ
1_
zygomotic bo
...:t's
(>,~
two blocky fones first by Odd<lllo
rms ont
rig th..
t his simple
o the
-""
ma
~
·r·
ShOPe (N)
'(I
If
the brow
and eye a rea
tilts back
\
eye area is
angled, not
vertical
don't draw
the eyes
as flat
shapes on
this plane
x
@
block out the
zygomatic
bones
/
J
96 the body
~~~
w
soft & hard edges
.A)woyS be on the lookout for variety
1n soft end herd edges. Sharp turns 1n
form ore greet londmorks, while softer
soft
turns Ore regions where you should
ovoid putting too mony lines (A).
Note thot around the spheres of the
eyes ,. there ore two form changes
The inner is concave, curving inward
(C). end the outer is convex, bulging
out
There's on 1mportont upword-
focing plane here, too, which is often
overlooked (E).
soft
sharp
sharp
soft
~
I_~ -
sharp
;J ~
soft
. (_;f-4--
@
~
l
~
spherical
eyeballs
concave
form ©
F
(';::\convex
f
orm
~
©~o J
subtle
\
plane
the head 97
adding eyes
To drow the eyes, stort with two
circles on o flot plone. os 1f they're on
o piece of cord (A). Curve thot cord
to represent the curvature of the foce
(B). Finally, drow spheres 1nsteod of
flot eye shopes, ond wrop eyelids ond
eyebrows over the curved surface (C).
When viewed from obove, 1f the eyes
ore looking up, the line of the eyelids
will oppeor flot, but when the lids ore
closed you con see how they wrop
oround the spheres of the eyes (0).
draw two eyes
on a flat plane
flot stickers
Imagine the eyebrows ore
.
then
imagine
(E)
curving downward ,
d surface, so
them stuck onto o curve
When looked
they wrop bockword t oo
r os olmost
ot from obove, they oppeo
stro1ght lines (F).
In G you con see how the omount of
· ·bie from the
the zygomotlC bone v1s1
side depends on how deeply set the
eyes ore. If the eye sockets ore shallow.
the eyes bulge out over the sides. if the
sockets ore deep, the opposite is true
©
turn the circles into
spheres and wrap
eyelids over them
deep
sockets
from above you can see
how the eyelids curve
~~A
© ~ ~
deep sockets
,~
eyebrows
curve around
the head
~
©
eyebrows from
above are
almost straight
98 the body
shallow
sockets
zygomatic bones
the level of detoil into
.5 ,ncreose
Let
ore reolistic for these two
ething rn
sorn
hopes thot we blocked out
ornouc s
zY9
(A) The front section stays
96
on page d but we con curve ond
forwor
,
trll ed
smooth the rest until we hove more
bockword around the heod, but isn't
segments - o total of seven (1-7) The
fully side-on to the front of the face (C).
first segment is tilted forward at the
It generally widens to the third piece
top ond gently angles bock to the side
(3), then starts to curve bock inword
(B). The whole cheekbone piece curves
from the fourth. Note the small angled
e where the
to il ot the end of the 5 h 0 P •
·nto
orm of the temporal bone merges i
the side of the skull (D). If this seems
. t _ we'll look ot
complicated, be pot,en
this whole form in more detoil next!
seven
horizontal
c ease
l
2
evel
tail
front piece isn't
completely flat
and vertical
®
plane slightly
tilted forward
whole shape curves
back, narrowing
after segment 3
thin connecting
arm joins into skull
the head 99
A good place to start is by drawing
each of the six main sections with
equal heights until you get their tilt
and curvature under control (E). From
there, you can progress to narrowing
them as they curve around toward the
( (, l
. of the skull (F). This
bottom of the side
f
below
d to draw rom
will feel owkwor .
t nly wrapping
h rve1sno o
because t ecu
rt·ng narrower,
h dbutge I
around the ea •
h of it as you
so you won't see as muc
You
·11 Octuolly see
a lot of this form
d the side of the face
· g oroun
wrappin .
t the face from on
.
h n looking O
w e
I Note the top-facing
ff nter ang e.
o -ce h. his only small, but appears
plane, w 1c
like o small ledge {H).
By piecing together O
.
urnewch.•.
section and the foreheod ··"'~
made on page 94 w
~ ". e con
...
workable base for th
cr!'n..
e top ~- -." o
h~d W
·~-~
might think (G).
©
.
' ~~_ -
start. by
making
the
sections
the same
height
§--\J
before
narrowing
©
narrow the
shape once
you've got
the hang of
the curve!
I
\
(
©
'
remember the thin top
plane of the section
100 the body
join together with
frontal bone section
The forms representing the zygomotic
hove o more gentle and flattened
bones ore angled more sharply
bockword than the brow ridge, which
curve than the brows, which ore wider
from
you con see clearly when viewed
.
omparing
J
(brow
ridges)
ond
C
below.
because our hunter-gatherer ancestors
K (cheekbones) you con see the cheeks
and project farther. Why is this? It's
spent most of their time in o world
where their food, motes, and prey were
oil around eye level (L). We don't hove
much need to be looking up, so we
hove o great range of vision ahead or
below us, but limited vision when we
turn our eyes upward (M)!
our ancestors didn't
need to look up much!
brow ridges have
a wider curve
;:e__
0J
cheekbones have
a flatter curve
our range
of upward
vision is
limited
the head 101
refining the eyes
Hoke sure the lids wrop around the
When drawing the eyes themselves,
something formless. The eyes ore
spheres of the eyeballs (B). From
be very careful where you ploce the
tricky, ond os olwoys, it's the tricky
obove, you will barely see the eyes,
pupils (A). If you rush them, 0 well-
oreos thot require the most attention
or not ot oll _ resist the tempta tion to
const ructed eye con change into
,,,
~
7
..,
,,,
drow lhe'.1' (C). Don't make
symmetncol from on O
~ '1,~
1 such
nge
- we would see much less O
as I)
I theta
eye os the foce curves owoy!
rther
x
Vp
'
~
the pupil must
adhere to the
eyeball form
place the pupil
believabl y on the
sphere of the eyeball
brow ridges
hide eyes
from above
realistic eyes
will appear
asymmetrical
as they wrap
around
102 the body
•
e upper Jaw
Now t's look at the maxilla (A). It
hos O ;cooplike shape that con be
simPI
d by drawing o curved form,
then breaking that form into eight
On top of this we add
section
onother form that creates the arched
support for the roof of the mouth (C).
We're breaking this skull down into the
simplest forms manageable, so let's
odd that roof now, even though we
won't see ,t from most external views.
the
maxilla
(upper
jaw
area)
Imagine rt popping neatly into place in
the curve we've made (D).
create a curve
with eight sections
add the
roof of the
mouth
add another curve on top,
narrowing inward
the head 103
nasal bones
Tot ma>.mo eocomposses not only the
1JPl)el jo", but most of the nose oreo
let's bloc out the shape of the
nose bones by ston,ng wrth B Chisel
O SKtJon horn the front. so you hove
o shght slope ot the front of the foce
then odd two "v. ings· ro, where th~
the maxilla
includes the
nasal area too
mox lo meets the zygomotic bone
Thot s os srnp e os this oreo con be'
'l,e now hove our first basic nose
bone
but t needs complexity
L
' On the top of ' you con odd the
cut indent
out of middle
piece
two nosol bones either side of a little
suppon.ng wedge ond angle the io,ns
of the two s,de wings ]. We con slot
this blocked-out nose piece nto the
gop provided by what we've drown so
!or, completing the upper head 3 If
we hove the foundotJon, the rest ,s O
matter of odd1n9 details DJ - such as
the nose, which we'll look at next!
add a
bridge and
sloped
sides to the
two wings
the roof of
the mouth
and nasal
area all fit
together
104 the body
the nose
on to t he nose itself, which
b
t
Le ·s move h to t he mox1llo ase
con ottoc
.
d The nasal
we
'ust des1gne
hO
t t we've .I des t he nose vertically
cortiloge d1v1 fl t block ond slice off
. twQ. Take a o
httle beak (A)
in
Jeovmg o
n the skull
two corners, to the hoe
1 I
Side this in
_ alar meaning
I r cort1loge
f
(I
- will sit on top o
B). The o o
(C D)
• in Latin
•winghke
e'II see next , .
. fOundot1on, os w
this
®
~
~
insert
into the
hole in
the skull
~
:.~
·v.
. these pieces off,
slice .
beak!
leaving a
,.
·:;
..,.··
·····• ~
ITCTY
alar cartilage
the
ms the so ft ' flexible
for end o f the nose!
t
h nose cartilage
e on the bea k'ts
SI
• e
shaped p1ec
the head 105
h of the muzzle protrudes
over the curve of t he moxillo (I). When
fron1 the base of the nose,
forword
viewed from a three-quarter angle,
Tile fl e
th, 1110uth area thickness over
giving "
.
'i's profile
and wrapping
the sku
you see much less of the other side of
the nostrils than you'd expect (J).
the muzzle adds
a fleshy layer
under the nose
~
\.!./
x ~
note ho~ the muzzle
wraps in a curve
from this angle, you
can't see much of
the other nostril
./
the head 107
The fle~ ~ cf the muzzle protrudes
forwar d frOn' the base of the nose,
g1v1ng t he mouth orea thickness over
.
, 11 5 profile (H and wrapping
the S•U
over the curve of the maxilla (1). When
viewed from a three-quarter angle,
you see much less of the other side of
the nostrils than you'd expect (J)
the muzzle adds
a fleshy layer
under the nose
~
\.!./
note how the muzzle
wraps in a curve
from this angle, you
can't see much of
the other nostril
the head 107
tip: indicate, don't state
lit le it's tt~ thot less is mo,e, 1f
v1ewe1 by suggesting forms they
commonly added lines that usually
'P'J o,e urY..ure whether you'd see
con't fully see, os 1f the forms they
detract from a good portrait (B). Far
something th~n show o tiny fragment
o,e looking ot ore turning 1n spoce
a simple way to make a face appear
A) Th~ 1\ v,suolly interesting to the
ond continue out of sight Avoid these
younger, change the proportions. Keep
the head size sirn·1
I
need to do much
try showing
less than you
think you need
®
s
1
-'Vflen tlie
nose You rt._,
more th
""'11
create a younge
on tliot
r model (C).
to
you don't need to
outline everything!
©
I Or but "'--
ength of the iaw and
shortening the
lower face makes
a character
look younger
•
w er Jaw
To dro1Y th e lower 1ow (mond1ble), start
wit. h O blocky form for the section
and widen toward the bock From here,
hOlding the teeth. then odd two panels
tothe back ) These ponels flore up
o rounded piece like the maxilla, and
we con chisel the blocky section into
odd o notch to the two panels (8) The
temporolis muscle attaches to the side
of the skull end to the very front of the
out et the bock corners (0). This width
·arms• of the mandible (C) It pulls up
gives o more powerful look to the head
end assists with closing the mouth
A more typically feminine jaw would be
end chewing To draw o more typ1colly
the opposite
masculine model, you con nore the jow
start with a block
and two panels
@
shape
jaw into
temporalis
muscle
attaches
to the two
arms
temporalis
helps close
the mouth
wider corners make a
more masculine jaw
t he he ad 109
When drawing the chin, moke sure to
from tap to bottom (F). Forgetting to
include the roundness of its curve in
include this dimension will result in an
both directions. It doesn't just wrap
unrealistically sharp chin (G).
around horizontally (E), but olso wraps
round the
chin off
horii!ontally
round the
chin off
vertically
as well
/
the chin and
area underneath
should not
be pointed
110 the body
#
Note how the mandible flares upward
(H) while also bemg angled at the
I
bock (I). An indented curve also runs
around the width of it (J) When the
0
mouth opens, the jaw doesn't drop
down vertically, but instead swings
down and backward with the help of
the mosseter and temporolis muscles
that attach to its sides (K).
flares upward
angles
backward
groove curves
arou nd mandible
©
masseter
muscle
covers flared
planes
jaw swings
down and
back when
mouth opens
the head 111
Here you con more clearly see that the
to learn for figure drawing, but you
reor section of the jaw, where it meets
skull and moves separately (l). The
should know that the front six of each
for cutting ond
.
Jaw ore generally sharp (
tearing) and the rear teeth ore blocklrke
details of the teeth aren't important
for chewing (M).
the temporal bone, detaches from the
x
the jaw moves
separately from
the skull
.
i
~
x
the jaw hinges
down to open
the mouth
0
X
( ; }canine is
slightly
pointed
~@ij]1
front teeth for cutting,
back teeth for chewing
112 the body
outh & lips
• owing the lips, remember that
However, there is a small gap without
'/11'
h hos to open in all directions.
muscle, _beneath the zygomotic bone
the
n,uzzle lo1d over the front of
(B), which stands out as a small
lfS
,ith muscles expanding out
depression on muscular faces with a
t,ons A).
lower percentage of body fat (C).
t)le
1
in C
mouth
muscles
extend
out in all
directions
gap in
muscles
small gap without
muscle beneath
zygomatic bone
©
C
gap is visible
on lean faces
the head 113
The comers of the mouth affect
expression, so position them carefully
Notice the difference between the
examples in D and E - when we're
happy, the corners of the mouth lift up,
but if we're at the dentist, the come1s
remain lower. When the comers of the
mouth pull bock, the curvature of the
teeth 1s revealed, which we con 1nd1cote
by adding shadows to this region (F)
The line dividing the teeth is rarely
the corners of
the mouth have
a huge impact
on expression
positioned exactly across the center
of the mouth You'll usually see much
more of the lop row of teeth (G). The
lips and surrounding muscles hove
o lot of thickness, so make sure they
pro1ect out in front of the teeth to show
volume (H).
shade here
to add depth
around teeth
b
~
VO ©
upper teeth are
~
114 the body
usually more visible
lips should
have o thick
volume over
the teeth
forms, not symbols
~
00
m"""""'"" """'o"'
''°" """"""'
Wh"' "''"' how OOP<Oliog """"
' " ' " ' , be m mrtoo"'- w, moy be
'""""' >o d,ow ,,_,. <0U•nhoo
,,kkly
""' ,Ym1>o1, lo<k >om, (A). ''"""·
g,~ <h, "'""' , ~ ~'""'
'-"9 """
-woy toToot
"" "" <h, on
"''"
'""'"'
communicate
expression
"'"'"'"
'" "' 'this
' " "rounded
- · The "'""
wraps around
fem,,
·-·
,, ....
,, ...
,, """"'"'
the form
and""
muscle
of that
area (Cl.
•~th
'"" >ho """' of u. ''" (e ) Tho,
tffih '"'
o"" ""°'""• - "''-"'"'
~
=,,,., '"" "•""" '~""
"""-· ' " ' " " ' - hk, 0,"'" >ho
""'" wide ,,,.. '"""'' >o -
>ho 1,ps , _ , ~"''"' ""'~• ,..,
,.
the teeth
n\ x
®
/\ D\,
@
~y..._ '---Y \
v
x
.
X
.,,.;:;-
draw real
form and
volume
instead!
cartoon
symbols
lips stretch thin in
these expressions
the volume of mouth muscle
Is key for expressions
the head 115
adding hair
and the outer edge of the hair. Treat
When adding hair to the head, I hove
two main tips First, you must be able
to simplify the hairstyle into a few
simple forms, rather than trying to
draw every strand (A). Second, you
must know how for from the skull those
simple forms ore s1tt1ng - the ·volume·
of the hoir (B). Much of the "style" of
o hoircut comes from changing the
drawing hair hke you would o helmeL
It sounds simplistic, but it's the only
the shape .o f the skuu,· S
draw hair is usually . . buggilllg tc
not sure what is be o sign that ,.._,
neoth It.
""''t
way to opprooch such o complex form
(C). Ask yourself. •Am I totally clear on
van et y in distance between the skull
always simplify
hair first
-
©
think of
hair as a
helmet!
®
change
volume to
change
hairstyle
116 the body
<.,---
efficient to draw
©
volume and
flatness change
the hair's "weight"
add twists
and turns!
Avoid the temptation to drow every
· noodle hair" effect thot we're trying to
head, as the hair itself hos a form of
hair - it's not practical. The examples
ovoid. Simplify those details! Include
its own. Ploy around with the ·weight"
in D ore restrained and believable,
plenty of twist in your hair forms (F).
of the hair by suggesting more or less
while E shows the overcomplicated
Hair mosses rarely foll flat against the
volume (G).
the head 117
the head from behind
Experiment with drawing features from
behind - it's great practice to solidify
your understanding of planes There's
o plane at the bock of the 1ow, just
below the ear (A), as well as on upword-
The chin hos on upward plane on the
front edge (E). but this flattens out
and angles inward as we move around
from 1 to 3. The hair doesn't start nght
behind the ear, so make sure you leave
focing plane (B) and downward-facing
a gap (r). Finally, as we covered earlier
plane (C) that form o depression in the
1n this seet1on, remember that the head
cheek (D) That hollow 1s very evident
narrows downward (G).
from o three-quarter rear view, and
\
allows us to see o surprising amount
of the hps
jaw Plane
below the ear
up-facing
cheek plane
down-facing
cheek plane
©
inward
curve under
cheek planes
3
OJ ©
front plane of
chin faces up
narrows
downward
hairless gap
behind ear
118 the body
dding ears
ie draw the ears lost, as on
Most peOp
t but the ears' placement
Ugh
oftertho
•
.
ond angle are important Changing
·on and placement of the eor
the rototl
•
ghtly
con appear to rotate the
1
1ust s I
whole head (A)!
moss backward, so it sits at a slight
diagonal on the head, then swing it
out like a born door! This con be tricky
to visualize at first, but very effective
once you grasp 1t (Cl
As the head tilts bock, the height of the
We don't wont to draw the ear flat
. t the side of the head - it needs
0 goins
th slightly out and slightly
toongle bo
t,ock
To do this. angle the whole ear
ears 1s compressed and foreshortened;
remember to flatten the ears even
mare as the head tilts farther bock (D).
wrong ear angles
affect the whole head!
the ear
doesn't sit
flat against
the head
simplify the ear
into a rectangle
for this stage
I
©
foreshorten
ears as
head tilts
back
I
angle the
ear back
at a slight
diagonal
the head 119
The tube-shaped ear canal angles
down and into the skull through the
this attachment pornt helps us locate
angles out os we move bock, and is
exactly where to base the ear (E).
basically o horseshoe shape. Closer
,nspection reveals rt hos a roundness
temporal bone, just behind where
the jaw attaches. Though we can't
The whole ear rs a bit like the wheel
like o bike tire, which helps us catch
see the ear canal externally, knowing
of o car (F). The top sectron (the helix)
sound waves (G).
©
ear canal
helps us
place the
outer ear
the outer
ear is a bit
like a car's
wheel!
the helix
resembles a
bike tire or
horseshoe
the earlobe
hos more
volume
than you
might think
120 the body
~
~
Give the earlobe regio
n more VOI0
than you'd expect (H) E
1llt
· orlobes "some moss to them b
"""
• utyoud
tend to see it because it'
Oo't
s most cl
vrsible from below.
eo,iy
eor (I) consists of the
externoI
. .
.
helix. trogus• ond ontihehx,
.
earlobe,
ed because it runs in
.1 his so nom
.
wh Copposite dIrection to the hehx.
The
the ongle ond rotation of the earlobe
The
from person to person,
...ones hugeIY
but I like to draw 1t os almost o jewel
shape (J). Avoid drawing the antihelix
os o couple of lines. Either represent
the form or leave 1t out, because it
antihelix
doesn't odd much to the overall
rototion of the ear (K).
(
I
tragus
earlobe
the outer
ear in
context on
the head
people
have varied
earlobe
shapes and
rotations
the head 121
upper torso & yoke
Our box monnequin (A) now hos o
the •yoke" orea around the neck ond
believable head, but we need to leorn
shoulders (C}. Through a comb1notion
the shapes of the bones surrounding it
of box mannequins ond onotomy
w·e re going to cover the thorocic coge
knowledge, we'll be able to creole
(rib cage) (B), ond whot I like to coll
believable poses for our figure (D}.
building the
thoracic cage
®
box mannequin
final posed
figure
124 the body
r cage
It's difficult to memorize forms without
understo,id ng what they need to
achieve Start by asking yourself,
•Whot d( t se forms need to be able
to do' Wh do these muscles or bones
need to oc e ,.
The tars
@
torso pinches and
can't bend
11ust allow for expansion
in body ' t and muscle moss, but
must ols, be able to bend in multiple
directions We need to be able to bend
forward without our bodies pinching
(A). and also hove scope for the body
to "bulge" out with muscle and fat (B).
For this reason. the rib cage is higher
ot the center The shapes 1n C ollow the
body to bend forward without pinching
abdomen
bulging out
the organs. but where would the soft
moss of the torso go' The answer is D,
abdomen
sucking in
which ollows bulging.
torso bends
without pinching
this rib cage
shape allows
bending
abdomen
can bulge
out
upper torso 125
We con think of the rib cage as o
Observe 1n F the change in the planes'
container that protects the lungs and
direction through 1, 2, and 3 The rib
heart Start with E and take st,ces
cage also flares out at the bottom
off the front to creole three planes,
while being narrower at the top (G)
numbered 1, 2, and 3 The top plane
Some people's rib cages flare out even
is the longest and represents the
more toward the bottom (H), so allow
sternum (breastbone)
for some vonot1on in your figures.
©
block out
the rib cage
3
rib cage is
narrow at
the top
plane
changes
rib cage
flares out at
the bottom
126 the body
x
©
0.
, se shape
widens
backward
narrow front
section
curves in below
Let's refine our rib cage OJ As well os
closely resemble the sternum (K). The
widenrng toward the bottom, 1t gets
rib cage also curves bock 1n at the
wider toward the bock (J) Reflecting
bottom, so let's odd some planes on
this in our current model looks odd,
the sides to show that Now the form
so let's narrow down plane 1 to more
hos toper as well as flaring Let's odd
a top surface to reflect the ongle of the
upper nbs (L) Throughout this process.
keep in mind that we're aiming for a rib
coge that will fit obove a softer lower
torso that bulges out (M).
upper torso 127
--:~ rio c:,gt!. &ces :::,,-O"d ~ bCJC<
;::; ~ . . . e ::ne l!!C"~:s
daa~
,·,e~W~
~ t:; :,ex: <i:,r.-d end pu: ~ ct,es:
~~ '31 ,eg5. ' OIS cileSt .CS OS
trCII! C: ::l"'- ~ CS <t .-(JS at tilt bclO(.
~,;;s:,~·?dO~ :.,
-:~ ~
·s r ~ of ~ is
r~.JCt 1/e can monoge or~ 90
de9'~ o' "1e'non ''()'WOid) P and 40
~~ of e1'".ensioo 't:,o&wcrdl (0 R).
x
.J
@
a wide
rib cage
can't
bend!
spine bending
90 degrees
forward
40 degrees
backward
bending
forward
128 the body
bottom of
rib cage
sides aren't
parallel
.. [)oll't rush the rib cage· It's difficult to
drawond doesn l hove obvious comers,
and ,f you draw ,t incorrectly 1t w,11
e noticeable. The bottom of
usuoJIy b
the nb cage ,s tr,cky, os ,t w,dens toward
the bock but also curves in toward the
bottom of the rib cage rotates into
spine (S). Plane1 now hos o slight curve
the moss of the abdomen, hiding the
and toper to it The sides of the rib
downward-facing bottom plane (V).
cage aren't parallel, os you con see in
T and U. When you bend forward, the
plane rotates
into abdomen
n
bottom of rib cage
upper torso 129
torso shape & motion
ribs are always
angled
ProcttCe drow1fl9 the nb coge from
There's O strong backward angle to the
different angles. w,th the narrow toP
whole rib coge (A} The nbs themselves
ond sternum widening toward the
slant up ond back A few at the bottom
back ond bOttom C But now thot
of the sternum drop down first, but
we've learned obOut the shape of the
they will still swoop around and up
again toward the spine. There 1s
nb cage, how do we t>egin building
d
0
form and muscle on top of 1t Dl'
vonotion in how flared the nbs ore, but
if you stick with this general shope, the
results will look reohst1c. For example.
the nb coge shapes 1n B ore slightly
different but all correct
©
natural
variation
rib cage shape
ready for form
and muscle
'u l
130 the body
practice diffe
rib cage ang\::t
fa) ©
(§)
limited
sideways
motion
J
bottom corners of
ribs are hidden
obliques form a
"corset" joining
rib cage to pelvis
When drawing the mannequin, we will
the obliques like o corset connecting
typirolly draw the abdomen sitting
the chest ond hip regions (F).
inside the volume of the rib cage, with
the bottom of the ribs exposed. In
The pelvis is highest at the sides. The
reality, we will almost never see the
rib cage is lowest at the sides. Therefore
bottom corners of the ribs (E).
our range of motion is limited when
bending to the sides (G). To increase
Themaior muscle groups of the internal
this range of motion, the pelvis flares
ond external obliques sit on top of the
out ot the top and the bottom ribs
11bs, prov1d1ng the "joint• that wedges
t oper inward. We con increase the
the pelvis ond ribs together Think of
range of motion further by twisting (H)!
the torso
can twist!
upper torso 131
tip: camera b
When we focus on individuol muscles,
we must olso keep the whole figure
in mind After oil, the whole figure 1s
our ultimote goal, not leorning every
muscle
ond
attachment!
Alwoys
visuolize forms from another angle let's coll it ·comero
a.· This will help us
visualize the folds formed in the skin
ond body fot
Body fot is on 1mportont port of the
.......
body fat and
creases
figure - without 1t, all of the people
we draw will look like bodybullders or
onotomicol diagrams The folds in
A ore there because I visualized the
model from ·comero a· and realized
that a bend in the major forms would
cause creases in the skin (8).
@ /___ ,~
We'll cover the clavicles (collarbones)
shortly but, for now, know that we
rarely see much of them from the
surface. Suggesting them, rather than
"camera b" \
stating them, is much more powerful
(CJ. Like ports of the nb cage, they
become hidden as we build our figure.
When it comes to fot, skin folds, and
soft tissue, make a hobit of thinking
original pose
(3/4 view)
what "camera B" might see from o
slightly different view (D)
details
become
hidden
"camera b"
(side-on)
132 the body
d
the spine
lt1sn't necessary to know every detail of
the spine. but it's useful to understand
The spine 1s o form with planes, so it's
eos1er to visualize its bend ond twist
,ts role ond basic structure. Don't drow
when we use edges ond corners Start
the spine os O cylindrical tube stuck to
with the two ends of the form ond
the bock ( -\). It sits within o groove in
our rib coge, so moke sure you embed
Join them together, starting from the
corners (B).
it into the body.
Eoch piece of the spine, or vertebra, 1s
hollow vertebra ore three projections
connected by muscles ond ligaments
thot ore joined by connective tissue
Start eoch vertebra os o cube form,
(D). These give strength to ond act os
then hollow out the inside (C). The
nex1ble anchors for the muscles of the
hollow spinal column exists to support
spinal column. Without these spikes,
ond protect the delicate spinal cord
we wouldn't be oble to extend our
bocks atoll!
thot runs through it. Attached to eoch
don't do
this! ~
®
cube
~ ©(8
start with two ends
and connect them
~~®
o
~
@cJg n ~
embed
the spine
three
projections
\14
~~
projections support
tissue and muscle
upper torso 133
So whot role do these three proiections
from eoch vertebro fulfi117 To simplify,
think of these spikes forming three
ndges olong the spine (E). Small
connective muscles 1oin the two
outer ridges to the nb coge (F), which
anchors the spine ond ensures thot
ony twist in the spine is transferred to
the rib coge.
As we move down the spine, the
vertebrae become wider. The sides of
the 11dges move from 90 degrees to 45
degrees ond bock ogoin by the time
we get to the lumbor region (the region
between the ribs ond pelvis) (G).
ridges
support
muscles and
ligaments
spikes form
three bony
ridges
90°
p
----
©
45~
90°
~
spine is
anchored to ribs
y
-
- >.
l
134 the body
I
f-
spikes change
angle
v
spikes anchor
to ribs
oulders
The
no upw ard ra nge!
yoke area
eke.· or shoulder girdle, is
comD .d of the scopuloe (shoulder
blade• ond the clov1cles (collarbones)
we r ed these to rotote our figure's
arms ·rd raise or lower them relative
to th
b coge Let's stort with our
simpl • ed rib coge shope ond two
arms
1fwe attached the orms directly to the
rib cage
we'd only be oble to move
our am1s a little We'd be oble to pull
our arms in toword us, but we wouldn't
be able to raise them' For thot, we must
odd or extro attachment point for the
muscles
This provides on anchor to
pull oga,nst to rmse the orms. It olso
~
gives us on anchor to pull down or up,
~
relotl\e to the head. if we wont to raise
or lower the whole arm (D).
(_
A common mistake ,s drawing the
li ©
arms too close to the rib cage. The
arms hove a lot of muscle ottochment
points
to occommodote,
so
the
humerus (upper orm bone) needs room
to move around before we odd the
muscles in (E
shoulde rs
can ra ise
toward
the head
properly
anchored
D
@
I
...,
f
arms space
upper torso 135
The orms con move both fully
independently
and
in
perfect
coordination, so we must Join all the
following ports together. To give the
arms stability, we connect them at the
front with the two flexible poles of the
clavicles (collarbones) (F). These can't
©
stretch, but their attachments to the
clavicles when
shrugged up
rib cage allow plenty of movement (G).
The scapulae (shoulder blades) at the
rear of the rib cage create anchors for
us to pull our orms down (H). They also
allow us to bring our arms together
behind our rib cage, allowing for all
clavicles
(collarbones)
at rest
sorts of pulling movements (I). They
don't sit flat against the bock but
curve with the form of the rib cage (J).
scapulae
(shoulder blades)
are anchors
for the arms
136 the body
arms without
.
scapulae
detailed
scapulae shapes
simplified
scapulae shapes
0
scapulae
allow for
backward arm
movements
x
scapulae
from back
scapulae
from front
scapulae are
not flat
upper torso 137
building the yoke
®
Let's chop off the top inner ond bottom
Let's build the yoke oreo using simple
geometry as o bose (A). Add simple,
flattened
cuboid
forms for each
scopulo. Two thin cylinders will do for
the clavicles, for now, with o boll ot
eoch end for the glenohumerol Joint
(shoulder joint) Note thot the clavicles
aren't flot, but angled bock ond
slightly upward in most poses (B)
outer corners of the scapulae cubes
to create a more winglike shape (C).
From above, note how the yoke shape
[J
basic yoke
shapes
0 c ::a
1s almost a diamond. These ports
ore all linked, providing enormous
strength and flexibility to the arms
and shoulders through the muscle and
tendon attachments (D).
front
©
clavicles
angle back
angled
scapulae
®
slice o
corne1
angled
clavicles
diamond- \
shaped yoke
138 the body
layered
cross
contours
©
vary
shoulder
height
As you bu Id up the torso. don't forget
to keep checr,ng your drawing by
layering cross contours over the top
(E) You don t need to include them
for every form. but 1t 's o great way
to check for errors You con almost
always create more interest in your
figure drawings by varying the height
of the shoulder pos1t1ons. Try to make
flexible yoke
them unequo for a more natural pose
F} You'I be surprised at the sheer
flexib,hty of the shoulder yoke (G) Try
to push the arms farther behind or in
front than you'd usually draw them!
upper torso 139
refining the yoke area
To refine our scapula shape, let's toper
1t from the outside in. It's thicker by the
finger at the front of the scopulo,
horn (C). It attaches to the not section
which points forward and outward,
al the bock of the scapula and wraps
shoulder joint and becomes thinner
owoy from the center of the body (B),
around and forward The end curls
neor the spine (A). Next we odd the
On top of this we odd the ocromion
rnword ond is connect to the clavicle by
corocaid process - basically o little
process, which 1s shaped like o buffalo
o small, flexible joint (C) To this, we con
odd o couple of ongl""
'" Planes ·
connect it to the
,1~ to
scap01a rnor
(D). This whole sha ,
e SOiidiy
pe ,orrns ~ .
of the scapula. th
Sp~
· e Prom,
found on each should
nent ridge
er blade
scapula
thickens outward
,o
add the
coracoid
process
spr::~.
scapula
add the
acromion
process
140 the body
\J 1
~
clavicle
curves
over ribs
©fh
c:: = g
clavicles
- - --
.9))
0
3
~ '9
6)
6)
2
wide range
of motion
coracoid
process
I rib
shoulder j oints below
coracoid process
When dro Mng the clov1cles (E), there
H and I show the corocoid process
are three morn sections 1, 2, and 3.
sticking forward and outward. As a
Each has o slrghtly different form At
the connection to the sternum, the
almost horizontal on top, then become
side note, the ribs themselves start out
clavicle 1s o cylrnder (!), which becomes
vertical farther down, and finally are
a nattened cylinder at 2, and by 3 1s
angled inward (J).
almost completely flat From a profile
view, we con see that the clavicle also
From below, the corocoid process
curves upward as rt wraps up and over
sticks out just slightly farther than
the ribs (F)
the clavicle. You con probably feel this
bony landmark on yourself (K)!
The clovrcles hove a large range of
motion up ond down (G) Note how
clavicle and coracoid
process are prominent
bony landmarks
upper torso 141
r Lis minor
•
rratus anterior
pectoralis
minor is
a triangle
shape
serratus
anterior
forms a
zigzag
l : µect ralis minor
: en'OtU:s anterior
pectoralis major
()1 toll
....,torohs minor, we'll odd
cf•tiev-·
moior muscles Mo1or
ttit ptcl
O5
g,eoter· - this muscle
outside of the humerus
, meonmg thot
rt rototes the orms internolly (toword
the center of the body) (B)
l',t!t n
~ IOl9e
,•er or of the humerus
The pectorohs moior attaches m o
(1bS !O
It pulls the orm
rounded way to the sternum It doesn't
(~'
(Stlf n
1
(11)111 0°
~e<ts the sternum ond
ther thon pulling the
run straight down the middle {C). It
u O It fully covers the
olso wraps around the nb coge, which
ond ottoches to the
1s itself rounded. When viewed from
ptctorO
O
three-quarter angle, we usually don't
see much of it becouse it's wrapping
oround out of sight (D).
When the orms ore brought together,
the distinction between these •pees•
ond deltoid muscles is lost and they
become one moss (E) Don't try to
seporote them
@
(
pectoralis
major covers
pectoralis
minor
pectoralis major
rotates arms inward
...,
pectoralis major covers
pectoralis minor
rounded
shape that twists
around arm
pees wraps
around the
rib cage
pees and
deltoids squash
together
upper torso 143
The pectorohs major ,s very not where
The pectorohs moior is olso ottoched
it ottoches to the sternum. ond slowly
closely to the sternum, but ot the
builds on volume os ,t opprooches the
humerus end there is Jess attachment.
humerus For this reason, drow ,t more
This ollows ,t o ,onge of movement
tubular ot the intersection of the orms.
When the orms ore extended. we moy
whole underplaying the volume oround
see o gop beneath ot (G), between the
the inner chest (F)
muscles of the bOCk ond the pees
flat to tub ular
gap below pectoralis
maJor when arm raises
gap
under
pees
144 the body
remove
corners
flat to
tubular
gap under
clavicle ~
,
0~~.... · ('r-::L
~
-;/,/ ~
attaches to
two-thirds
of clavicle
~ifi~-\ ~
.,,.-,;/
V,/'
0
lDJ ~ pe(torolis moJor over the
fllll(.dtd r o cage ond then take o
•·,angtlo• sl ce off the e1ter1or edge
n-~ "":isu otto(hes to roughly
~-.e ,,wir,r t w,-tbrds of the clavicles
ielrt:r.g o smoll space before the
~ rmSu(:'; ottoch IJ) t4ote that
·~ ~tc.ro.,: mor,r isn't o flot plane,
W wraps r11~r tr ~ ribs 111th o slight
iKtt ¥'
-upper torso 145
tip: keep your distance
When drawing onotomy studies, try to
st udy atoll .distonces.· Whot does this
meon? Well, we tend to begin onotomy
drawing quite loosely, ond get more
muscles! B is another example of this.
woy to proct·ice .is t
When looking ot o drawing like A, you
It's believable os o form, but it doesn't
will tend to lose sight of the big picture.
look like o reol person. Our gool is
t he muscles them o learn to d
few hours t
selves, ~.
ro,~
, o olso d
vut,
figures where
raw sarrie e,.,~
. .
you oren·
""'- .
ind,viduol m
t deto 1. -"'%
uscles (C).
tht
Like ,n the saying, •vou can't see the
to acquire the skills needed to drow
wood for the trees: you aren' t drawing
o relatively realistic person! A good
' rig
o figure ony more, but o collection of
detail-oriented the more we study.
detailed
but not
believable
practice
drawing
loose
.
f 1gures
a useful
but mainly
academic study
146 the body
s pular muscles
t e muscles
t.tt'S '
seopUIO
mlJSCle
plOY on
of the
and lotissimus dorsi muscles (B). The
•tien roles (A). These
e ttif shoulders ond
scapular muscles ore powerful, and
is the suprospinotus (supra meaning
without them, our shoulders would
t role in resisting the
be strongly rounded inward (C) In D
"above· and sp1natus meaning
"spine") Muscle 2 is the infrospmatus
• the pectorohs major
we con see them numbered Muscle 1
(infra meaning "below"). Muscles 3 and
l(ltefOO
4 are the teres minor and teres ma1or,
respectively. The most important thing
to note here is that the teres ma1or,
the bottom muscle, attaches to the
1ntenor of the humerus. The rest attach
externally or on top.
\I
s~apular muscles
®
muscles provide
resistance
1
©
muscles keep
shoulders from
rolling inward
~·
2
3
the four
muscles
I
upper torso 147
muscles
wrap around
humerus
mind this
Pay attention to the space between
the acromion process and the top of
the humerus (E). There is a gap there
filled by the suprospinatus musde,
which sits above the spine of the
scapula. These scapular muscles wrop
muscles
rotate arms
outward
148 the body
around the top of the humerus (F)ond
allow us to control its rotation, and to
raise it a little. Mostly they externollj
rotate (turn out) our arms (G).
Fro1
sco,
ottC
0nd
orn1<
.. the function of the
0
,,~scles is clearer (H). They
thot internally rotates the arm (turning
he bock edge of the humerus
moss in stronger individuals, so don't
the external rotation of the
forget to show them clearly (I, J).
inward). These muscles hove O lot of
:eit'S moior 1s the only one
scapular muscles
attach to humerus
muscles have
prominent mass
on some figures
typical scapular
muscles
more developed
muscle mass
upper torso 149
•
trapez1us
The tropezius muscle connects the
bottom of the skull to the bock
diarno11d
and scapulae. Its diamond shape
shape
attaches tO
provides great stability to the bock by
connecting the head to the yoke and
bottoll'l
spine (A).
of skutt
Note the strong curvature of the
attachment to t he head (B). There
ore three plones on the bock of the
tropezius where it attaches to the head
- it's not o vertical line.
When the shoul ders ore raised, the
tropezius (or •traps•) bunches up,
creating the illusion of more moss (C).
traps
bunches up
©
occipital
bone
@
~
,l
t \
J_/
i.J
traps
stabilizes
head and
back
I/
f~ ~
\.il
150 the body
Zl\JS Wiers tile top of
.....,...~ t>ie uopt
ng:es from front
_.....-ond 1to
tflt ~ · w e don't see much of rt
•
tend to drew two
~t)IJCkOt' •~ce,mectJ"9
people -tM shouldeis to
d ess - ~en foc poses
·~
sloped,
not
tflt htOd reg<JJ
~e those f°'ms wouldn't
(1ld an9 !S
lk:tiool
As ol NOIJS. mok.e sure
t,e ctr' ;idtf th'! ongle from which you
,pi
(¥tlf.
rig ~
suo,ect
J
the "triangle"
isn't always
visible!
upper torso 151
We hove our diamond shape (F), so
let's now carve o ridge down the center,
giving us the gap where the tropez1us
attaches to the spine. The result 1s o
diamond that's divided vertrcolly (G).
Next we odd complexity by showing
diamond
shape
flatten the
shoulders
divided
by spine
that the attachments to the ocrom1on
process (the shoulders) ore natter and
hove less volume than the central
sections (H).
Now let's imagine tokmg two paddles
and
pushing
1n
those
sections
sur10unding the spine, around halfway
down (I) The tropez1us 1s more tightly
bunched here, between the volumes
of the scapulae and oil its covering
muscles. The curvature of this whole
oreo matches the curvature of the nb
cage, shown by the planes 1, 2, and 3.
push in the
lower back
1
surface form
from above
2
3
muscles
curve around
rib cage
152 the body
0
spine forms
a groove in
the muscle
spine sits below
the trapezius
©
When s ,,,pi fymg
the
C7 forms a
visible dip
muscular
traps shape
tropez1us,
,emember that the spine is o we~ge
()((Upy,no the space between the ribs
ot the bock
we know from page 133
that the spine also hos three ridges.
When we lay the tropez1us over 1t, the
largestcentral ridge ends up os o groove
due to the th,ck muscles coverrng 1t (K).
This happens often throughout the
body - bony pro1ect1ons become dips
i'l the layers of muscle
In L, you con see o depressron 1n the
thickness of the tropez1us This occurs
OJound the seventh cervrcol vertebrae
o,
·a· The C7 1s the largest vertebra
ot the bottom of the neck, but oil you
rtolly need to know is that it's just
above the scopuloe'
(JI
spine of the
scapula is
visible
In M we see the cross-sectron of the
bock when ot rest in o muscular
lndMduol More othletlC people tend
to hove more developed scapular
muscles, which con become very
J),'om1nenl Note the double step down
toward the spine We will olso usuolly
see the sprne of the scopulo (N), os it
hos no muscle directly covering it
upper torso 153
seamless join
®
trapezius blends
into neck
Resist the temptation to draw every
outline of the trapezius (0) Where it
meets the bock of the neck, 1t blends
visible
gap
when
arm
raises
in seamlessly. You will never see its
outline clearly separated here (P)
When the arm is raised, you may see
a gap revealed by the raised scapula.
This 1s the space between the tropezius
and the scapular muscles (Q) When
the arm is pulled bock, the internal
edge of the scapula is buried beneath
the tropez1us (R).
When the whole shoulder girdle is
raised, 1t rolls up and over the top of
the rib cage, rather than rising straight
up vertically. This pushes the tropezius
up, giving the impression of more
mass (S)
When the bock is strongly rounded,
the scapulae slip around to the sides,
leaving a space between the tropez1us
and the scapulae (T)
154 the body
trapezius
stands
out when
back is
rounded
edge
vanishes
when
arm
pulls
back
trapezius
Pushes up
The scapulae r,~ ond rotate forward
when the bock is ,n such o rounded
pose (U) You con Set! how the roised
scapulae push the moss of the
rise
(0 scapulae
and push up
11opez1us up, creating o clear form on
top M When this happens, we should
,ound out the top of the tropez,us,
e1im1noting
the sloped
tr,ongulor
angles we sow eo~1er (W)
raised
scapulae push
trapezius up
trapezius rounds out,
losing triangular angle
upper torso 155
drawing breasts
When drawing breasts, clearly
visualize the rib cage's shape beneath
,nst eod o,m to separate the breasts
the more obviously they will be
out, making them po,nt away from the
affected by gravity As they ore such
Avoid drow,ng "cor headlight" breasts
sternum (BJ. Next. apply the weight of
rounded forms, we will usually see very
lhot both face drrectly forward (A)
gravity to pulltherrforms downward (CJ.
lrttle ,n terms of edges, so just like when
The nb cage is rounded, so we should
The greater the moss of the breasts,
drawing the iow, less is olwoys more. In
steps 1 to 3 we fi1
•
rst drow the
ond body, then Odd
r,b cage
(taking gravity
cross contoo
into coo .
rs
Finally, we erase th
SJderObonJ
e cross c
we ore left wrth m .
OO!otirs So
1n1rna1lrnes
~frJ
00~
®
toofor: ;;j
facing!
l
2
3
face
outward
r,....
., ....
)l
156 the body
• •
tl • fat & muscle
e rnore Don't draw out
ro re~
0, t"
ond muscle striations
Give your figures o
i!d'
tJe1tt·
..intof fat around the
.
d your drawings will
~ e
b ,evable (B).
ioo• r
a successful figure
wt,e
~
js111
~
io()i< f
,t ,rnportant thing
< look believable os
most
muscles
aren't very
visible
from the
surface
,nteract1ng. If they
,,ork" for the viewer,
rny sn 't one hundred
~
pe,ce'
too much
muscle is
distracting
~ o n ' t forget
)
to add fat!
l_;
©
;)
physicality is more
important than
total realism
upper torso 157
•
latissimus dors1
The latissimus dorsi (the •tats") is O
to the arms. These ends ore highly
large back muscle that attaches to the
flexible and elastic (C, 0).
interior of the humerus, about o third
of the distance from the top. It runs
The totissimus dorsi lies over the
down the back and into the top of the
bottom section of the scapulae (E).
pelvis (A, B). It attaches to the spine
On some people - but not all - it is
centrally. The two loose ends attach
attached to the scapulae. too
@
latissirnus
dorsi ("lats")
wraps around
the back
the lats is a large
back muscle
©
ends attach to
upper arms
ends attach
to upper
arms
latissimus dorsi
wraps over
scapulae
158 the body
highly
developed
lots
Some people's lotissimus dorsi is so
In H we con see how to draw the lots
developed thot it's visible from the
Loy the scapular muscles on top of the
front (F)! It wrops oround from the
scapulae, then the deltoids on top of
spine ond up into the armpit region.
those. The lots also sits on top of the
As it sit s on top of the teres major and
scapular muscles. Finally, the "toil" of
teres minor muscles, its form is even
the tropezius sits on top of the lots.
more pronounced (G).
lots u aps
ov
scap .ar
muscles
add deltoids
add lots
add traps
upper torso 159
rhomboids
on
the skull ond roises the scopuloe (B).
scapulae together. When we retract
upside-down V in the middle of the
Both these muscle groups ore rarely
(pull bock) our arms, the tropezius
bock ond connect the spine to the
The
rhomboid
muscles
form
seen because they're covered by the
bulges (C). giving the impression that
intemol edges of the scopuloe (A). The
tropezius. but it's important to know
it's doing the pulling. It's doing some
levotor scopuloe (levotor meoning ·10
that they're there because of the roles
of the work, but most of the power
roise") ottoches to the spine just below
they ploy The rhomboids pull our
actually comes from the rhomboids!
rhomboids
form upsidedown "V"
shape
w
rhornboi
hid
ds ore
den by th
trapelius e
levator
scapulae
raise the
scapulae
rhomboids
pull scapulae
together
162..tbe body
deltoids
d muse1c forms the biggest
4
.u ~ 110
A common m istake is making the
shoulders the widest port of the onn,
..,,. three ogled. s loping down from
rt,.,.
O
D. Here, the scopulor muscles push
1
lder When simplified,
11he shOU
)
...-..s of t s,des
- f ,om fron t to bock (A .
P--,,,..- ore ck t hey ore ottoched to
,.,,,1 ro bO '
ss on the scopulo,
11~ ·
on proce
J
.... oc,oni
led bockword (B .
•olso ong
-..A coplrke shope
11fll'-" ,s S O slOIJ"v,
L""
l!1t result '
d our shoulder (CJ.
tt,at
Ps oroun
,.,o
®
deltoid
has three
sides
but they noturolly look more like
ogoinst the moss of the orm, cous,ng
o bulge that's wider l hon the shoulder.
Th,s is very common in people with
less-developed shoulder muscles or
more-developed bocks
deltoid slopes
down and back
three-sided,
sloped shape
I
x:
\
the shoulder
isn't the
widest part!
upper torso 163
deltoids
©
stretch as
muscles bulge
as arm retracts
©
deltoids
from
behind
When the arm is raised, the shape of
the deltoids distorts. The ronge of
motion of the scapulae is limited, so
when the arm continues roising, the
deltoids ore forced to stretch (E).
In F, note the bulging of the teres
minor and infrospinotus, the muscles
beneath the spine of the scapula,
when the arm is retracted (brought
backward). In G and H you con see the
front and bock view of the deltoid os it
wraps over the shoulder.
164 the body
deltoids
from front
deltoid
slopes back
joining the
torso & arm
n to the upper arm shortly,
'11,noveOlet's ust imagine that the
v,e
1
for now,
tself ,s O Oottened cylinder
orrn I
~ . pe ,s Ogreat tool for us, os it
, ni,ssho
(,..,1
xplore the orm's rotation
.s us toe
o:IO•
The deltoid attaches to
1
c1eorY
f11D'f
h d of the (lovicle, and then
tJleoutert II
l)Ot
squashed
cylinder
arm shape
there's o gop between its attachment
• moior.
• We
and thot of the pectora1is
often see o smoll groove or tr·
I
. h'
rang e
rn t rs space (BJ· The muscles of the
shoulder form O cop-l'k
r e shope over
the upper arm (C).
arm cylinder
tucks under
shoulder muscles
upper torso 165
©
deltoids
help rotate
arms
deltoids
mainty
.
raise arms
cap like
shape fits
over upper arm
deltoids are
actually
subtle from
behind
The deltoids ossist in external rototioo
of the arm (0), but ore primonly
involved in raising the orms from the
sides (E). Frequently, you see people
depicting the deltoids as "shoulder
pods" from behind However, because
they wrap around the arm and ore
angled backward, we actually see very
little of them from behind (F).
166 the body
-it points of the deltoid
nie o' o
Tt •se points disappear
ore
when the orms raise
t,ell nd •
true of the pectoralis
GT
I nt point As the orms
fl'Olo
e move down, which
,o,st '
of the tropezius.
0
red '"
mts, muscles, and
\\Ill'
ottCC
rerre'
seem like o lot to
',\Ith practice you
I
• becoming more
"'
reos1ng levels of
r "1ngs as having
deltoids
disappear
as arms
raise
basic, crude, and
three a
sobt
11
u've done what's
e ,cribe
the
basic
the form. In the
ve included some
oybe some twists to
I y. the third 1s when
,ou ,£ o~
little marks that
b• ng the ~g re to life Ask yourself,
·1•,h eh s·o~e 1s this drawing 1n? Hove
1•e' ~ed t erough'
basic
figure
subtle
figure
basic
crude
subtle
upper torso 167
tip: soft & solid forms
Ori s '1lll)« mod~ ~ s ore v1s1ble
types of fotm ore essential to make o
Viewing the nb cage from below or
'" ~ 'l ~IOOS 11 ~e th.! mu~cle
bel1e\l'Oble-look1ng figure
behind, we sttll need to 1nd1cote its
,s thin To dra11 this kind of
figure, you con try showing the nbs
Breasts e~empMy th,s Include vonety
skin 1s the easiest woy to achieve this
'" t~ oreos mo ed \\1th J Be owore
oft~ solid forms beneath whlle olso
in oll aspects of figure drawing. such as
A). V,suohze the legs as tubes, 1f one
differently shaped breasts that move
is pointing away from us and the other
considering t~ squash ond stretch
of the so~er forms above _ both
l\lth the body. rather thon making
toward us. the soft forms above the
them 1denttcor volumes
bone will renect this (0).
' =
vary
rounded shape Overlapping folds of
2
breast
1
shape
2
include skin overlaps
®
visualize legs
as tubes
168 the body
bottom of the rib
11ne·
~vel of body fot. For
,age
obdominol section
~
,,,,,
1tf1<1'
~ nottened (C), os
tllt'e
t round the kidneys
,de of the spine).
(ot th
ht. the obdominol
ftddn
~der, bulging out
st(I
o graceful curve
fllO'e
rcentoge of body
(D) Th
ttom of the ribs is
©
less
body fat
fot the
, 0,-ere
more
body fat
©
fat covers
lower ribs
~I
upper torso 169
E n if you con visuoIize the rrb cage
ve
• better not to draw it
accurately, it s
. ble to imply
I • more behevo
explicitly t s
.
day hfe
the volume, os we see in every ed to
our torsos ore requ1r
Because
twist
and stretch, we hove looser skin
d the sides ond bottom
I se skin ollows
located oroun
This oo
of the rob cage
l Use these folds
n
d and stre tch
us greater ex1b1hty
be the ben
to help descr1
n slimmer people,
po
on your ses C O
b ot the s1 des, but
weoften see the " s
t never see them under
Y
ou will olmos
e the muscles of
(H} wher
•
k wrap around to
the arm oreo
the scopuIo and boc
cover them
flexible skin
allows us to
. t and bend
tWIS
skin and
fat cover
the ribs
170 the body
muscles
cover ribs
under the
arms
u per torso summary
Let sreview the fevel-of-deto1I chonges
... uppe< torso so far, and recap
tot,~
key oreas and muscles we've
the_..,. We began with a simple box
leOn=·
10,1th spheres for the shoulder 1oonts
ond C\jlI·nders for the orms (Al. We
tllen established the rib cage's maior
planes, angling them out ond then
. word (B,· We added the yoke
bOCk 1n
of the clavicle ond scapulae to create
anchors for the arms to pull ogoonst
(C' We added the pectorolis m~scle
group t o the rib coge, ottoching ,t to
the inner two-thirds of the clov1cle (DJ.
simple box
and joints
major
planes
shoulder
yoke
pectoralis
muscles
building up yoke detail
and chest muscles
low detail
- - -\>
high detail
upper torso 171
©
serratus anterior
in profile
building up scapular
forms on the back
Next, we odded the moss of the
We covered various levels of detoil for
serrotus anterior muscle to the sides
the scopuloe ond sow how the muscles
of our rib coge form (E). We odded the
ottoched to them ond wrapped oround
forms of the scopuloe to the reor (F).
the heod of the humerus (G).
172 the body
scapular muscle
attachments
gap when
arms raise
(I
oddi
trO
/
thC
jus
an noUJ
ess
from
pro9r
the torso to
the arms!
1.11e C
On top of the bock, we odded the
diomond-shoped tropezius ond noted
its forword slope (H) We noted thot
when the orms raise, the pectorolis
and scapular muscles create a hollow
beneath the arms (I). In the next
section, we'll continue down from the
shoulder to study the orms and hands.
trapei!!ius
and scapular
muscles
(
c:j!
-upper torso 173
arm bones
°''
itt·s " ~ the arms ond
hands. Rlf no\\. w~ ho," two tubes for
the onns (..\) The~ octuotty consist of
~ ~ s(B) Thetopholfoftheorm
is one ~
- the hufn'-IUS (1). The lolffl
orm consists of the radius (2). which
ottcJches directly into the humerus.
and the utno (3). The ulna hingtS ond
the rod1us twists. To simplify. you con
dim\ them OS ~ shape - O flexible
forked shape h~ c
two
tubes
@
this arm shape
is able to twist
1 = humerus
2 = radius
3 = ulna
176 the body
simplif~ e
radius and
ulna into one
flexible form
11
{y/
e
t.::;;;_ ,
Always begin Wi h
t forms with clcorly
defined 'K'fZ
oxes Here
h
for the should
we ove o boll
er JOtnt ond
for the
o rectangle
upper orm (D) N
cylinder through the botto ow odd o
m end of the
upper orm (E) Th
©
on either side or'::reotes two lumps
"ep1condyles• - b e humerus coiled
oct os
ony projections thot
muscle attachment POints
add the
lower arm
The arm is formed
rectangles together ~ ) w~g1ng two
the orm
· ometlmes
oppeors to •tw •
exactly what's ho
ist, which is
you're st
ppening internally. If
ruggllng, you con d
s1mphf1ed sho
.
row these
pes twisting first in lh
· rectangle (G).·
e
rarm of o bend1ng
twist the
tower arm
visualize the
twist with a
bent rectangle!
arms & hands 177
The rodius ottoches to the loterol
the ulna does the opposite. They ore
(meaning "outer") epicondyle. The ulna
around the some width somewhere in
doesn't ottoch to the medial (meaning
the m iddle of the lower orm (J).
" inner") epicondyle. This is important
lmogi ne the humerus os o rectangle
to remember (H).
with o sphere on top. The shoulder is
If you're struggling to draw the twist,
o boll-and-socket joint, which makes it
try drawing from "point to point" Drow
highly flexible. The cylinder we odded
the end of the humerus first, then
ot the d1stol end (the end farthest from
block in the hand, ond then fill in the
the center of the body) allows the ulno
gops. This technique mokes it easier
to hinge around it (K). The ulna grips
to visualize the intermediate forms (I).
around the humerus like o wrench,
The radius is narrow ot the epicondyle
hinging up ond down w1th olmost no
ond widens toward the hond, while
loterol (sideways) movement (L).
the radius is wide
at the wrist and
the ulna is wide
at the elbow
ball joint
for shoulder
©
cylinder for
epicondyles
178 the body
moving the arm
the cylinder (for the
When addrn g
to the end of the humerus,
)
I
condY es
ept
t doesn't ottach 11ght in
te thot i
no middle of the block, but forward
the
t (A) Add two t11angular
f the cen er
.
.
o
rtS on either side of the cylinder
suppO
't (B) Take a notch from
strengthen ,
.
to
f the humerus to allow the
the bOCk O
hope to fully straighten (C).
wrenchhke s
'
notch the arm wouldn t
.
Without thIS
• I
®
x
add two triangles
for support
O CJ
epicondyles
sit slightly
forward
be oble to fully extend.
I ©
~-· ~
outward
h hand 1s •turned
Whente
. · • ()
it's coiled sup1not1on D .
)
(polm up ,
) .•
d inward (polm down . 1t s
When tume
• (E) When pronoted, the
'pronot1on
·
radius wrops up and over the ulna. The
•
ys ends on the thumb side
rod1US O1WO
. t, while the ulna always ends
ofthewris
on the little finger side
supination
(twisting out)
pronation
(twisting in)
a turnaround of our
basic arm so far
arms & hands 179
position. One moves (G). The radius
When
the rad"ius wraps over the ulna
"t
I pushes the muscles above it (the•
upward· Th.is causes O
extensors)
··
v1s1ble .rise. an th e top of the forearm
(F) • Th IS ISOn important
port of the
·
silhouette to adjust, as without this
isn't as long as the ulna. The ulna
rise the forearm won't look convincing.
continues post t he end of the hume1us,
When pronoting, the ulna remains
but the radius stops at the bony lump
in the some position and the radius
of the lateral (outer) epicondyle (H).
rotates around it. They don't switch
muscles visibly
push up
f\\
I
arn,
Widens
UJhen
rotating
J
pronation pushes up
forearm muscles
=
=
=
1 humerus
2 radius
3 ulna
1
neutral
supination
radius rotates
ulna is longer
than radius
180 the body
designing the arm
. fOrms to emulote the
bQStC
()e519" of t he bones ond muscles,
to rotate w1th1n the shoulder sacket, as
elbow (the olecronon process, which
well as bending at the elbow A)
s/l(lpes o ShOrthond version of the
creotil19
This will improve your
to use
If
o!fll
.
_.w<1ond1ng of the arm. Ask yourse
llf'I',_.
•
the ports need to
runct1ons
w!l<JI
whole orm must be oble
peitorm The
1s the end of the ulna) doesn't rotote
B looks like a gOOd potential design for
the upper arm, so parts l and 2 must
always be aligned (D).
the arm. but there's something wrong
with it - it doesn't reflect the arm
movements we need The tip of the
C 1s a better design for the arm The
ulna fits into the notch we made at
the bock of the humerus The elbow
0
rn<%
around a boll like this
olwoys faces in the some direction os
elbow
isn't
accurate
the arm
needs to
twist and
bend
©
better
joint
design
elbow always
aligns with
humerus
A
l
2
arms & hands 181
The arms in E ore relatively accurate,
but they're difficult to rotate from
imagination because of the lock of
clear edges, planes, and corners.
The design in F foils our function test
because the epicondyles ore attached
to the lower arm. The epicondyles ore
port of the humerus, the upper arm,
realistic arms are
hard to rotate!
so they wouldn't rotate like this. What
does work well about this design is
that the wrist con rotate (G). This is a
good addition to take forward.
This leads us to the functional shape
©
©
\
----·--
that I personally fovor. To create this
base for the whole upper arm, we
elongate the flattened rectangle of the
humerus (H), take a round notch out of
the bock, snip the corner off the front,
'
joint
design
isn't true
to reality!
and attach the epicondyles directly to
it (I). The pieces we remove allow the
ulna to attach and hove a range of
movement
take notches
out to allow
movement
widen the
rectangle
182 the body
0
rotatable
wrist is a good
simplification
use exa ctly these models! Experiment
you use, the design should always
be informed by function Constantly
with different simple forms cyhnders,
check that your ports con pronote,
rectangles, or triangles
supinote, and be drown easily from
pr()(ess more than suggesting you
Whatever
different angles. If your design
15
too
complex, 1t defeots the purpose of
1
making o box monnequin
these four arm designs
would all function well
for a box mannequin!
explore different
shapes that
could fulf ill the
same functions
arms &hands 183
triceps
There ore two major muscle groups
"three· and •ceps" means "head." The
hos three heads: one attached to the
in the upper arm: the triceps that
"head" of a muscle is its origin point,
bock of the humerus, one to the lateral
straighten the arm (extension) and
where the muscle attaches to a fixed
(outer) edge of the scapula (A), and
the biceps and brochiolis that bend it
point, like on anchor. From this anchor,
the third buried under the other two
(flexion). Let's start with the triceps at
the muscle usually pulls and moves
(B). The triceps attaches into the end
the bock of the upper arm. "Tri" means
another bone. So the triceps muscle
of the ulna (the olecronon process) (C).
the two
visible triceps
attachments
®
third triceps
attachment
is hidden by
the others
©
triceps
attaches to
end of ulna
©
184 the body
tendon of
the triceps
tendon is
hidden
as arm
bends
The flattened section ot th
.
ebockis
the triceps tendon (D). It's ft
a en drown
flat, but it bulges out becou
se 1t hes on
top of the third head of the t .
nceps. The
more we bend the arm the 1
.
.
'
ess v1s1ble
the triceps tendon will be (E).
If you wont to moke three obJects
work together, you need something
to connect them For oxen, we would
use o yoke to horness the animals mto
working together The shoulder girdle
or "yoke" area we learned obout on
page 135 serves this purpose with our
arms (F) With the yoke prov1d1ng on
anchor for the arms to pull ogo1nst, we
con not only bend the arms (G), but
shoulder
girdle
anchors
the arms
raise them in different d1rect1ons (H).
The biceps and triceps both hove one
direct connection to the yoke, enobhng
the boceps to bend and ro,se the orm
forward and the triceps to do the some
bockword When the arms ore raised,
you con cleorly see that they widen
toward the bock (I)
arms can
raise in
different
directions
bend and
raise
arms widen
as they
raise back
arms & hands 185
front
The arm is often represented as o
higher and approach the connection
chain, which is o good way to visualize
to the scapula and chest The interior
the wedging of the forms (J). The side
head of the triceps wedges into the
of the rib cage isn't flat, but tapers
scapula and chest (L). It doesn't just
backward and is rounded. This hos on
extend your arm. but also assists in
effect on the forms of the arm, making
pulling the whole arm bock toward the
them wider at the bock and curved on
scapula. Note the three planes on the
the inner edge (K).
bock of the triceps (M). We con lay this
.
\
\
back
~
angular shape over our basic design t o
The upper arm is rounded at the rear
form quite o convincing model of the
and increases in width as we move
upper arm (N)
upper arm
widens at
the back
chainlike
structure
©
upper arm
curves around
side of body
1
three planes
~ o n triceps
2
triceps' interior
head wedges
in here
186 the body
simplified
triceps
biceps & brachialis
All t hese muscles moy seem complex
When stretched, the biceps ("bi"
on the scopulo ond the other wrops up
beneath 1t and attaches to the ulna So
meomng •two") becomes
ond over the top of t he humerus (B).
we hove two large upper-arm muscles
1n form, but I prefer to simply think of
that ~eh pulls on one of the two lower
the upper orm as having on octagonal
orm bones (Cl
gem shope (0)
thinner,
as with oil muscles It hos the some
volume, but stretched over a lorger
The biceps inserts into the radius,
,eo, so 1t oppeors smoller (A). One
0
not the ulna The broch1olts muscle
heod attaches to the corocoid process
(meaning "reloting to the arm") sits
@
/
biceps
stretches
out
two head
attachments
picture the
upper arm as an
octagonal gem!
1(
bice ps and brachialis pull
the forearm bones
(/
a rms & hands d?
the elbow
As we ossociote the elbow with the
three moior ottochment points (C):
end of the ulno, we tend to exoggerote
the olecronon process of the ulna and
rts p(llnt Sometimes the elbow does
the two ep,condyles to either side of
oppear ltke A. but often the olecronon
1t Always think of this tnongle when
process will be hidden within the
drawing the elbow Sometimes you'll
Sllhouette of the orm, more like B. The
see all three pornts, som etimes you'll
elbow ,s fooned of o triongle of the
just see one as the others ore buried
elbou, somet;
appears Poin:s
@
elbow is often
hidden within
the form
©
olecranon Process
and epicondytes
form a triangle
188 the body
no suggestion
of elbow form
Olorks h.
etbo
•nt at
UJ fortn
©
v
visual·•ze el
land
bow
a marks as
pyramid
e ust o suggestion of the elbow's
rncludure1 Jn D we see no hint ot oil ond
5t(\Jct h
uette struggles to convey the
0
l
the 511•
..,, forf!l In Ewe see o slight mork
e1b0"h ,,s enough to help the viewer•
wh''"
our ..,suol librory is vost, so we need·
(111 ~ tJie subtlest of hints to recognize
1
rn col structures. Recoil ond
1
different skills,
00010
,e<o9n,t on ore very
1
ond despite not being oble to "recoil"
the structure of the orm, most people
., reeogn1ze 1t instantly without ony
..cnlllg ot oil
I: ,on be helpful to drow out the
©
O
t gulor elboW londmorks os
30
00
:Y!' m1d shape. to check the relative
0
tie,ghtS and pos1t1ons of those three
rro.or ottochrnent points (F). However
cs mentioned remember thot w;
en t ol.'1oys see oil three points of the
e0011 Learn their form. but hove the
points may b
partially hidd:n
con',dence to deliberately leove one
t 'the pose or angle calls for it (G).
arms & hands 189
tip: arm muscles
& forms
Muscles don't begin ond end ot 101nts.
If we see o concave curve on one side.
That's O common misunderstanding
we'll often see the opposing curve on
Muscles wouldn't serve their function
the other side of the form (ll). This
if they ended exoctly ot o joint (A)!
interlocking ,s o useful trick ,f you
lnsteod, they overlap ond wrap oround
need to drow o figure but hove no clue
the joints more than you'd expect
obout the anatomy' Take o guess ot
If you're not sure where O muscle
the opposing curve ond you're likely to
attaches, osk yourself, "Where would ,t
be correct (C
muscle
doesn't
end at
joint!
best ottoch to fulfill 1ts purpose?"
opposing
curves create
natural flow!
©
try
9uessin
Opposite 9
curves!
/
190 the body
e's O
t·W
i,otOS
Is
study tip. Breaking down
O fantastic methOd to
P p1ove your knowledge. The best
il'fl
to use 1s yourself, as you
,eference
control the angle and pose
,on 1 1o,ow the silhouette out, then
~oct Y
etioilenge yourself to two methods.
drow the muscles on or drow the
'
e1t11er
contours
SS
adding cross
contours
,,o
re there any gops in the silhouette
p.yt,ere you're unsure what muscle is
' . that spoce? See if you con "fill•
within
.
hole silhouette with muscles.
tile w
ou've filled the whole silhouette
once y
•
. up and draw just the silhouette
,over i1
01n. This time, try to draw the cross
09
,ontours without drawing the muscles
. If you get stuck, you con refer to the
1n.
l'fluscle version.
adding
muscles
adding
muscles
practice filling a
whole outline to test
your knowledge
arm s & hands 191
The arm hos o hollow interior shape,
as we sow on page 186, so you con
frequently see the triceps when viewing
the arm from the front. It's visible from
most angles (D). The triceps wedges
in beneath the deltoids and narrows
to o point between them, with the
lotissimus dorsi and scapular muscles
below it (E).
The arm basically hos three layers:
triceps is
visible from
most angles
flexing muscles at the front (1). deep
muscle in the middle (2). end extending
muscles at the rear (3). They form o
wedge and widen toward the bock.
triceps wedges
between and
under deltoids
l
©
3
2
upper arm
has three
layers
that widen
backward
here!
192 the body
con just odd o few
t,otyou
h 1nk t
,..... w,11 t,ove form!
t
•t •·
he or.. ,
1
oo"
15 andkS thO1 aren't correct will
.At/1
P'
rrior
(F). When we drow
µJd;n9 viewer
se ,11e
c0'1f~
the orm. we wont to I,...
•
sure which
P<lrts ore th y,:: Obsolutel11~
.
e extensors the
triceps, ond the Oexors (G) Th
•
t he marks ond indents
· eseguide
weploce
'Mien the Orm IS SUP,flQte<j
or PfOOOted,
most ~ r stro,gh1
Th
It IS ol
e
useIes Ofld lotissunus dors,
Push the orm' who
s
le angle outward
SCopu10, m
slightly so the forearm doesn't 1ust
hong vertically
subtle,
believable
landmarks
arms are
trnost never
a straight
shoulder muscles
and lots push the
arms out slightly
x
L
arms & hands 193
flexors & extensors
brochiorodiohs, which attaches to the
The extensors onginote ot the bock
of the loterol (outer) epicondyle (A)
Their role is to pull on the bock of the
hand to raise it, and to generate the
pull to open the fingers (B). Alongside
end of the humerus and flexes the
extensors originate f rol ateral epicondyle "'
lower arm (C). It's not technically a true
extensor, but it's easier to group 1t with
them (D)I
the extensors lies another muscle, the
extensors
raise and
open the
hand
extensors
back Plllloo
of hand
\
~'
l
brachioradialis
attaches to end
of humerus
brachioradialis
and extensors
194 the body
e difference in height between
,.iote th
t ensor ond flexor groups (E The
the eJC rS connect t he outside of the
e,ctensO
tne bOck-of the-hand side) to
ort11
(
e Joterol epicondyle and the bottom
th
of the humerus They start
5eeuon
higher up t he orm
©
f the extensors ottoch to t he
f'10St O
epicondyle (F). but the largest
1oteroI
sor ottoches directly to the upper
e,cten
od The braeh.1oro d.10 1·is ,s the
ortfl ,nste
.
st muscle ,n this oreo, but as
b199e
ed olreody, 1t flexes the arm
we Iearn
hon rois1ng the hand When we
rother l
bend our orms, t he extensors bury the
1oterol ep1condyle (G)
wtien the orm foces us, the extensors
rominent bulge on top (HJ
form O P
extensors start higher up
the arm than flexors
©
lateral
epicondyle
is buried as
arm bends
most extensors
attach to lateral
epicondyle
extensors
form a bulge
from some
angles
arms & hands 195
•
tip: stack your
knowledge
Sometimes anatomy requires a bit of
you only hove half on hour, learn one
reverse engineering. If you start with
muscle really well, rather than five that
a basic drawing of on arm and aren't
you'll soon forget That one muscle
sure where the muscles ore located,
then provides context for the rest [C11
you con look for marks that indicate
the bone positions (A). Then you con
Constantly ask, "What muscles a re on
draw out the bones to give you the
either side of this muscle?" Once you've
anchor points. Now you know the
identified the muscle locations, you
attachment points to build the arm!
con remove details until you find the
minimum amount of marks needed
For maximum efficiency, "stock" your
to suggest accurate anatomy (0). For
knowledge. For example, memorizing
example, the deltoid always faces
the brochiorodiolis is easy when we
the lateral epicondyle. If you hove on
know the locations of the biceps and
,ndent for the eptCondyle, you hove the
triceps. It just sits between them (8). If
direction for the deltoid, too!
key
attachment
points
focus on One
key muscle
to help learn
the rest!
suggest
muscles rather
than outlining
them all!
brachioradialis
sits between
biceps and
triceps
198 the body
pronation & supination
• ,s everything when drawing
511nouel l <
5 They ore the onotom1col
tht orrn
rotate our upper orm too, 1n order to
reg,oll W<• see most ofter the head,
och1eve the twist (A). In supinot1on
motion Post o certain point, we must
tend to pick up on mistakes
(tw1st1ng outward), we see o bulge on
not1ng the foreo1m (1ototing
whtn pro
the bock of the forearm coused by the
d) there's o hm1ted ronge of
it inwor .
extensor muscle5 lying Oot ogoinst the
50 we
bones (B) In pronot1on, we see o bulge
Where we drow overlaps, remember
below os the flex= hong down - I
to keep them subtle The orms hove
olwoys think of this 05 being shoped
mony subtle bumps but, overall, 01e
hke o rhino's stomach (l)I Above 11
bosicolly tubes If we draw too mony
we con see two steps up 05 the lower
lnteuor lines, the orms will begin to look
extensors meet the upper ones (2 3)
mechanical (C)
to pronate further,
we must move
the upper arm
supination
pronation
®
supination
causes
bulge on
back of
forearm
don't overdo the
interior lines!
arms & hands 199
JA)
\
triceps
wedges into
the ulna
noticeable
lump
r
epicondyle
sticks out,
forming
a lump
What's this lump here (D)? Tr
frequently left out of figure sket
Remember that the triceps Wf.
into the ulna and leaves the rr
(inner) epicondyle exposed (El.
the arm is raised, this epicondyle
out in a visible bump, and the t
wedges in behind it (F).
200 the body
It o common mistake. when the arms
5
ore belll to draw on equal fold crossing
tile form G When sup1nated, the arm
~ actually higher on the outside When
we pronote. this is exaggerated further
(HI Keep this angle 1n mind when
droWlng the arm even slightly bent
x
crease i s "
higher on
the outside
crease should
be angled!
crease is
too flat
x
angle is more
obvious when
pronating
arms & hands 201
Whet ore these smell marks (I)?They're
on indication thot the biceps isn't flot
ot the bottom, but instead angles
inward because the brochiorodiolis
and extensors push it over toward the
medial (inner) side of the arm (J).
When the arms ore supinated 1n
muscular individuals, we see some of
the extensors fold over themselves,
creating this line (K).
biceps not
flat at the
bottom
--1'
/
biceps angles in
at the bottom
/
,,
extensors can
sometimes
bulge over
202 the body
Even for people with extremely Jorge
biceps, when the orm 1s bent. the
biceps almost never touches
the
muscle of t he lower arm (L}. The biceps
contracts and shortens in length os ,t
flexes the lower orm As the orm ro1ses.
so does the biceps (M)
even large biceps
rarely touch the
lower arms
the biceps
contracts as
the arm flexes
arms & hands 203
carpals
@
carpals
attach to
lower arm
bones
The bones of the hond con be
intimidoting, os they look complex,
but let's breok them down os simply
os possible. Attoched to the end of the
lower orm bones (the rodius end ulno).
we hove the corpals {A). You don't
need to memorize eoch corpol bone
- insteod, we con imogine them os o
small ball that gives us flexibility (B),
supporting hand movement (C). The
other hand bones w,11 beottached to this
boll-shaped moss {D).
O ttJ)
carpals
imagine the carpals
as a squashed ball!
carpals
support
hand
movement
204 the body
©
other hand
and finger
bones attach
to the carpals
fingers
fingers t hemselves oren't porollel
The expond outword from t he corpols
Theywecon form the polm of the hond
(A).
block, and then chopping
"' ' curvtn9 a
""
the comers aff• because the fingers
wrap and don't begin in o straight line
(B). The some 1s true of the knuckles'
moss of the hand itself, and attach
position on the bock of the hand The
directly to the fingers (C) The finger
m etacarpals (meto meons "after," so
hos three segments called phalanges,
literolly "after the corpols") form the
while the thumb only hos two (D).
The first pholange of the finger 1s
the some length as the second and
third together Not only do the fingers
rodiote outward, they also form a
scoop shape and rarely lie flat unless
held in a tense pose (E).
fingers fan
out slightly
finger bones
(phalanges)
metacarpals
curved fan
shape
.. , ... __ _.. ,,·
use a curved
block to form
the palm
fingers are not
naturally flat
----~~~~~~~
arms & hands 205
The ~ocorpols oren't just tubes -
Finally, remove o shce from the bottom
they're eoch shoped ~ke o rectangle
of the block, so the metocorpol forms o
with o bulbous end Those ends ore
sort of orch (HI The pholonges m,n'Of
rounded ond covered in cort1loge so
this shope exoctly, except for the finol
the pholonges con bend oround them,
pholonge (the fingertip), which hos
ollowmg our fingers to curl in.
o pointed end The three completed
block and ball for
metacarpal base
pholonge shapes form the fingers, ond
To
drow o
metocorpol,
toke
o
rectongulor block ond odd o boll on
eoch finger hos o tendon olong the top
to help move 1t (I)
the end (F). Toke two slices out of the
block's sides, so thot the form topers
The fingemoils themselves hove to
1n the middle like on hourgloss This
look hke they're wedging into the
ollows spoce for the muscle ond
fingers, not 1ust sitting on top (J)
connective tissue to ottoch m between
ond hold the fingers together (G)
©~ ~
carve out
the sides
~
~
---remove a slice
from underneath
each finger has
three phalanges
wedge the
fingernails into
the fingers
tendon runs
down phalanges
206 the body
generotl!d for opening and clOStng the
ius and the ulna,
exten=. port,culor1y the extensor
the rOd
necttve tissue that fingers comes from the lower orm. so d191torum {hterolly •finger extender•)
ve con
reolly the hand 1s 1ust bones and their (L) Above the tendons ore oil SOfts of
~ hO
l)Ol'les to pre11ent them
111es the
connections covered with some skin
and also provides
protectM! and strengthening ltssues.
51 ot>i
stp0rottn9
ondfoL
fl0'1'
t point for some of
with names hke ·extensor hood· but
11ochrntn
T
f the foreorm.
he
we con s1mphfy them into o rubbery
0o o
O
useies
We hove "capsules" that cover the
tll' rn
moss of connective
tube that sits above {Ml
0
-~ 1s reo11Y
II
actual 101nts of the fingers " • and
t,0nu
c!OnS with o few smo
nd ten
•
above those ore the tendons of the
,~oe O
Most of the power
(1lll5Cles between
sei,,-een
capsules of
tissue protect
Finally
we
hove
the
extensor
ret1noculum. which 1s 1ust above
the hand. wiopp1ng around hke o
sweatband It gwes support to oil the
tendons thot 1un around the wnst and
gathers them together \N}
©
extensor tendons
run down fingers
extensor
retinaculum
wraps around
wrist
simplify
protective
tissues into
a tube
arms & hands 207
designing the hand
~
ets ~ oesign ng our Sll'fl)lified
, J
bancl. ~ with some
~ ~ .«JO&IS.. Don wony cbout
~
·he best anc..'oMy resoum?S
- a nror ono some focused ottenbon
~"'°"'~~~
F.st.. ._ con see tnot the hond·s ronge
&
'"'<!ticn is
hand has limited
upward motion
compared w ith
downward
~ whM roislng it up
~ The extSlSOr muscles con
er.
~~ hmas 3 5 ~ ~
lr
an..--=. our llexols con flex the
"'ax! c1'nost 90 degrees YOUttorily.
c:,c even ~ with sone added
DreSSl.r.
•
The hand itself hos O
ael5ro!e cuve that matches the top of
35-400
extensi on
tte 'nrecrM 9
NJte tncn wtien "'-e bend our hand
'orwa:o. n ooesn't
ITIOlle
oown
~ but usuo.'ly ongles outward
@
~ ~
hand has a
curve that
follows the
forearm
/
hand angles
out slightly
when bending
downward
208 the body
900 flex-ion
. n w1·th o block,e
desig
dgt·ve it som
d
r,on
rs,
on
.
le on the
he
tnong
0rne
"1,·f( tJle 't,iS, 0 ddOthumb (D),ond
tO''
5vfl do e. fo t e ofthe
the thumb,
rrts for
rpol ond
£1lf"fo' tile egr,,e metoco
,,de 5((\oil s .,ts base
to _.,1vr
cut the corners off
a curved block and
add a wedge
r,ing
"° ntin9 (f:).
' the onotomy,
,e"° p'1
ge isn t don't need
I' pieseo1onges
t,ollerr
I'
oin c . . fhe
d to be
do nee
forms
,,as1rr9 t theY
t o hond
111e ((Iet'bU
who
vt tl1 r11P1et, II know .
I states!
b
O mot1ono
O
I i,e
.A,,.,ell· ort·ous e
,o we
,,o,ev·Ke in"
r· 16 It
two joints
with
nd
ID°
fingers d our fingers o
Pie
ten
curve
sirT1
IY ex
gent IY
p.dd11 ·•'e ,ore oight, so he extensor
v•
str
hOW t
)
e0',rb outd (r")· see tendons in (G .
t'1v
inwo'
1ds the
the tendons
hond,
.
t'1 jflOcultJed On the WI'thout ,t.
,et ull
uowoY
ep
pu
11'' i·KelY
err
(11 t,o
10 I
,,,orJ
add a basic
thumb with
two segments
x
curve the
fingers!
extensor
retinaculum covers
the wrist tendons
arms & hands 209
the thumb
Visualize the base of the thumb as
o triangle that con swing outward
and inward. It hos o great range of
inward motion for grasping things,
but is limited in outward motion (less
than 20 degrees) (A). The muscles on
the interior of the palm are actually
quite small, but are cushioned by thick
connective tissue and fat. The general
shape of the muscles is shown here (B).
When the thumb is bent inward, don't
just bend it aver the inner volume of
muscle - actually embed it into the
mass. It needs ta really sink into the
form ta be believable (C)! Practice
the thumb has limited
outward motion
drawing the palm of the hand with just
a thumb ond little finger. Move them
around like joysticks and practice
overlapping the forms of the hand.
®
tissue and fat give
the palm most
of its padding
©
don't just bend the
thumb in - really
squash it in!
210 the body
knuckles
resent
the knuckles, you con
f
fo reP· pie d'10..-ond
shopes on top o
,
df(IW s1m
the metacarpals meet
ts where
the join
) As O quick solution,
ers (A·
·
tt,e fing 're not 1
·nterested in drawing
wile" you
details, you con simply draw the finger
represent the main Joint Making this
Less fat and flesh will make o hand
look older and give 1t character To draw
basic tube more organic helps add
realism (B).
a really creepy hond, 1ust emphasize
the bones even more (C)!
os a tube with a bulge in the middle to
When the hands are extended, don't
make the mistake of drawing the
forms porollel and flat Instead, give
them a gentle angle inward (D)
use
diamonds
to indicate
knuckles
simple tube
fingers
©
make them
more organic!
emphasize bones to
add age or character
always curve the
hand slightly inward
arms & hands 211
On leoner people, you'll often see the
Instead, hove them cleorfy overlap
on top hos no cleor folds. just some
raised higher than ,.__
tendons of the flexors (which close
eoch other and choose which line is in
suggested lines. Drawing more folds
room for the thumb
the hand) in more octive poses. Don't
front of the other (F).
usually suggests older hands.
It's noturol to wont to drow the loose
When we make a fist. our fingers ore
overdo this, though - just adding one
or two con odd power to your pose (E).
u.., Otl)
In all these exornpl
skin on the knuckles on the top of the
almost never parallel (G). You con
When drawing folds in the skin,
hand Before you do, ask yourself,
make a fist with your fingers parallel,
remember that they don't originate
·is this appropriate for the pose
but ,t will look unnatural' The index
from o central point like o starfish.
and model?" Frequently, the skin
finger, closest t o the thumb, is usually
es, \lit c0
n~ r,,...
noting 1.1.,. _ -'I'
fist is clenched O <nv.
·,,"" , • .
. -·"'ll bo
""
at the side, where th
lllp ODii...
.
e skin 11.._- ~"'S
This odds realism
--'lltS
11L
ond tens
thing that's WOrth
always worth including
clenching the fist
causes a bit of
skin to bulge out
skin folds
should
overlap,
not look
flat!
©
add
tendons,
but don't
overdo
them!
a clenched
fist rarely
has
parallel
fingers
212 the body
"S to ~
include this
pinched skin
for realism
IO!l, so ~
d our fingers in o
we e,cten
on ore rather
w11en
theY form
~ed woY,
line across (I) We
relo
straight
th effort, but
no
them w1
tl10 stroighten
pals ore curved,
on
metocor
'
ose oor
hen extended.
t,eCO
fingers w
eour
soor
~
The distal phalanges (the end bones
of the fingers) have o strange shape,
Fingernails ore SU!'plisoogiy hard
drowmg anything Just S\199'Shng
If you pinched o piece of Plltty ond
to draw
~~ they cu"" ond
o shape gives so much lllOfe r'<Jlrsm
Oottened the end, you'd pretty much
wrop over but ore also rounded ot the
ends When dsow.ng the knuckles ond
than completely outhrung 1t. such
os the webbing bel'.letn the fingers
fingernails. remember Dorn complete
shapes (K) This is o golden rule for
Whisper the form to the v1N,er • don t
shout It (Ll
make that shape The fingerno1l sits
on top of this small, Oottened form
fingers extend
in an arc
don't complete
every shape
-keep them
subtle!
fingernail sits on top
of distal phalange
suggest
subtle forms
and skin folds
between the
four finger
forms
arms & hands 213
believable hands
When we draw the skin connecting the
too mony creases (A)I The fingers
To practice adding the skin between
Then ottoch lh
thumb ta the fingers, consider how it
themselves hove webbing between
the fingers. take the box shape of the
will stretch and fold The farm should
them, but it ottoches neor the inside of
hond ond slice off the top section. so
tubes, ond Odd the
s ~'
them on the in~ r s,,.~btr,g b..... •
"<'Oftl\thQ,, ~
lld (llj
wrap aver itself and have enough
the hond, never neor the top side or the
excess skin la farm creases, but not
middle of the fingers (B)
form the
hand from
a curved
block
©
214 the body
the whole hond Is scoop-shaped (C).
e rlll9ei
of it,e fingers oren't equolly
index fin
and th ger
umb
are flatter
"'~ nit 1ndeX finger ond thumb
,hon the others (E). When
,1 ll<lfttf
tiltu•tendons on the bOCk of the
r,.i!l
;:·• "9 it sure they're not porollel.
...~. oi:,erge toword o centrol point
M,.con
()
•· t,O(k of the hond F .
1',,e
.,,o1u:elY guorontee thot your
:. ~~ o·t more t,e!levoble ond
_:,IS'. sq 1ncre0se the variety in
·- d'O•' fingerno1/s differently,
··t
·e the fingers are ongled
©
..-}t ).>
,,cnt', ond trY to avoid parollel
·
Rtrnernber to natten the
: :',J ,and
ernbed them firmly in
.~./ ..~e·t:. H)
e ha nds
«e them
atural!
embed the
fingernails
properly!
arms & hands 215
Even though tubes ore o quick, eosy
·
.shorthand fo r a simple,
relaxed finger
it's helpful t o visuolize the finger~
occurotely! The morks thot suggest
ones (I). Tubes ore difficult to rotote
rushed ond suggest different rototions
for eoch finger (J). Voriety is important,
the fingers' folds con often ruin o well-
but o few corelessly placed lines con
as cuboid forms rather thon tubulor
drown silhouette because they look
couse o finger to look worped (K)!
the fingers are
more cuboid
than tubular
don't rush
the finger
creases!
216 the body
make sure the
finger folds have
a consistent
direction
Otl the bock of the wnst, two large
longus meons •1ong • The second
tendon groups ore often v1s1ble The
group 1s the extensor polhc1s brev,s and
fi~t is the extensor polhc1s longus (or
abductor polhcis brev1s (2), but all you
·ePL") '1) Extensor meons "extend,"
really need to know is that they move
polhcis means "of the thumb," and
the thumb around (L)
the extensor
and abductor
pollicis brevis
help move
the thumb
1 =extensor
pollicis Longus
2 =extensor.
polliciS breVIS
and abduct~r
pollicis brev1s
arms & hands 217
arm summary
We've completed our journey down
We st arted with flattened cylinders, to
Next we added the delt oids above the
upper arm into an octagonol shape
the orm to the hand, so let's hove a
which we added epicondyles to form
boll of the shoulder joint and showed
(C) and ensured it was narrower ot the
run through how we've developed our
the hinge of the arm (A). with rounded
how they ottach int o the outer (lateral)
notches to allow movement.
side of the arm (B). We developed the
front than the bock to show the width
of the triceps (D).
mannequin orm's level of detail.
blocked out arm
cylinders with hinge
developing
the octagonal
upper arm
flat octagon
©
218 the body
narrowing
octagon
to indicate
triceps
the u pper arm
and deltoid
connected
adding and
honing the
deltoid shapes
arms & hands 219
ihe lower orm is tnck1er tiecouse 1t
changes shope with supinot1on ond
pronotion We creoted two options
©
for 1t In option l, we drew o tapering
cylinder with o block for the wnst - o
fost option that's still believable 1f t he
proportions ore correct (E)
option 1: cylinder
forearm with
block wrist
In opt ion 2, we drew the bones, then
odded the three moin muscle groups
on top the upper extensors, lower
extensors, and flexors. ih1s option is
more involved but gives more insight
into the arm's workings (F) Either
version works well for o mannequin.
depending on your preferences (G)!
----option 2:
forearm
bones
with main
muscles
either option
is a valid
approach for
the arm
220 the body
Flexors attach
to inner
epicondyle
We learned thot tilt lo~r txttnSO!S
attach to tht outer (lateral) ep,condylt
{I), the n,xois attach to the inner
(med,on) ep1condyle (11. and the upper
extenso11 attach to the oionge oreo
marked 3 Th,s 1\ ,n alignment with tht
attachment of the deltoids above (<I)
lower extensors
attach to outer
epicondyle
the upper
and lower
arms working
together
- arms & hands 221
what is the core?
Now let's examine the ·core· - the
lower port o f th e torso, roughly
hos fewer
the proportions ore what give your
obvious external landmarks. Without
drawings form, so focus on those first,
knowledge because it
comprising the abdomen and mid
a strong understanding of the pelvis,
and the accuracy of the bones and
to lower bock. It's usually the least
it's virtually impossible to draw.
muscles after {A). The ratio of hips to
studied port of any student's anatomy
Before we cover the bone, remember:
core to rib cage is powerful.
the core is
the lower
torso area
When drawing the core you'll
usually
not need to odd many interior lines
Most people hove few or no bv.
O
proportions
are essential
to success
the core hos
few obvious
landmarks,
making it a
challenge!
core
~
224 the body
le
IOUS
core muscles, and look more like
8
than C.
more
visible
core
muscle
the pelvis
.5 visuoI1ze the pelvis os o block
Ltl
,..,,, role does the pelvis need to
1
.-,,the end of our digestive
111 forms
plOY m. so we need O continuous
systt w,th1n It. with O hole ot the
space
cretion (A) It also needs
Ofl'I fOI e~
t,ott
ble base for the torso
de o sto
10 P"""'
on
The legs and torso
11
1egs to pu
ond
ed their maximum
must be allow
range of motion ond be able to swing
1n multiple d1rect1ons without being
the
p elvis is
impeded If we attach two tube forms
basically a
to the bottom of o cuboid, 11 doesn't
allow for much movement becouse
the edges of the forms would prt!'Vent
1t (BJ Solution round off those edges
(CII This allows the legs a wid~ range
of lateral (sideways) movement (0)
©
trim bottom
corners off
the block
cuboid pelvis
prevents lateral
leg movement
new shape
allows lateral
leg movement
the core 225
e.;: -
:iec :;:. ~ a:r a;s
~ 6.-=:cr.;. net
-~.e,;
=
'
=~
oe c::oe .:= oer:c ~
CXlC OOdc-=:rc =- en:~= Ole"
eod"; =ier ::"
So haw C£ln that
refule rnlS shcoe SC
these neeas, ~ ain
r<lln:I it or a: the eoges. so
s a
roooded octogonal shape rather t:1Ctl
fcu-51ded G In ~ Yiew - 5ef,
that the bottom section roos below.
tnlefweor, so there en on<fed
secoons on the from md bode and one
totally flat section ~ (H).
turn the cube
into an octagon
226 the body
the femurs
-·" to insert two spheres into
Ne.xtwenecv
.
.5 representing the boll-ond-
the pelV1 •
"oints of the femurs (A). The
socket I
Here's on easy woy to odd these joints
There is normally on overlap where
(C): Drow the underpants shape in the
the front leg covers the rear (from the
some orientation as the box (1) and
camera's POV) (D). Occos1onolly this
. the bone of the upper leg, and
give it some thickness to improve it (2).
gap will allow you to see all the woy
bone in t he body. Just hke
tile 1argest
he leg hos one bone for the
t
the orm.
rt (B) ond two for the bottom.
uwer po
Add two spheres that hang lower than
through to the glutes ot the bock, but
the bottom of the underpants shape
that's rare (E).
(elnUf IS
. .
This allows extra mobility (3).
®
UJe need to
add femur
joints t~
the pelvis
the femur
is the upper
leg bone
{~
t -----
1
constructing
thepelvis
and joints
©
©
sometimes
the thighs
overlap
sometimes
they don't!
the core 227
change the
sphere to
a kind of
dumbbell
shape
the groin
area curves
inward and
isn't Rat
a core with
a wide
pelvis is
still narrow
from some
angles
Now replace the sphere with o smaller
sphere that attaches to the end of the
femur (F). This is o simple change but
one that's more true to life.
Observe the inward slope of the
groin region. It isn't not at the front,
but curves inward on both men
and women. This is reflected in the
width
of pelvis
underpants shape (G).
Most of what creates proportions 1s the
bone anatomy, not the surface f01ms.
The relationship between the width of
the pelvis and the width of the femurs
at point H hos a big impact Wider
femurs doesn't necessarily make your
pelvis any deeper from front to bock the care will still be narrow from certain
angles (I).
228 the body
vertical in
profile
wider at
the top
=
1 greater trochanter
2 = lesser trochanter
©
the top of the femur
is a single bone, not
a hinged shape
Now we hove a basic pelvis model,
the femur, we con see that the pelvis
The femur is a single bone. Section L is
let's examine the pelvis and spine
is wider at the top and tapers toward
not a joint, but on attachment point -
"lesser trochonter• below it and inside
more closely. Viewed In profile, the
the bottom, like the underpants form
it is immobile. The hinge motion of the
front of the pelvis is almost completely
we blocked out earlier (K).
(2). Atrochonter is a bony protuberance
where muscles attach.
YeltJcol when untilted (J). If we ignore
leg moves from the boll-and-socket of
"greater trochonter• (1). There's also a
the pelvis. This moss is known as the
the core 229
detailing the pelvis
Here, we see the ·wings" of the pelvis
cleorly. These ore port of one large
bone called the ilium, which is the
largest bone in the pelvis. Instead of
asking, "Whot does this bone look like?"
try asking, "Whot is its role?' There
ore three answers to this question:
It provides on attachment point for
the muscles on the sides of the torso,
it acts as a bowl to hold t he internal
we can imagine
the pelvis as a
protective bowl
orgons, and it octs as a cont ainer to
protect our lower digestive system.
We con simplify it to something like
this (A). There's on opening ot the
bock where the two wings of t he ilium
meet the ·sacrum• (B). The sacrum is
the triongulor piece wedged between
them,
acting
as
the
connection
between the spine ond the ilium, and
holding the pelvis together. It curves
bock and down, like a shrimp's toil (C).
@
sacrum
is a large
triangular
bone
the sacrum
is a bit like
a shrimp's
tail!
230 the body
y,'hOt else con we observe? What ore
ttieS' !WO forward-facing sections (D)?
~ ,e the pubis (the straight bone)
0
ond the ischrum (the loop-shaped
~ (hot we'll cover later). The main
foOCl'on of the pubrs rs to protect the
l)lodder, ,ntestrnes. ond sex organs.
Ille iwo bOnes of the pubis provide on
ftlportont attachment pornt for the
fllUSCles of the leg (E).They ore pointed
fol'l'Ord. not flottened (F)
pubis and
ischium
The front of the rlium angles backward
ood the pubis angles forward (G). The
y;s,b1h!Y of this depends on the tilt of
the pelV1S, but this ·v· shape 1s what
wt shOUld generally look for. When
leg muscles
attach to
the pubis
v.ewed from behrnd, we frequently
,<)fl I see the pubrs (H).
1
ilium angles
back, pubis
angles
forward
~
,di] ©
l-Q-1
the pubis
should be
angled,
not flat
"v" shape
visible from
the front
pu.b!s is rarely
v1s1ble from
the back
the core 231
The femur itself .
straight out to thpo1~ts almost exactly
e side b
the boll · .
• ut the sock t
e
sits 1n th
angled slightly ' f e ocetobulum, is
orword (I)
.
ouse we
.
· This is
bee
require O
of motion
.
greater range
moving our I
.
Think how h" h
egs forward
·
19 you
forward compo ed con raise your leg
~ocket angles
slightly forward
Flexing your I r to. behind you (J).
th
egs behind
you requires
e pelvis to tilt
Think of our Iocomotion crawl require ft . . . to walk and
s ex1bl11ty
egrees (K).
to vonjing
d
You
f should olso be oble to
o the ocetobulum fr
see more
omthef
f
rom the reor (L).
ront thon
you can lift
forward
your leg
you can bmodr~ than
en itback
acetabulum
from the back
232 the body
see o lot of the bollfor more than from
ket joints,
I M we see
onc1-soc . d From ang e
or
behin
rd
ol)O'it
led forwo this socket
1eorly ong
ry little of the
h()IV c
'nd
behl \ve see ve
is. ffOITl
f rnur Ill).
t,ead of the e
ff0!1l
below we
Oren't angIed 90 degrees.
45
n,e femurs the angIe around .
draw
d f the femur is
rnsteod, (0).
The heo o
degrees
.
e ')
(OYffed in cort1log
·
. 9 of the ilium
rd f!ann
Note the outwo . h is particularly
) wh1c
(the wings '
hind [Q).
notkeoble from be
sockets angle
forward
femur's head and
socket ore less
VISI
. .ble from here
®
~
y
tilage
on the
femur head
@
femur angle
is around 45
degrees
the core 233
the ischium
The ocetobulum (the ·socket• of the
to provide onchor points for the leg
boll-and-socket joint) 1s connected to
muscles to pull on, in order to move the
o sort of ·1oop· honging off the bottom
legs forword ond bock This 1s exoctly
of the pelvis (A). This is the ischium,
whot the two 1sch10 provide (B).
mentioned on page 231 To understond
whot this 1s, let's consider the role of
The two isch10 ore sometimes coiled
the pelvis ogoin The pelvis needs
the ·sit bones· becouse we con feel
them contocting the choir when we
sit Some of the ottoching muscles
connect these loops to the greot er
trochonter (C). Now we're storting to
understond whot these weird bumps
wonted t~ m_ove the legs out loterolly
(D) Nothing 1n evolution is there for no
reoson - understond the role ond your
subject becomes eosier to memorize.
ot the top of the femur ore for! Without
the femur being wider thon the pelvis,
®
muscles connecting
ischia to greater
trochanters
wide femurs
allow the leg to
pull up sideways
234 the body
we'd hove nothing to pull on if we
the ischia anchor
the leg muscles
Here ore some useful things to know
fol dro1V1n9 the pubis and the ischio
Tilt ngle of the pubis is relatively flat
0
(.1)1T'p0red to the more acute angles of
/ \-
-I
tilt isch10 In E we con see this from
tielO"'· and 1n F from above.
n,is bOttorn region of the spine is
called the 1urnbor region (G).It's flexible
fofV/Clrd and bock, but con only bend
QUOd 20 degrees to the side (H)
01
TN t ~ou~elfl Try to bend to the side
1
w,thOUt twisting (os twisting increases
©
ischia
are more
tile range of motion)
©
the Lumbar region
is the bottom
of the spine
pubis and ischia
from above
lumbar
region
the spine's
lateral range is
quite limited
the core 235
section ot the bottom to represent the
a cutout hole in the woll of the pelvis,
improve our pelvis shope further. We
pubis (J). We know that the pelvis isn't
but o whole piece with its own depth
left off on page 228 with on underwear
just on oval or octogon, but flares from
(M). Keep in mind thot we're working
shape, with either o boll or more
bock to front. so let's mcorporote that
toward o finol design more hke N,
advanced femur shape (I) Starting
nore using three clear ongles (K, 1- 3).
Let's
use these
observations
to
which is o simplified pelvis with the
spine ond femurs inserted, with cleor
with our octagonal shope, let 's slice
off the front section to represent the
Add in o space where the sacrum sits,
space obove the pubis, leaving o smoll
ond wedge it in (L) This oreo isn't Just
ongles to the nored shope.
introduce
angles for
a fiared
shape
slice out a space
for the pubis
our basic
pelvis so far
3
©
insert the
sacrum at
the back
3
2
~
236 the body
.
don't Just
make a hole!
our pelvis will
eventually look
more like this
re ining the ilium
_ _ amber that there ,s no one
II"'"'"·- model' tr.,e whot is most
,a,re<f
ond your current
LJ tor you
.,v
Now let's angle section 1 downward
and lower section 3 on either side of
the sacrum This gives the ilium more
., t , ,1,wrself by rotating
leVel ies
~ (hroug
·
h multiple angles. If
(A). Slope the walls inward to give
.,,.. s/l(lpe
con do this eosil"~· you're ready to
the pelvis more of o bowl- shaped
,pJ t/le level of detod
5tepuP
structure (8) The two ischium loops
ustiu•
of the w1nglike shape of o real pelvis
attach below, with the ocetobulum
(the socket) attaching to the sides of
the loops (C) The 1sch1a are larger at
the bock than at the front In O you con
see how for the shape hos come from
the octagon that we began w1thl
@
lower 1 and
3 to create
a winglike
shape
\
\
•
slope the sides
to make a bowl
©
attach the ischia
to the pelvis
3
and sockets ~
ta the ischia,'/
l_/J
our developing
pelvis with a wingshaped ilium
the core 237
Some common mistakes include not
As with every stage of this book,
then "building out• from the skeleton is
splaying the ilium enough (E). giving
constantly test yourself. You won't
always a great test of your knowledge
correct enough that the muscles aren't
the ilium a C shape rather than on S
memorize this information by just
(H). The current stole of our pelvis
deformed when you draw them on top.
shape (F), and making the isch10 too
looking at these drawings. Find photos
should look something like I, but we
Understanding the function behind the
wide (G).
or go life drawing. and draw the forms
con streamline t his design further.
Don't stress about getting the form
absolutely perfect. You just need it to be
design is the m ost important port!
I
,I x
beneath. Drawing the silhouette and
try drawing a
silhouette and
working out
the skeleton to
test yourself!
©
II
I
I
I
ilium is the
wrong shape
this pelvis is
workable, but
there's more
we can learn
238 the body
streamlining a
pelvis design
londmorks
. htlY simplified model
I
,5 a s19
f*!t
We wont O shorthond for
~IJO!l.
..
forTll Using O detoiled drowing 1s
shorthand
include the ASIS prominently, os well
design that shows those Any level
and
use a
os the socrum shope al the reor of the
of detail is fine. First, let's review the
pelvis (B). The ASIS is visible on most
eoc'1 .",. n using O simple one wit h
better u,O
no
rtions - the silhouette
landmarks. The tips of the 1ltoc crest
people (C), particularly when the orms
ore called the ASIS, short for •onterior
ore raised, which lifts the obliques (0)
ttie
superior iliac spine• (A). Our design will
6
some propo
.
rtont! Identify the mo1or
,rdlafS 1mpo
.
@
the ASIS (anterior
superior iliac spine)
©
the ASIS is visible
on most people
raising the arm
shows the ASIS
even further ~(!_~~~ .-/
//
~7
-
th e core 239
This simplified pelvis is very effective
as O base for adding muscles because
The important thing to note here is the
later, when we odd the muscles. To
Figure H was drown over the top of G
angle. Notice how the "wings; which
this form, we con odd the loops of the
and it's nicely believable, which is th~
best test!
it incorporates the basic landmarks
represent the ilium, flare both upward
ischio to create a very practical pelvis
without adding too much detail.
and forward (E). This will be important
shape (F).
adding
the
ischia
simple
pelvis base
240 the body
building
the figure
on top
before
ischia
after
ischia
•
•
tip: mannequin test
dd boll joints or real joints
We con now test a pose with our box
ore believable (O). If you're wondering
derponts shape - 1t doesn't
to ttie un
.
tter Try varying the ratio of
reollY ma ·
• size to the pelvis to create
the sphereS
ffects
(A). These examples
d,fferent e
(!on't include the isch10, but you con
mannequin, ensuring the proportions
what the lumps on O ore, E breaks
and perspective ore believable (B).
them down 1 indicates the obliques
Refine ,t by adding our more advanced
sitting on top of the Iliac crest (the crest
chest and pelvlC forms (C). Finally,
being the top of the •wings•), 2 1s the
draw the silhouette ond use cross
iliac crest itself, and 3 Is the muscles of
odd them for extra complexity
contours to check that the volumes
the hip and leg
y(jJ con O
posed box
mannequin
experiment with different
pelvis and joint proportions
©
adding our
base torso
and pelvis
©
adding skin and
muscle over
the figure
the
obliques,
iliac
crest, and
muscles
create
lumps
the core 241
.:
0:U:X.. <.S! ;:;zs CS
~ ~ WCT<SS::
~ ~ ~ ~ :::c c::r"8S -
!;CV~
-::-e =i:x ~ :::r !.SS ;;-e .::cc=
= ==- -+ :::::- ::--e
~-:C:a -:::f~~ :
top
comer..
become
theASIS
~ Cni - ::r..o.e-::: - t::,e -:a. :::r::-:
s :::-c: - ~ :we :::c- ~ c:.
;;-e :xo;. ~ ~ ::= ~
;:;er.~ -:e!'C
:::'
r-g; ::"~
::C,~::; "=:;,;::::::,; S"=:e:. S C ~
=~ :-:r= ;:: =
~ 5:1=
bottom comel'S
=•e-=E::-i:::.=e ::t
become
the greate-r
trocha nters
box from
ta~thetop
o f the box!
the front
©
\
com ers a:re
too sq-u are!
x
box from
the bock
242 the body
rt of the pelvrc region
Tht wtdest po
t he greater trochonter of
6 osuollY
(E) which makes 1t easy to
I
through the ASIS (the ttps of the 1hoc
we con odd a lrttle more toper to the
crest), to clanfy the ttlt ond v1suoh2e
sides, to take the width of the greotef
the top of the box form (F)
trochonters ,nto occount
ht femur •
bOttom of our simplified box
..1n<e tile
.
b
..-h , iocotion and t11t con e
mThe 1p5
fOI
.. help place them, drow o hne
uid<ter ,o
H
It's
common to see the 1hoc crest drown
We've learned that we con shove the
,t to construct o choroctef's CJOOlOffij
However, we ,-er octuorly see thrs
becouse rts covered in fat ood musde
For reohsm, ovood drawing t (I
qurte prominently because crusts use
bock wedges off the box (G). Next,
x
©
greater
trochanter
remove back
corners of the
pelvis box
taper the
box to
be wider
at the
bottom
draw a
line across
the ASIS
avoid
drawing
the iliac
crest
the core 243
the psoas
People ovoid learning the "deep·
Always remember that muscles con
Focus on how something works, not
muscles because you don't see them
only pull. There is no pushing action.
how it looks. The psoos, for example, is
superficially (from the surface). But if
This simplifies things
for artists,
a hidden but major muscle. It attaches
you don't understand how the body
because we only need to ask, "What
mainly to the bottom five vertebrae
moves itself around, you won't be able
two ports of the body is this muscle
of the spine (the "lumbar" region) (A),
to visualize the outer forms!
pulling on?"
where it con pull our spine forward (B).
upright
posture
@
244 the body
pulled
forward
psoas
pulls spine
forward
muscles, always
For example, the psoos wraps around
\\'!,el'I fl"'" ·- factors. How for in
the front of the pelvis and attaches
rnto the rear of the femur
The other
-.mllf1Zi09
-.rltl
twO ore the attachments,
~,,._
· l)ehind
ft0111 "'
end attaches to the sides of the spine,
1
~oenmtntS
but this attachment 1s relatively farther
t to the sides ore the
t,oW for OU
bock than the attachment to the legs
This suggests that we ore probably
trying to pull the sprne fOfWOrd
©
the psoas
wraps over
the pelvis and
attaches to
the femur
the psoas also attaches
to the spine so we
can bend forward
the core 245
lumbar region
drawing them too narrow rather than
The lateral projections of the vertebrae
of the spine (A). It connects the rib
at their surprisrng full wrdth (B), and
anchor the quodrotus lumborum (or
cage to the pelvis and consists of
drawing them stocked on top of each
"QL"), a powerful chain of muscles
· five vertebrae. Common mistakes
other rather than splaying them out in
that helps us bend left and right and
a natural curve (C).
provides stobrlity to the spine (D).
Let's quickly review the lumbar region
when drawing these vertebrae include
the lumbar region
is the flexible
lower spine
don't just stack
the vertebrae splay them out!
quadratus lumborum (Ql)
bends the spine laterally
246 the body
p<111s f()(WOtd but also pulls
~ pSIJOS .... ,,de) However. because
Ql attaches to the bock of
(the wrngs) just obo th
the rlrum
shnmp-torl) and ve e socrum (the
-'- for a lateral role
10,ns to the Srdes f
O
the five lumbor verteb
roe Cruc oll
also ottoches to the bo
, Y. ,t
ttom rrb r
{tol1" '
~ O(d-ond·bock attachment
J (.S fOfV'
II'
~ 11
·snot""""
:l'l Ql ,s tiettet'
lo(otedf0<thrs(f). The
If YOU h-· ·
~·en t noticed by
lumbor reg
now. the
on of the
·
spine 15 0 weak
I
Pace
on the
bod
Y There's nothing else
10.n,ng the two
bod
forge mosses of the
y together, Ond the oreo ho
s no
bone ot the front to support ,t Th,s rs
why v,e tend to suffer lower-bock porn
- •n evotut,onory terms, we haven't
fully evolved to walk upnght'
quadratus
lumborum
(QL) enables
lateral
movement
QL attaches to
ilium, lumbar
vertebrae, and
bottom rib
the core 247
abdominal region
Now let's move on to the neorby
The TA holds everything in like o corset
of the quodrotus lumborum (•oL•)
"TA•).
(A). It isn't on equol height oround
ot the bock (C). Note the corset-like
tronsversus
obdominis
(or
Often we think of the core os running
the rib coge ond it doesn't wrop oll
shope (0). People with o stronger TA
verticolly, but this muscle goes ocross
the woy oround (B). lnsteod, it curves
generally hove o narrower waist and
the body· tronsversus meons ·across·
downword ond meets the reor edge
flatter stomoch for this reason.
ond obdominis meons •abdomen.•
@
transversus
abdominis (TA)
wraps around
like a corset
TA doesn't wrap
completely
around
the two sides
of the TA
leave a space at the
back for the QL
248 the body
,p irt ~
where
these
~ muscles ottoch, let's go
(ft!f ttiem now. We have o thick cord
cdf!d the ,ngu1nol hgoment {E). which
~ s the ASIS with the pubis.
ThlS r,gameot ,s ofmost exoctly vert,coI
.,/'(/!(I ~ in profile. It's a good
~ point becouse most of the
©
i,ne the obdom1nol muscles extend
tortJ1f! fo,word thon this ligoment (F).
v~
from otiove in G, the torso will
(IOll!lOllY sh<>W the externol oblique
tll'JS(leS ot the sides 1. 3). We con also
stt the rectus obdominis (the •six-
paet;' Ol 'abs· muscle group) because
rt ottocheS to the front of the torso, just
obO't" the bottom of the sternum (2).
the abdominal
muscles attaching
to the pelvis
inguinal ligament
from profile view
the core 249
external obliques
and serratus
anterior fit together
add rectus
;
abdominis in
middle space
~
Remember the fingerlike projections
of the serrotus onterior? The external
obliques wedge exactly into these (H).
1~
Don't forget to leave o space for the
rectus obdominis (let's coll it the
"RA") (I). All three merge down to o
point toward the pubic bone (1-3).
The external obliques ottoch to the
inguinol ligoment that we sow before.
When drawing the RA, give 1t some
moss. It is not o totally flat sheet (J).
250 the body
/
.
RA should
have volume,
not look flat
ore musculor and lean on
file !TI I the more clearly defined
i(l(ll'i'dUO '
between
tilt liM
arid the RA WIII
the external obliques
be (K). For most people,
there will be almost no distinction
between them. When the RA is more
sometimes hidden in a three-quarter
out
view (L) When we twist the core, the
enough thot the external obliques are
ASIS pushes the external obliques
upward, causing a bulge (M}.
developed,
the
forms
bulge
When drawing the core. give it three
distinct sides, like our nb cage form
To moke ,t more compltcated, add the
,nward pinch ot the middle (N).
--I
on most
people, the
obliques and
RA are not
distinct
--
©
a developed RA
can bulge past
the obliques from
some angles
~---~
twisting causes
the ASIS to push
the obliques up
®
pinch the core muscles
inward in the m iddle
the core 251
from o completely frontol view (0).
Indicating body fat doesn't require
the obliques cover not only the side
Note the spoce (P) where the S-shope
adding huge amounts of moss to the
of the body, but the reor of the woist
of the pelvis ollows us to see more
figure. The difference con be shown in
too. They run oround the sides to the
of the obliques ond gluteol muscles
the depth of the folds - simply drow
back. You usuolly see more of the bock
(the •glutes· or buttocks) then you
smoller creoses to indicote oreos with
thon you'd expect in ony pose, except
might expect.
lower body fot (Q).
When you drow the figure twisting,
the back
muscles
are more
visible than
you might
think
®
use smaller
creases for
areas with
less body fat
252 the body
tip: add some twist!
,
mcludt' o tw,st
115
" ,Ne. On\'O"
i\~ p..:
_ th1> will odd vonety
!Nst- (~ The two 1elot1\le
'(l ,ty
_,_., ore tht' ASIS 0)
"
.,. t,tllf'
Cl"'
Ill l1111JU
to ~
"""""""of th<' nb cogt'
t('<ll\ ,.,.·~··
~t,tbOl
points m(I\~ CIOSt'r
,\:, tllf't'
'" t>ttwet'n hos to
-""~
~mu
...
,..,,._ovtword
0)
l>T
~ • 11 VU''!t'"
'
-~
~~
twist your
figures to make
them more real
and interesting!
the COrners of
the rib cage
an d ASIS can
move closer
together
®
muscle
bulges out
when the
body b e nds
the cor ~
3
tip: hidden muscles
When drawing the core, as with oil
muscles, remember not to seporote
the groups. It's tempting to fall into
the hobit of drawing not shorthand
symbols onsteod of how the subject
the anatomy ,sn't quite correct, if it
the obliques. It is important to show
actually
"wedges· believably, it will appear
plenty of overlap here. Practice drawing
that what creoles form is wedging,
more loke it is (B). When the rib cage
os we learned on page 28 Even of
twists, its front corners are buried by
simple forms until you ore comfortable
with this type af twisting (C).
appears
(A).
Remember
@
~D
88
rn
wedged forms are
key for believability
the obliques bury
the lower ribs when
twisting sideways
254 the body
the kidneys
are protected
by body fat
lower-back
muscles can be
simplified into
a doughnut
What. ore these two bulges here? (D).
JhlS ~ where the kidneys ore located,
and ~-e store fat there, in port to
p,otect them. os they hove no bone
COl'1Jll9 them.
Either side of the spine we hove the
,nosdes of the lower bock, including
the bottom of the lotissimus dorsi
that we covered on page 158 There ore
nt.melOUS lower-bock muscles, so let's
~ ,fy them into o long doughnut
shape (E). The shape won't usually
be this deep, but it depends on how
d!'ieloped the bock is. When the bock
~ extended (bent backward). these
the lots
attaches to
the pelvis but
its outline
isn't visible
©
iMCles ore more prominent.
I ho¥e marked in orange where the
latsottoches to the pelvis. This muscle
toms the whole central lower bock,
but we never draw its outline (F).
the core 255
proportions & gender
So much of our recognition of gender
is bosed upon chorocteristics such os
proportion ond musculoture. If you
see o figure like this (A). it is difficult to
define the cho rocter's gender becouse
the proportions ore mixed.
Key chorocteristics for women con
include wider hips ond o smoller
rib coge relotive to the pelvis. Less
essentiol chorocteristics would
be
®
feotures like hoirstyle, breosts, ond
gen1tols, which we don't rel y on much
for identification in our drawings.
Narrowing the hips mokes this figure
look more •masculine• (B). Conversely,
odd1ng body fot around the woist
gives o more feminine oppeoronce (C),
as women hove a higher body-fot rotio
r
ambiguous
proportions
on overoge.
more
masculine
proportions
more feminine
proportions
Above the pubic mound we hove a
region where stomach fat accumulates
(D). You'll often see the bulge ond then
curve inward, even on very slim people.
©
That rhythm commonly appears like
E, with the curve of the rib coge (1), the
obdominols (2). ond the body fot of
the stomach (3).
fat deposits
above the
pubic mound
256 the body
rhythms of
the rib cage,
abs, and
stomach fat
and torso
the core
folds
drawing
where the
w,ien
careful
figure
(l(l1n9, be
F shows O
bt
pos1t1on
he side, whereas
fOft1'l straight to t center line on
d tout
e 1s
. _..t11n9
D"~•-•ds on
at the nb cog
....
""
gest
th
o~
Gsug
p0sitiolll)O(~
over the
o hang
. ues tend t
n we bend to
obhQ
rest whe
· ht
lilt f the iliac c
hot you m1g
O
toW
I
s,dtS controfY
. us on peop e
SJ(lt
bVIO
tilt th1s 1s rnore o muscles than on
vpe<1· hlY developed dy fat (H)
th h•9
VI'
r,ohOV e rnore bo
©
!e(JOl"9
pt<>PleW
folds
when
bending
to the
side
folds don't
reflect
bend
direction
bending
'deways
s1 . s the
bring ·r c
'bsand i 1a
ncrest c Loser
l • ues bulge
ob 1q ·rac crest
over the ~~nding
when
sideways
the core 257
If it helps, you con imagine the
the obliques completely (J). Always
obliques ond stomach-fat region with
be careful when drowmg the crease
the some rhythm os nineties-style
lines of the legs ond hips A crease
high-nse bikini bottoms {I)! Always
drow the form of the obliques ond
woist wrapping around FrequenUy,
this fat pod will cover the for side of
percentage
imagine
a highrise bikini
shape!
body fat can
completely
cover our view
of the obliques
crease completely
changes leg angle
258 the body
crease changes
appearance of body fat
core summary
we·ve
that the core rs o
1eorned
omplex nuanced oreo of
~ngJyC
'
Siii"·- and how O successful core
tilt t,odY,
d understanding of the
esono goo
illll9
rt• and pelVIS
~cogt, SI>"~·
bOut the functions and
. ,earned o
v,e
ks of the pelvis, and how to
JolldtllO'
hope into something
rnfine ,ts ~
stre<J
bi 101 our mannequin (A)
more su1to e
ed the muscles and forms
c ,e ,ncludong the deep
\'rt eXPJorth
...,,. for!Tl e
.. us to twist and
that ~ 1 "
,nuscleS
f
can't see them from
ij"''
._...l-even , ~
"""' rfoce - o
the soft tissue and
tilt SU
h on thP lower torso (B).
(at that (US I
we'll be cont1nu1ng the Journey
1 15 ond tops of the femurs,
(tofllthepev
down , ,e legs to the feet!
Ne-d.
olttreWOY
simplifying
the complex
pelvis
@
building up
layers of muscle
and fat to give
the core form
the core 259
leg bone overview
The number of bones in the legs
When
draw
we have mony tendons and ligaments
matches the number of bones in the
rectangles rather than cylinders. as
attaching the leg bones and muscles
arms: one for the upper section and
this helps you control the XYZ rotation
together - if this oreo was smaller, it
two for the lower (A). The upper bone,
of your shapes
would be weaker, with less roam for
simplifying
the
leg,
the femur (1), is extremely strong. The
attachments (B)! Because of this large
tibia (2) and fibula (3) ore the lower
At the knee end of eoch section, we
two bones. The tibia 1s weight-bearing
see that the shape of the bones flares
and lower legs have very little scope to
while the fibula is thinner and ploys a
out (4). Why 1s this region so large?
rotate independently (C).
more auxiltary role, just like the ulna
Why does 1t bulge out wider t han the
ond radius of the arm.
bones themselves? The answer is thot
amount of connective t issue, t he upper
leg bones widen
toward the knee
4
2
3
2
3
®
flared shape provides
more space for
attachments
262 the body
upper and lower leg
can't rotate very much
=
=
=
l femur
2 tibia
3 fibula
4 = flared
shape
,,. ,he femur ond t1b1a proJect
£t15ure
Often w1•1f' so focused
i,o<k,,,ord
(potelfa). thot we forget
kneecor
oww the upper and
ect1ot1
tl11S proi
as long thin cubo,ds
O"tr>t
~
1"'1 bQ0<'5
.
d ~ meeting ot the knee,
cyl,n er
~ t~ t,,,o
c,i1,nders (E) The hinge
~
natten the ,
h femur ,s the shape of
endoft e
c f t n e t h two bumps on the
~e~urand
,sed V, WI
dd this shope next ).
0 ,r,t
de so o
oock s, ·
f bulo 15 farther bock
!lit toP
(!di
I t1b1a Project
I
backward
of the '
d much smaller (1 ,)
t/)e t1b10. on
flatten
the
cylinders
©
patella (kneecap)
sits on top
femur hinge has a
notch at the back
hinge from
front
hinge from
back
fibula end is
smaller and
farther back
than tibia
legs & feet 263
the tibial tuberosity
At the front of the t1b10 1s O bony
projection coiled the t1b1ol tuberosity
(A). This is the ottochment point for
tibial
tuberosity
patellar
ligament
the potellor ligament (B), the ligament
thot ollows the quods to stro1ghten the
legs This lump provides something to
ottoch to and pull on. Note the bulge
for the potello, then a step inward,
followed by a bump outword at this
tuberos1ty (C).
The simplified structure of the knee
resembles D rother thon E. Rother thon
two forms thot hinge away from each
other ot o single point, 1t consists of on
tibial tuberosity
is the lump below
the patella
L-shoped upper piece meeting a flatter
form below. This whole 1oint hinges
oround these points (F).
D!7x
oa~9©
not _two flat
pieces!
femur is an
interlocking
L shape
leg bending and
straightening
264 the body
adductors
n .1s t he movement of o body
Adductio
h m1dline of the body.
vord t e
pert tO\
ctors muscle group sits on
T)le oddU
ond performs two
rofthe Ieg
the interio
first function we'll look
les The I
rno1orro . ourlegs together (A).
et Is pulling Y
flex1b11ity because these muscles don't
usually deviate too for from their neorverticol pos1t1ons (D) We con odd the
odductors by swapping our cylinder leg
for a cuboid form, and then ottoch,ng
a long wedge to the inner side (E).
. the odductors ottoch
e this,
h pelvis (B) and wrop
t oft e
to the fron
d to the bock of the
d aroun
dawn on
. ' rthest point from the
At their ,o
fernur
ottoch to the end of the
pervis they
•block" in the knee
.
0 nto our
rernur. I An action l'ke
the side splits
I
01ea (C,
ous amount of
.
on enorm
,equ11es
To och1ev
adductors
connect front
of pelvis to
back of femur
adductors
attach to
blocky
~
end of
c....:_, femur
this pose requires
highly flexible
adductors!
block in
adductors
with a
wedge
shape
Legs & feet 265
The second role . of t hetheadductors
legs up
1
·s to assist in bnng1ng
they
O nOt muscle t hat covers in
iroocus os
of the ilium
the onside of the wings
d forward (nex1on). Because th
on
h to the rear of e
pnmonly ottoc
ther with the
h
work l oge
.
(G) to assist ,n
femur, t ey
(F) and oloocus
psoos
The psoos, as we
flexion of the leg
.
long muscle
ge 244, IS 0
learned on po
. • m and the
that wraps over the IIU
1 •
. t 2 onthe
rd than po,n
ors
farther fOfWO
the adduct
the femur, so
f
bock a
rd
conpuII the leg forwo
ve our legs out to the
When we ma
dductors must
) our a
,
s,·de (abduction When
we roise our
lengthen (H)
) the action
15
leg forward (Oex,on ,I t ve pos1t1ons
the re a I
focihtoted by
h ents Point 1 is
of the muscle ottoc m
onnequin's
reos1ng our m
the
If we're inc
n simplify
I of detail, we co
flattened
leve
into a long,
for
upper leg
. ngulor wedge
octagon w,'th a tno
adductors
psoas
muscle
the Odductors (I).
iliac us
muscle
adductors
from the front
I
\
266 the body
'
simplified
geometry
of the
upper leg
gluteal muscles
muscle ottochments to the top of
know in deto,I (C). The gluteus med,us
1?lt ~ur ore simllor to those of the
covers ,t olmost completely ond
tilt
ottaches fart her out to the side The
.
A) olmost like the heod
lder 1oint •
sh0'-1jo\js\lCk Muscles rod1ote out from
O
of reoter trochonter (B), the smoll
tilt·ect,on
9
ot the top of the femur, like
gluteus maximus covers thot ond ,s
even lorger (0)1
p,ol do to the top of the humerus in
The gluteus medius ,s locoted on the
thf\lo,m The g luteus min1mus 1s one
•
sides, and is thin at the rear of the
tilt
pelvis Viewed from above, it hangs
gluteal muscles ("glut es )
of tt,tee
aches to the front of the greoter
It ott
g with some other
tionter oIon
tTOC
'
thot we don't need to
small muscles
the femur's joints and
attachments are similar
to the humerus'
closely to the ilium (E) It bulges
when the leg is raised to the sides
(abduction) (F)
muscles
radiate out
from the
greater
trochanter
gluteus minimus and
nearby smaller muscles
maxim us
©
gluteus
medius sits
close to ilium
©
gluteus medius' volu~e
increases with abduction
The gluteus min1mus assists in raising
the leg due to its slight forward
attachment (G). When viewed from the
front, there is a space on the pelvis thot
is filled by the gluteal muscles (H).
The gluteus maximus attaches to the
sacrum and reor section of the ilium (I).
It runs both outward and down, and
ends in two places (J): the outer femur
(1) and the iliotibiol tract (or "IT bond")
(2), which we'll cover shortly.
gap for
gluteal
muscles
gluteus
minimus
helps raise
the leg
forward
gluteus
maxi mus
attaches to
the sacrum
and ilium
=outer femur
2 =IT band
1
gluteus maximus ends at the
outer femur and IT band
268 the body
the TFL and IT band
fosC1oe lotoe, or TFL, is o
connected by the ihotib1ol tract, also
The tensor I at the front of the thigh
1I musce
snio ei . t ndem with the gluteus
known as the ihot1b1ol bond or IT bond,
1<1lfkS 1n O
tt,ot
,mus to
h Ip us walk and balance
e
roox
d gluteus mox1mus ore
The TFL on
forming o kind of Y shape (A) The TFL
attaches to the outer front of the ilium,
Just behind the ASIS (the tip of the
1hoc crest) (8) Together, the TFL and
patella (C) When the legs ore raised,
gluteus mox1mus he on top of the other
the g lutes and TFL will usually form o
glutes The IT bond runs down the side
bulge on the outer leg (0)
of the leg, connecting to the front of
the t1b10 just to the outer side of the
band connects the
Ii maximus and TFL
gluteus
TFL attaches
IT band runs
down the outer
leg to the knee
the glutes and
TFL bulge to the
side when the
leg is raised
legs & feet 269
tip: believable glutes
Artists often draw the creases under the
ot the figure from obove! Instead, note
gluteal muscles with on upward angle
the front (B). The glutes ore visible
the angling downward from inside to
from most angles, even between the
toward the sides (A). However, this is
out. The gluteus moximus is higher ot
legs, where they connect with the
rarely the case, unless we're looking
the bock ond lower os it wraps toword
•scoop" of the pubis (C).
don't draw an
upward crease
under the glutes!
the gluteus
maximus is high
in the center and
lower at the sides
x
©
wrap the
gluteus
properly
around the
pelvis
270 the body
the quads
1.tt's continue down the leg, s1mpltfy1ng
We con visualize them as o long, leof-
near the greater trochonter C). They
The
the dome of the patella into o flattened
shoped form wrapping over the cuboid
pull dtrectly on the patella via the
bottom three quads muscles angle
cuboid form (A) for this next stage
of the femur, with o narrower stnp
on top (B)
quodnceps tendon (D). The patella
down toward the m,dltne of the body
,s attached to the tibia below v10
(G) From 1ns1de to out, we hove the
the patellar ltgoment (E). When the
attachments for the vostus med,olts
The bottom three muscles of the
leg bends, the tendon of the quads
muscle (1), the vostus intermed,us (2),
On the front of the upper leg, the
quodnceps femons muscle, or quads,
attachment
points
for
the
,s O group of four muscles that both
quads sit on the front- facing surface
stretches the most (I ,, while the
and the vostus loterolts (3) (meaning
ro,se the knee and straighten the leg
of the femur ond attach at the top
patellar ltgoment is less elost,c.
·,nner,' · middle," and · outer")
©
three of
the quads
muscles
attach to
the greater
trochanter
flatten the patella
into a cuboid
simplifying
the quads
muscle group
67
(() I
~
,J
1 2 3
quads tendon
pulls on patella
Q- @
U- ©
patellar
ligament
attaches
to tibia
\...
ligament
stretches less
than quads
cuboid thigh
with added
tendons and
ligaments
attachment
points angle
inward
legs & feet 271
The
rectus
femoris,
the
fourth
quadriceps muscle, sits on top of
the others Unlike the other three, It
ottoches to the pelvis directly (H),
rectus
femoris
attaches
to pelvis
rather thon to the top of the femur
You con group the bottom thr~ into
ont' form for ~lmpllclty (I) lht tl't tu
lcmorls oqc;lstl In rol1lng the IPO, 1o
when the leg 1, rol\Cd or trn\ed 1Jou will
usuonv ,et its form (J)
\~\
simplify the other three quads
muscles into one form underneath
\
0
rectus
femoris is
prominent
when
raising or
tensing
the leg
272 the body
(('(J
1
t!O''f tr you
drow the reg, odd a
fort he vostus med,olis
Not only w,11 we see a teordrop shope,
...AroP shope
ost medial (inner)
tl<I'"
15 the m
but frequently when the leg is ro1sed
we wrll see a slight depression between
ff!IP're t!O the forms of the leg'
the ends of the Quods (L) But 1f the
potello is round, why do we see o
"h!Ch
ds Don't forget to
Of the quo
(Jlld~IS
D
d1omondlike shape here (H)7 When the
quods pull on the potello, the potellor
ligament that connects the kneecap to
the tibia is pulled tight. whrch causes o
slrght bulge (N)
©
vastus medialis
has a teardrop
shape
depression
at the end of
the quads
patellar
ligament
pulls tight
on the tibia
legs & fee t 273
grouping leg muscles
To learn muscles more eosily, group
They each end at different heights.
We con
The top of the sartorius attaches 1ust
because they fulfill o shored function:
form would bulge out 1f forced to bend
above the rectus femons, while the
for example, the bottom three quads
(E). There should be a small distance
bottom ottoches just inside the tib1al
muscles straighten the leg, and this
between the ASIS and the top of the
tuberosity (B). When drawing a raised
second trio roises the leg (D) When the
leg. Note the bulge outward that was
rectus femoris at the front (1), TFL
leg, include o roised areo to show
leg is raised, the form of the TFL and
1ust mentioned (F).
and IT band on the outer side (2).
where these muscles attach (C).
IT band is bent. Don't make it a flat
them by function
We've olreody
grouped
three
the
lower
quods;
let's add another group on top of
them (A) This group consists of the
group muscles
together
shape - imagine how that Y-shoped
and sartorius on the inner side (3).
=
=
1 rectus femoris
2 = TFL/IT
3 sartorius
2
raised form
of the muscle
attachments
...........
sartorius
attaches
to tibia
TFL and IT band
shape bulges
when bending
bulge
outward
as leg
raises
we can group
muscles that
share a function
274 the body
back of the thigh
Let's consider the function of the
muscles of the reor upper leg These
museIes Oie required to bend the leg
muscles
anchor
to the
ischia
ot the knee• roising the foot behind us
(flex1on). They must olso pull the whole
leg bock behind us (A)
To ochieve these functions, it's more
efficient ,,or them to ottoch to the lower
leg ot the s1 des ond front rother thon
raising
whole leg
back
ot the reor (B).
leg flexion
I
muscles pull
from the
front of the
lower leg,
not the back
legs & feet 275
The hamstring muscle group forms
the fibula on the outsrde (0) Earlier
make that onto an octagonal shape,
you can include the greater trochanter
the bock of the thigh (C). This group
we mode a cuboid farm for the upper
strll rncludrng the inner wedge far the
of the femur, too (F) Notrce how the
attaches ta the front of the tibra on
thigh, with a flat wedge on the inside
adductor group (E) If you want ta
octagonal thigh shape ends 1n the
the inside of the leg, and to the top of
far the adductor muscles Now let's
push for a slightly higher level of detail,
flattened cube farm for the knee
©
hamstrings
attach to inside
of tibia and
outside of fibula
hamstrings
from the back
hamstrings
from the front
include the
adductor
wedge
inside the
thigh
©
276 the body
increase detail by
including greater
trochanters
ww,th the orm on page 183
l
1_t\\~ SO
•
s rflore thon one way to simplify
t~
t-1ere·s on oltemotive woy to
1
J it the rear upper-leg muscles
O toi1T'
' '·u(l I teed of on octogon, this cuboid
ic,1 1ris und the femur, with o wedge
ro
0
,.10Pso
tht
rl'
de for the odductors,
1051
,,,. on tOP for the trochonter,
ond o notch to creo
knee (H)_At th1
te o hinge for
is be
s P<>1nt O
the
coming
ur monneq
1ncreosin
u,n
I
g y deto1led
50 moke sure to
struggling t
simplify if y
•
.
o rotote th
ou ore
simple form dro
ese shopes A
alternat·IVe
cuboid
thigh form
thon o complex f wn well is fo1 bette
ormdrow
r
n bodly (I).
,. si,o~·
0
cuboid
form
final
figure
notch around
the knee
legs & feet 277
When drawing the adductor.;, give
smaller, but this just draws attention to
them moss and depth (J). Draw the
problems 1n the oreo The forms should
knee squarer and wider than you think.
bulge out ot the sides If 1n doubt. draw
People often attempt to d1sgu1se
the knee squarer and larger (K) When
their lack of knowledge by drawing it
the knee is bent. the crease between
the legs won't extend os far forward os
you'd think Give the bOnes of the legs
space to form o cubelike shape ot the
end. then start the fold further bOck (L)
don't
make the
adductors
flat!
J
adductors
are thick
masses
the knee
is squarer
and larger
than you
might think!
when bending
the leg, don't
start the knee
crease too
far forward
278 the body
TM vis,ble landmark 1s the step down
in~rts into the top of the fibula (P
Re=~ that then• ~ no ,,ng~ hord
the pet\
where the IT bond meets the hamstring
On our model. the IT bond attaches to
the greater trochonter (Ol Note how
suifoct' model "'t con u,e for all PQ~l'
flt,,blt' OH'O II you ,on dro>' the ho1d
bt'<m11e tht' body" tle\lblt So ho>' do
lonn\ otc111otely and \jOU ~now thl'
giouP I
The upper leg rs wider at the
ore t" of tht- e pmt1< ukuly
front than ot the rear (
Let's odd the
this narrow strip dOf'Sn t srt dntctly
~ OO"Jn on t'fff'\ tiw m(ldeP V." con
m\11clt, ottothrntnt ,:,011,t,. tht-,, 11<'ll
IT bond 1, our model
I Remember
down the cente, or the outt'r thrgh but
ret11 pnmon y oo hard SUl10<l' form,
1on (le, 9n Qlmo,t ony lxxhr !\n~
shghtly forward
and ,1111 1ndudl' ~,on~ ot 0!',.,h,lot!j
that the IT bond inserts into the front
of the t,b,o and the hom~t nng group
The cort> and the lf'<Jlon \Urround,ng
uppe r leg
is w id er at
the front
IT bond and
hamstring group
attach to different
lower-leg bones
®
attach IT bond shape
to greater trochonte r,
slightly forward
attach a
narrow
strip for
the IT
band
legs & feet 279
•
tip: common mistakes
A common mistoke is to draw the
"orches· of the glutes porollel. Instead
on unnatural lump! Instead, raise the
(C). Also note the generol widening as
legs to ovoid the appearance of a very
we move from the rear to the front of
angle them inward (A) Be ca,eful t~
long pelvis (B). Note the outward two
the pelvic and upper-leg region (0).
otta:h the legs high enough on the
tiers as we move down the body. The
These major rhythms ore important
pelvis. If we simply draw the pelvis
first occurs at the ilium and the second
to remember - much more important
block and then odd muscles, the rectus
typically happens where the legs widen
than memorizing individual muscles
femoris (top quads muscle) will create
at the greater trochonters of the femur
@
raise the leg
for a more
natural join
top of leg
has an
unnatural
lump
angle
glutes ...,
inward
x ·~
v
area widens
at the front
two steps
outward
for ilium
and
©
280 the body
. ~~~~':;., J~
~:i----lr.:0.1
\ •end to draw the knee too po,nted
~
When the leg 1s bent, the patella 1sn·t
thnk thCIntenor ,s shaped hke E,
\\e
. between the patella and
ha spo e
w t ends of t he leg bones In reality,
surface we see 1s the bottom of the
the feet ore ongled outward, remember
that the rotat,on 011g,nates at the h,p
When draw,ng the folds ,n the bent leg
keep them \ ubtle The form ,s fo,rly
femur, covered by the tendons of the
J0tnt. not ot the knee The onkle ollows
,olid so 1t won't hove multiple hne• likf'
the
F where the patella shdes
,t s n re hke •
quads (G) When we see o pose where
for some rotatron, but less than you
might ossume ~ 11
fobric (I) Instead, suggest o delicate
bulging neor the l,n, 1helf
down
located on the top of ,t The wide. not
nd occupies that space
l~ ©
a~
(/
"-
~
the
patella
doesn't sit
like this!
the bottom of the
femur creates a
blocky shape
most of the foot's rotation
originates at the hip
don't overdo
these creases!
leg s & feet 281
the calves
soleus
When we soy "the coif; we refer to a
The gostrocnemius hos three major
group of two muscles - the soleus and
planes, with a fourth formed by the
gastracnem1us (A). The saleus 1s mostly
Achilles tendon (C, 1-4). When the
hidden below the gostracnemius. It
gastrocnemius is placed an tap of the
attaches ta the bock of the tibia and
saleus, note that we still see the sides
fibula, and pulls an the Achilles tendon
of the soleus (0). The hamstring group
(or "colcaneol tendon"), which causes
wraps to the sides of these muscles,
the foot ta push against the ground -
which is why they attach centrally (E).
useful for jumping and walking (B)
The calves don't cover the whole bock
If you look closer at A. you'll see the
of the knee structure, so you'll often
soleus doesn't attach lo the upper
see the exposed "block" of the knee
leg, but the gostrocnemius does
when the viewing the leg from behind
The
(F) Viewed from behind, note how the
gast,ocnemius
attaches
into
the bottom of the femur, above the
calves taper dawn (G).
gastrocnemius
soleus pulls
on achilles
tendon
©
backward projections ot the end of the
bone. It pulls on the Achilles tendon
and also helps raise the lower leg.
the soleus' sides
are still visible
l
2
hamstring
muscles wrap
down both sides
3
©
4
four planes
the back
of the knee
stays visibly
blocky
282 the body
©\.
calves
taper
down
hove O space between the
the fa tty tissue areas that cushions the
·ngs ond the colves, why don't
tiomstn
depression like 1n H' The
we see O
r
e pophteol fot pod, one o
o,iSWef IS l h
knee area (I) When we stro,ghten au,
But 1f we
leg, th,s fot pod bulges out When the
leg 1s port1olly bent the pod ,s covered
by the bulging homstrrngs ( I} When
the leg ,s neorl4 fully bent. the forms
of the homstrrngs v,s,bly bulgr out to
the sides (K}
the gap
behind the
knee is
cushioned
by fat
UJhY doesn't the
back of the ~n;e
look like this.
hamstrings
bulge out
sideways as
the leg bends
leg s & feet 283
leg extensors
parallel
the outer bone (the fibula). The moss
twisting outward, ben d",ng bock' and
marks shown in A? These indicate
of the extensors causes a bulge that
twisting inward, respectively.
What
ore
these
almost
where the soleus appears beneath
projects forward of the t,b,o when
the gostrocnemius, with the extensor
viewed in profile (B).
Note the flow of the muscle from
But whot do the leg's extensors
·de in ond how ,t crosses the front
•
d
of the shin (D). Also note the expose
musdes in front of them.
OU ts I
Just as the arm's extensors attach at
actually do? There ore three mo,n
section of the tib10, which you con feel
the top of the outer bone (the rodius).
things (C): eversion, dorsiflexion. and
on your own legs (E).
the leg's extensors attach at the top of
inversion of the fool These mean
eversion
dorsiflexion
©
tibia is not
fully covered
extensors
bulge in front
of the tibia
muscle flows down
and across the leg
284 the body
inversion
Leg forms & landmarks
wed from below we con see
..
"""1
vv,~·
vie sections of the lower leg more
·•t
cross·
d d aspect of the outer
"'
tie roun e
.,,.1IY T rol) is more obvious (A) and
....,.
.~ges (lotee shape of the inner side 1s
....,
tJ,e c()(l(.OV t's always worth exploring
..APnt (B). I
, forms from angles
rt""
00 equ1n s
your mo ye-level (C)I
ot)iel'thon e
the outer
edges of
the leg ore
rounded
the inner side
of the leg is
concave
©
more
challenging
low-angle
view
eye-level
view
legs & feet 285
Alwoys
seorch
for
the
landmarks of
the lower leg
obvious
londmorks in your figure drowings
{D) Some exomples ore t he potello
(1), tibiol tuberos1ty (2), exposed inner
edge of the tib10 (3), the inner {mediol)
onkle (4), ond frequently the top
sections of the fibulo (5).
The foot 1s ottoched to the lower leg
by the equivolent of o cylinder {E) The
end of the fibulo is both farther bock
and lower than the end of the tibio
-
-
3
As the lower leg topers down, its cross-
section becomes less like a tube ond
more lrke o cross (F). The outer sides of
the cross represent the exposed bones
of the ankle ond the tendons of the
extensors The front side is the forword
edges of the t1bio ond the rear is the
Achilles tendon.
©
visualize
the foot
attaching to
the leg with
a cylinder
©
286 the body
leg tapers
from a tube
into a cross
arting the foot
ka foot start with O flat block
•
ched to the lol.\er leg with o
1
t/l(ltlS ot O
here Give• t some height - the foot is
1i0 drew t,"'
sp
Iler then you think (A) Shift
usuolly to
•
k borkword, so 1t doesn t
hewhole bi x
t
the very reor B) The onkle
h gefrom
in
ge around which the foot
1nt ,so h1n
f0vots ond this hinge wouldn't work if
The bottoms of the t1b10 end fibulo
orenl level The t1b10 pro1ects down
on the 1ns1de, end the fibula attaches
further down the ankle (
The feet
also noturolly spread slightly outward
from the center line of the body (D)
P' '
thing behind this point to
there wos no
oct os on anchor
start with a
flat block, then
give it height
move the
block to
make a heel
©
the tibia
and fibula
don't finish
level
the feet angle
slightly outward
legs & feet 287
abruptly - round off the edges roth"
Note the outside of the foot . ,
str
1sn t
o1ght, but curves delicately (E). The
the center, but 1s located between the
inner section of the ankle is higher than
big toe and the second toe (G). You
the outer (F). The highest •ridge• on
con use two cylinders as the basis for
the top of the foot doesn't run down
each toe, but note that the big toe
than slicing them OoL The fat Pad son
curls upward ot the tip, while the other
the bottom of the foot ore th1Ck (I).
toes curl down even when raised (H).
Be careful not to end your soles too
©
the outer
edge of the
foot is curved
the highest ridge
of the foot is near
the inner side
inner ankle is higher
than outer ankle
\
I
/
I
> 0
don't
flatten
the sole!
big toe
curls up,
other toes
curl down
t;J .........
fat pads
round out
the sole
ff/.
288 the body
t e toes
The toes
themselves ore wedge·
b
19
ped nnt rectongulor• and the
0
sh angle•
'
toward the other toes,
n
toe running porollel with the foot (A)
not et. oil the tnAs
like the fingers, ore
"' •
In fa
d to O degree. They also
led 1nwor
ong
you progress toward
rl more o 5
a,e op
which 1s rolled almost
the little toe.
completely
under,
Ox
prov1d1ng
the
benefit of stability (BJ The pod of the
~
front of the foot hos a depression 1n the
center, to allow the foot to bend and
fold along its length (Cl. Visualize each
toe as two flattened forms. to capture
its grasping nature (0).
toes are wedgeshaped and angled in
@
J
increasing
overlap toward
little toe
©
foot pad is depressed
for mobility
use @ ~
cuboids to
visualize
~
eachto~
l:Jl~
legs & feet 289
refining the foot
The arch of the foot is higher on the
strong enough to withstand the force
(heel bone) is offset - it doesn't run
inside than on the outside. The outer
of impact while running and Jumping
centrally down the foot, but sits more
edges of many people's feet ore in full
The ankle region itself flares out, so
toward the outside (D). The toes
contact with the ground (A). The arch
that the leg transitions into the foot
fan out and bock, rather than being
via a kind of wedge (C). The colconeus
parallel (E).
doesn't just run from front to bock, but
the arch is
higher on
the inside
also from srde to side (B). It needs to be
@
ankle area
has flared
shape
x
arch curves
from front to back
and side to side
heel block
isn't central
290 the body
'
l0 u,er body summary
e th•' lo"er body's
, d lt)VeIs of deto1I
~ port1culorly, less
so thot it topered toword the reor (B),
ond finally added the two loops of the
1sch10 to the underside (C).
developing
the pelvis
• l'f> n,ony 1nternol
ould mostly be
The upper leg began as a cylinder (DJ,
block form of the knee (E), and finally
' rn for the pelvis,
become on octagonal shape with on
in underpants
inner wedge for the odductors and on
b<ervot1ons of
outer stnp for the IT bond (F).
'/
l-1
wh1Ch become a cuboid with the added
;,, ,,dapted this
~
//-'6J
cylindrical
cuboid
octagonal
layers of
lower body
and leg
detail
legs & feet 291
Here ore a few more examples of our
As with every section of this book,
of ports. The mannequin is simply a
mannequin with improved legs and
we mustn't lost sight of the fact that
tool to enhance our figures by giving
After this, try to describe these forms
waist. We developed the lower legs to
the goal is a figure drawing, not a
them a strong working foundation (H).
as economically as possible, using the
a higher level of detail, but notice how
their tapered shape was evident even
mechanical model. The mannequin
gives us a framework t o build on, but
So, draw out your mannequin, and
when they were cylinders (G).
the goal is ta draw a figure, not a series
odd any extra individual muscles you
mannequin as on underdrowing.
increasing
the detail
level for the
lower legs
©
use the mannequin to
support economical
figure drawing
@
292 the body
feel will help you outline the figure.
building up
an example figure
Now let's stt on overview of building
clarify the structure. F1nolly, I draw the
up O whole figure. I begin with the box
smaller details and clorrfy any overlaps
mannequin. then build up to the more
wrth1n the silhouette Throughout, I
advanced mannequin On top of this,
keep in mind the subtle details that will
I diow the silhouette. 1nclud1ng any
muscles ,n the softer regions like the
elevate the figure, depending on the
core and glutes. If I'm unsure about
the thickness of the lrmbs 1f they ore
flexed or twisted
on area. I build up the level of deto,I to
box
mannequin
viewing angle, such os body fot and
advanced
mannequin
muscles and
soft tissue
lines
so far!
checking
structure
fine details and
line overlaps
legs & fee t 293
glossary
abdu
on
biceps
The action of moving a body port outward,
The lorge, two-headed muscle on the front of
owOY from t~ center ltne of the body
the upper arm, used for flexing ond tw1st1ng
the lower arm
abduct
pollicis brevis
One of the rnuscles that abducts the thumb
brachialis
ond forms its rounded bose on the palm
A muscle thot s,ts on the lower end of the
acetabulum
upper arm, below the b,ceps, and ,s essential
for flexing the lower arm.
The round socket in the side of the pelvis, into
which the boll of the femur inserts. formrng a
brachioradialis
boll end-socket Joint
A muscle that sits on the forearm, neor the
elbow, ond helps flex ond twist the forearm.
achilles cndon
dorsiflexion
The oct1on of flexing or bending o body port to
point upword - typ,colly referring to the foot
ear canal
The tubehke inner port of the eor, leod,ng
down into the skull
earlobe
The soft lower port of the outer eor On some
people, 1t hongs down in o curve, while on
others 1t ottoches directly to the side of
the heod
Also celled the colconeol tendon· The tendon
calcaneus
epicondyle
ot the bock of the lower leg, connecting the
The heel bone - the largest bone 1n the foot!
A bony projection thot con be found on various
move the fool
carpals
referring to the epicondyles of the humerus
acromion proces
end of the lower orm, forming the bosis of
eversion
A horn-shaped piece of bone thot extends
the hand
The action of turning something to foce
connect the scopulo to the clavicle
clavicle
outward, such os turning o foot sideways to
foce out
adduction
sits at the front of the body, between the neck
extension
The oct1on of moving o body port 1nword,
and shoulder, and is one of a pair.
The action of straightening out o hmb or body
coif muscles to the heel bone and helping to
ports of the body, but in this book is usually
A cluster of smo II bones that attaches to the
from the spine of the scopulo ond helps
Also called the collarbone. A thin bone that
port, os opposed to bending (flexing) it.
toward the center hne of the body
coracoid process
alar cartilage
A small, finger-shaped port of the scopulo,
extensor
The flexible cort1loge forming the lower port
which helps connect it to the shoulder oreo
A muscle !hot helps straighten o hmb or body
port, such os the extensor digitorum (which
of the nose, oround the nostrils, consisting of
various larger ond smaller cartilage pieces.
anterior
core
extends the finger) or the extensor pollic1s
The middle area of the torso, roughly including
brevis ond extensor pollicis longus (which
the abdomen, mid-bock, and lower bock.
extend the lower orm)
Someth1119 thot is 1n front of or nearer to the
front of a body port
deltoid
femur
A major muscle thot wrops around the
The thigh bone - the largest bone in the body!
anterior superior iliac spine
glenohumeral joint and gives the shoulder its
Also called the ASIS The d1st1nct bony point at
distinctive round shope.
fibula
The thinner, outer bone of the two lower
the top of the iliac crest of the pelvis.
distal
leg bones.
antihelix
Something thot is farthest owoy from the
A cuivtd, raised form on the ear It sits within
center or origin of o body port. For example,
flexion
the distal phalange is the pholonge forming
The action of bending o hmb, os opposed to
the very end of the finger.
straightening it (extension).
the helix ond often hos a •y- shape
295
flexor
A muscle that flexes (bends) a limb or
body port
iliotibial tract
masseter
Also called the 11iot1biol bond or "IT bond." A
A thick muscle on the side of the mandible,
long, thick bond of tissue that runs down the
assisting in closing the jaw.
outside of the thigh and supports the knee.
frontal bone
maxilla
The large, curved skull bone that forms the
ilium
A skull bone comprising the upper jaw and
forehead, brow ridges, and upper ports of the
One of the large, curved hip bones that create
most of the mid-face area, including some
eye sockets.
the distinctive wings of the pelvis.
nasal bones, ports of the lower cheeks, and
the upper teeth.
gastrocnemius
inguinal ligament
The large two-headed muscle on the bock of
A grain ligament that runs from the ASIS to
medial
the lower leg, forming the distinctive shape of
the pubis, helping protect the tissues in the
Something that's situated in or near the
the coif.
lower abdomen.
middle of the body or body port.
glenohumeral joint
inversion
metacarpal
The boll-and-socket joint of the shoulder,
The action of turning something to face
One of the five thin bones attached to the
formed by the humerus fitting into a socket in
inward (far example, turning the feet so their
carpals, forming the bases of the thumb and
the scapula.
soles face inward).
fingers within the palm area of the hand.
gluteal muscles
ischium
nasal bone
Often nicknamed the "glutes.· A group of three
Sometimes nicknamed the "sit bone." One of
A bone that forms the bridge of the nose,
muscles (the gluteus minimus, medius, and
the two curved bones (ischio) on the underside
providing o base for the nasal cartilage.
moximus) that forms the buttock.
of the pelvis. The ischium connects to the
pubis to form a loop shape.
hamstring
One of the three muscles at the bock of the
oblique
One of the muscles on the side and front of
lateral
the abdomen, such as the external oblique
and internal oblique muscles.
thigh, running from the ischium down to the
Something that's situated on, neor, or toward
knee area.
the side of something else.
helix
latissimus dorsi
The scoop-shaped bone that forms the
The firm ridge forming a rim around the top
Often nicknamed the "lots." A large, flat
bottom rear of the skull, with o hole in it for the
and outer edge of the ear.
muscle that attaches to the inner humerus
spine to pass through.
occipital bone
and runs down the bock to the pelvis
occipitofrontalis
humerus
The upper arm bone.
levator scapulae
A wide, flat muscle that covers the top of the
A muscle at the bock of the neck that raises
skull, moving the eyebrows and forehead.
hyoid bone
the scapulae.
olecranon
A small, horseshoe-shaped bone that floats
below the lower jaw and gathers the neck
ligament
The prominent end of the ulna that fonms the
muscles together.
A bond of strong tissue that connects a bone
bony point of the elbow.
to another bone (similar to a tendon, which
iliac crest
connects muscle to bone).
The bony ridge running along the top of the
ilium (the wing of the pelvis).
patella
Also coiled the kneecap. A small, rounded
lumbar
bone that sits in front of the knee joint
Relating to the lower bock area, such as the
iliacus
lumbar vertebrae of the spine.
A flat muscle that covers the inside face of
the ilium.
mandible
the fingers and thumbs, with three phalanges
The lower jaw bone, containing the lower teeth
per finger and two per thumb.
and giving form to the chin and jawline.
296
phalange
The individual bones forming the segments of
pr n ation
scapula
tibial tuberosity
The oct,on of rotot,ng o body port outward,
Also coiled the shoulder blode A large, wing·
A bony landmark near the top of the
om the center of the body (for example,
owoy fr
the hond polm down)
turn ng
shaped bone that sits on the upper bock and
1s one of o po,r
t1b10. creating o nat1ceoble bump below
the kneecop
serratus anterior
tragus
A deeP muscle connecting the lower spine to
A muscle thot connects the ribs to the scopulo
A smoll, form cort1loginous form at the front of
the femur, helping the body to bend and the
in o distinctive series of tnongulor forms
the ear, 1oin1ng to the s,de of the head
psi
leg to hft
ubi"'
~ SO coiled the pubic bone. One of the po1r of
sole us
transversus abdominis
A strong muscle on the bock of the lower leg,
Often coiled the TA A wide sheet of muscle
helping to flex the foot
thot wraps around each side of the abdomen.
supporting the spine and pelvis
bOnes thot forms the very front of the pelvis
spine of the scapula
quadrc-
s lumborum
Often coiled the QL. A deep muscle that
_..,.< the lower spine to the ,hum, helping
con,=~
the body to bend sideways
quadriceps femoris
The
prominent
bony
ridge
found
on
A Jorge, triangulor muscle at the top of the
sternocleidomastoid
the bock of the neck, where 1t helps move the
The th1Ck, diagonal muscle thot runs down
head and shoulders
bock, between the scopuloe ond running up
either side of the neck
triceps
Often nicknamed the •quads" A muscle group
of the upper leg, including the vastus mediolis,
vostus mtermedius, vostus loterohs, ond
rectus femoris
sternum
The three-headed muscle on the bock of the
Also coiled the breastbone. A long bone ot
upper arm, where ,t helps with extension
the front of the rib cage, connecting the nbs
together in the middle of the chest
radius
trapezius
the scapula
trochanter
A rough, bony lump on the femur, to wh1Ch
The shorter of the two bones forming the lower
supination
muscles con attach The femur hos o greater
orm. widening toward the hand
The action of rotating o body port up and in
trochanter on the outer side and a lesser
toward the center of the body (e g turning the
trochanter on the ,nner side
rectus abdominis
hond polm up).
ulna
Often nJCknomed the "abs.· A long, flat
paired muscle thot runs down the front of the
abdomen and helps flex the body
temporalis
The longer of the two bones forming the lower
A large, flot muscle on the side of the head,
arm, widening toword the elbow
whJCh helps move the mandible
rhomboid
A muscle connected to the scapula in the
vertebra
tendon
One of the bone segments that forms the
spine and surrounds the spinal cord
upper bock, where 1t helps move the shoulder
A strong bond of tissue that connects o
and arm
muscle to o bone.
sacrum
tensor fasciae latae
A fociol bone comprising the upper cheek and
The large, stfong, triongulor bone at the base
of tilt spine, forming the bock of the pelvis
Often coiled the TFL. A long, thin muscle
lower port of the eye socket
running down the outside of the thigh, helping
zygomatic bone
to extend the knee.
sartorius
The long, narrow muscle that runs down the
tibia
Upper leg, from the top of the thigh to the tibia.
Also called the shin bone. The larger of the
two lower leg bones. running from the knee to
the onkle.
glossary 297
index
A
abdomen, 125, 129, 131, 224, 248
abdominal, 169, 248-249, 256
abduction, 266-267
abductor, 217
abs (rectus abdominis), 249, 256
acetabulum, 232, 234, 237
achilles tendon, 282, 286
acromion process, 140, 148, 152, 163
adduction, 265
adductor, 265- 266, 276-278, 291
alar cartilage, 105
a nkle, 281, 286-288, 290
anterior superior iliac spine ("ASIS"), 239,
242-243, 249, 251, 253, 269, 274
antihelix, 121
arch (foot), 280
arm, 20, 24, 29, 32, 35, 63, 99, 135, 137, 142144, 149, 154, 160-161, 163-166, 170, 176-190,
192-204, 207, 218-220, 227, 239, 262, 267,
277, 284
armpit, 159-160
attachment (muscle), 74, 120, 132, 135-136,
138, 144, 150, 152, 165, 167, 172, 177, 184, 187189, 198, 207, 221, 229- 231, 245, 247, 262,
264, 266-268, 271, 274, 279
B
biceps, 184-185, 187, 197-198, 202-203
bone, 77-78, 85- 86, 90, 93-96, 98-100, 104,
112-113, 120, 135, 143, 150, 168, 176, 184, 198,
204. 224, 227-231, 247, 250, 255, 262, 282,
284, 290
box mannequin, 46, 52-55, 124, 183, 214, 227,
241, 291, 293
brachiolis, 184, 187
brochiorodiolis, 194-195, 198, 202
breast, 142, 156, 168, 256
breastbone, 126
brow, 92, 94-96, 101-102
buttocks, 252
298
c
colcaneol tendon, 282
calconeus, 290
coif, 282
camera, 56-61, 63-65, 67, 132, 227
carpal, 204-205
cartilage, 105-106, 206, 233
cartoon, 39, 49, 82, 115
cervical, 153
cheek, 101, 118
cheekbone, 93, 99-101
chest, 54, 128, 131, 144, 171, 186, 241
chin, 110, 118
clovicle, 132, 135-136, 138, 140-141, 145, 165, 171
collarbone, 132, 135-136
contour, 30-31, 33-35, 37, 39, 41, 139, 156,
191, 241
corocoid process, 140-142, 187
core, 38, 223-225, 227-229, 231, 233, 235, 237,
239, 241-243, 245, 247-249, 251, 253-255,
257, 259, 261, 279, 291, 293
cross, 34-35, 67, 139, 153, 156, 191, 226, 241,
285-286
cube, 9, 12, 19, 28-29, 43, 51, 72-73, 76, 133,
226, 242, 276
cuboid, 138, 216, 225, 265, 271, 276-277, 291
cylinder, 54, 91, 138, 141, 165, 171, 177-179, 183,
218, 220, 262-263, 265, 286, 288, 291-292
D
deltoid, 143, 145, 159, 163-167, 192, 198, 218219, 221
detail, 10, 22-23, 40-49, 51, 55, 77, 84, 99, 133,
146, 167, 171-172, 218, 237, 239-240, 266267, 276, 291-293
distal pholonge, 213
dorsiftexion, 284
e:
ear, 118-121
ear canal, 120
earlobe, 120-121
elbow, 24, 178, 181, 188-189, 197
epicondyle, 177-180, 182, 188, 194-198,
200, 221
evolution, 234, 247
expression, 114-115
extend, 113, 133, 179, 186, 209, 213, 217, 249, 278
extension, 128, 179, 184, 208
extensor, 180, 193-197, 199, 202, 207-209, 217,
220-221, 284, 286
extensor digitorum, 207
extensor pollicis longus ("EPL"), 217
extensor retinaculum, 207, 209
eye, 38, 49, 87, 91-96. 98, 101-102, 285
eyeball, 88, 97, 102
eyebrow, 82, 98
eyelid, 98. 102
F
face, 41, 71, 74-75, 77, 81-83, 87, 93, 98-100,
102, 104, 106, 108, 113, 156
fat, 113, 125, 132, 157, 169-170, 207, 210-211,
243, 252, 255-259, 283, 288, 293
femur, 227-229, 232-234, 236, 242-243, 245,
262-268, 271-272, 276-277, 280-282
fibula, 262-263, 276, 279, 282, 284, 286-287
finger, 140, 179, 194, 204-207, 209-216, 289
fingernail, 206, 213, 215
flexion, 128, 184, 208, 266, 275
flexor, 193-197, 199, 208, 212, 220-221
foot, 275, 281-282, 284, 286-290
forearm, 178, 180, 187, 193, 199, 207-208, 220
forehead, 41, 94, 100
foreshortening, 63-64, 119
frontal bone, 93-95, 100, 252
G
gastrocnemius, 282, 284
gender, 256
gesture, 24
glenohumeral joint, 138, 161
gluteal muscles ("glutes"), 252, 267-268, 270
groin, 228
L
H
hair, 116-118. 256
hamstring, 276. 279. 282 •283
hand, 12, 173. 175 177. 178·179. 181-183, 185, 187,
189, 191, 193-197. 199, 201, 203-205, 207
215, 217-219, 221
head, 72. 80, 82, 84, 184, 197
heel, 287, 290
helix. 120-121
hip, 131. 224, 241, 243, 256, 258, 281
horizon. 67
humeru S•
135, 143-144• 147-149, 158, 160, 172,
176-182, 184, 187, 194-195, 267
hyoid, 77-78, 80
lotissimus dorsi (" lots"), 147, 158-161,
192 193, 255
leg, 29, 35, 128, 168, 225-227, 229, 231-232,
234, 241, 245, 258-259, 261-287. 290 291
levotor scapulae, 162
ligament,
133-134, 249-250, 262, 264,
271, 273
limb, 20, 24, 55, 293
lip, 113-115, 118
lumbar region, 134, 235, 244, 246- 247
m n.
109, l1l
mannequin, 24, 29, 46, 52- 55, 124, 131, 183,
200. 210. 220. 241, 259, 261, 266, 2n, 285,
292-293
mosseter, 79, 111
maxilla, 93, 96, 103-105, 107, 109
m etacarpal, 20 5-206, 209, 211. 213
mobil ity, 223, 227, 289
model, 9, 37, 44, 53- 55, 79, 81, 85, 87, 94, 108109, 127, 132, 186, 212, 229, 237, 239, 242,
279, 292
mouth, 103-104, 107, 109, 111-115
movement, 128, 136, 144, 175, 178, 181-182,
204, 218, 225, 247, 265
muscle, 22, 27, 31, 50, 73, n -78, 94, 109, 111,
113, 115, 125, 130-133, 135, 138, 142-143, 145,
147-150, 153, 157-158, 160, 162-163, 168, 171172, 177, 184, 187, 190-192, 194-196, 198, 203,
206, 210, 220, 224, 241, 243- 244, 248-249,
mandible,
I
iliac, 239, 241, 243, 257, 269
iliacus, 266
iliotibiol tract ("IT bond"), 268-269, 274,
279. 291
ilium, 230-231, 233, 237-238, 240, 242, 247,
266-269, 280
introspinotus, 147, 164
inguinal ligament, 249-250
ischium, 231, 234-235, 237- 238, 240-241, 275,
291
J
jaw, n-81, 87, 93, 103-104, 108-109, 111-112,
118.120.156
jawbone, n-79
jawline, 79-80
joint. 131, 138, 140·l, 161, 167, 171, 177-178, 181182, 190, 207, 209, 211, 218, 227, 229, 233234, 241, 264, 267, 281, 287
K
kidney, 157, 169, 255
253-255, 259, 261, 265-267, 269, 271- 274,
276, 280, 284
muzzle, 107, 113, 115
n
nasal bone, 93, 104-105
neck, 74, 77-78, 80- 81, 85, 91, 124, 153-154
knee, 262-265, 269, 2n, 273, 275- 278, 281-
nose, 40- 41, 104-108
283, 291
kneecap, 263, 273
knuckle, 205, 211-213
nostril, 106-107
0
oblique muscles, 131, 239, 241, 249-252 254
257, 258
'
'
occipital bone, 85-86, 90, 94. 150
occipitofrontolis, 94
olecronon process, 181, 104. 188
outline, 17, 31, 34, 36, 86, 95, 108, 154, 191
255, 292
'
overlap, 16-21, 28, 31, 60, 63, 78, 168, 190, 199,
210, 212, 227, 254, 289, 293
p
palm, 179, 197, 205, 210, 214
patella (kneecap), 263-264, 269, 271, 273, 281,
286
patellar ligament, 264, 271, 273
pectorolis muscles ("pees"), 142-145, 147, 160,
165, 167, 171, 173
pelvis, 54, 131, 134, 158, 224-225, 227-232,
234, 236- 243, 245-246, 249, 252, 255-256,
259, 265, 267-268, 270, 272, 279-280, 291
perspective, 37, 39, 54, 56-59, 61, 63, 65, 67,
88, 91, 241
pholonge, 205-206, 209, 213
plane, 43, 87, 90, 92, 95-100, 118, 126-127, 129,
145, 279
popliteol fat pod, 283
pose, 39, 132, 139, 155, 189, 191, 205, 212, 241,
252, 265, 281
pronote, 183, 199, 201
pronotion, 179-180, 199, 220
psoos, 244-245, 247, 266
pubis, 231, 235-236, 249, 270
pupil, 102
Q
quodrotus lumborum ("QL"), 246-248
quadriceps f emoris ("quads"), 264, 271-274,
280-281
index 299
R
sternum, 126-127, 130, 141, 143144, 156, 249
radius, 176, 178-180, 187, 204, 207, 262, 284
stom och, 199, 248. 256, 258
realism, 27, 48, 82, 86, 157, 211-213, 243
structure, 77, 80, 133, 186, 189. 237, 264,
rectus abdominis (" RA"), 250-251
282, 293
rhomboid, 162
supinotion, 179-183, 199, 201-202, 220
ri b, 124-136, 141-143, 145, 152, 154, 156, 161,
supraspinatus, 147-148
168-l72, 186, 224, 246-248, 251, 253-254,
256-257, 259
rib cage, 124-136, 142-143, 145, 152, 154, 156,
161, 168-172, 186, 224, 246, 248, 251, 253254, 256-257, 259
rotation, 24, 47, 119, 121, 135, 147-149, 155,
160-161, 165-166, l8H82, l97, 199. 216, 262,
277, 281
symbol,
s
sacrum, 230, 236-237, 239, 247, 268
sartorius, 274
scapula (shoulder blade), 135-141, 142-143,
147-149, l50-155, 158-l59, l6H64, 167, 170173, 177-178, 181, 184-187
scapular muscle, 147-149, 153-154, 159, 161,
163, 172-173, 192-193
serratus anterior, 142, 1n. 250
shoulder, 135-136, 138-141, 154, 161, 163-166,
m.173, 177-178, 181. rns. 193, 218, 267
shoulder girdle, 135, 154, 185
silhouette, 23- 24, 30-33, 35-37. 39. 41, 50,
80, 83, 87, 91-92.180, 188-189, 191, 199, 216,
238-239, 241, 291, 293
skeleton, 238
ski n, 132, 168, 170, 207, 212-214, 241
skull, 44, 71, 73-74, 79-80, 85-86, 89-90, 9495, 99-100, 103, 105, 107, 109, 112. 116, 120,
150, 162
socket, 87, 94-95, 98, 178, 181, 227, 229, 232234, 237
soleus, 282, 284
sphere, 96-98, 102, 171, 178, 227, 228, 241, 287
spine, 80, 85, 128-130, 133-134, 140, 147-148,
150, 152-153, 158-159, 162, 164, 169, 229230, 235-236, 239, 244-247, 255, 259
sternocleidomastoid, 77
300
n. 115, 254
symmetry, 49, 75, 102
u
ulna, 176, 178-182, 184, 187-188, 200, 204,
207, 262
v
vertebra, 133-134, 153, 244, 246-247
vertex, 43- 44
volume, 39, 44, 74, 80, 94, 114-117, 120, 131,
144, 152, 160-161, 167-168, 170, 187, 210,
T
teeth, 109, 112, 114-115
t emporal bone, 99, 112, 120
temporalis, 109, ll1
tendon, 94, 138, 184, 196, 206-207, 209. 212,
215, 217, 262. 271, 281-282, 286
tensor foscioe lotoe ("TFL"), 269, 274
teres major, 147, 149, 159
teres minor, 147, 159, 164
thigh, 227, 269, 271, 275-277, 279
thoracic cage, 124
thumb, 179, 205, 209-210, 212, 214-215, 217
tibia, 262-264, 269, 271, 273-274, 276, 279,
282, 284, 286-287
tibia! tuberosity, 264, 274, 286
tissue, 132-133, 206-207, 210, 259, 262,
283, 293
250, 267
w
waist, 248, 252, 256, 258, 292
webbing, 213-214
wedging, 28-29, 177, 186, 206, 254
wrist , 178-179, 182, 197, 207, 209, 217, 220
x
XYZ axes, 8-9, ll, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23-25, 27, 29,
63, 72, 86, 88-89, 177, 262
y
yoke, 124, 135, 138-140, 150, 171, 185
toe, 288-290
torso, 123-125, 127, 129-131, 133, 135, 137, 139,
141-143, 145, 147, 149, 151, 153, 155, 157, 159,
161, 163, 165, 167, 169, 171, 173, 224-225, 230,
241, 249, 257, 259
trogus, 121
tronsversus obdominis ("TA"), 248
trapezius ("traps"), 150-155, 159, 162, 167, 173
triceps, 184-186, 192-193, 196-198, 200, 218
trochanter, 229, 234, 242-243, 267, 271, 276-
277, 279-280
twist, 38, 117, 131, 133-134, 170, 176-178, 181, 199,
251, 253, 259, 273
zygomatic bone, 93, 95-96, 98-99, 101,
104, 113
index 301
.
.
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