Discover Food
Review
Unlocking the potential of banana peel bioactives: extraction
methods, benefits, and industrial applications
Khalid Mehmood Wani1 · M. Dhanya1
Received: 30 August 2024 / Accepted: 3 January 2025
© The Author(s) 2025 OPEN
Abstract
Banana peels, accounting for approximately one-third of the fruit’s total weight, are often discarded as waste in the food
industry. However, they have long been recognized for their medicinal properties. The bioactive compounds in banana
peels are associated with numerous health benefits. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the valorization
of banana peel bioactives, emphasizing extraction methods, bioactive composition, and diverse applications. Extraction
techniques, including conventional methods like solvent extraction and maceration, as well as novel technologies such
as pulsed electric field (PEF), enzymatic extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, and ultrasound-assisted extraction,
are discussed. The review highlights their efficiency in extracting bioactive compounds such as phenolics, flavonoids,
carotenoids, and dietary fibers from banana peels. The bioactive composition of banana peels and its health-promoting
properties, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities, are thoroughly examined.
Additionally, the review explores various applications of banana peel bioactives in functional foods, nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and agriculture, emphasizing their potential for waste valorization and sustainable development.
Therefore, this review offers valuable insights into the utilization of banana peel bioactives, serving as a foundation for
further research and industrial implementation across various sectors.
Highlights
•
•
•
•
The article highlights the significance of extracting the bioactives from discarded banana peels.
Composition of banana peel has been discussed.
Extraction methods employed for the extraction of bioactives from banana peel have been studied.
Application of banana peel bioactives in food and pharmaceutical industries.
* Khalid Mehmood Wani, khalid.iitg@gmail.com | 1Department of Food Technology and Nutrition, School of Agriculture, Lovely
Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab 144001, India.
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Graphical Abstract
Keywords Banana peel · Bioactives · Traditional extraction · Novel extraction · Microwave assisted extraction
1 Introduction
Bioactive compounds are non-nutritional components naturally present in foods, typically in trace amounts [1]. Nutraceuticals, a subset of bioactive compounds, exhibit health-promoting properties and are used for therapeutic purposes
as well as the prevention of specific ailments. Among these, phenolics and flavonoids—such as flavonols and isoflavones—are prominent subcategories of polyphenols recognized for their role in disease prevention [2]. Plant by-products
from processing industries serve as rich and cost-effective sources of essential bioactive compounds, including vitamins,
carotenoids, flavonoids, and anthocyanins. Furthermore, fruits, nuts, roots, herbs, spices, and vegetables are abundant
in bioactive components like polyphenols and non-starch polysaccharides [3].
The banana, Musa sp. (Family- Musaceae) serves as a year-round tropical fruit that is the second most popular fruit
eaten worldwide, after tomato. It is the fifth-largest agricultural product traded worldwide after cereals, sugar, coffee,
and chocolate. India is the world’s largest producer of bananas, with an estimated 29.2 million tons produced annually
[2]. Figure 1 illustrates banana production across various states in India during the years 2012–2013.
Large quantities of banana peel roughly 30–40% of the whole fruit—are thrown away as the primary by-products
in the banana processing industry. They include lignocelluloses, proteins, fibers, vital minerals, and other materials [4].
Typically, banana peels are discarded into the environment without undergoing any form of treatment. Due to their
high fiber content and low tannin levels, banana peels are highly effective as organic fertilizers and animal feed [5].
Additionally, banana peels are rich in natural bioactive compounds, including antioxidants, which can effectively combat
oxidative stress caused by free radical chain reactions. A variety of phenolic compounds, including gallic acid, catechin,
epicatechin, tannins, and anthocyanins, are found in banana pulp and peel. Flavonols and total phenolic compounds are
present in high concentrations in bananas [6]. Banana peel has been reported for its strong antioxidant, antibacterial,
and antibiotic properties. Numerous studies revealed that compared to banana pulp, banana peels have greater levels of
phenolic compounds, antioxidant qualities, and other bioactives [7]. A study by Seremet et al. [18] identified dopamine
as the key component responsible for the antioxidant properties of banana peels.
The effectiveness and efficiency of the selected extraction techniques play a critical role in obtaining bioactives from
various food and agricultural sources. The extraction of bioactives from plants and their by-products is an essential
process [8]. Currently, a range of solvent-based extraction methods is employed for this purpose, with hot water bath
extraction and Soxhlet extraction being among the most widely used techniques [9].
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Fig. 1 Banana production
in different parts of India,
(2012—2013) [2]
Tamil nadu (19%)
Gujarat (17%)
Maharashtra (14%)
Andhra pradesh (12%)
Karnataka (10%)
Bihar (7%)
Madhya pradesh (6%)
West Bengal (4%)
Assam (3%)
The use of hot water and Soxhlet extraction method is limited by the inherent drawback of decreased yield, degradation of heat-sensitive bioactive components caused by extended heating durations and use of toxic solvents [4]. In this
context, a number of novel extraction techniques, such as pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), and microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), are being employed to extract
important bioactive compounds [10]. Among these extraction techniques, MAE stands out as a promising and potent
alternative to traditional extraction methods due to its unique heating mechanism and reasonable capital expenditure
[11].
MAE utilizes microwave radiation to extract bioactives from plant materials. MAE relies on electromagnetic radiation
within the frequency range of 0.3 to 300 GHz to generate heat inside the material via molecular ionic conduction and
dipolar rotation [9]. MAE is an environmentally friendly and safer extraction technique for obtaining valuable compounds
which achieves high extraction yields within a short span of time, and involves minimal amounts of solvent. Additionally,
it replaces organic solvents with safer alternatives such as water or ethanol, making it superior to traditional extraction
methods. Additionally, MAE serves as appealing alternative extraction technique as it is a relatively controllable process
that involves volumetric heating [12]. This is particularly crucial when extracting heat-sensitive, bioactive molecules,
necessitating a shorter extraction time and rapid heating. MAE has proven effective in the recovery of phenolic compounds from the skins and shells of many fruits and nuts [13].
The secondary metabolites extracted from banana peels are rich in functional compounds, thereby increasing the
value of banana processing industries [11]. To effectively extract and utilize these bioactive compounds, it is crucial to
understand the chemical composition of banana peels, the factors influencing extraction methods, and the potential
applications of banana peel bioactives as food additives in the food and pharmaceutical industries. This review offers a
comprehensive overview of the bioactive compounds present in banana peels, their chemical composition, the extraction techniques employed, and their various functional properties.
The novelty of this review lies in its comprehensive approach to the valorization of banana peel, a by-product often
discarded in the food industry, by emphasizing its bioactive potential across various sectors. This work explores not only
conventional extraction methods but also highlights advanced techniques like pulsed electric field, enzymatic, microwave-assisted, and ultrasound-assisted extraction, providing a unique perspective on optimizing bioactive yield from
banana peel. By detailing the bioactive composition, including phenolic compounds, flavonoids, carotenoids, and dietary
fibers, the review offers valuable insights into the specific compounds and mechanisms that contribute to banana peel’s
health benefits. Furthermore, the paper expands the application scope beyond traditional food uses, exploring potential
roles in nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and agriculture, which underscores its interdisciplinary value. The
review also emphasizes banana peel’s role in sustainable waste valorization, aligning with global efforts to reduce food
waste and support a circular economy. Together, these elements provide a foundation for further research and industrial
applications, illustrating banana peel’s multifaceted potential as a sustainable resource for bioactive compounds.
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Table 1 Proximate nutritional
composition of banana peel
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S. No
Nutritional component
Proximate composition
References
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Starch
Resistant starch
Dietary fibre
Ash
Crude protein
Crude fat
Carbohydrate
Potassium (K)
Manganese (Mn)
Total phenolic content
Phytates
Amino acids
Lipids
3.6–6.3%
2.3–2.5%
47–53%
9–11%
6–9%
10.44%
68.31 g/100 g
78.1 mg/100 g
76.2 mg/100 g
7.4%
6.02%
86.71%
8.40 (g/100 g)
[115]
[15]
[116]
[6]
[20]
[117]
[21]
[118]
[5]
[119]
[120]
[23]
[24]
2 Composition of banana peel
Bananas are cultivated and harvested year-round across tropical and subtropical regions, making them one of the most
widely available fruits globally. In 2023, global banana production reached an estimated 19.3 million tons, driven largely
by leading producers in Asia, Latin America, and Africa. With a dry matter composition of 25% w/w and a water content of
around 75% w/w, the typical fruit weighs around 125 g [14]. Linolenic and linoleic acids, which constitute about 40% of
the total fatty acids, have been found in abundance in banana peels making them a rich source of polyunsaturated fatty
acids [15]. Banana peel has been indicated to contain sodium (24.30 mg/g), calcium (19.20 mg/g), iron (0.61 mg/g) and
magnesium (0.45 mg/g) as its mineral components (Table 1). On the other hand, copper (0.51), zinc (0.033), manganese
(7.20), and potassium (4.39) are present in very minute quantities, measured in mg/100 g [16].
The peels are high in total dietary fiber (TDF), ranging from 40 to 50% (w/w). The nitrogen percentage of banana peel
(BP) ranges from 4 to 10% (w/w) and mostly consists of crude proteins. Bananas and plantain peels had been reported
to contain protein varying from 8 to 11% w/w [17].
Further, BP has been reported to contain a significant amount of gallocatechin, which makes it a valuable dietary
source for preventing many diseases including heart disease and cancer. BP also contains flavonoids and other bioactive
compounds, such as pro-vitamin A compounds, trans-β-carotene, trans-α-carotene, cryptoxanthin, sterols, cycloartantype triterpenes, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and linolenic acid. Additionally, BP is also rich in essential oils, phenols,
lipids, and tannins, which are effective against antibacterial properties [18]. In a study conducted by Vu et al.[19], a total
of 40 distinct phenolic compounds have been identified in BP, with a total quantity of 47 mg of gallic acid equivalent
(GAE) per gram of dry matter (DM). The phenolic constituents present in BP may further be categorized into four distinct
categories, namely flavonols, hydroxycinnamic acids, flavan-3-ols, and catecholamines.
2.1 Amino acids
Numerous studies have shown that banana peels are rich in active compounds with antioxidant properties. Among the
many beneficial nutrients found in banana peels—including dietary fibers, proteins, potassium, and polyunsaturated
fatty acids—amino acids stand out as vital bioactives due to their valuable nutritional profile [17]. Amino acids are organic
nitrogenous compounds that serve as the basis for protein synthesis and play essential roles in various physiological
functions within living organisms. Amino acids have been linked to lessen the impact of water stress on plant growth
hormones and overall development [25]. Fruit ripening has been shown to affect amino acid composition in both the
pulp and peel. Banana peel (BP), in particular, is rich in amino acids such as aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, serine,
threonine, cysteine, isoleucine, methionine, alanine, valine, and proline, as presented in Table 2 [15, 23, 26], while the
concentration of amino acids in banana peels may not be as high as in the fruit pulp. Incorporating banana peels into
recipes or utilizing them in food processing may provide additional nutritional benefits, including a modest supply of
these essential amino acids [27]. Leucine and lysine consumption has been linked to provide long-term health benefits
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Table 2 Amino acid
composition in banana peel
[23]
Amino acids
Banana peel
(g/100 g
protein)
Leucine
Lysine
Isoleucine
Phenylalanine
Norleucine
Tryptophan
Valine
Methionine
Proline
Arginine
Tyrosine
Histidine
Cystine
Alanine
Glutamic acid
Glycine
Threonine
Serine
Aspartic acid
Total
0.01 ± 0.00
6.71 ± 0.06
8.06 ± 0.04
4.98 ± 0.07
5.23 ± 0.06
0.01 ± 0.00
0.52 ± 0.02
5.79 ± 0.03
1.71 ± 0.02
3.25 ± 0.05
5.50 ± 0.03
3.96 ± 0.01
2.24 ± 0.03
0.85 ± 0.04
5.31 ± 0.01
13.02 ± 0.82
6.10 ± 0.03
4.59 ± 0.04
9.06 ± 0.05
86.71 ± 3.02
Data are Mean ± SEM of triplicate determination
Table 3 Composition of Fatty
acids found in banana peel
[18]
Sl. No
Saturated fatty acids
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Monounsaturated fatty acid
1.
Polyunsaturated fatty acid
1.
2.
Fatty acids
Composition
(%)
Lauric acid
Myristic acid
Palmitic acid
Stearic acid
Capric acid
Arachidic acid
0.8
5.2
38.1
3.7
2.8
1.2
Oleic acid
4.1
α-Linoleic acid
Linolenic acid
20.2
23.9
including reduction in weight gain, high blood sugar levels, and high cholesterol. Additionally, lysine conjugates have the
potential to treat cancer by causing cancer cells to self-destruct when paired with phototherapy, while non-cancerous
cells remain unaffected [28].
2.2 Fatty acids
Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are recognized as nutraceuticals and functional foods. EFAs are essential for cell growth,
tissues, and organs, as well as for other physiologically active biomolecules. Several studies have indicated the
significant role of EFAs in different metabolic processes [29]. EFAs have been shown effective as antithrombotic,
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Fig. 2 Flow diagram for the
extraction of bioactive compounds from banana peel [19]
Banana
Banana Peel
Drying
Grinding
Dried Peel Powder
Extracon
Crude Extract
Fracon
Individual bioacve
compounds
Dried crude
extract
antiatherogenic, anti-arrhythmic and anti-inflammatory properties. The fatty acids found in banana peel are listed
in Table 3 [18]. The substantial amount of fatty acids present in the banana peel extract has been linked for its
antibacterial effect. Furthermore, EFAs have been shown to decrease the risk of major diseases, such as diabetes,
cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis and cancer [30]. More than 40% of the total fatty acids found in banana peel
come from polyunsaturated fatty acids including α-linolenic acid (Omega-3) and linoleic acid (Omega-6). Research
has shown that ingestion of linoleic acid may enhance metabolic state and decrease liver fat levels without inducing
inflammation. Furthermore, clinical studies have shown that linolenic acid reduces obesity-related inflammation [31].
2.3 Dietary fibre
Dietary fibres extracted from banana peel show distinctive chemical characteristics depending on the type of extraction
technique used. The high dietary fiber content of banana peel (50 g/100 g) suggests that it is an excellent source of dietary
fiber [18]. This fiber content is primarily made up of insoluble fiber (30–45%), which includes components like cellulose
and lignin that add bulk to the diet and support digestive health. Soluble fiber, such as pectin, makes up about 5–10% and
plays a role in moderating blood sugar and cholesterol levels. Other fiber constituents in banana peels include cellulose
(7–12%), hemicellulose (6–9%), lignin (6–12%), and pectin (5–10%). These values may vary depending on factors such
as the banana variety, ripeness, and growth conditions, but they underscore the peel’s potential as a valuable source of
dietary fiber [23]. Banana peel dietary fiber contents are influenced by fruit ripening [24].
The dietary fibre of banana peel has shown significant impacts in the digestion and absorption process in the intestines.
The fibre increases the volume of faecal matter and decreases the time it takes for food to pass through the intestines
[32]. Dietary fiber from banana peel has been affirmed to decrease fasting blood glucose and hepatic glycogen levels.
Dietary fructo-oligosaccharides are active food ingredients that are usually obtained from banana peel [33]. They have
various health benefits, including aiding in mineral absorption, lowering serum cholesterol levels, and encouraging the
growth of gut microbiota due to their prebiotic actions. The cholesterol-lowering effect of dietary fibers obtained from
banana peels indicates its potential application in the food and pharmaceutical industries [34].
3 Bioactive compounds from banana peel
Bioactive compounds from banana peels include phenolic compounds, flavonoids, carotenoids, dietary fibers, and essential minerals. These bioactives are known for their potent antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer
activities, making banana peels a valuable by-product in the context of health and wellness [32]. The extraction procedure
for isolating these compounds, presented as a flow diagram, is illustrated in Fig. 2. By utilizing these compounds, banana
peels can be transformed from waste into functional ingredients for applications in nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals,
cosmetics, and agriculture, contributing to sustainable development and waste valorization efforts [27].
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Fig. 3 Structure of phenolic
compound [37]
Fig. 4 General chemical structure of flavonoids
3.1 Total phenols
The individual bioactive compounds extracted from banana peel using various methods are shown in Fig. 2. These
include phenols, flavonoids, antioxidants and vitamin C. Phenolic compounds are a class of aromatic secondary
plant metabolites that have significant health-promoting and antioxidant characteristics. Based on individual phenolics, nearly 40 compounds derived from BP have been identified with a total concentration of 47 mg of gallic acid
equivalent (GAE) per gram of dry matter (DM). The most prevalent phenolic compounds found in banana peel include
tannins, anthocyanin, catechin, epicatechin, and gallic acid [32]. A typical characteristic of phenolic compounds is
an aromatic ring that contains one or more hydroxyl groups as shown in Fig. 3. Antioxidant action is attributed to
phenolic compounds, which are essential plant elements with redox characteristics [33]. In plants, these compounds
act as a defense mechanism against pathogens, pests, and environmental stressors by strengthening cell walls and
producing protective antioxidants. In human health, phenolic compounds are renowned for their antioxidant properties, which help neutralize harmful free radicals, potentially reducing the risk of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and certain cancers [34]. They exhibit anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, and anti-carcinogenic
properties, making them valuable components in nutrition and therapeutic research. [35]. Secondary metabolites
may be categorized into three main groups: polyphenol, terpenoid, and alkaloid. Further, phenolic compounds have
been associated with alleviating the oxidative stresses, free radical inhibition, peroxide breakdown, metal inactivation,
and oxygen scavenging in living systems [36]. Various investigations been carried out to determine the efficacy of
banana peel. In one study, banana peel was reported to have a significant amount of ferulic acid-hexoside, ranging
from 4.4 to 85.1 µg/g DW [40]. The antioxidant effect of phenolic compounds is believed to limit the generation of
reactive oxygen species (ROS), scavenge ROS directly, and induce antioxidant enzymes [29].
3.2 Total flavonoids
Nearly half of the 8000 phenolic compounds found in plants are the flavonoids. The primary types of flavonoids found
in bananas are flavonols, including quercetin, myricetin, kaempferol, and cyanidin. Numerous studies have affirmed
the health-related benefits of the flavonoids found in bananas. Compared to other fruit peels, banana peel possesses
stronger radical scavenging and reducing ability [38]. Flavonoids, as represented in Fig. 4, serve as scavengers of
oxygen-derived free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are responsible for ageing and a variety of
illnesses. The banana peel was reported to contain 242.2–618.7 µg/g DW rutin, a highly prevalent flavonol. Flavan3-ols have been identified as a predominant phenolic compound in banana peel, including monomers, dimers, and
polymers (tannin) [15]. The proanthocyanidins are the predominant polymers, with a total content of 3952 mg/kg
as ( +)-catechin equivalents, followed by dimers at around 126 mg/kg as ( +)-catechin equivalents. Gallocatechin
was identified as, the predominant monomer, accounting for a concentration of (158 mg/100 g DM), which is five
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Fig. 5 Chemical structure of
vitamin C
OH
H
HO
O
HO
O
OH
times higher than in the banana pulp [39]. This molecule is associated with the potent antioxidant properties seen
in banana peel extract. These phenolic compounds exhibit antithrombotic, antimicrobial, antiarthritic, antiulcer,
antiangiogenic, anticancer, protein kinase inhibitor, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antiallergenic, vasodilatory and
antibacterial properties [14]. In a study, banana peel extract has been shown to contain 196 mg/g of flavonoids as
quercetin. The flavonoid—Naringenin and its derivatives have been affirmed with antifungal and antibacterial properties [40]. Glycosides make up the vast majority of flavonoid compounds, whereas aglycones are present in much
smaller quantities. Flavonoids vary in their configurations for hydroxyl, methoxy, and glycosidic side groups [41].
3.2.1 Other bioactive compounds
Banana peels are recognized as a significant source of antioxidants. An antioxidant is a chemical that can inhibit or
prevent oxidation or free radical-driven oxidation of a substrate by scavenging, resulting in the creation of stable radicals,
when present in low quantities [42]. A number of epidemiological investigations have stated the potential of dietary
antioxidants to reduce the risk of diseases based on oxidative stress such as diabetes, cancer, and cardio vascular disease
(CVD). Dietary antioxidants have the potential to prevent and aid in the treatment of such diseases by neutralising free
radicals and reducing oxidative stress [26]. Additionally, they serve to safeguard food from oxidation, presenting a viable
substitute for synthetic antioxidants, which are subject to strict regulation due to potential health hazards [141]. Phenolics
extracted from banana peels offer an exciting opportunity for application in the food industry as natural antioxidants,
enabling the development of novel and beneficial functional food products. Notably, banana peels are rich in various
phenolic compounds such as gallic acid, catechin, epicatechin, tannins, and anthocyanins, underscoring their significance
as valuable secondary metabolites [43]. Research has shown that banana peels offer antioxidant and anti-inflammatory
qualities. Besides banana pulp, both banana peel and pseudo stem are also good sources of antioxidants. Dopamine
and 2-dopa, which are catecholamines, have antioxidant properties found in banana peels [29]. The concentration of
phenolic compounds in banana peel varies between 0.90 and 3.0 g/100 g DW. Said et al. [44] detected gallocatechin at a
concentration of 160 mg per 100 g of dry weight. Ripe banana peels also contain various bioactive substances, including
anthocyanins such as delphinidin and cyanidin, along with catecholamines. Additionally, carotenoids like β-carotene,
α-carotene, and other xanthophylls have been identified, with concentrations measured at 300–400 μg lutein equivalents
per 100 g [45]. In a study conducted by Anuar et al. [46], extracts from banana peels exhibited potent scavenging activity
against DPPH• and ABTS• + radicals. The acetone: water extracts showed the highest antioxidant activity compared to
other solvents tested, with a factor ranging from 1.3 to 1.9 (methanol) and 25–35 (acetone) for the DPPH assay, and a
factor ranging from 2 to 4 (methanol) and approximately 10–35 (acetone and water and ethanol, acetone, and water)
for the ABTS assay [47].
3.2.2 Vitamin C
Vitamin C, commonly known as ascorbic acid, is a water-soluble vitamin and potent antioxidant. Its molecular formula,
C₆H₈O₆, features a six-carbon structure with a lactone ring and hydroxyl groups that enable its high reactivity and hydrophilicity. This structural arrangement supports its function as an electron donor, neutralizing free radicals and reducing
oxidative stress (Fig. 5). It helps to enhance the immune system, aid in collagen production for good skin, promote wound
healing, and improve iron absorption from plant-based meals. Banana peels are rich in antioxidants like vitamin C, which
can help combat free radicals in the body and reduce the risk of chronic diseases [7]. Banana peels are said to have a considerable quantity of vitamin C, however, the actual amount can differ based on factors including the banana’s maturity
and variety. Studies indicate that mature banana peels may have elevated quantities of antioxidants, such as vitamin C,
in comparison to immature ones. At the ripening stage, banana peel contains 6.9–10 mg/100 g of ascorbic acid. Vitamin
C not only inhibits cancer growth, but it may also regulate epigenetics and boost the efficacy of immunotherapy [27].
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Further, the antioxidant potential of banana peel is also attributed to their high dopamine concentration. Dopamine
is hydrophilic because of its o-dihydroxy structure and amino residue. Studies have proved the faster ability of this
compound to eliminate free radicals, surpassing catechin and resembling potent antioxidants like gallocatechin gallate
and ascorbic acid in efficacy [46]. The ethanolic extracts derived from banana peel displayed antioxidant efficacy against
DPPH, with ­IC50 values measuring 44.07 μg/ml and 46.40 μM of ­Fe2+/mg in the FRAP assay. Conversely, the ethanolic
extracts from banana peels demonstrated even stronger antioxidant activity against DPPH, boasting the lowest I­C50 value
of 19.10 μg/ml [47]. Additionally, the potential of vitamin C derived from banana peel was investigated on rats (normal
and high fat). The study demonstrated that ascorbic acid present in banana peel functioned as effective antioxidants.
Thereby, these findings suggest that banana peels represent a promising source of antioxidants [48].
4 Methods of extraction
4.1 Conventional extraction methods
4.1.1 Soxhlet extraction
The Soxhlet extraction technique is an easy and efficient method that has been used for a variety of materials, including
soils, sediments, as well as animal and plant tissues. The Soxhlet extraction method has been widely used for more
than a century and is still considered the key benchmark for evaluating the efficiency of novel leaching processes [49].
The Soxhlet apparatus is a specialised glass refluxing machine mostly used for extracting organic solvents. Soxhlet
extraction method is a widely used and effective approach that outperforms other traditional extraction techniques,
except in some specific areas where it is not suitable for extracting heat-sensitive chemicals [50]. The Soxhlet extraction
procedure involves heating the solvent (ethanol) to a temperature over 78 °C, causing it to boil. The vaporised ethanol
is confined inside the instrument by the condenser unit. Nonetheless, it is advisable to position the equipment beneath
a fume hood in the event of any potential leakage [51]. The impact of varying extraction time on the overall phenolic
content was investigated by Tunchaiyaphum et al. [52] using Soxhlet extraction with 95% ethanol (boiling point of
78.3 °C). The authors indicated an increased yield of phenolic compounds ranging from 17.23 to 25.13 mg GAE /g DW for
a higher duration of extraction period (0.5 to 4 h). Further, the study affirmed greater solubility of phenolic compounds at
increased levels of extraction periods. The optimum phenolic content corresponds to 25.13 mg GAE/gram of dry weight
for the duration of 4 h extraction time [52].
4.1.2 Maceration
Maceration is a cost-effective and simple extraction technique as it follows a simple basic procedure for the extraction of
bioactives. However, it involves a significantly longer extraction time [53]. This process involves submerging the sample in
the solvent employed for extraction. Additionally, the maceration process can be improved by the addition of enzymes. In
a study, the incorporation of pectinases for the extraction of bioactive from the fruit peel resulted in improved extraction
of bioactive compounds. This is due to the fact that the pectinase might have degraded the pectin in the cell wall of the
fruit peel and have facilitated the release of bioactives [49]. Using 95% ethanol, Likitrakulwong et al. [54] carried out the
extraction of bioactives from banana peel using maceration technique. In this study, the authors extracted the bioactives
using a sample to solvent of 1:10 g/mL. The study signified a higher yield of bioactives (9.80% /dry material weight). In
another study conducted by Dar et al. [55] on citrus peel for the extraction of antioxidants, the authors affirmed higher
extraction efficiency (29.28%) in aqueous ethanol. Conversely, the lower extraction (6.53%) was obtained using either
water or ethanol (23.65%) as the extraction solvent.
4.1.3 Hydrodistillation (HD)
Hydrodistillation (HD) is a traditional method which is employed for the extraction of essential oils and bioactives from
dried plants and their by-products. There are three types of hydro-distillation techniques including water and steam
distillation, water distillation, and straight steam distillation [55]. Hydrodistillation is a popular approach for the recovery
of bioactive compounds from plants, although it does not guard against hydrolysis reactions that might break down
thermolabile compounds [56, 57]. These conventional approaches have several known drawbacks, including longer
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extraction time, higher energy usage, and the possibility of damaging the volatile components [58]. Tran et al. [59]
employed the hydrodistillation extraction technique to extract essential oil from Vietnamese mandarin peel and the
results indicated that the highest essential oil yield (5%) was achieved under an optimal condition of peel to solvent
ratio of 1:4(g/mL), extraction time of 150 min and 110–120 C extraction temperature. Limonene was found to be the
predominant bioactive component accounting for 97.6% of the oil followed by β-Myrcene (1.395%), 1R-α-Pinene
(0.561%), L-β-pinene (0.264%), and Sabinene (0.126%). Essential oil from grape and pomelo peel was extracted by Wu
et al. [60] using hydrodistillation technique in conjunction with electro fluidic pre-treatment. The authors reported
significant improvements in essential oil recovery using optimized extraction methods, with a 43% increase in yield
from grape peels and a remarkable 93% increase from pomelo peels. These findings highlight the potential of innovative
techniques to enhance the recovery of valuable bioactive compounds from fruit by-products, contributing to efficient
waste valorization. The increased yields not only improve resource utilization but also open avenues for the development
of high-value products in the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries.
4.2 Novel extraction methods
4.2.1 Microwave assisted extraction (MAE)
Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) is an intriguing alternative technique to conventional extraction methods. MAE
has been employed extensively to extract bioactive compounds from a variety of natural sources such as plants, herbs,
fruits, and vegetables and their by-products (Table 4) [36]. MAE utilizes microwave energy to heat the solvent and sample,
improving the diffusion of bioactives from the matrix into the solvent during the extraction process. Microwave heating
is influenced by two main factors: ionic conduction and dipole rotation, which typically occur simultaneously when in
contact with polar materials or liquids [61].
MAE offers several advantages, including shorter extraction times, reduced solvent consumption, higher extraction
efficiency, lower costs, and superior results, as demonstrated in Table 5 [62]. In a comparison of MAE with conventional
solvent extraction methods, Dhobi et al. [51] found that MAE significantly enhanced the extraction efficiency of silybinin,
a flavolignin, from Silybum marianum. Asghari et al. [63], demonstrated that MAE is a quicker and simpler technique in
comparison to traditional extraction processes for extracting bioactive compounds (e.g., cinnamaldehyde, tannin, E- and
Z-guggulsterone) from a variety of plants.
Fig. 6 illustrates both conventional and modern techniques for extracting bioactive compounds. Using MAE with a
power of 380 W, 50% ethanol, and a sample-to-solvent ratio of 1/35 g/mL, Vu et al. [19] affirmed improved extraction
efficiency of polyphenols from banana peel. The study by Vu et al. [64] found that drying banana peels with microwave
irradiation at 960 W for 6 min was the most effective method for reducing the loss of bioactive compounds and antioxidants, followed by freeze-drying, vacuum oven drying, hot air oven drying, dehumidified air drying, and sun drying.
Similarly, Quiles-Carrillo et al. [65] investigated the effectiveness of microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) in recovering
Total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity (AA) from carob fruit skin. In their study, the authors affirmed a
higher yield of bioactives (33.6 ± 0.4 mg GAE/g polyphenols) at 80 °C extraction temperature, 39% ethanol, 29.5 min
extraction time, and 35 g/mL solvent-to-solid ratio.
In a study, Bilhman et al. [39] explored the utilization of Musa sapientum waste, unveiled impressive findings regarding
its bioactive content. The authors affirmed the extract with good phenolic content of 39 mg GAE/100 g and total flavonoid
content (TFC) of 26 mg QE/100 g. Additionally, the extract indicated significant levels of Vitamin C (10.47 mg/100 g), and
Vitamin E (4.77 mg/100 g).
Vu et al. [64] performed MAE on dried banana peel samples (1g) at various predefined microwave power levels and
extraction periods. Systematic investigation revealed that the best extraction parameters were 6 min of irradiation, a
loading ratio of 2:100 g/mL, a microwave power of 960 W, and a pH of 1. The matching response produced an amazing 50.5 mg of phenols. These findings lead the authors to conclude that MAE outperformed alternative extraction
methods in terms of extraction efficiency and bioactive quality. This is due to the fact, that microwave heating aids cell
wall expansion and rupturing, which in turn liberates bioactives and associated glycosides from the fruit peel into the
solvent (ethanol), thereby increasing the bioactive yield [64]. In another study, Said et al. [44] employed MAE to extract
bioactives from unripe Musa acuminata peel. The authors affirmed that the higher yield of bioactives was achieved with
a microwave power of 650 W, an extraction period of 110 s, and a solid solvent ratio of 0.06 g/ml. The optimised (MAE)
extraction resulted in a 76.81% yield of antioxidants and a 418.46 mg GAE/100g of TPC.
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MAE method
MAE method
MAE method
MAE method
MAE method
MAE method
MAE method
MAE method
Banana peel
Banana peel
Egg plant
Carrot peel
Banana peel
Akebia trifoliate peel
Peach waste
Foshua peel
MAE method
MAE method
Chestnut shell
Time—5–15 min
Temperature: 150 C
s/l ratio- 5:1–20:1
Time-60–120 s
Microwave power- 300–600 W
Time-30–90 s
Extraction time- 10–60 min
S/L ratio- 20:1 to 30:1 mL/g
Time—5–30 min
Temperature- 20–70 C
S/L ratio-75–150 ml
Time- 5–15 min
TemperatureS/L ratio-5–25 ml/g
pH—1–4.5%
Time-0.5–6 min
pH-1–3
Temperature-26 C
Time:5–30 min
Temperature-107–180 C S/l
ratio–50 mL/g
Time–100–300 s
pH–1–3
Independent variables
Time – 30 min
Temperature—220 C Phenolic
content—344 ± 27 mg-GAE/g
Time: 100 s
pH- 3
Microwave power—900 W
Pulse ratio—0.5
pectin yield—1.58%
pH −1
Time–6 min
Phenolic content—50.55 mg
Irradiation power—720 W
Extraction time—7.58 min
S/L ratio—5.01 ml/g
Ethanol concentration- 73.49%
pH—3.06%
TPC—1049.84 μg GAE/ml
TFC—130.40 μg QE/ml
Microwave power- 269.82 W
MP- 300 W
S/L ratio—75 W
Temperature- 55 C
Time—5 min
MP-300W
Temp- 50 °C
Extraction time—39.31 min
S/L ratio—32.59:1 mL/g
Microwave power- 500 W
TPC- 32.67 ± 0.90 mgGAE
TP- 19.35 mg-GAE/g-FM
MP-500 W
TA—2.11 mg-cyn-3-glu/g-FM
Time—120 s
Microwave power- 400 W
S/L ratio—1 g:30 mL
TPC- 227.45 ± 1.04 GAE/100 g
Time—15
S/L ratio–15:1
TPC—23.3150 mg GA/g
Phenolic content −178–344 ± 27 mg-GAE/g
Power: 800 W
TPC: 23.31—50 mg GA/g
MP-350–500 W
TP- 9.93 and 19.64 mg-GAE/g-DM
TA- 0.04 to 2.11 mg-cyn-3-glu/g-FM
TPC—188.2 to 766.7 mg GAE/100 g
MP- 300–500 W
TPC- 26.84 to 32.93 mg
MP-200–500 W
MP- 180–300 W
Microwave power- 200–300 W
Phenolic content- 10–50 mg
Irradiation power-240–1200 W
Microwave power (MP)–300–900 W
pulse ratio—0.5–1
Pectin–1.49–2.31%
Optimum conditions
Dependent variables
[70]
[45]
[113]
[112]
[64]
[12]
[111]
[110]
[109]
[108]
Author
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Ciriguela peel
Method
Source
Table 4 Microwave assisted extraction of bioactives from various sources and their optimization parameters
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SFE
1. It is cost effective compared to accelerated solvent extraction
2. Uses lower energy
3. Shorter extraction time and higher extraction rate
4. It is quite adaptable on a small or large scale
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PLE
References
[6, 8, 15]
1. Uses considerable amounts of organic solvents,
such as methanol, which isn’t as eco-friendly as
supercritical hydrolysis. CO2 extraction
2. Uneven heating
3. Uses toxic solvent
[69, 82, 86]
1. Some phenolic acids may be degraded and very
1. Shorter processing time
reactive hydroxyl radicals produced in gas by
2. Lower expense compared to other non-traditional extraction methods
ultrasonic vibrations, according to reports
3. Higher product yield
2. May lead to the formation of free radicals
4. Lowest instrumental requirement
3. Ultrasonic waves may damage tissues when they are
5. For large-scale manufacturing, it’s a feasible technical choice
6. The chemical and physical characteristics of dietary components undergo short-term changes exposed directly
7. Practical and cost-effective method for the isolation of bioactive compounds that are
sensitive to heat
1.Structural alterations and oxidation of lipid molecules [77, 86]
1. It minimizes the adverse effects of the traditional heating method
2. It decreases energy cost
3. Reduced degradation of compounds that are heat sensitive
4. Improved extraction yield
[87, 88]
1.Toxicity risks
1. The extraction time is reduced by maintaining relatively greater temperatures and pressures
2.Economical and technological issues
2. This process needs less solvent
3.Limitations in consumer acceptance
3. Rapid
4. High investment cost
[56, 83, 89]
1.Limitation to polar compounds
1. There is a wide temperature and pressure range in which the dielectric might be varied
2. pigments are less soluble
2.Low activation energy required
3.Can diffuse easily through solid materials
4.Faster extraction
Disadvantages
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PEF
UAE
MAE
Sl. No Techniques Advantages
Table 5 Advantages and disadvantages of various extraction techniques
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Fig. 6 Traditional and novel
extraction methods used to
extract bioactive compounds
4.2.1.1 Ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE) Ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE) is an efficient extraction process that
offers advantages over traditional methods. UAE is widely used across various industries, including food, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics, to extract bioactive compounds, essential oils, flavors, and other valuable substances from plant
materials, herbs, and natural products.[66]. UAE utilizes high-frequency sound waves (usually above 20 kHz) to disrupt
plant cell walls and improve the extraction of bioactive compounds. The process of UAE involves the application of ultrasound waves to the extraction medium, causing the creation and collapse of small bubbles (cavitation) in the solvent
[67]. This process causes localized heating, agitation, and microstreaming, which break cell walls, increase the sample’s
surface area, and enhance the transfer of target molecules from the matrix to the solvent. UAE operates at lower temperatures, minimizing energy consumption and preserving the integrity of heat-sensitive compounds [140]. Its versatility
allows for extraction from diverse sources and classes of compounds, while its scalability enables a seamless transition
from laboratory to industrial settings [68]. With minimal chemical usage and the ability to selectively extract desired
compounds, UAE produces high-quality extracts suitable for various industries, making it a sustainable, efficient, and
adaptable extraction method. The modified Soxhlet extraction technique, which uses ultrasonic to aid the extraction
process, may provide a high-quality banana peel extract with less energy and time spent on the extraction process [69].
In a study conducted by Phuong et al. [67], the authors demonstrated that UAE significantly increased the extraction
yield of bioactive compounds from banana peel compared to conventional extraction methods. The UAE technique
yielded a bioactive extract with a TPC of 32.5 mg GAE/g dry weight, whereas the conventional extraction method
yielded only 18.7 mg GAE. Further, Vito et al. [70] aimed to optimize the UAE process for the extraction of phenolic
compounds from Ciriguela peel (Spondias purpurea L.). To do so, the authors have chosen deal conditions as 100%
ultrasound amplitude, 200 W extraction power and 15 min of extraction time. The phenolic compound extract from
Ciriguela peel obtained using the optimized ultrasound conditions was compared with extracts obtained using other
extraction techniques, including conventional and microwave-assisted methods. UAE demonstrated superior results
in terms of the extraction yield of phenolic compounds and exhibited high AA (35.15 mg GAE/g, IC50 = 0.19 mg/mL)
compared to conventional extraction (30.10 mg GAE/g, IC50 = 1.68 mg/mL) and microwave-assisted extraction (23.31 mg
GAE/g, ­IC50 = 4.29 mg/mL). These findings underscore the effectiveness of UAE in enhancing the extraction efficiency
of phenolic compounds from Ciriguela peel and highlight its potential application in the food and pharmaceutical
industries [142, 143].
Additionally, in the study conducted by Anal et al. [36], the authors optimized the extraction parameters of UAE,
including ultrasound power, extraction temperature, and solvent-to-solid ratio, to maximize the extraction efficiency of
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bioactive compounds from banana peels. The results indicated that an ultrasound power of 400 W, extraction temperature
of 50 °C, and solvent-to-solid ratio of 20:1 (mL/g) resulted in the highest extraction yield (30.10 mg GAE/g) and AA
(82%). Using varying extraction durations and solvents, Rostagno et al. [71] demonstrated the efficacy of the mix-stirring
approach in extracting four isoflavone derivatives—daidzin, genistin, glycitin, and malonyl genistin—from soybean.
Depending on the solvent used, the authors discovered that ultrasonic may increase the extraction yield. Moorthy et al.
[72] developed a method to recover pectin from wild banana industrial waste using UAE extraction process mediated
by citric acid. The authors affirmed the higher yield of bioactives 45 mg/g GAE, at optimal process conditions of 1:15 g/
mL, solid-liquid ratio, 3.2 pH, and 27 min of extraction time.
4.2.1.2 Enzyme assisted extraction (EAE) Enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE) is a viable alternative to conventional solvent-based methods for extracting bioactive compounds from plants. Enzymes are very effective catalysts and may be
used to extract, modify, or synthesise intricate bioactive compounds derived from natural sources [73]. The fundamental
principle of enzyme-based extraction lies in the inherent ability of enzymes to catalyse biochemical reactions (Table 6).
With the growing need for cleaner extraction techniques in the food and pharmaceutical industries, enzyme technology
offers the potential for more environmentally friendly chemistry. Enzymes can degrade or impair cell walls and membranes, hence enhancing the extraction and release of bioactives [74].
Islam et al. [4] studied the extraction of bioactives from banana peel using pectinase enzyme. In this study, the authors
affirmed the optimal condition for higher yield of bioactive (TPC, TFC, DPPH, ABTS, and α-glycosidase inhibitory activity
as 25.37 mg GAE/g DM, 13.99 mg QE/g DM, 81.59%, 88.25%, and 74.67% scavenging ability, respectively) as 1.0% enzyme
concentration, 9hr extraction time, 55 °C extraction temperature, and a solute-liquid ratio of 1:25 w/v (g/mL). The authors
concluded EAE have potential for extracting the phenolic compounds from banana peels, making banana peels essential
component for food and pharmaceuticals. In another study, Nadar et al. [75] co-immobilized pectinase and cellulase
onto amino-functionalized magnetic nanoparticles for the extraction of antioxidants from banana, mango, and orange
peels. Thus, the finding of this study indicated the twofold increase in free radical scavenging activity from the fruit peels
compared to the conventional solvent-based extraction methods.
4.2.2 Pulsed electric field extraction (PEF)
Pulsed electric field (PEF) extraction is an innovative extraction technique that uses short, high-voltage electric pulses
(20–80 kV/cm) to break cell membranes and release intracellular chemicals from banana peel. PEF is a non-thermal
and minimally intrusive approach that is extensively used for treating biological tissues and biomaterials. It also finds
several applications in food, biotechnology, medical, and environmental technologies, while also being environmentally
acceptable [76]. This method includes exposing finely crushed samples to regulated electric pulses, which leads to the
permeabilization of cell membranes and the release of bioactive substances including phenolic compounds, flavonoids,
and antioxidants. Studies have shown that PEF extraction is more effective than traditional methods in enhancing the
production of bioactives from waste fruit peels [77]. In a study by Pattnaik et al. [78], PEF extraction of antioxidants from
banana peel exhibited a yield increase of 20% compared to traditional extraction methods. The PEF treatment parameters
included a voltage of 18 kV/cm, pulse width of 150 µs, frequency of 1.5 Hz, and treatment duration of 6 min. In a recent
study by Aqilah et al. [79], PEF extraction of bioactives from banana peel resulted in a yield increase of 35% for flavonoids
compared to conventional extraction techniques. The PEF treatment parameters comprised a voltage of 20 kV/cm, pulse
width of 180 µs, frequency of 2.5 Hz, and treatment duration of 5 min.
In another study by Hendrawan et al. [80] on the extraction of bioactives from banana peel using PEF, the authors
confirmed the highest total phenolic (28.5 mg GAE/g under the conditions of an electric field intensity of 4 kV/cm for 2
min. Furthermore, the highest AA value of the Kepok banana peel was observed to be 13.06 mg/mL when subjected to
PEF treatment at 4 kV/cm for 4 min. These findings highlight the potential of PEF pre-treatment to enhance the extraction
of bioactives from banana peel, thus offering insights into optimizing extraction processes for the development of valueadded products.
4.2.3 Pressurized liquid extraction (PLE)
PLE is a method that utilises liquid solvents at high temperatures and pressures to extract compounds of interest from
the target sample. This method offers higher extraction efficiency compared to the techniques performed at lower
temperatures and ambient pressure [81]. This process involves placing finely crushed dried powdered samples in an
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[114]
Enzyme concentration, extraction temperature, maceration time
EAE
[42]
[8]
Solvent, Microwave power, extraction time and temperature
Ultrasound temperature, ultrasonic time, extraction time, extraction
temperature, solid to liquid ratio
Microwave heating, transformation of electromagnetic energy
The impacts of micro-jetting and micro-streaming, acoustic cavitation/
cavitational dislodgement, solid material disintegration, and cell wall
breakdown
Hydrolysis of cell wall components and membranes, dissolving linkages,
catalyzing structural matrix, increasing permeability of cell wall, and
enhanced extraction yields
MAE
UAE
References
Optimum parameters
Extraction techniques Main principles
(2025) 5:8
Table 6 Principles and optimum parameters of different extraction methods
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Fig. 7 Utilization of banana
peel in various industries [2]
| https://doi.org/10.1007/s44187-025-00276-y
Sauce
Peel flakes
Jelly
Face and skin
An-oxidant
Depilatory
acon
Cosme c
industry
and other
remedies
Bio alcohol
Food
processing
and beverage
industry
Noodles
An-cancer
Effective
utilization
of banana
peel in
different
industry
Other
industries
Biodegradable
film
Nutraceu cal
and
medicinal
Skin wounds
Teeth whitening
agent
Magnec biochar
Electricity
generated
Paper
manufacturing
extraction vessel containing a solvent. The vessel is then inflated with an inert gas, such as nitrogen, to enhance the
internal pressure. The temperature of the extraction vessel is increased to improve the solubility and diffusion of the
target compound into the solvent [82]. The high pressure and temperature allow for the fast extraction of bioactives such
as phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and antioxidants from banana peel. The PLE method enables rapid, effective, and
specific extraction over a broad spectrum of chemical polarities. It requires less time and solvent compared to traditional
solid-liquid extraction techniques [83]. This extraction requires specialised equipment capable of withstanding both high
temperatures and pressures. The notion of PLE involves subjecting solvents to elevated pressure in order to maintain their
liquid state at temperatures higher than their typical boiling point [13]. Garcia-Salas et al. [84] investigated the PLE of
polyphenols from banana peels and demonstrated higher extraction efficiency of bioactives than conventional methods,
with shorter extraction durations and lower solvent usage. In another study, Wang et al. [85] explored the extraction
of antioxidants, including phenolic compounds and flavonoids, from banana peel using PLE. The study demonstrated
the effectiveness of PLE in extracting a wide range of antioxidants, contributing to the development of functional
food ingredients. These studies demonstrate the potential of PLE as an efficient and sustainable method for extracting
bioactive compounds from banana peel, which could have implications for the development of value-added products
in the food and pharmaceutical industries [144].
4.2.4 Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE)
Bioactives from banana peels can be efficiently valorised using supercritical fluid extraction (SFE). This green extraction
technique employs carbon dioxide (CO₂) at supercritical conditions, offering enhanced diffusivity and solvent power to
extract valuable bioactives with high efficiency and purity [121]. The process involves drying and grinding banana peels
to increase surface area, loading them into the extraction vessel, and using pressurized CO₂ at controlled temperatures
and pressures to selectively recover target compounds. SFE is environmentally friendly, solvent-free, and allows the
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production of high-quality extracts without chemical residues [122]. Studies have demonstrated the successful application
of SFE for extracting antioxidants, such as phenolic acids and flavonoids, from banana peel, showing its potential in
developing nutraceuticals and functional food ingredients [115]. For instance, recent research has highlighted the use
of SFE to recover bioactives from banana peels with optimized conditions, yielding extracts with strong antioxidant and
antimicrobial activities [123].
5 Application of banana peel in the food industry
Banana peels have garnered attention in various industries, including the food industry, for their potential applications.
While they are commonly discarded as waste, banana peel contains valuable nutrients and compounds that can be
utilized in innovative ways. According to Zaini et al. [15], banana peel contains a number of bioactives that may have
health-promoting properties. Banana peel has been used as a herbal medicine for the treatment of various ailments,
such as burns, coughs, ulcers and diarrhoea. For example, as shown in Fig. 7, banana peels have been applied to promote
wound healing caused by burns [2]. Ferulic acid, which is often derived from banana peels, is used as a flavouring agent
to enhance flavour and taste in the food [98].
Banana peels are a rich source of dietary fiber, containing both soluble and insoluble fiber. Adding dehydrated and
ground banana peels to food items like bread, muffins, pancakes, and smoothies can enhance their fiber content,
promoting better digestion and offering a healthier choice for the customers [14]. Banana Peel Powder (BPP) has been
employed as a flavouring component in commercial food production. Extracts obtained from banana peels can be used
as a natural food colouring agent in various food products, including beverages, confectionery, and dairy products, as
an alternative to synthetic food dyes [90]
Banana peels can be processed into powder or puree and used as a functional ingredient in baked goods like cakes,
cookies, and pastries. They can add moisture, texture, and a subtle banana flavor to the products while also enhancing
their nutritional profile [91]. Banana peels contain pigments such as carotenoids and anthocyanins, which can impart
natural colors ranging from yellow to red. Extracts obtained from banana peels can be used as a natural food coloring
agent in various food products, including beverages, confectionery, and dairy products, as an alternative to synthetic
food dyes [3].
5.1 Yellow noodles
BPP serves as a versatile ingredient in the production of yellow noodles, offering a range of functional and nutritional
benefits. Its rich dietary fiber content contributes to improving the texture of yellow noodles, imparting a desirable
firmness and chewiness that enhances the overall eating experience [92]. Additionally, the natural yellow color of
BPP intensifies the golden hue of yellow noodles, creating a visually appealing product. Additionally, BPP has been
demonstrated to enrich the nutritional profile of yellow noodles by providing essential nutrients such as potassium,
vitamin C, and vitamin B
­ 6 [93]. Furthermore, BPP has also been demonstrated to offer a gluten-free alternative for
individuals with gluten intolerance, expanding the market reach of yellow noodles to accommodate diverse dietary
preferences [21]. Ramli et al. [94] produced yellow noodles by partially substituting wheat flour with green banana peel
flour. The authors concluded that starch hydrolysis of yellow noodles may be achieved by partially substituting BPP into
noodles. In another study conducted by Pasha et al. [93], the authors reported low glycemic index values for noodles
made with banana peel than those made with wheat flour. According to Nurul et al. [92], noodles made from banana
peel are widely accepted due to the potential of banana peel to be excellent source of nutrients that are beneficial to
human health, such as resistant starch, dietary fibre, anti-oxidants, polyphenols, minerals, and vitamins.
5.2 Banana peel powder chapatti
BPP has been studied for its effects on the bioactive constituents and microstructural quality of chapati, an unleavened
Indian flatbread. Research has shown that incorporating BPP into chapati dough can improve the nutritional content
and texture of the bread [39]. Kurhade et al. [95] investigated the influence of BPP on the microstructural quality and
bioactive components of chapatti. Quality parameters such as stickiness, strength, kneading capacity, and rollability of
chapatti dough containing 5–20% banana peel powder (BPP) were evaluated. Compared to the control, the chapatti
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made with BPP indicated a greater concentration of flavonoid and total phenolic. Additionally, chapatti with a soft texture
was achieved from dough that was treated with BPP.
Further, in one study conducted by Kaufmann et al. [74] the addition of BPP to chapatti dough at concentrations of 5%
and 10% has resulted in a significant increase in bioactive content and AA. The chapattis containing BPP had considerably
greater amounts of flavonoids and total phenolics than the control group, indicating that the integration of banana peel
into the recipe may have health benefits. Furthermore, the DPPH radical scavenging activity of the BPP-based chapatti
increased proportionally with the percentage of BPP, peaking at 68.3% at 20% banana peel incorporation. These findings
emphasize the possibility of banana peel as a functional element in chapatti manufacture, providing nutritional benefits
while also contributing to increased antioxidant characteristics. Furthermore, the authors affirmed a soft texture of
chapattis made with 5% and 10% BPP and thereby, implying that these concentrations adequately maintain the intended
sensory features of conventional chapattis while also introducing important bioactive components [96].
5.3 Banana peel jelly
The BPP has been reported to significantly impact the texture of jelly by improving its qualities. Adding BPP to jelly has
enhanced its hardness, chewiness, and springiness. Additionally, the incorporation of BPP has been shown to positively
correlate with the textural properties of the jelly, indicating that the more BPP added the greater the impact on the texture
of the final product [97]. Lee et al. [98] added banana peel fiber powder added to jelly at different ratios (5% and 10%) to
create a high-fiber jelly product. The authors affirmed that the addition of banana peel fiber significantly increased the
total dietary fiber (TDF) content of the jelly samples [98]. Additionally, studies have demonstrated that the antioxidant
activities present in banana peel are maintained even after cooking during jelly production, further enhancing the
nutritional value and functional properties of the jelly product. Thereby, these studies demonstrate that incorporating
BPP into jelly formulations not only enhances the texture by influencing properties like hardness and chewiness but also
boosts the nutritional profile by increasing dietary fiber content and AA [26].
5.4 Yoghurt
Fortified yoghurt with banana peel extract has been reported to possess higher TPC, as well as strong antioxidant and
anti-diabetic effects. Safdari et al. [91] investigated the effect of banana peel fiber on synbiotic yogurt made from camel
milk and probiotic bacteria (Lactobacillus casei and Lactobacillus gasseri). The addition of banana peel fiber resulted in
increased viscosity, survival of probiotic bacteria, and consistency of the yogurt and sensory properties (color, flavor,
overall acceptability). In a study by Abdalla and Ahmed. [99], the addition of green banana flour up to 5% enhanced the
yoghurt’s physicochemical and sensory qualities. Additionally, it improved the nutritional value of yoghurt and raised
its iron and fiber levels. Yogurt containing banana peel extract and grape seed extract extended yogurt’s shelf life and
prevented the loss of nutrients. Yoghurt with banana peel extract had a higher antioxidant capacity and higher viscosity,
according to Kabir et al. [100]. Akter et al. [101] discovered that the dried banana peel extract contained 354.14 mg/g of
reducing sugars, mainly glucose and fructose. BPP is commonly used to improve the functional properties of probiotic
yoghurt and milk supplements. These studies demonstrated that incorporating BPP into yoghurt formulations can
enhance the texture, nutritional value, and overall quality of the yoghurt product.
5.5 Pasta
Pasta, being a versatile and well-liked food item, can be incorporated into a nutritious diet regimen through moderation
and the addition of valuable bioactives. It is produced from durum wheat and water, and it can be fortified with iron
and B complex vitamins [29]. However, pasta is high in carbs, which can raise blood sugar levels, so portion control is
important. According to study conducted by Puraikalan et al. [102], incorporating 5–10% BPP into pasta boosted the fiber
content by 35.7% and 71.4%, respectively. The study focused on developing pasta with low-carbohydrate digestibility by
incorporating unripe banana flour, which could potentially offer health benefits and enhance the overall quality of the
pasta product. In a study, banana peel flour (5–20%) has been used as an alternative to wheat flour to make bread and
pasta. The study demonstrated the potential benefits of incorporating banana peels into food products for improved
nutritional content and functionality [103].
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Properties
Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory
Antimicrobial, Anticancer
Antioxidant, Immune-boosting
Improves digestion, Lowers cholesterol
Antibacterial, Antiviral
Supports cardiovascular health, Balances electrolytes
Muscle relaxation, Bone health
Antioxidant, Skin health
Water retention, Biodegradability
Gelling agent, Cholesterol-lowering effect
Anti-inflammatory, Analgesic
Antimicrobial, Immune-boosting
Mood-enhancing, Sleep-regulating
Antioxidant, Antidepressant effects
Supports nerve health, Aids in brain function
Antioxidant, Reduces oxidative stress
Lowers cholesterol, Anti-inflammatory
Cardiotonic, Diuretic
Adds bulk, Aids in waste elimination
Supports muscle growth, Enhances recovery
Eye health, Antioxidant
Skin health, Anti-inflammatory
Nutrient
Phenolic Compounds
Flavonoids
Carotenoids
Dietary Fiber
Tannins
Potassium
Magnesium
Vitamin C
Lignin
Pectin
Alkaloids
Saponins
Tryptophan
Catecholamines
Vitamin ­B6
Polyphenols
Phytosterols
Glycosides
Fibers (Cellulose, Hemicellulose)
Essential Amino Acids
Lutein
Tocopherols (Vitamin E)
Table 7 Properties of banana peel and their applications
[2]
[124]
[125]
[126]
[127]
[77]
[128]
[129]
[130]
[131]
[132]
[133]
[25]
[134]
[135]
[136]
[137]
[21]
[138]
[33]
[139]
[39]
References
(2025) 5:8
Functional foods, Nutraceuticals, Pharmaceuticals
Natural preservatives, Medicinal applications
Dietary supplements, Skin-care products
Functional foods, Dietary supplements
Antibacterial agents, Water purification
Nutritional supplements, Fortified foods
Nutritional supplements, Sports drinks
Skin-care products, Immune-boosting supplements
Bioplastics, Packaging materials
Food additives, Pharmaceutical formulations
Medicinal applications, Pain relief products
Natural cleansers, Medicinal applications
Supplements for mood and sleep support
Anti-stress and anti-anxiety formulations
Nutritional supplements, Brain health products
Skincare, Anti-aging products, Functional foods
Cardiovascular health products, Functional foods
Cardiovascular supplements, Medicinal applications
Dietary supplements, Functional food ingredients
Nutritional supplements, Sports nutrition products
Eye care supplements, Vision-enhancing products
Skincare formulations, Nutritional supplements
Applications
Discover Food
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5.6 Cookies
Utilization of banana flour in cookies has been reported to enhance their nutritional content and texture, acting as a
gluten-free substitute for regular wheat flour. Figure 7 shows the utilization of banana peel in various industries [2].
According to studies, banana flour contains a high concentration of resistant starch, prebiotic fiber, and vital vitamins
and minerals including potassium and magnesium. Studies indicate that consuming resistant starch can have a good
effect on gut health by stimulating the growth of beneficial gut flora [24]. The high starch level in banana flour helps
to retain moisture in cookies, leading to a softer and more tender feel. In one study, cookies enriched with banana
peel flours exhibited greater mineral levels, except for zinc, compared to cookies made from wheat flour. Additionally,
the cookies enriched with banana peel flour exhibited higher levels of bioactive components, including phenols and
flavonoids compared to the control group [104]. As given in Table 7, cookies made with Nendran Peel Flour (NPF) indicated
a higher content of total dietary fibre. Thus incorporation of banana peel flour into cookie recipes not only provides
nutritional benefits, but it also broadens possibilities for people with gluten allergies or those looking for alternative
baking ingredients, coinciding with the growing need for healthier and more diversified food choices [105].
6 Conclusions
The valorization of banana peel bioactives presents a promising avenue for sustainable resource utilization and the
development of value-added products across multiple industries. Through comprehensive examination of extraction
methods, bioactive compounds, and diverse applications, it becomes evident that the banana peel, once considered
a waste product, harbors a treasure trove of bioactive compounds with significant health benefits and functional
properties. The reviewed extraction techniques, ranging from conventional methods to innovative technologies like
PEF extraction, offer efficient means to recover bioactives such as phenolic compounds, flavonoids, antioxidants, and
dietary fibers from banana peel. Moreover, the demonstrated health-promoting properties of banana peel bioactives,
including antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities, underscore their potential in various
sectors, including functional foods, nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and agriculture. However, challenges
such as optimization of extraction processes, comprehensive characterization of bioactive compounds, and scalability of
applications remain to be addressed. Therefore, future research efforts should focus on addressing these challenges while
exploring innovative strategies to maximize the valorization of banana peel bioactives, thereby contributing to waste
reduction, environmental sustainability, and human well-being. Overall, this review highlights the immense potential
of banana peel bioactives and calls for concerted efforts to harness this valuable resource for the benefit of society and
the planet.
Acknowledgements The authors thankfully acknowledge the Department of Food technology and Nutrition, School of Agriculture and Central
Instruments Facility, Lovely Professional University, India, for providing necessary facilities to conduct this research.
Author contribution Khalid Mehmood Wani: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing, Supervision, Validation,
Visualization. Dhanya M: Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing—review and editing, Validation.
Funding No external funding was obtained from any external funding agency.
Data availability No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.
Code availability Not applicable.
Declarations
Ethical approval and consent to participate The manuscript type is ‘original review paper’. The manuscript is original and has not been submitted elsewhere for a publication in a reputed journal. All the authors have read and approved the manuscript and aware of submission in
Journal of Discover Food.
Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which
permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to
the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You
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do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party
material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If
material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds
the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://​creat​iveco​
mmons.​org/​licen​ses/​by-​nc-​nd/4.​0/.
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