GENERALSCI ENCE FORM 14 CHEMI STRYSECTI ON TOPI CS SEPARATI ON MATTER ACI DS, BASESANDSALTS I NDUSTRI ALPROCESSES OXI DATI ONANDREDUCTI ON ORGANI CCHEMI STRY FORM ONE SEPARATI ON o St at emet hodsofsepar at i ngmi xt ur es METHODSOFSEPARATI NGMI XTURES Fi l t r at i on - I susedt osepar at ei nsol ubl esol i dsf r om l i qui dse. g.ami xt ur eofchal kandwat er - Af i l t erpaperi spl acedi naf unnel , onaf l askandt hemi xt ur ei spour edont he f i l t erpaper . - Li qui df i l t r at epassest hr ought hef i l t erpaperandi scol l ect ed - I nsol ubl esubst ancesar el ef tasr esi dueont hef i l t erpaperaf t erf i l t r at i on. Ev apor at i on - I susedt osepar at easol ut i oni nwhi cht hesol i di sdi ssol v edi nt hel i qui d. - Thesol ut i oni sheat edsot hatt hel i qui dev apor at esandt hesol i dr emai nsatt he bot t om oft heev apor at i ngdi sh. Wi nnowi ng - I sausedt osepar at esol i dwi t hdi f f er entdensi t i ese. g.chuf ff r om gr ai ns. - Shaket hedi shorwi nnowi ngbasketv i gor ousl yf r om si det osi de.Thel essdense comet ot het opandar ebl ownof fwhi l et hegr ai nsr emai nt hecont ai ner . Decant i ng - I susedt osepar at el i qui dsofdi f f er entdensi t i ese. g.oi l andwat er . - Thel essdensepar t i cl es( oi l )comeont het opandar epour edof f . Magnet i sm - Canbeusedt osepar at ei r onobj ect se. g.i r onf i l l i ngsf r om sul phur MATTER - Mat t eri sany t hi ngt hathasmassandoccupi esspace STATESOFMATTER o I dent i f yt het hr eest at esofmat t er o Descr i bet hear r angementofpar t i cl esi nsol i ds, l i qui dsandgases o Descr i bepr oper t i esofsol i ds, l i qui dsandgasesi nt er msoft heki net i ct heor yof mat t er Sol i d - Par t i cl esar est r ongl yat t r act edt oeachot her - Par t i cl esv i br at ei nf i xedposi t i onsandhav el i t t l eki net i cener gy - Hav edef i ni t ev ol umeandshape. - Par t i cl escannotbecompr essed Li qui d - Par t i cl eshav emor eener gyt hani nt hesol i dst at esot heyar et omov eeachot her andf l owt of i l l t hecont ai nert heyar ei n. - Theshapecanchangebutv ol umei sf i xed. - Par t i cl esmov ef r eel y . Gas - Par t i cl esar ewi del yspacedi nr andom or der . - Par t i cl escanbecompr essedbecausepar t i cl esar ef ur t herapar t - Theshapeandv ol umeoft hegascanbechanged. - Par t i cl eshav eenoughener gyt oescapet heat t r act i v ef or cesbet weent hem, so t heyar ef r eet omov ei nal l di r ect i onsathi ghspeed Ki net i cTheor y - Thepr oper t i esofsol i ds, l i qui dsandgasescanbeexpl ai nedbyki net i ct heor y . - Ki net i ct heor yst at est hatmat t eri smadeoft i nypar t i cl est hatmov eal l t het i me. - Themai npoi nt soft het heor yar e; - Al l mat t eri smadeoft i ny , i nv i si bl e, mov i ngpar t i cl es. - Thepar t i cl esmov eal l t het i me.Thehi ghert het emper at ur et hef ast ert heymov e. - Heav i erpar t i cl esmov emor esl owl yt hanl i ghtonesatagi v ent emper at ur e. Exper i mentonheat i ngwat er - Thet emper at ur eoft hesol i di ceonheat i ngr i sesf r om -10℃ t o0℃ - Asheati ssuppl i edt oi ce, t hepar t i cl esgai nener gyandv i br at emor ev i ol ent l y unt i l t heyov er comet heat t r act i v ef or cesandar ef r eet omov e, apr ocesscal l ed mel t i ng - Thet emper at ur er emai nsconst antat0℃ ast hei cemel t s.Thi si sbecauset he heatabsor bedi sbei ngusedt obr eakbondsbet weenpar t i cl esofasol i dasi t t ur nsi nt oal i qui d( speci f i cl at entheatoff usi on) - Whenal l t hei cehasmel t edt het emper at ur eoft hel i qui dwat err i sesf r om 0℃ t o 100℃. - Ast hel i qui di sheat edup, t hepar t i cl esgai nener gyandmov ef ast erunt i l t hey br eakawaycompl et el yf r om eachot herandt hel i qui dbecomesgas, apr ocess cal l edev apor at i on/ boi l i ng - Dur i ngboi l i ng, t het emper at ur eofwat err emai nedconst antatabout100℃ becauseheatener gyabsor bedi susedt obr eakt hef or cesbet weenpar t i cl esi n t hel i qui dt ur ni ngi ti nt oagas. ( speci f i cl at entheatofv apor i zat i on) Exper i mentonheat i ngNapht hal ene - Thepar t i cl esi nsol i dbegi nt omel t .I t st emper at ur er emai nsconst antbecause t heheatener gyabsor bedbyt hepar t i cl esi susedt oov er comet hef or ces bet weenpar t i cl esandt hesol i dt ur nt ol i qui d. - Thepar t i cl esi nt hel i qui dabsor bheatener gyandmov ef ast er .Thel i qui dt ur nt o gas - Whenal l t henapht hal enehassol i di f i ed, t het emper at ur eoft hesol i dnapht hal ene f al l agai nt or oom t emper at ur e Heat i ngofi odi ne - I fi odi nei sheat edi nacr uci bl e, i tsubl i mesandwhent heheatsour cei sr emov ed andt hecr uci bl eal l owedt ocool , t hei odi necool sandbecomesdeposi t edasa sol i d. - Gr eyi odi nechangesdi r ect l yt ov i ol etorpur pl ev aporwhi chcol l ect sont hecol d par toft hegl asst of or m bl ackshi ni ngcr y st al sofi odi ne - I odi nev aporpr oducedi st oxi c( poi sonous)t her ef or et heexper i mentshoul dbe donei naf umecupboar dorcl oset oawi ndow. SOLUBI LI TY - I ti st hemeasur eofhowsol ubl easubst ancei s. - Thesol ubi l i t yofasol ut ei st hemaxi mum amountofsol ut et hatcandi ssol v ei nacer t ai n amountofsol v entorsol ut i onatacer t ai nt emper at ur e. Descr i bef act or st hataf f ectsol ubi l i t y 1.Temper at ur e–ki net i cener gyofpar t i cl esi ncr easesast emper at ur ei ncr eases t husi ncr easi ngr at eofsol ubi l i t y .Forl i qui dsandsol i dsol ut es, i ncr easi ngt he t emper at ur enotonl yi ncr easest heamountofsol ut et hatwi l l di ssol v ebutal so i ncr easest her at eatwhi cht hesol ut ewi l l di ssol v e.Gener al l y , ani ncr easei nt he t emper at ur eoft hesol ut i oni ncr easest hesol ubi l i t yofasol i dsol ut e.For exampl e, agr eat eramountofsugarwi l l di ssol v ei nwar m wat ert hani ncol d wat er . 2.St i r r i ng–par t i cl esdi ssol v emor equi ckl ywhent heyar est i r r edbecausest i r r i ng i ncr easest heki net i cener gyofpar t i cl escausi ngt hem t ocol l i demor eof t enwi t h t hesol v ent .Wi t hl i qui dandsol i dsol ut es, st i r r i ngbr i ngsf r eshpor t i onsoft he sol v enti ncont actwi t ht hesol ut e.St i r r i ng, t her ef or e, al l owst hesol ut et o di ssol v ef ast er . 3.Par t i cl esi ze–smal l par t i cl esdi ssol v emor equi ckl yt hanl ar geronesbecausea l ar gesur f acear eaoft hesol ut ei si ncont actwi t ht hesol v ent .Whenasol ut e di ssol v es, t heact i ont akespl aceonl yatt hesur f aceofeachpar t i cl e.Whent he t ot al sur f acear eaoft hesol ut epar t i cl esi si ncr eased, t hesol ut edi ssol v esmor e r api dl y .Br eaki ngasol ut ei nt osmal l erpi ecesi ncr easesi t ssur f acear eaand i ncr easesi t sr at eofsol ubi l i t y. ELEMENTS, MI XTURESANDCOMPOUNDS I dent i f ymi xt ur es, el ement sandcompounds El ement - I sasubst ancemadeupofsamet y peofat omsandcannotbespl i ti nt ot woor mor esi mpl ersubst ancesbyanychemi cal meanse. g.hy dr ogen, magnesi um, zi nc, i r on, sul phur , copper Mol ecul es - I st hesmal l estpar t i cl eofanel ementorcompoundt hatcanexi stoni t sowne. g. hy dr ogen, ni t r ogen, oxy gen, chl or i ne, car bondi oxi de, wat er Mi xt ur e - Twoormor edi f f er entsubst ancesnotchemi cal l ycombi nedt oget here. g.sal t andsandori r onandsul phur Compound - I sasubst ancemadeupoft woormor edi f f er entel ement schemi cal l ycombi ned t oget herwhi chexi stasmol ecul esori onse. g.coppersul phat e, car bondi oxi de, magnesi um oxi de. Di f f er encesbet weenmi xt ur eandcompounds COPMOUND MI XTURE Subst ancesf or medbychemi cal means Subst ancesf or medbyphy si cal means Newsubst ancei sf or med Nonewsubst ancesf or med Subst ancessepar at edbychemi cal means Subst ancesepar at edbyphy si cal means Heatener gyused Noheatener gyused Exper i mentoni r onandsul phur PERI ODI CTABLE I dent i f ymet al sandnonmet al sonper i odi ct abl e METALS NONMETALS Li t hi um Hy dr ogen Ber y l l i um Hel i um Sodi um Bor on Magnesi um Car bon Al umi ni um Ni t r ogen Pot assi um Oxy gen Cal ci um Fl uor i ne I r on Neon Copper Si l i con Zi nc Phosphor us Sul phur Chl or i ne Ar gon ACI DS, BASESANDSALTS Byendoft het opi cl ear ner swi l lbeabl et o o Li stpr oper t i esofaci dsandbases o I dent i f yaci dsandbasesusi ngr edandbl uel i t mus PROPERTI ESOFACI DSANDBASE Aci ds - Tur nbl uel i t muspaperr ed - Uni v er sal i ndi cat ort ur nsr ed/ or ange - Theyhav eapHbel ow7 - Theyar ecor r osi v e - Theyhav easourt ast e Bases - Tur nr edl i t muspaperbl ue - Tur nuni v er sal i ndi cat orbl ue/ gr een - Tast ebi t t er - Hav easl i pper yf eel - Somear ecaust i ce. g.pot assi um hy dr oxi de I NDUSTRI ALPROCESSES Out l i nepr oduct i onofpeanutbut t er Shel l i ng - Consi stofr emov i ngt heshel l ofpeanut swi t ht hel eastdamaget ot heseeds. - Thepeanut sar epl acedi nl ar gesl ot t edcy l i ndr i cal dr umst hatr ot at e, r ubbi ngt he peanut sagai nsteachot herunt i l t heshel l sar eopenedandt hekennel sf al l t hr ought hesl ot s. - Shel l i ngathomei sof t endonebyhands. Roast i ng - Peanut sar et hensentt hr ought he240oChotai rr oast er , whi chshakest oensur e ev enl yr oast edpeanut s.Thepeanut st ur nt ol i ghtbr own. - Thepeanut sar ecool edr api dl yt oensur et hatnat ur al oi l swi l l r emai ni nt he peanut s. - Roast i ngathomei sdoneusi ngapanov erawoodf i r eorst ov e. Gr i ndi ng - Thepeanut sar el i ght l yr ubbedbet weent wobel t swhi chr emov et hei rout erski ns. - Thepeanut sar espl i t t edsot hatt hebi t t ermi ddl epar t( hear t )canber emov ed. - Thespl i t t edpeanut sar esentt ot hegr i nder , wher et hepeanut sar egr oundi nt oa smoot hpeanutpast e. - I nr ur al ar easspl i tpeanut sar epoundedi namor t arf ol l owedbygr i ndi ngont he gr i ndi ngst one( guy o) Packagi ng - Thepeanutbut t eri scool eddownagai nt o38oCandempt yj ar sar esentona conv ey orbel tt obef i l l ed.Thej ar sar et henmov edt ot hecappi ngmachi neand ar el abel ed. Out l i nepr oduct i onofoi lf r om peanutbut t er - Dehul l t hepeanut sandbr i ngt hem outi nal ar gebowl . - Remov et hef i neski nl ay erofpeanut sandwasht hem i ncol dwat erandt heni n war m wat er . - Putt hewashedpeanut si nacl eanbowl andpourwar m wat eri nt oi t .Lett he peanut ssoaki nwat erf or1015mi nut essot hatt hepeanut sgetsof t . - Dr awt hewat erf r om t hebowl andputt hepeanut si nt hebl ender . - Bl endt hepeanut st hor oughl yt ogetasmoot h, but t er ypast eofpeanut s - Pourt hepast ei nabowl andcov ert hel i dt i ght l yandputi nar ef r i ger at orf orat l eastaday . - Theoi l wi l l r i seont het opt hr ought hi spr ocess. - Af t er24hour sst r ai nt heoi l i nt oasepar at ebowl . - Whent heoi l i scompl et el ycl eanaf t ersev er al t i mesofst r ai ni ngpouri ti nacl ean bot t l e St at eusesofoi l - Cooki ng - Nat ur al t oni ct hathel pboosti mmuni t yandi nv i gor at esy ourent i r ebody OXI DATI ONANDREDUCTI ON Rust i ng - Rust i ng–cor r osi onofi r onandst eel - Rust–br ownsol i dpr oductf or meddur i ngr ust i ng - Rusti shy dr at edi r on( I I I )oxi deFe2O3xH2Owher ewat ermol ecul esv ar y . St at econdi t i onsnecessar yf orRust i ng - Af t eraf ewday s, onl ynai l i nt ubeAr ust .Thi sshowst hatai randwat eri sneeded f orr ust .I nboi l edwat er , t henai l doesn’ tr usti nBasboi l edwat err emov es di ssol v edai rwhi l ei nC, CaCl keepsai rdr ysot her e’ snowat er Expl ai nmet hodsofpr event i ngRust i ng 1.Sur f acepr ot ect i on-cov er smet al wi t hal ay erofsubst ancee. g.Pai nt , Gr easeor oi l ( al sohel pt ol ubr i cat e)andPl ast i c 2. Sacr i f i ci al pr ot ect i on–cov er i ngmet al wi t ht hi nl ay erofanot hermet al ( e. g.t i n, chr omi um, si l v er ) 3. Useofst ai nl essst eel ORGANI CCHEMI STRY I dent i f yf or msoff uel s - Af uel i samat er i al t hatcanbebur ntt ogi v eoutheatorhav echemi cal ener gy . - Fuel sar ef oundi nt hr eef or msi . e. 1.Sol i df uel se. g.wood, char coal , cokeandcoal 2.Li qui df uel se. g.pet r ol , di esel , par af f i n, et hanol 3.Gaseousf uel se. g.met hane, but ane, et hane, hy dr ogenandcoal gas Compar et heef f i ci encyofdi f f er entf uel s - Fuel ef f i ci encyi st hemeasur eoft heconv er si onofaf uel f r om chemi cal ener gy t oheatener gy . - Heatcont entofaf uel canbemeasur edbyt her at eatwhi chaf uel heat supa subst ancet oacer t ai nt emper at ur e - FORM TWO SEPARATI ON Byendoft het opi cl ear ner swi l lbeabl et o o St at et heappl i cat i onsoff i l t r at i on, wi nnowi ng, magnet i sm andevapor at i on MATTER Byendoft het opi cl ear ner swi l lbeabl et o o Det er mi net heconcent r at i onsbycol ouri nt ensi t i esofdi ssol vedsubst ances o Det er mi net heconcent r at i onofasubst ancebyvar yi ngt heamountofsol ut ei na gi vensol vent ACI DS, BASESANDSALTS Byendoft het opi cl ear ner swi l lbeabl et o o Descr i beanaci d–baser eact i on I NDUSTRI ALPROCESSES Byendoft het opi cl ear ner swi l lbeabl et o o Out l i nemanuf act ur eofsoap OXI DATI ONANDREDUCTI ON Byendoft het opi cl ear ner swi l lbeabl et o 4.Def i neoxi dat i onandr educt i oni nt er msofoxygen 5.Wr i t esi mpl ewor dequat i ons 6.Di st i ngui shbet weenphysi calandchemi calchanges ORGANI CCHEMI STRY Byendoft het opi cl ear ner swi l lbeabl et o o Def i necompl et eandi ncompl et ecombust i onoff uel s o Li stt hepr oduct sofcompl et eandi ncompl et ecombust i on FORM THREE SEPARATI ON Byendoft het opi cl ear ner swi l lbeabl et o o Descr i bet hepr ocessesofdi st i l l at i onandf r act i onaldi st i l l at i on DI STI LLATI ON - I sapr ocessofsepar at i ngwat erf r om di ssol v edsol i ds - Sol ut i oni sheat ed, andst eam ( pur ev apour )i spr oduced. - Thest eam i scool edi ncondensert of or m pur el i qui d. - Thesol i d( sol ut e)r emai nsbehi ndi nt hef l askasar esi due. - Not e–Thet her momet erbul bshoul dbeatt hel ev el oft hecondenser . FRACTI ONALDI STI LLATI ON - Se par at esmi xt ur eofmi sci bl e( sol ubl e)l i qui dswi t hwi del ydi f f er i ngboi l i ngpoi nt s. - Mi xt ur eofet hanol andwat eri spl acedi nf l askandheat ed. - Et hanol wi t hl owerboi l i ngpoi ntboi l sandv apor i sesf i r standr eachf r act i onat i ng col umnt hencool sandcondensesi nt oet hanol asi tpassest hr oughcondenser . - Temper at ur ewi l l st ayconst antunt i l al l et hanol i sdi st i l l ed. - Ami xt ur eofgasescondensesont hebeadsi nt hef r act i onal col umn.Sot he beadsar eheat edt ot heboi l i ngpoi ntoft hel owestsubst ancei nt hi scase, sot hat t hesubst ancebei ngr emov edcannotcondenseont hebeads.Theot her subst ancescont i nuet ocondenseandwi l l dr opbacki nt ot hef l ask. - Wat erwi l l di st i l t hesamewayaf t eral l et hanol i sdi st i l l ed. MATTER Byendoft het opi cl ear ner swi l lbeabl et o o o Descr i bei oni candcoval entbondi ng o Def i net heAvogadr onumber o St at et her el at i onshi pbet weent hemol eandmol ecul armass( Mr ) orat omi cmass ( Ar ) o Cal cul at eempi r i calf or mul aandmol ecul arf or mul ar o Cal cul at econcent r at i onofsol ut i onsi nmol e/ dm3andg/ dm3 ATOMS - I st hesmal l estpar t i cl eofanel ementt hatcant akepar ti nachemi cal r eact i on. - Eachat om consi stofav er ysmal l , v er ydensenucl eus, whi chcont ai nspr ot ons andneut r ons, sur r oundedbyor bi t i ngel ect r ons Namet hesubat omi cpar t i cl es, t hei rr el at i vechar ges, massesandposi t i oni nt he at om Par t i cl e Posi t i on Char ge Mass Pr ot on Nucl eus +1 1 Neut r on Nucl eus 0 1 El ect r on At omi cshel l s 1 1 1840 NUCLI DENOTATI ON - E. g.t heel ementcar bonmayber epr esent edl i ket hi s ngcar bonhas12nucl eonsofwhi ch6ar epr ot ons.Ci st hechemi cal cMeani 12 6 sy mbol f ort heel ement . Def i ner el at i vemass/massnumber - I st henumberofpr ot onsandneut r onsi nanucl eus( nucl eons) Def i net hepr ot onnumber/at omi cnumber - I st henumberofpr ot onsi nt henucl eusofanat om. - Theat om hasnochar ge( el ect r i cal l yneut r al )becauset henumberofel ect r onsi s equal t henumberofpr ot ons. I sot opes - Ar eat omsoft heel ementwi t hsamenumberofpr ot onsandel ect r onsbut di f f er entnumberofneut r onsi nt henucl euse. g. 7 5 1.Chl or i nehast woi sot opesi . e.3 land3 l 17C 17C 2.Oxy genhast woi sot opesi . e.16 nd18 8Oa 8O 3.Car bonhast woi sot opesi . e.12 nd16 6Ca 6C Cal cul at i onofnumberofneut r ons Numberofneut r ons=massnumber–pr ot onnumber Chl or i ne35has( 35–17)=18neut r ons Chl or i ne37has( 37–17)=20neut r ons Oxy gen16has( 16–8)=8neut r ons Oxy gen18has( 18–8)=10neut r ons Car bon12has( 12–6)=6neut r ons Car bon16has( 16–6)=10neut r ons THEPERI ODI CTABLE - I swayofcl assi f y i ngel ement s - El ement sar ear r angedi nor derofi ncr easi ngpr ot onnumber . - Per i odsar er owsi nt heper i odi ct abl e.I tshowst henumberofshel l st he el ement shav e - Gr oupsar ecol umnsi nt heper i odi ct abl e.Gr oupnumbershowst henumberof el ect r onsi nt heout ermostshel l . - Met al sar eel ement si ngr oupI , I IandI I Iex ceptBor onandHy dr ogen - Nonmet al sar eel ement si ngr oupI V, V, VI , VI Ii ncl udi nghy dr ogenandbor on - Gr oup7Hal ogens - Gr oup8Nobl egases Namet hef i r st20el ement si nt heper i odi ct abl est at i ngt hei rsymbol s 1.Hy dr ogen H 11. Sodi um 2.Hel i um He 12. Magnesi um Mg 3.Li t hi um Li 13. Al umi ni um Al 4.Ber y l l i um Be 14. Si l i con Si 5.Bor on B 15. Phosphor us P 6.Car bon C Na 16. Sul phur S 7.Ni t r ogen N 17. Chl or i ne Cl 8.Oxy gen O 18. Ar gon Ar 9.Fl uor i ne F 19. Pot assi um K 10. Neon Ne 20. Cal ci um Ca Wr i t et heel ect r oni cconf i gur at i onoft hef i r st20el ement s - I st hear r angementofel ect r onsi nanat om Hy dr ogen 1 Sodi um Hel i um 2 Magnesi um 2. 8. 2 Li t hi um 2. 1 Al umi ni um 2. 8. 3 Ber y l l i um 2. 2 Si l i con 2. 8. 4 Bor on 2. 3 Phosphor us 2. 8. 5 Car bon 2. 4 2. 8. 1 Sul phur 2. 8. 6 Ni t r ogen 2. 5 Chl or i ne 2. 8. 7 Oxy gen 2. 6 Ar gon 2. 8. 8 Fl uor i ne 2. 7 Pot assi um 2. 8. 8. 1 Neon 2. 8 Cal ci um 2. 8. 8 Theshel l sf i l l i nor der , f r om l owestener gyl ev el t ohi ghestener gyl ev el - Thef i r stshel l i sf i l l edbef or eanel ect r oncangoi nt ot hesecondshel l - Fi r stshel l accommodat es2el ect r onswhi l esecond, t hi r dandf our t hcan accommodat e8el ect r ons BONDI NG - At omscombi newi t hot herat omssot hati thasast abl econf i gur at i on( nobl egas conf i gur at i on)bydonat i ng, accept i ngandshar i ngel ect r ons. I oni cbondi ng - I sasar esul tofcompl et et r ansf erofoneormor eel ect r onsbet weenmet al sand non-met al s - Met al s( gr oup13)f or msposi t i v ei onswhi l enonmet al sar eel ect r onaccept or s andf or m posi t i v ei ons. Exampl es 1.Sodi um andchl or i ner eactt oget her ; Sodi um gi v esi t sel ect r ont ochl or i ne. Sodi um nowhas10el ect r onsbut11pr ot onssoi thasaposi t i v echar gewhi l e chl or i nenowhas18el ect r onsand17pr ot onssoi thasanegat i v echar ge 2.Magnesi um andoxy gen 3.Sodi um andoxy gen Cov al entbondi ng I ti sf or medwhennonmet al sshar eel ect r onssot hateachat om gai nsanobl egas conf i gur at i on. Exampl es Hy dr ogenmol ecul e Hy dr ogenat om hasoneel ect r oni nt heout er mostshel l .Tobecomest abl ewi t h hy dr ogenat om, i tneedsonemor eel ect r on, j ustl i kehel i um whi chhas2el ect r ons. When2hy dr ogenat omsj oi n, t heyshar et hei rel ect r ons, onwhi ch, t heshar e becomes2el ect r ons, whi chi snowanobl egasconf i gur at i on, bei ngshar edbet ween t hese2at oms. Chl or i nemol ecul e Chl or i neat om has7el ect r onsandneedsoneel ect r on, each, t of or m anobl egas conf i gur at i onbet weent woChl or i neat oms.Hencet heyshar eanel ect r onEACHt o henceshar e2el ect r onsbet weent heat oms.Hence, eachChl or i neat om nowhas8 el ect r onswhi chi sanobl egasconf i gur at i on Wat ermol ecul e Apar tf r om oxy genshar i ngbet weenoxy genat oms, i tcanhav eel ect r onswi t hot her at oms.Oxy genneeds2el ect r onsandwhenbondedwi t hhy dr ogen, whi chneedan at om each, t heycombi net opr ov i de2el ect r onsonbot hsi desofoxy genbonded wi t hhy dr ogenat oms.Eachhy dr ogenwi t hoxy genat om f or m asi ngl ebond: O–H. THEMOLECONCEPT Av ogadr onumber( L) - I st henumberofpar t i cl esi nonemol eofanel ementorcompound. L=6. 02x1023 - Amol ei sat omi cormol ecul armassexpr essedi ngr ams. - Amol ei st heamountofsubst ancewhi chcont ai nst hesamenumberof mol ecul esorat omsast her ear eat omsi n12gof12 6C 1mol ofMgO=24+16=40g 2mol ofHCl=2[ 1+35. 5]=73g 1mol ofO2 =2[ 16]=32g ma s s Numberofmol es= or mol e c ul a rma s s n=m Mr Exampl es 1.Expr esst hef ol l owi ngi nmol es ( a)10gNH3 1mol e( NH3) = 14+( 1)3 =17g 10gNH3 = 10 =0. 59mol es 17 ( b)5gNa 2.Cal cul at et hemass ( a)0. 2mol esC2H4 1mol e( C2H4) =2( 12)+4( 1) 0. 2mol es=28x0. 2 =28g =5. 6g ( b)0. 25mol esofcar bonmonoxi de Mol ecul arMass( Mr ) - I sgi v enbyt hesum ofat omi cmassesoft heel ement s. Mr( NaCl ) = 23+35. 5 = 58. 5g Mr( Na2O) = 2( 23)+16 = 62g Mr( Na2CO3) Mr( HCl ) Mr( CO2) Mr( NH3) Empi r i calf or mul a - I saf or mul at hatshowst hesi mpl estr at i ocombi nat i onofat omst hatf or m upa gi v ensubst ance, Exampl e 1.6gofMagnesi um i sheat edi noxy gen, af t ercool i ngandr ewei ghi ngi ti sf ound t hatt her ei s10gofMagnesi um Oxi de.Fi ndt heempi r i cal f or mul af orMagnesi um Oxi de Rat i o:Mg : O 6 24 : 4 16 = 0. 25 : 0. 25 ( di v i debyt hesmal l est ) 1 : 1 ∴e mpi c a l f or mul a=Mg O 2.Cal cul at et heempi r i cal f or mul aeofsubst anceswhi chhav et hef ol l owi ng composi t i onsbymass; 43. 4%Sodi um, 11. 3%Car bon, 45. 3%Oxy gen Rat i o:Na : C : O 43. 4 : 23 11. 3 : 12 45. 3 16 = 1. 89 : 0. 942: 2. 83 ( Di v i debyt hesmal l est ) 1. 89 : 0. 942 =2. 01 : 0. 942 : 0. 942 2. 83 0. 942 1 3 : ∴e mpi r i c a l f or mul a=Na O3 2C Concent r at i on - I ti st her at i oofnumberofmol esofasol ut et ot hev ol umeofasol ut i on. rofmol e s Concent r at i on=numbe vol ume - Uni t sar emol / dm3org/ dm3 Exampl es 1.Fi ndt henumberofmol esofSodi um hy dr oxi dei n25cm3ofsol ut i onof concent r at i on0. 1mol / dm3 Numberofmol es = concent r at i onxv ol ume = 0. 1x25 = 0. 0025 2.Fi ndv ol umeofsol ut i onofconcent r at i on2mol / dm3t hatcont ai n0. 005mol esof hy dr ochl or i caci d. Vol ume rofmol e s =numbe c onc e nt r a t i on 005 = 1000x0. 2 =25cm3 ACI DS, BASESANDSALTS I dent i f yt her egi onsofaci di t y, neut r al i t yandal kal i ni t yofsubst anceont hepHscal e andusi nguni ver sali ndi cat orsol ut i on ThepHscal eandUni v er sal i ndi cat or - I st henumer i cal measur eoft heaci di t yoral kal i ni t yofasol ut i on. - ThepHscal er angesf r om 014 - Aci dshav epHv al uesl esst han7whi l eal kal i nehav epHv al uesgr eat ert han7. - I fasol ut i onhasapHv al ueof7i ti sneut r al . - Uni v er sal i ndi cat ori susedt omeasur et hepHofasol ut i on Descr i bet her eact i onsofaci dswi t hmet alandbases Wr i t ewor dandchemi calequat i onsf orr eact i ons React i onofaci dswi t hmet al s - Whenanaci dr eact swi t hmet al , hy dr ogeni sdi spl aced, l eav i ngasal ti nsol ut i on Magnesi um +sul phur i caci d hy dr ogen magnesi um sul phat e+ Mg( s) + H2SO4 ( aq) MgSO4( aq) + H2( g) Zn( s)+ 2HCl ( aq) ZnCl aq) + 2( H2( g) React i onofaci dswi t hbases - Basesr eact swi t haci dsandneut r al i zet hem, gi v i ngsal tandwat er .Dur i ng neut r al i zat i onH+i onscombi newi t hOH-i onst of or m wat er H2SO4( aq) + 2NaOH( aq)` 2NaSO4( aq)+ H2O( l ) React i onofaci dswi t hcar bonat es - Car bonat esr eactwi t haci dst ogi v esal t , wat erandcar bondi oxi de.Ther ei s f i zzi ngoref f er v escence. CaCO3( s) + 2HCl ( aq) CaCl aq) + 2( H2O( l ) + CO2( g) MgCO3( s) + H2SO4( aq) MgSO4( aq) + H2O( l ) + CO2( g) CaCO3( s) 2HNO3( aq) Ca( NO3) 2 H2O( l ) + CO2( g) + + I NDUSTRI ALPROCESSES Out l i nepr oduct i onofni t r ogenandoxygen - Ai ri scool edt o78oCandcar bondi oxi deandwat erar er emov edassol i ds. - Remai ni nggasesar ecompr essed, cool edandal l owedt oexpandr api dl ycausi ng f ur t hercool i ng. - Thepr ocessi sr epeat edandt emper at ur edr opst o–200oC; oxy genandni t r ogen ar el i quef i ed. - Li qui dai ri spumpedi nt oaf r act i onat i ngcol umnandi ti sf r act i onal l ydi st i l l ed. - Theni t r ogen, whi chhasaboi l i ngpoi ntof–196oC, i scol l ect edf r om t het opof t hecol umnbecausei tev apor at esf i r st . - Theoxy gen, whi chhasaboi l i ngpoi ntof–183oC, r emai nsal i qui dandi s r emov edf r om t hebot t om oft hecol umn ELECTROLYSI S Def i neel ect r ol ysi s - I ti sapr ocessi nwhi chel ect r i ci t yi susedt obr eakcompoundst ot hei rel ement s. ELECTROLYTI CCELL Labelt hegener alcomponent sofanel ect r ol yt i ccel l ELECTROLYSI SOFMOLTENLEADBROMI DE Descr i beanodeandcat hoder eact i onsf orel ect r ol ysi sofmol t enl eadbr omi de St at eobser vat i onsf ort heel ect r ol ysi sofmol t enl eadbr omi de - Tomakemol t enl ead( I I )br omi de, PbBr west r ongl yheatt hesol i dunt i l i tmel t s. 2, Toel ect r ol y sei t , passcur r entt hr ought hemol t enPbBr 2. - I onsPr esentar ePb2+andBr - Att hecat hodel eadi onsgai nsel ect r onst of or ml eadat oms.Thel eadwi l l f or ma l i qui datt hebot t om oft her eact i onv essel . Pb2+ + 2e- Pb( l eadmet al ) - Att heanodebr omi dei onsl osesel ect r onst of or m br omi neat omswhi ch combi net of or m mol ecul esofbr omi negas/ v apour .Br omi neappear sasabr own gasatt heanode. 2Br ( aq) Br g)+ 2( 2e- Pb( l )+ Br g) 2( Ov er al l Equat i on PbBr l ) 2( ELECTROLYSI SOFWATER Descr i bet heel ect r ol ysi sofwat er - I ner tpl at i num/ car bonel ect r odesar eusedasel ect r odes. - Wat eri saci di f i edt o - Wat eri sbr okeni nt ohy dr ogenandoxy geni nt her at i os2: 1r espect i v el y - Whi l ecur r enti sf l owi ngposi t i v eH+i onsmi gr at et ot hecat hode, acceptel ect r ons t of or m hy dr ogenat oms, whi cht hencombi net of or m mol ecul esofhy dr ogengas. 2H+( aq) + 2e- H2( g) - Negat i v ehy dr oxi dei onsmi gr at et ot heanodeandgi v eupel ect r onsf or mi ng wat erandoxy genmol ecul es. 4OH-( aq) 2H2O( l ) + St at epr oduct sf or meddur i ngel ect r ol ysi sofwat er - Hy dr ogen - Oxy gen St at eusesofoxygenandhydr ogen Usesofoxy gen 1.Manuf act ur eofst eel 2.Cut t i ngandwel di ngmet al s 3.Medi cal pur poses Usesofhy dr ogen 1.Manuf act ur eofammoni a 2.Manuf act ur eofmar gar i ne O2( g)+ 2e- 3.Wel di ng COPPERPLATI NG St at et hecat hode, anodeandel ect r ol yt edur i ngcopperel ect r opl at i ng - Anodei scopper - Cat hodei st hei r onnai l . - Aci di f i edcoppersul phat esol ut i oni st heel ect r ol y t e. Expl ai nt hecat hodepr ocess - Copperat omsl oseel ect r onst obecomecopperi onswhi chmov et ot hecat hode wher et heygai nel ect r onst obecomecopperat oms. - Theat omsst i ckt ot hei r onnai l , gi v i ngi tat hi ncoat i ngofcopper St at er easonsf orel ect r opl at i ngmat er i al s 1.Pr ev entcor r osi onorr ust i ng 2.Decor at i on OXI DATI ONANDREDUCTI ON Def i neoxi dat i onandr educt i on OXI DATI ON - I sgai nofoxy genor - Lossofhy dr ogenor - Lossofel ect r ons REDUCTI ON - Lossofoxy genor - Gai nofhy dr ogenor - Gai nofel ect r ons React i onofcopperoxi dewi t hhy dr ogen - Hy dr ogenr emov esoxy genf r om copper( I I )Oxi de. - Thecopperoxi dei sr educedwhi l ehy dr ogeni soxi di zedt of or m wat er . CuO( s) + H2 Cu( s)+ H2O( l ) EXTRACTI ONOFI RONATZI SCO Li str awmat er i al susedi nt heext r act i onofi r on, t hei rsour ceandf unct i ons Rawmat er i al s Sour ce Li mest one/ CaCO3 Haemat i t e/ I r on Redcl i f f e/ Buchwa/ Ri ppl or e/ Fe2O3 ecr eek Uses Coke/Car bon Hwange Hotai r / Oxy gen Sabl eChemi cal s TheBl astFur nace Descr i ber eact i onsi nt hebl astf ur nace 1.Neart hebot t om oft hef ur nace, t hecar boni ncokecombi neswi t hoxy gent ogi v e car bondi oxi de. C( s) + O2 CO2( g) + Heat 2.I nt hemi ddl eoft hef ur nacet hei r onoxi dei sr educedbycar boni nt hecokeand t hecar bonmonoxi der eact swi t hi r on( I I I )oxi det opr oducemol t eni r on, whi ch r unsdownt ot hebot t om oft hef ur nace Fe2O3( s) + 3CO 2Fe( l ) + 3CO2( g) Fe2O3( s) + 3C 2Fe( l ) + 3CO( g) - Themol t eni r oncol l ect satt hebot t om oft hef ur nace 3.Thel i mest onei sdecomposedbyheatt ogi v ecal ci um oxi de CaCO3( s) CaO( s) + CO2( g) 4. I r onor econt ai nsmanyi mpur i t i es( si l i con, sul phur , phosphor us, et c. )Sand ( si l i ca) , Si O2, r eact swi t hcal ci um oxi det opr oducesl ag( cal ci um si l i cat e) .Sl ag r unsdownt ot hebot t om oft hef ur nace, f l oat i ngont opofmol t eni r on CaO( s) + Si O2( s) CaSi O3( l )( sl ag) - Mol t eni r on&sl agt appedof fsepar at el yi nf ur nace.Sl agi sf orr oadconst r uct i on. Heat i ngI r onOxi deonachar coal bl ock ORGANI CCHEMI STRY HYDROCARBONS Def i net het er m hydr ocar bon - Ar ecompoundsofhy dr ogenandcar bononl ye. g.Al kanesandal kenes. Namet hemember soft hehomol ogousser i eswi t h3car bonat oms - Al kanesar ehy dr ocar bonst hathav eonl yasi ngl eC–CorC–Hbond.Theyhav e agener al f or mul aCnH2n+2e. g.Met hane( CH4),Et hane( C2H6)andPr opane( C3H8) - Al kenesar ehy dr ocar bonswi t hadoubl eC=Cbond.Theyhav eagener al f or mul a CnH2ne. g.et hene( C2H4)andPr opene( C3H6) Dr awt hedi spl ayedst r uct ur esofmet hane, et hane, pr opane, et heneandpr opene Al kanes Met hane St at eusesofmet hane, et hane, pr opane, et heneandpr opene BI OGAS Out l i nepr oduct i onofbi ogas - I spr oducedbyanaer obi cdecomposi t i on( f er ment at i on)ofbi ol ogi cal wast est o r ecov erener gyf r om wast es. - Fr eshcowdungi scol l ect edandt henmi xedwi t hwat ert of or m sl udge. - Ast hebact er i ai nt hedi gest erdi gestt hesl udge, bi ogasi sgi v enof fandi sei t her col l ect edordi r ect l yused. - Thedi gest edsl udge( sl ur r y )i scol l ect edandusedasaf er t i l i ser . - Thedi gest eri sbui l tunder gr oundsot hatt heheatpr oduceddur i ng decomposi t i oni sr et ai nedandf aci l i t at esf ur t herdecomposi t i onoft hecowdung I dent i f yf act or saf f ect i ngt hepr oduct i onofbi ogas - Nat ur eofwast e - Ti me - Anaer obi cbact er i a - pHbet ween6&7 - Sui t abl et emper at ur eofabout3555oC - Ai r St at eusesofbi ogas 1.Cooki ng 2.Li ght i ng 3.Oper at i ngar ef r i ger at or FORM FOUR SEPARATI ON Descr i bepaperchr omat ogr aphy Chr omat ogr aphy - I ti samet hodofsepar at i ngandi dent i f y i ngmi xt ur es. - Obt ai nady esampl et henputadr opoft hesampl eonapenci l l i nedr awnont he f i l t erpapert hendi pt hepaperi nt oasol v entwi t ht hel ev el bel owt hespot .The dy ewi l l di ssol v ei nsol v entandt r av el upt hepaperatdi f f er entspeed.Hencet hey ar esepar at ed. St at et heappl i cat i onofpaperchr omat ogr aphy 1.Separ at esandi dent i f ymi xt ur esofcol our edsubst ancesi ndy es 2.Separ at essubst ancesi nur i ne, dr ugs&bl oodf ormedi ci nal uses 3.Tof i ndoutwhet herat hl et eshav ebeenusi ngbanneddr ugs MATTER Descr i bet hepr oper t i esofgr oupI , I I , VI IandVI I I Gr oupIEl ement s–TheAl kal i Met al s - Thesear emet al swhi chr eactwi t hwat ert of or m al kal i nesol ut i ons.Thesol ut i ons t ur nr edl i t muspaperbl ue. - Mostr eact i v emet al si nper i odi ct abl e - Hav eoneout ershel l el ect r ons - Shi ny , si l v er ysol i ds - Sof t , easi l ycutwi t hscal pel - Lowdensi t i es&mel t i ngpoi nt s.Thesei ncr easesdownt hegr oup - React seasi l yi nai r .Sot hey ’ r ekepti noi l - React sv i gor ousl y( maycat chf i r eorexpl ode)wi t hcol dwat er - Theymakei oni ccompoundsof+1char ge.Theyhav esi mi l arf or mul ae - Theybecomer eact i v edownt hegr oup Gr oupVI IEl ement s–TheHal ogens - Thesear eel ement swhi chr eactwi t hmostmet al st of or m sal t s - Ver yr eact i v eel ement s - Hav esev enout ershel l el ect r ons - Eachmol ecul ei nt heel ementi sdi at omi c( cont ai nst woat oms, e. g.F2) - El ement sbecomedar kerandsol i di f ydownt hegr oup - Theyhav el owmel t i ngandboi l i ngpoi nt swhi chi ncr easesdownt hegr oup - Al l hal ogensar epoi sonous - Hal ogensbecomel essr eact i v edownt hegr oup - Mor er eact i v ehal ogendi spl acesl essr eact i v ehal ogene. g.aqueousf l uor i newas addedi nt osodi um br omi desol ut i on. Gr oup0El ement s–TheNobl eGases - Ar el eastr eact i v eel ement si nt hest at eofgas.Theydonotf or m bonds - Hav est abl eel ect r oni cconf i gur at i onwi t hf ul l el ect r onsont hei rshel l s - Col our edgasesconsi st i ngofsi ngl eat oms( monoat omi c) - Lowmel t i ngandboi l i ngpoi nt s St at eusesofhal ogens - Wat erpur i f i cat i one. g.chl or i ne - Maki ngchl or of l uor ocar bons( aer osol s)e. g.f l uor i ne - Maki ngpest i ci dese. g.f l uor i ne - Maki ngbr omi newat ere. g.Br omi ne - Maki ngi odi sedsal t se. g.I odi ne - Maki nghy dr ochl or i caci de. g.Chl or i ne - Bl eachi ngagent se. g.chl or i nei nwoodpul ps Descr i bet her eact i onsofmet al swi t hwat er , st eam, ai randdi l ut eaci ds Wr i t eequat i onsf ort her eact i onofmet al swi t hoxygen, di l ut eaci dsandwat er React i onofMet al swi t hWat er - Pot assi um, Sodi um andCal ci um r eact sv i gor ousl ywi t hcol dwat ert 2K( s)+ 2H2O( l ) 2KOH( aq) + H2g) 2Na( s) + 2H2O( l ) 2NaOH( aq)+ H2( g) 2Ca( s) + 2H2O( l ) 2CaOH( aq) + H2( g) - Magnesi um r eact sv er ysl owl ywi t hcol dwat erbutv i gor ousl ywi t hst eam - Zi ncdonotr eactwi t hcol dwat erbutr eact ssl owl ywi t hst eam - I r onr eact swi t hst eam butdoesnotr eactwi t hcol dwat er .Rust i ngoccur sv er y sl owl yi nt hepr esenceofoxy gen. Mg( s)+ H2O( g) MgO( s) + H2( g) Zn( s)+ H2O( g) ZnO( s) + H2( g) 3Fe( s) + 4H2O( g) Fe3O4( s) + H2( g) - Copperhav enor eact i onwi t hwat erandst eam React i onofMet al swi t hdi l ut eAci ds - Pot assi um andSodi um r eact sexpl osi v el yt owi t haci ds. - Cal ci um r eact sv i gor ousl ywi t hdi l ut eaci ds. - Magnesi um r eact sv er yf astwi t hdi l ut eaci ds. - Zi ncr eact smoder at el ywi t hdi l ut eaci ds - I r onr eact ssl owl ywi t hdi l ut eaci ds 2K( s) + 2HCl ( aq) 2KCl ( aq) + H2( g) 2Na( s) + 2HCl ( aq) 2NaCl ( aq) + H2( g) Ca( s) + 2HCl ( aq) CaCl aq) + 2( H2( g) Mg( s) + 2HCl ( aq) MgCl aq) + 2( H2( g) Zn( s) + 2HCl ( aq) ZnCl aq) + 2( H2( g) Fe( s) + 2HCl ( aq) FeCl aq) + 2( H2( g) - Leadr eact swi t hwar m hy dr ochl or i caci dsl owl y - Copperhasnor eact i onwi t hdi l ut ehy dr ochl or i caci d React i onofmet al swi t hoxy gen - Pot assi um t ar ni shesi nt hepr esenceofoxy gen - Sodi um bur nswi t hay el l owf l ame - Copperpowderbur nswi t hdul l r edgl ow - I r onpowderbur nswi t hbr i ghty el l owf l ame - Magnesi um bur nswi t habr i ghtwhi t ef l amet opr oducewhi t esol i d 4K( s) + O2( g) 4Na( s) + 2Cu( s)+ O2( g) O2( g) 2K2O( s) 2Na2O( s) 2CuO( s) 3Fe( s)+ 2O2( g) 2Mg( s) + Fe3O4( s) O2( g) 2MgO( s) REACTI VI TYSERI ES Li stmet al si nor derofdecr easi ngr eact i vi t y Pr edi ctt her eact i vi t yofamet alf r om i t sposi t i oni nt her eact i vi t yser i es - Met al scanbear r angedi nor deroft hei rr eact i v i t y . - Ther eact i v i t yser i esi sbasedont her eact i onofmet al swi t hwat erofdi l ut e hy dr ochl or i caci d. - Whenmet al r eact s, t heat om l osesel ect r onst obecomeani on.Themor er eadi l y amet al gi v esupel ect r onst of or mi ons, t hemor er eact i v ei ti s. Pot assi um Sodi um Cal ci um Magnesi um Al umi ni um Zi nc I r on Lead Copper Si l v er ACI DS, BASESANDSALTS TI TRATI ON - Techni queusedt of i ndt heconcent r at i onofaci dsandt omakesol ubl esal t s f r om anaci dandanal kal i nee. g.f i ndi ngt heconcent r at i onofet hanoi caci di na sampl eofv i negar . I dent i f yappar at ususedi nat i t r at i on - Api pet t e - Phenol pht hal ei n. - Abur et t e Descr i beanaci dbaset i t r at i onpr ocedur e - Usi ngapi pet t e, 25cm3ofHy dr ochl or i caci di spl acedi naconi cal f l ask.Af ew dr opsofi ndi cat ore. g.Phenol pht hal ei nar eadded. - Di l ut eHy dr ochl or i caci di spl acedi nabur et t eandt henr el easedi nt oconi cal f l ask unt i l t hei ndi cat orchangescol ourwhi chmeansal l t heaci dhasj ustr eact ed.The v ol umeofal kal i addedf r om t hebur et t et oaci di smeasur ed. - Theexper i menti snowr epeat ed.25. 0cm3ofHy dr ochl or i caci di spl acedi na t i t r at i onf l askasbef or e, butnoi ndi cat ori sadded. - TheNaOHi spl acedi nabur et t eandt hesamev ol umeoft hi sal kal i i saddedt o t hef l askasbef or e. - Thef l askt hencont ai nsasol ut i onofsodi um chl or i dewi t houtexcessaci dor al kal i . - Thesodi um chl or i dei sobt ai nedbyev apor at i ngmostoft hewat erand cr y st al l i zi ngt hesal t . I NDUSTRI ALPROCESSES AMMONI A St at econdi t i onsneededf ort hepr oduct i onofammoni a Li str awmat er i al susedt omanuf act ur eammoni a Descr i bemanuf act ur eofammoni a TheHaberPr ocess - Ni t r ogenandhy dr ogenar emi xedt oget heri nr at i o1: 3, wher eni t r ogeni sobt ai ned f r om ai randhy dr ogeni sobt ai nedf r om nat ur al gas, andpassedov eri r oncat al y st St at et hei ndust r i alusesofammoni a Forpr oduci ngf er t i l i ser s, ni t r i caci d, ny l on, dy es, cl eaner sanddr ycel l Li str awmat er i al susedt omanuf act ur esul phur i caci d Descr i bemanuf act ur eofsul phur i caci d St at econdi t i onsneededf ort hepr oduct i onofsul phur i caci d St at eusesofsul phur i caci d - Maki ngoff er t i l i z er ssuchassuper phosphat eandammoni um sul phat e - Maki ngdet er gent s - Cl eani ngsur f acesofi r onandst eel sur f acebef or egal v ani zat i onorel ect r opl at i ng - Tomanuf act ur epl ast i csandf i br es - Asel ect r ol y t ei ncarbat t er i es - I nr ef i ni ngofpet r ol eum - I npr oduct i onofdy es, dr ugs, expl osi v es, pai nt , et c. OXI DATI ONANDREDUCTI ON Byendoft het opi cl ear ner swi l lbeabl et o 1.Li stdownal l oysofi r on 2.St at et heper cent agecomposi t i onofal l oysofi r on 3.Expl ai nusesandpr oper t i esofal l oysofi r on ORGANI CCHEMI STRY Byendoft het opi cl ear ner swi l lbeabl et o o St at et hehomol ogousser i est owhi chet hanolbel ongs o Dr awt hedi spl ayedst r uct ur alf or mul aofet hanol Descr i bet hepr oduct i onofconcent r at edet hanol - Et hanol i spr oducedf r om t hef er ment at i onofsugar , mai zeorgl ucose - Et hanol i sconcent r at edbyf r act i onal di st i l l at i on - Di l ut eet hanol sol ut i oni spumpedi nt ot hemi ddl eoft hedi st i l l at i oncol umn. - Theet hanol boi l sof ff i r stsi ncei t sboi l i ngpoi ntof78oCi sl owert hant hatof wat er . - I t sv apourpassest hr ought hecondenserandcool sbacki nt ol i qui dwhi ch col l ect si nt hef l askatt heendoft hecondenser . - Wat erwhi chboi l sat100oCr emai nsi nt heheat edf l ask. - Thef r act i onat i ngcol umni scool edatt het op, sot hatanyl i qui dboi l i ngathi gher t emper at ur et han78oCwi l l condenseandr unbacki nt ot hef l ask. - Onl yet hanol r eachest het opoft hecol umnasav apour Li stusesofet hanol - Bev er ages - Sol v ent - Medi cal pur poses - Topr oducecosmet i cs, det er gent s, pl ast i csandl ubr i cant s - Fuel - Def i net het er m gl obalwar mi ng Li stt hecausesofgl obalwar mi ng
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