RESEARCH
APPLIED RESEARCH IN URBAN AND
REGIONAL PLANNING PRACTICE
SMC INSIGHTS
FEB 07, 2025
1.0 Introduction
This article is based on my years of teaching urban planning research as a subject,
engaging in urban planning research as a consultant, and acting as a research advisor
to professionals and post-graduate students. Urban and regional planning is a
discipline that addresses issues and challenges in the built and natural environment.
Urban planning is a deliberate process of managing and shaping the physical
development of cities, including land use, transportation networks, infrastructure, and
public spaces [1]. The broad goal of this process is to create a functional, sustainable,
and socially equitable settlement, which is carried out through the preparation of
development plans and initiatives.
However, we cannot develop a plan for an area before we understand it[2]. Before
planning, we must understand the planning area, its peculiarities and other issues.
Understanding these needs is where applied research in urban and regional planning
comes in. Applied research is conducted to oHer practical solutions to real-world
problems. An example is a post-occupancy evaluation of residential housing units to
inform local authorities on how residents are experiencing a newly developed housing
project[3].
To extract information for development planning to address issues such as land use
management, housing provision and aHordability, environmental management, public
management, housing provision and aHordability, environmental management, public
health, general infrastructure provision and mobility issues, among others, urban and
regional planners rely on applied research; this helps to capture the prevailing
situation in the study area, helps to ensure planning decisions consider the local
communities’ peculiar situation, identify prevailing development pattern and
addresses complex societal challenges.
Applied research enhances urban planning outcomes, as with every other endeavour,
in areas such as economy, Mnance, economic management, public health, and
technology. Applied research helps to resolve real-world problems. Notably, the
applied research structure could be diHerent for urban planning academics than for
urban planning consultancy engagement. Applied research is tied to various modes of
urban planning. In this article the explanation of applied research is tied to academic
and consultancy urban and regional planning activities, and signiMcant aspects of
applied research are covered in this article (Figure 1).. The article’s main objective is to
help urban planning researchers, practitioners, and students (undergraduate and post-
graduate students) have a robust understanding of applied research processes in urban
and regional planning.
Figure 1: Major Theme in Urban & Regional Planning Research
2.0 Identifying Research Problems
Urban planning research begins with identifying speciMc challenges or issues faced in
a prospective plan area, either urban or rural. Some of these challenges or issues could
be urban sprawl emergence, ineXcient transportation systems, poor housing
environment, deMcit housing supply, lopsided local economic development, ageing
population, public health issues, increasing crime rate, lack of gender inclusiveness in
settlement development and environmental degradation, among others. Problem
identiMcation involves assessing these issues within broader local contexts. The issues
mentioned earlier must be examined carefully beyond the symptoms. For instance,
housing shortages in a speciMc area could be due to one or multiple factors: population
growth, regulatory barriers, inadequate Mnance, rigid development control processes,
and housing market ineXciencies, among others. A robust problem-identiMcation
:
process ensures that research questions are both relevant and actionable. This implies
process ensures that research questions are both relevant and actionable. This implies
that formulating urban planning research questions is premised on a robust planning
problem and issues identiMcation. It should also be stated that problem identiMcation
could be reMned based on the outcome of data collection for speciMc urban planning
issues in any given settlement. The process of deMning a problem requires basic data
support[4].
For example, as an urban planner within a given city, you observed that a certain
segment has a higher petty crime rate than others, negatively impacting the security,
livability and the local community’s economic growth. You will then proceed to
identify a series of issues attached to this crime rate; this process is further improved
through reading through published local development reports, police reports, and
judicial reports, among others, to further establish crime pattern and rates. Planning
research problems could be derived from the day-to-day urban planner practice in the
academic, public, or private sector, from reviewing previous project reports, reading
local news publications, or from input from residents of the local community. To
resolve identiMed planning problems highlighted in the previous discussion, speciMc
questions need to be generated, which will be answered during the research. Also,
research aim need to be developed in addition to speciMc research objectives.
3.0 Research Questions, Aim, and Objectives
AWer identifying the research problems for a given planning area or planning topic,
turning the problems into question format ensures that urban planners have a more
concentrated approach to providing solutions to planning problems and issues.
Research questions provide a focus and a direction to research. Research questions
translate planning challenges and planning topics into speciMc areas of enquiry. The
structure research questions take is determined by the nature of the planning study,
topic or project.
:
Broadly, research questions can be categorised into descriptive, analytical, evaluative,
Broadly, research questions can be categorised into descriptive, analytical, evaluative,
and policy-oriented. Descriptive research questions seek to highlight urban issues
and patterns. Example: What are the main factors contributing to mobility issues
(traXc congestion) in the city centre? Answering this question requires traXc volume,
land use, and transport infrastructure data. Analytical research questions explore
relationships between planning research variables. Example: How does the availability
of aHordable housing inbuence population density in urban settlements? This
question requires assessing housing aHordability indices, demographic trends, and
land use patterns. Evaluative research questions determine the eHectiveness of
implemented urban planning policies, development plans or interventions. Example:
To what extent has the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system reduced travel times in the
study area? This question requires comparing travel data before and aWer BRT
implementation in the study location. Policy-oriented research questions focus on
planning solutions. Example: What housing aHordability policies can address the high
cost of public and private housing units in an urban area? The answers to such
questions would inform policy recommendations.
Academic research aim and objectives or planning project aim and objectives need to
be developed. The research aim clearly states the planning study’s purpose or project.
In applied urban planning research, aim should align with practical concerns to solve
a real-world challenge or issue. Aim deMnes the intended outcome and ensures that
research Mndings contribute directly to the body of knowledge or ensure practical
planning solutions and strategies. For instance, if a study focuses on housing
shortages, the aim could be to examine the factors contributing to inadequate housing
supply towards proposing planning interventions on housing supply. Notably, a welldeMned aim establishes the direction of the research and ensures relevance to urban
planning practice. For planning consultancy projects, research aim are shaped by the
client’s needs or the project area’s planning challenges. For example, a local council
:
focused on addressing mobility issues could conduct a research to understand and
focused on addressing mobility issues could conduct a research to understand and
resolve the mobility issue. The research aim will be to identify mobility problems and
propose planning strategies to address the local council mobility challenge adequately
Research objectives are to break down research aim into speciMc, measurable, and
actionable components. A research objective is expected to help understand the
eHectiveness of existing planning interventions, for example, the level of eHectiveness
of any previous mobility initiatives in the local council, causes of identiMed planning
issues, dictate the data collection, analysis, and interpretation process and
recommendations on the identiMed planning issues and research topic. Another
example is a study on an informal settlement development process and its impact on
residents’ living conditions. This study’s research objectives will include an
assessment of the land tenure processes, socio-economic conditions in the settlement,
regulatory issues contributing to sprawl development, and the impact of settlement
conditions on dweller wellbeing. Therefore, research objectives aid in measuring these
identiMed factors to achieve the research aim.
4.0 Literature Review
A literature review ensures urban planning research builds on existing knowledge. A
literature review in urban planning academic research helps deMne research questions
establish theoretical frameworks, and highlight the study’s relevance. In contrast, the
literature review of the urban planning practice project report identiMes best-case
studies and acts as a guiding principle for planning projects. It should be noted that
the planning academic research report is expected to have a literature review section,
but the urban planning consultancy project report might not have a standard literature
review section as obtained in the academic research report.
Broadly, a literature review provides urban planners with a foundation for their work,
synthesising Mndings from other research work, oXcial publications, and relevant
:
urban planning projects. More importantly, a literature review helps urban planners
urban planning projects. More importantly, a literature review helps urban planners
identify gaps in the existing body of knowledge concerning a particular research topic
or planning project, showing areas that need further exploration.
Academic urban planning research requires a structured literature review to establish
the study’s foundation in the existing body of knowledge. Literature reviews in
academic research serve three primary functions: to clarify research questions,
establish a theoretical foundation of the study and highlight the study’s signiMcance by
justifying the study’s contribution to the existing body of knowledge[5]. For urban
planning project reports, a literature review enables the identiMcation of similar
projects and the selection of the best case study to serve as a reference point for the
proposed project, establish guiding principles for the proposed project, and also guide
in the formulation of policy for the proposed planning project. For urban planning
academic reports, the literature review is foundational, while for urban planning
consultancy projects, the literature review provides supporting evidence for
recommendations.
5.0 Research Design
Research design is the process of deliberately planning for a research task. It serves as
a framework that directs how the research topic is addressed, data is gathered, and
analysis is carried out. Research design is an essential part of the research process and
guides the study’s goals with the procedures needed to accomplish them. The nine
main research design strategies are mixed methods, grounded theory, ethnography,
archival research, narrative inquiry, action research, survey, and case study[6]. As
shown in Table 1, each technique has distinct qualities and is appropriate for
:
particular research questions and objectives.
Table 1: Research Design Types
6.0 Research Methodology
Research methodology gives detailed steps to the process or phases of the study from
start to Mnish, emphasising the types of research instruments and methods required to
collect and analyse representative data[7]. Research methodology focuses on both
quantitative and qualitative dimensions of research. Quantitative methods use
numerical data and statistical analysis to identify trends, correlations, and predictive
models in urban planning issues, ensuring objectivity and enabling large-scale
:
generalisation. Qualitative methods explore non-numerical data to understand urban
generalisation. Qualitative methods explore non-numerical data to understand urban
planning issues using interviews, focus groups, and ethnographic observations; this
allows urban planners to capture diHerent perspectives on any given planning
challenge or issue.
7.0 Data Collection in Urban Planning
Data collection is a critical phase in the urban planning research process; this research
stage serves diHerent purposes, including answering the research questions, reMning
the research problem, and ascertaining the magnitude of a research problem. Urban
planning data are oWen location-speciMc, including population, economy, housing,
transportation, environmental conditions, public health, and physical development
intensity. Data is the collection of variables and observations explaining the features o
the study subjects. Data can be quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative data are data
in numerical format, while qualitative data are data in texts, narratives, visual
materials, etc., to describe the feature of a variable.
Primary data collection methods include surveys, interviews, and Meld observations,
while secondary collection data oWen involves census reports, GIS data, and policy
documents. Primary data are newly collected data, while secondary data are data that
have been previously used for either academic research or consultancy projects. Urban
planners rely on primary and secondary data for academic writing and consultancy
work engagement. Data dimensions include variables and attributes; variables are the
logical groupings of attributes, while attributes are characteristics of people or things,
and observations are all the study subjects presented in a dataset. In the dataset,
attributes are the columns in a spreadsheet describing the attributes of the
observations (Figure 2).
Data levels of measurement (measurement scale) are nominal, ordinal, interval and
:
ratio. Nominal variables are used to “name” or label a series of values. Ordinal scales
ratio. Nominal variables are used to “name” or label a series of values. Ordinal scales
provide good information about the order of choices. Interval scales give us the order
of values + the ability to quantify the diHerence between each one, and ratio scales give
us the ultimate–order interval values plus the ability to calculate ratios since a “true
zero” can be deMned (Figure 3).
:
Figure 2: Data Attributes
Figure 3: Measurement scale features
EHective data collection, in addition to other parameters, is also premised on the
sampling process; this helps to determine the representativeness of sample coverage.
In data collection, there is a need to diHerentiate between census data and sample
data; census data explores the attributes and characteristics of all the elements in a
study population, while sample data only explores a subset of all the elements in the
study population. Study populations can be human beings, animals, places, or
organisations. Census is usually time-consuming, expensive, and oWen statistically
unnecessary; therefore, sampling is necessary.
Sampling methods depend on research objectives. The sampling method could either
be probabilistic or non-probabilistic. Probabilistic sampling ensures
representativeness, while non-probabilistic techniques do not focus on
representativeness but are suitable for targeted studies. For any given urban planning
project or academic research report, if representativeness is important and sample
data will be used to generalise for the whole population, it is recommended that
probability sampling techniques be adopted.
8.0 Data Analysis in Urban Planning
:
For urban planners to provide suitable solutions to identiMed problems, there is a need
For urban planners to provide suitable solutions to identiMed problems, there is a need
to understand the local community dynamics; this is possible through collecting
relevant data and analysis of collected data using both descriptive and inferential
statistical tools to draw inferences for planning proposal development. Data analysis
translates raw data into planning information for planning actions (preparation of
development plans such as local plans, master plans, regional plans, and structure
plans, among others). Urban planning information results from urban planners’
interpretation of collected data based on the outcome of diHerent levels of statistical
analysis of quantitative and qualitative data from a speciMc plan area (Figure 4).
Once the data is collected, describing the data is oWen the Mrst analysis step,
regardless of whether it is qualitative or quantitative data. DiHerent methods will be
used to explore more complex relationships among variables. For example, for
quantitative data regression or correlation analytical tools could be used to probe the
statistical relationship between the independent and dependent variables, while for
qualitative data methods such as thematic coding, concept mapping, and other forms
of qualitative analysis tools could be used to identify pattern in sample responses, this
is in addition to basic descriptive analysis of the sample responses.
An independent variable is a variable that we expect to aHect a dependent variable; in
essence, the dependent variable is subject to the dynamic of an independent variable.
For instance, if an urban planner is interested in the crime rate in a local community,
data on gender, education, age, unemployment rate, housing condition, and law
enforcement eHectiveness will be required and used to explain the level of crime in the
local community. These variables are independent, while the crime rate is the
:
dependent variable.
Figure 4: The process of converting raw data into information
information[8]
[8]
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9.0 Findings Reporting and Communication
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Planners must present the results of planning data analysis to the public, clients, or
key interest groups; this could be in the form of a direct presentation of the data
analysis outcome or a presentation of a planning proposal (masterplan, urban renewal
plan, structure plan, local plan and subdivision plan among others) derived from the
result of the planning data analysis. It is expected that the goal of every urban planner
is to generate consensus on proposed planning action. This consensus is better
achieved through good planning information presentation that educates the planning
stakeholders and interest groups. Therefore, urban planning data analysis moves from
understanding relationships of observations in the planning area to understanding
spatial patterns and urban growth to achieving public acceptance (Consensus) Figure
:
5.
Figure 5: Data, information, and consensus building
building[9]
[9]
EHective communication of urban planning Mndings through well-prepared and
reader-focused reports guarantees that the stakeholders will accept the research
results. When communicating urban planning Mndings, either academic research
reports or urban planning project reports, visual aids like charts, maps, and
infographics are crucial. For instance, a heatmap that displays traXc congestion
patterns might be used to illustrate the need for additional transportation routes.
Numerous stakeholders with various interests are usually involved in urban planning
projects. To address these various needs, urban planners should have customised
outputs; for example, for the presentation at policy brieMngs with policymakers who
have limited time to go through a huge volume of reports, planners could use an
executive summary report; for the local community planners could use pictorial
representation, and for general stakeholder meeting another mode of presentation
could be adopted. These suggestions imply that urban planning report communication
tailored to each stakeholder’s needs guarantees that relevant stakeholders will easily
accept urban planners’ recommendations and suggestions.
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10. Ethical Consideration in Urban Planning Research
Research on urban and regional planning is heavily reliant on ethics. When doing
research that inbuences communities, there is a need for accountability, transparency,
and integrity. When using surveys or interviews to collect data, informed permission
of respondents is crucial. Also, urban planners need to ensure participants know how
:
their data will be utilised; this increases research legitimacy and ensures that
their data will be utilised; this increases research legitimacy and ensures that
participants’ rights are protected.
Urban and rural settlements have diverse sets of people with distinctive cultural and
social characteristics; this diversity needs to be respected in urban planning research.
For example, urban planning research activities should consider diHerent individuals’,
ethnic groups’, religious groups’, and political groups’ viewpoints on any given
planning issue.
11.0 Conclusion
Applied research in urban and regional planning ensures that planning decisions are
informed by information derived from robust statistical analysis to address real-world
challenges such as housing shortages, mobility issues, and environmental
sustainability. The research process begins with identifying relevant planning
problems and formulating clear research questions, aims, and objectives. A well-
structured literature review establishes the theoretical and empirical foundation of the
urban planning research or urban planning project, while an appropriate research
design ensures coherence in the study.
Research methodology, data collection, and analysis provide the tools to assess urban
or rural settlement conditions, measure intervention eHectiveness, and generate
actionable insights to achieve the intended research or planning aim. Ethical
considerations remain central to the research process, ensuring transparency,
inclusiveness, and respect for diverse urban and rural settlement populations. Findings
must be communicated eHectively to stakeholders, policymakers, and communities to
facilitate informed decision-making and consensus-building.
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[1] Peter Hall, Mark Tewdwr-Jones, 2019. Urban and Regional Planning, 6th Edition,
Routledge.
[2] Isserman, Andrew M. 2000. Economic base studies for urban and regional planning.
In: Lloyd Bodwin and Bishwapriya Sanyal (eds.). The Profession of City Planning. New
Brunswick, NJ: Center for Urban Policy Research, Rutgers, The State University of
New Jersey.
[3] Jacques du Toit. Research Design. In The Routledge Handbook of Planning
Research Methods, Elisabete A. Silva, Patsy Healey, Neil Harris, and Pieter Van den
Broeck (Eds). Routledge, 2015.
[4] Yanmei Li and Sumei, Zhang Applied Research Methods in Urban and Regional
Planning, 20222. Springer.
[5] Ibid.
[6] Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill. Research methods for business students (9th ed.).
Pearson Education, 2023.
[7] Opoku, A., Ahmed, V., & Akotia, J. Choosing an appropriate research methodology
:
and method. In V. Ahmed, A. Opoku, & Z. Aziz (Eds.), Research methodology in the
and method. In V. Ahmed, A. Opoku, & Z. Aziz (Eds.), Research methodology in the
built environment: A selection of case studies. Routledge. 2016.
[8] Xinhao Wang & Rainervom Hofe. Research Methods in Urban and Regional
Planning. Springer, 2007.
[9] Li and Zhang, Applied Research Methods. pg. 72
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