LITERATURE REVIEW
This section of the study reviewed literature related to artisanal small-scale mining (ASM). It
considered the various drivers of artisanal and small-scale mining, pressures of ASM,
environmental and health impacts of ASM, impacts on cocoa farmers, impacts on food security,
socioeconomic impacts, and mitigation strategies.
1. Drivers of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining
Agriculture is considered the most common occupation in Ghana's rural villages. However, people
augment their farming incomes with other economic activities like basketry, fishing, animal
husbandry, charcoal burning, and other quick-income-generating hobbies. For those in
communities with mineral deposits, artisanal and small-scale mining (galamsey) operations
provide a quick source of income. Economic development, employment, poverty, land tenure
systems, land ownership, and other variables all contribute to the growth of artisanal and smallscale mining.
Economic development
Over the years, mining operations have been essential to Ghana's economic growth. Its revenue
has raised household incomes, created jobs, increased the nation's revenue and income tax,
increased foreign exchange reserves, contributed significantly to GDP, opened up investment
opportunities, and provided financial support to the agricultural sector as well as other economic
sectors like trading and industrialization. The effects of these developments are evident (Faamaa,
Evans & Bonsu, 2020). The mining sector contributes about 5% of Ghana's GDP, and minerals
make up 37% of all exports, with gold accounting for more than 90% of all exports (Famaa et al.,
2020). According to a survey by Trading Economics, Ghana's mining-related GDP grew from
6357.49 GHS million to 6829.13 GHS million during the third quarter of 2018. Their survey
indicates that the mining sector's GDP grew from 3664.73 GHS million to 6829.13 GHS million
between 2006 and 2018.
Since small-scale artisanal mining contributes to mineral exports and foreign exchange, the
government of Ghana and Ghanaians in general are very interested in its existence and operation;
as a result, the activities have been legalized and made more regular (Poku, 2016). According to
Aryeetey, Bafour, and Twerefou (2007), small-scale gold production in Ghana helps create jobs
1
for the unemployed in rural areas. Prior to European contact, the Ashanti Empire was founded on
small-scale artisanal mining, which also helped open the Trans-Saharan route. Gold mining also
made a significant contribution to major projects in Ghana. ASM also contributes to household
income, which creates economic and social significance. Poverty has decreased and riches has
been created thanks in part to small-scale mining. It has encouraged local communities to get
business and social services (Poku, 2016). For hundreds of years, ASM has been a significant
economic activity in Ghana, especially in the more isolated and impoverished regions of the nation
(Aryee et al., 2003). In Ghana, ASM has mostly concentrated on gold and diamond production. It
is currently the nation's sole source of diamonds and contributes more than 30% of all gold
produced (Bansah et al., 2018).
Employment
Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) continues to be a significant source of income for many
people and families in rural regions across the world. Previous research has specifically
emphasized the critical role that ASM plays in emerging countries, including socioeconomic
development, rural employment, and income generation and diversification (Arthur-Holmes &
Abrefa Busia, 2020; Abubukar et al., 2020; Hilson, 2016). An estimated 100 million people
worldwide rely on ASM (World Bank, 2013). According to Hilson (2016), the ASM sector in
Ghana, for example, employs approximately one million people nationwide and generates millions
of additional jobs for others. Because of its effects on livelihood transformation, production
activities, migratory pull effects, and spatial mobilities given the heterogeneous workforce at
different ASM sites. ASM is also deeply embedded in the majority of rural communities. More
significantly, ASM is typically described as “a poverty-driven activity” (Hilson & Garforth, 2012),
including impoverished, illiterate, and unskilled rural residents and families who rely on ASM for
their livelihoods (Arthur et al., 2016; Hilson, 2016; Hilson & Osei, 2014).
Poverty
Tschakert and Singha (2007) argue that small-scale artisanal mining is a practice motivated by
poverty. The majority of Ghana's mining settlements are found in rural areas, with some residents
being low-income traders or illiterate peasant farmers. Approximately 38.2% of the country's rural
population lives in poverty, compared to 10.4% of urban dwellers (Human Rights Council, 2018).
According to Afriyie et al. (2016), this makes illicit mining a desirable endeavor for the majority
2
of people in rural communities who want to escape poverty. For instance, in the Ashanti Region's
Bekwai Municipality, illicit mining is typically more profitable than farming, and young people
without jobs and those in poverty use it to pay for their education and elevate their social standing
(Asamoah & Osei-Kojo, 2016).
Land tenure system
Both statutory and customary regulations govern Ghana's land tenure system. About 80% of the
nation's land area is under customary land tenure, which is governed by chiefs and family heads
(Ghebru & Lambrecht, 2017). To get mine sites, miners must navigate legal and customary
processes and adhere to rules in order to obtain land titles and licenses. Research has shown how
the informality of the ASM sector is enforced by the customary land tenure practices that currently
govern miners' access to land (Nyame & Blocher, 2010) and how the combination of customary
land tenure arrangements and state-based mining titling systems affects attempts to formalize the
ASM (Mensah, 2021). For example, underprivileged populations would face obstacles to mining
permits and land access, which would restrict their ability to participate in ASM and reap its
benefits. Therefore, effective interaction between the organizations that oversee the land and
mining sectors is vital for sustainable ASM.
Land ownership
According to Campion and Acheampong (2014), state lands make up around 20–30% of all lands
in Ghana, while private and customary/stool holdings make up the remaining 70–80%. This
suggests that the majority of mineralized lands, which are the main resource for both large-scale
mining operations and ASM, are located primarily within private or customary ownership (Nyame
& Blocher, 2010). However, the state is the ultimate owner of mineral endowments and the
authorizer of mineral rights in Ghana's mining and mineral environment, even though there are
numerous institutions involved in the management of mineral resources and customary and other
forms of land ownership (Boafo et al., 2019).
The appropriation of mineralized lands in
"authorization" agreements seems to include very little participation from landowners; traditional
authority and customary land tenure norms are essentially disregarded in land distribution schemes
(Boafo et al., 2019). Due to the land allocation systems' disregard for key stakeholders and
customary land tenure practices, parallel systems, the formal state system, and the customary land
tenure system have proliferated (Mensah, 2021). For many miners and landowners, the customary
3
land tenure system is still the most straightforward and well-known system of land tenure (Boafo
et al., 2019; Mensah, 2021).
2. Pressures of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM)
Deforestation
Mining activities in forest reserves have been caused by corruption, inadequate policies, and weak
institutional capacities (Boafo et al., 2019).
Both large-scale exploration and production
corporations and small-scale criminal miners are encroaching on Ghana's last forest reserve
remnants (Boafo et al., 2019). Roughly 13,165 hectares of forest reserves are under mining leases,
and mining has impacted about 15 of them. The biological and social services that forests provide
for survival and development, as well as the declining terrestrial carbon sink, are both significantly
impacted by this trend (Kwawuvi et al., 2021). About 70% of Ghana's rainforests are found in the
Bono East, Ahafo, Brong Ahafo, Eastern, Central, Western, and Western North Regions, where a
significant portion of mining operations occur (Schueler et al., 2011). Water bodies and forests
have been destroyed as a result of mining operations in these places. This made it necessary to
conduct Operation Vanguard in 2017 (Abdulai, 2017) and another operation that the Ghanaian
president announced in 2021 to remove miners from forest reserves and water bodies. Research
by Schueler et al. (2011) shows that in Ghana's Western Region, surface mining caused a
significant 45% loss of agriculture within mining concessions and roughly 58% deforestation.
Excavating for resources frequently results in land degradation (Yelpaala, 2004). River banks are
mined to a depth of 35 meters and spread out to a width of roughly 60 meters in certain regions of
the nation, devastating the aquatic ecology (Hilson, 2002).
Land degradation
The ecology suffers long-term losses due to land degradation, which also puts an excessive strain
on the ground surface. According to Boakye (2020), land degradation also has a direct impact on
the loss of soil, organic carbon, nutrients, and regulation. It also has an indirect impact on the loss
of wildlife habitat and production. Mining operations and its effects are noted to have a substantial
negative impact on the land and other resources. According to Sahu and Dash (2011), mining
activities that involve blasting or complex machinery cause destruction and waste generation, and
excessive removal from the mine area contributes to the loss of rain forests and rich top soil for
farming. About 13% of Ghana's total wooded land has been destroyed, according to Tetteh (2010),
4
who claims that artisanal small-scale surface mining operations pose a serious threat to land
degradation and destruction. Devastating impacts on soil ecosystems, such as elevated soil
temperatures, nitrogen loss and depletion, erosion, and topographic changes, pose a threat to
biodiversity protection (Tetteh, 2010). Illegal mining has devastated the ecosystem's unique habitat
for plants and animals and reduced the productivity of the lands (Asiedu, 2013). Farmers are
deprived of their lands due to human rivalry for land caused by agricultural fields, human
settlements, and concessions that are frequently located near forest zones (Tetteh, 2010). Unstable
rubbish piles, desolate areas, abandoned excavations, and unclaimed pits sometimes filled with
water can all be signs of artisanal small-scale mining and serve as mosquito breeding grounds and
death traps (Yelpaala, 2004). These vast farmlands are abandoned because they are hazardous,
unhygienic, and unprofitable.
Water pollution
One major issue brought on by artisanal and small-scale mining operations is water pollution. In
order to extract gold and other minerals, miners frequently employ hazardous chemicals like
mercury, which can damage water sources (Asuamah Yeboah, 2023). In instance, mercury is
extremely poisonous and can harm aquatic life as well as human health. Water source
contamination affects industries like agriculture and fisheries, which depend on clean water for
productive operations, in addition to biodiversity. High amounts of metals and metalloids found in
mining sector wastes pollute surface and groundwater (UNESCO, 2012). Large amounts of water
are used in mining operations, which leads to significant contamination. For years, contaminated
surface water bodies stay stagnant. Long-term water damage has an impact on a country's
economic gains.
The water bodies are frequently the sites of mineral extraction in Ghana, and 75% of its streams
are thought to be contaminated (Poku, 2016). Ghana's Offin River is one example of a polluted
river that reduces water flow and accessibility for locals. The Tano River in the Brong Ahafo
region, which serves as the main source of water for over 60% of the population, is also heavily
impacted by illegal miners, while the River Fena in the Amasei central district is also contaminated
due to extensive galamsey operations (Poku, 2016). Illegal mining activities in the Prestea mining
area have resulted in the loss of cropland, plant destruction, depletion of soil resources, and loss
of aquatic creatures (Mensah et al., 2015). Floods are becoming more frequent, destroying
5
plantation fields and farmlands. Fish species that are mostly consumed by humans are
contaminated when mercury is used to recover gold particles.
In Ghana, surface and ground water bodies are frequently contaminated in gold mining towns,
according to Adetunde et al. (2014). As ore is processed, chemicals like sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and
cyanide (CH) leak or spill from the processing area into adjacent water bodies, polluting the
environment. These toxins pose a harm to aquatic life, humans, and wildlife. Because small-scale
miners' ore waste washes into water bodies, the clean water sources that provide portable drinking
in mining communities are under threat (Obiri et al., 2016). According to Serfa-Armah et al.
(2006), mine tailings are dumped into water bodies, introducing a lot of suspended materials that
damage aquatic environments. Because mine tailing is poisonous, it causes major health risks to
people, animals, and plants (Hayford et al., 2009). According to a study conducted by Ghana's
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, small-scale mining operations that pollute the
region's water sources have made the majority of the communities in the Western Region
particularly vulnerable to health issues (Yeboah, 2013).
3. Environmental Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM)
Change in soil quality
Land degradation resulting from artisanal and small-scale mining has detrimental effects on the
soil. Many pits are carelessly dug, with depths varying from 6 to 30 feet and pit diameters between
400 and 4000 square feet (Kessey & Arko, 2013). Regretfully, these are still undiscovered even
after mining has stopped. Rainwater fills pits, which serve as mosquito breeding grounds, emit a
foul stink into the surrounding air, and become death traps (Yacim, 2013). Additionally, the action
destroys precious topsoil, which makes the ground unsuitable for crop growth (Asiedu, 2013).
ASM's effects on the physio-chemical characteristics of soil are complex and can differ based on
a number of variables, including the type of ore, mining methods, and site-specific circumstances
(Macdonald et al., 2014). In mechanized mining operations, for instance, the use of heavy
machinery may cause soil erosion and compaction, changing the structure of the soil and
decreasing the rate of water infiltration. Plant development and microbial activity can be impacted
by changes in “soil pH, nutrient availability, and organic matter content” caused by chemical
pollutants emitted during mineral extraction and processing (Bansah et al., 2018). Furthermore,
microbiological activity in the soil, such as the decomposition of organic matter and the cycling of
6
nutrients, which improve soil fertility and production, is negatively impacted by the physical
disturbance brought on by mining operations (Garr, 2021).
Environmental degradation
Small-scale and artisanal mining operations have been linked to significant environmental harm.
Land destruction, soil erosion, declining water and air quality, noise pollution, solid waste, land
subsidence issues, and visual intrusion are the primary environmental issues linked to Ghana's
ASM sector. 2015's Minerals Commission. Water-logged areas must be dammed and rivers must
be rerouted in order to use alluvial gold mining processes, which deny water to downstream users.
In regions with a steep gradient, digging deep holes can also result in frequent landslides and land
destruction. Vegetable production in the Western region, which relies on water sources for
cultivation, has been most affected by this (ACET, 2017b). Farming is becoming less appealing
due of the extra expense imposed by ASM operations.
Mercury pollution from gold processing and the mercury amalgamation method, which is heavily
relied upon due to its affordability, dependability, and reliability (Hilson, 2001), are the primary
environmental issues in Ghana brought on by small-scale activities. This is true despite all the
institutions and rules in place. The severe environmental damage in the majority of Ghanaian
mining villages is a serious issue that cannot be disregarded, despite the enormous benefits derived
from the mineral gold (Mensah et al., 2014). In Ghana's rural areas, galamsey operations are very
common since they include the illicit extraction of gold, which usually starts in the evening. The
destruction of farmlands is one among the many negative environmental effects of their operations.
By excavating trenches and uprooting plants, artisanal miners destroy large tracts of forest, leaving
the land exposed to erosion (Hilson, 2001). Land is disproportionately damaged since excavated
areas and ditches are later unfit for any other use and instead serve as breeding grounds for malaria,
infected mosquitoes, and stagnant water (Hilson, 2001). The use of blasting to access the intended
mineral deposit has an effect on building collapses and cracks as well (Jaiye, 2013). Due to exposed
pits, inclement weather, and the ground collapsing on them, the extremely hazardous nature of the
work has resulted in fatalities at mine sites.
7
Biodiversity loss
After mining has stopped, the repercussions of the activity are still felt. The biodiversity of the
area may be significantly impacted if the pre-mined landscape is destroyed or drastically altered.
Because mining causes enormous habitat losses that impact microbes, flora, and animals, it poses
a serious danger to biodiversity (Asiama, 2019). The livelihood of the local population may be
negatively impacted by temperature changes or pH brought on by mining. The most affected are
“endemic plant and animal species” since they are extremely sensitive and need particular
environmental conditions; even minor disturbances to their ecosystems can cause extinction or put
them in danger of going extinct (Asiama, 2019). Mining operations' impact on an area's
biodiversity depends on the kind, concentration, and extent of the contaminants. According to
Hilson (2002), some species are resilient to these perturbations, while others have so severe an
impact that they eventually vanish entirely from the mining area. It may take a while for a
landscape impacted by mining site pollutants to fully recover (Worlanyo & Jiangfeng, 2021). There
is no assurance that the biodiversity of the site will return to what it was prior to the mining
operation through remediation procedures. The mining sector directly poisons aquatic species
(Sonone et al., 2020).
4. Health Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM)
Disease outbreak
According to Asare et al. (2024), bacteria, viruses, fungus, and parasites are among the species that
cause infectious disorders, and they are biological agents that typically spread directly between
people, through the air, infected inanimate objects, food, or water, or through biological vectors
like rats and mosquitoes. Dust particles released into the environment by “blasting, drilling,
crushing, milling, sieving,” and other processes can induce silicosis if miners, their families, and
communities inhale them over time (Cheepsattayakorn & Cheepsattayakorn, 2018). Acute
respiratory tract infections, particularly in children, are at risk of becoming more common when
dust particles are released into the atmosphere (Schwartz, Lee, and Darrah, 2021). Children living
in Obuasi, a mining town in Ghana, were found to have significantly more cases of acute upper
respiratory tract infections than children in Asankragwa, a non-mining town, in a comparative
study (Reddy, 2005).
8
Mosquito reproduction is facilitated by river ponding, particularly from alluvial Galamsey mining
operations and water stagnation in and near mining sites. This increases the chance of mosquitoborne illnesses like elephantiasis, dengue, malaria, and yellow fever spreading (Villar & Schaeffer,
2019). Reports from a cross-sectional study conducted in Ghana revealed that children under five
who live in artisanal gold mining towns are more likely to contract malaria than those who live in
non-artisanal gold mining villages (Dao et al., 2021). As previously mentioned, the regular wading
through these damp soils and stagnant water raises the possibility of worm infestations and other
skin illnesses. The mining towns and their environs have often been found to have poor sanitation.
The intermittent nature of mining operations in remote areas deters miners from installing water
sanitation and hygiene (WASH) facilities there (WHO, 2016). Additionally, when drinking water
supplies are contaminated by chemicals and heavy metals, water treatment facilities are forced to
close, forcing residents to rely on untreated water sources for their daily water needs. “Cholera,
shigellosis, giardiasis, E. coli, Hepatitis A & E, Cryptosporidiosis, guinea worm,” and other
diarrheal diseases are made more likely by open defecation, poor WASH facilities, and
contaminated or untreated drinking water sources (Schwartz, Lee, and Darrah, 2021). The
overcrowding that results from in-migration into mining communities raises the danger of scabies
and respiratory tract diseases. Gonorrhea, syphilis, chlamydia, and HIV infection are among the
sexually transmitted illnesses that are more common in mining towns due to the associated
increased promiscuity (WHO, 2016).
Chemical contamination
The biggest source of mercury (Hg) pollution on Earth is artisanal and small-scale mining, which
accounts for 20–30% of global gold production (Veiga et al., 2006). In more than 70 nations,
between 10 and 19 million individuals use mercury to extract gold, making ASGM-related mercury
contamination a global problem. Furthermore, 13 million people—including children—work in
artisanal gold mining around the world, extracting gold from ore using elemental mercury (IPEN,
2013). Mercury amalgamation and gold recovery through heating have been used for decades in
Ghana, where artisanal gold mining is a significant source of income for many rural populations.
The technique has also grown in intensity, scale, and breadth. Mercury levels have allegedly
increased in a variety of media, including soils, surface waters, sediments, sludge and slurry, crops,
fish, plants, and people, as a result of the frequent and inappropriate release of mercury into the
9
environment, particularly from galamsey (Mantey et al., 2016). Galamsey operators like to employ
mercury because it is simple to use, very successful at extracting gold, easily transportable, and
less expensive than alternative techniques (Mantey et al, 2020).
It is commonly acknowledged that mercury contamination is a serious issue in Ghana's galamsey
sector and has been shown to be pervasive, particularly in biota and many of the human populations
who live in the gold belts of the nation (Mantey et al, 2020). The effects of mercury exposure on
the environment and human health have, in fact, been extensively reported in the literature for
many years (Chan et al., 2003). Galamsey operations are said to leak a large amount of mercury
into the atmosphere, which damages the nearby soils, water, and wildlife and exposes miners and
their families to high levels of mercury (Aryee et al., 2003). According to Mantey et al. (2020),
miners who inhale mercury suffer from severe health repercussions, including neurological
impairment. Mercury pollution of water and soil, which then builds up in staple foods like fish, a
significant source of dietary protein, also has an impact on the communities surrounding Galamsey
sites. Children are particularly at serious danger, as mercury emissions from ASM can lead to
developmental delays and physical and mental impairments. Illegal mine operators who inhale
mercury vapor may suffer from neurological damage, kidney damage, cognitive impairment, and
other health issues (Mantey et al, 2020).
5. Impacts on Cocoa Farming/Farmers
Changes in crop yield (cocoa production)
ASM operations have the potential to cause harm. It has been established that the growth of illicit
land trading agreements and the ensuing illegal mining operations have detrimental effects on the
environment (Macháček et al., 2022; Ofosu et al., 2020) and the production of important cash
crops like cocoa (Boateng et al., 2014; Snapir et al., 2017). It is also concerning that new research
is starting to predict a dismal future for cocoa output in particular and agricultural production in
general, mostly because of climate change mechanisms (Ehiakpor et al., 2016; Hashmiu et al.,
2022). While market stability has in general generated a strong incentive for cocoa farming, some
farmers still demonstrate fear of risk by avoiding or ignoring cocoa farming, according to the
findings of Hashmiu et al. (2022), which are based on data collected through household surveys
and key informant interviews with over 408 household heads and 32 key informants in some
farming communities in Ghana. Hashmiu et al. (2022) found that cocoa production may not be the
10
long-term crop choice for many farmers. Perceptions of drought and financial hardship as the two
biggest risk factors for cocoa farming, as well as a lack of land ownership and social connections
with other cocoa farmers, all adversely influence the decision to grow cocoa. Therefore, even
though there is currently room to continue the increasing interest in cocoa farming, especially in
light of the uncertain market for alternative crops, this may not be the case in the long run. If the
risks associated with climate change and food security worsen as anticipated, more households are
likely to avoid or stop growing cocoa, especially if the market for other food and cash crops
stabilizes (Hashmiu et al., 2022). Along with risk factors like climate change, which already
present major obstacles to cocoa production (Denkyirah et al., 2017; Ehiakpor et al., 2016), the
growth of the illegal mining frontier could have even more detrimental effects on livelihoods that
depend on the beloved cocoa industry.
Galamsey has a detrimental effect on cocoa growing as well since it limits the amount of labor
that cocoa producers can get (Aneani, Adu-Acheampong, & Sakyi-Dawson, 2017; Onumah,
Leewis, Boamah, & Salifu, 2013). Onumah, Leeuwis, Boamah, and Salifu (2013) conducted
interviews with 78 residents of Wassa Akropong in Ghana's Western Region and discovered that
galamsey raises the cost of laborers willing to work for cocoa growers and reduces the supply of
labor. This is due to the fact that illegal miners pay more than the cocoa farmers do, which makes
it harder for the cocoa growers to get workers. Cocoa farmers are therefore forced to raise their
wage offering due to the labor scarcity. Galamsey also has a negative impact on the cocoa trees'
health, which lowers their yield. Galamsey has a detrimental effect on cocoa growing in Ghana's
Atiwa District, according to a study by Boateng, Codjoe, and Ofori (2016). Galamsey activities
degrade the topsoil that promotes healthy plant growth, causing early dropping of immature pods
and withering and yellowing of foliage, according to farmers who operate cocoa fields near
mining regions (Aneani, Adu-Acheampong, & Sakyi-Dawson, 2017).
Changes in income
The revenue generated by artisanal small-scale mining aids smallholder farmers in maintaining
their businesses. Hilson (2011) asserts that the money made from small-scale mining is utilized to
purchase agrochemicals, fertilizers, and other agricultural inputs that are not governmentsubsidized. According to research by Hilson & Garforth (2013), many households in Ghana's
southern region benefit greatly from small-scale gold mining, which gives them the money they
11
need to meet a variety of demands, including managing their farms to produce the required amount
of goods. On the other hand, Egyir, Baffoe-Bonnie, Otchere, Asante, and Oku-Afari (2015)
discover that small-scale mining really makes farmers' situation worse. The findings of their
investigation show that within ten years of mining, the farmers' health had declined by 20%. The
farmers' complaints about their skin and other health issues related to their participation in
galamsey support this conclusion.
6. Impacts on Food Security
Food availability
In the majority of developing nations, labor and land are essential inputs for the cultivation of
important cash and food crops. According to Zhang et al. (2020) and Nordhagen et al. (2022), the
decrease in these inputs as a result of competition from mining and other non-agricultural uses
tends to contribute to low agricultural production, lower farm incomes, and a possible impact on
household food security, particularly changes in the variety and availability of food consumed by
households. Ghana is among the nations where the majority of farming communities are seeing an
increase in the prevalence of ASM (Brown, 2020; Wegenast & Beck, 2020). Many arable regions
become poor as a result of the ASM gold rush. Due to the complex and ever-changing link between
agriculture and ASM, there is rivalry for the same geographic area as well as the same inputs, such
as labor, capital, water, and land. According to Mantey et al. (2020), ASM in Ghana tends to make
previously fertile lands unusable for farming, decrease the amount of land available for agricultural
production, encourage labor shifts, and raise living costs in the impacted communities, all of which
increase the vulnerability of rural livelihoods. According to a study by Hilson et al. (2016), labor
migration from agriculture to mining has the potential to result in workforce shortages in
agriculture, which may ultimately lower agricultural productivity.
According to Worlanyo et al. (2023), there is a chance that impacted communities would face food
security problems, which will impact food supply, if more individuals chose ASM as a livelihood
option than agriculture. Barenblitt et al. (2021) claimed that such a massive footprint has an impact
on food production in the region and used satellite images to show a major loss of Ghana's
vegetation as a result of land degradation and deforestation caused by ASM. According to a study
by Gilbert and Albert (2016), galamsey has a detrimental effect on the production of food crops.
The main galamsey regions of Ghana had poorer agricultural output, which was accompanied by
higher food prices, according to the study's findings. In other words, as more people choose to
12
mine rather than grow crops, food becomes increasingly scarce. Food security is essentially
diminished by galamsey. According to Aneani, Adu-Acheampong, and Sakyi-Dawson (2017),
galamsey depletes the topsoil that sustains crop productivity and produces pull factors that
encourage farmers to give up their farmlands for mining (Hilson, 2012).
Food accessibility
The high cost of living in the communities surrounding the mining sites is one of the main negative
effects of mining, according to Adu Yeboah et al. (2008), as stated in Ocansey (2013). Ordinary
people cannot afford the majority of basic essentials, including food, housing, water, and other
basics. He reiterated that there are two primary causes for this circumstance. First of all, the
majority of young men who are strong and physically fit are taken off the farms and employed by
the mining firms. Moreover, the mining firms occupy the majority of the areas used for farming in
such communities. The end effect is that food production in those regions always declines,
necessitating the expensive importation of food from far-off places. The problem of food security
(food accessibility) is caused by the chemicals that mining activities discharge into the soil, which
deters and kills crops (Ocansey, 2013). The poisoning of the environment in the research region
affects farming in general. As demonstrated by the data analysis, the area's food insecurity has
been caused by the loss of farming enterprises brought on by the area's mining for natural
resources. This is due to the fact that some of the fertile farmland lands have been displaced by
mining operations. Food becomes scarce due to the mining activity because there aren't many crops
cultivated in the area.
Food utilization (nutrition)
Temporary settlements that are cut off from the norms of daily life are produced by artisanal and
small-scale mining (Marume, 2023). The lack of agricultural food production is one feature of this
arrangement. Miners camped in isolated locations in order to obtain food through market and
exchange entitlements. Although workers may readily get a lunch at a mining site market
throughout the workday, there is a far smaller number of wholesome meals than at a larger market.
Nevertheless, a lack of variation in the nutritional quality of the food offered typically
compromises its food usage component (Zhang, 2020). In contrast to those in nearby rural areas
who depend more on locally grown food items, there is a high intake of packaged and ready-toeat foods, more sugar and fat, and fewer fruit and vegetables (Zhang, 2020). " Although they lack
13
other nutritional qualities, miners typically have access to carbs for energy. Miners are thus subject
to unhealthy eating habits and other health issues. Additionally, the usage of chemicals containing
hazardous compounds, such as mercury, contaminates both land and water bodies when it comes
to food consumption. Water sources in Ghana are still being ruined by the use of liquid mercury in
small-scale mining (Tschakert & Singha, 2007). Mercury used in extraction generates an amalgam
and changes into a stable methyl-mercury molecule, which is toxic to the environment and human
health if inhaled, ingested, or absorbed by plants and animals (Hilson, 2001).
7. Socioeconomic Impacts
Land use conflicts between farmers and miners
According to Gatune and Besada (2020), mining and agriculture are no longer complimentary
occupations for the classic farmer-miner. They have split apart and are now vying for territory,
which is exacerbated by the large number of people who have moved here from other places in
quest of gold. As displaced farmers expand their farms into forests, Schueler et al. (2011)
discovered a significant loss of farmland (45%) within mining concessions and extensive spillover
effects. This conflict is partially being driven by the land ownership arrangement. This is primarily
due to the fact that land tenure does not grant the farmer complete ownership. Only the true
"owner," typically the traditional authority, has the authority to revoke a farmer's user rights
(Gatune & Besada, 2020). Non-farmers and non-residents have been drawn to agricultural areas
in quest of mining concessions due to the allure of ASM.
Cocoa farms in Ghana have been demolished on several occasions without the farmers' free, prior,
and informed consent (Yeboah 2014, ACET 2017b). Small-scale and artisanal miners frequently
ignore farmers who are entitled to use the land and instead seek permission from traditional
authorities (Yeboah, 2014). Illegal land invasions are an increasingly significant and controversial
issue. The informal land-ownership arrangement is exploited by small-scale and artisanal miners
who are solely involved in mining and are not farmers (Gatune & Besada, 2020). They frequently
attack and take over land without paying farmers anything at all. Using the police and military has
been the standard approach; nevertheless, this type of law enforcement is highly sporadic. Hirons
(2014) notes that the ASM sector's decision-making process for security interventions lacks
transparency. The majority of political leaders have conflicting views on ASM. On the one hand,
they believe that maintaining the sector as a "menace" is necessary to fit in with the national
14
narrative, but on the other hand, ASM serves as their constituents' main source of income and,
occasionally, as a way to finance political campaigns (Gatune & Besada, 2020).
Changes in household income
Over the years, studies on the impact of ASM on household income have produced a mixed result.
Amankwah and Anim-Sackey (2003) discovered that ASM has a positive effect on household
income through the generation of income for both miners and others. Similarly, a study by
Baddianaa et al. (2021) revealed that income from mining has a significant positive correlation
with the entire household's monthly income, suggesting that income from mining has a direct
relationship with the entire household income. On the contrary ASM's impact on natural resources
includes the expropriation of cropland, which happens when the forest is cleared and deep trenches
are dug, making the area unsuitable for growing cocoa. In this sense, the introduction of low-level
mining has made farming the main source of income in rural communities, which lowers crop
productivity and, consequently, household income (Owusu et al., 2012). Additionally, because of
ASM main's operations, land values have increased locally, making it more difficult for farmers
without big tracts of land to purchase additional property or locate new, rich land. Given that
miners are encroaching on agricultural lands, disputes over land tenure occur on a nearly daily
basis, disrupting farming operations (Banchirigah & Hilson, 2010). This social complexity
discourages early planning and investment in the community's long-term development, which
makes it extremely difficult for the families of cocoa farmers to escape the poverty trap.
Unemployment
Although short-term employment may be created by artisanal small-scale mining operations, the
sustainability and caliber of these occupations are frequently jeopardized. Precarious working
circumstances may arise from artisanal small-scale mining's absence of appropriate labor laws,
safety precautions, and equitable compensation (Asuamah Yeboah, 2023). Additionally, a net loss
of formal employment possibilities in the mining sector may result from the displacement of
regular mining activities by illegal operations (Hilson, 2016). Many people are frequently
employed by ASM activities, especially in areas with little other employment options (Asuamah
Yeboah, 2023). However, low pay, unfavorable working conditions, and a lack of social
protections are often characteristics of the jobs created by illicit mining. Unsafe mining methods,
15
exposure to toxic substances, and a lack of safety precautions are just a few of the dangerous
working circumstances that illicit miners may encounter (Asuamah Yeboah, 2023). Workers and
their families are left without essential social protections when social benefits like health
insurance, pension plans, and occupational safety programs are absent. ASM operations can
quickly consume mineral resources and are frequently unsustainable, which lowers productivity
and results in job losses. Additionally, the expansion of illicit mining may cause regular mining
operations to be displaced, which would further reduce the number of formal job possibilities in
the mining industry (Asuamah Yeboah, 2023).
Youth and children involvement in galamsey
The majority of young people without jobs turn to artisanal small-scale mining as a means of
making ends meet. This type of issue also has the potential to lead to other societal issues such
high rates of absenteeism, drug trafficking, prostitution, adolescent pregnancy, high school dropout
rates, and juvenile disrespect (Owusu & Dwomoh, 2012). According to Human Rights Watch
(2015), Ghana's small-scale and artisanal gold mining is not well regulated. According to them,
most mines function without mining licenses, which are expensive and challenging to get. If these
statements are accurate, they foretell dangers and difficulties. "Mining is one of the three most
dangerous occupations to work in, along with agriculture and construction," according to the ILO
(2005). According to the report, child laborers in mining run the danger of dying, suffering severe
injuries, or developing major health issues related to their jobs. According to the study, many of
the accidents and health issues could cause permanent incapacity, and some health issues might
not show up until the child worker is an adult. According to the study, children who work are
frequently at an even higher risk of getting hurt or becoming unwell than adult workers since their
bodies and minds are still growing and developing. "Working in mining poses extreme health risks
and hazards for children who may be torn from their habitual living environment and forced to live
under extreme conditions in mining camps," according to ILO (2005)2. According to reports, there
are significant health and safety risks associated with intensive digging. Inhaling toxic dust and
particles, using dangerous tools and crushing equipment, and dragging and carrying big loads all
pose health and safety hazards to children.
16
8. Mitigation strategies
Community training
Community training has a significant impact on the evolution of ASM and formation of new norms
by enriching miners with the insight and qualifications needed to practice sustainable development
practices in terms of artisanal and small-scale mining. Training should be organized for
communities involved in ASM. Training programs can concentrate on miners to teach them
ecological-friendly techniques. They can be trained to reduce the use of poisonous substances like
mercury in processing gold ores (Hinton et al., 2003). Additionally, miners should be trained on
how to reduce the long-term damage caused to ecology as result of artisanal and small-scale mining
operations. Also, training efforts should be connected to information dissemination on the health
and safety of workers in reducing occupational hazards.
These programs are enriched with the necessary knowledge and the application of safety and
security measures to reduce injuries and accidents. For instance, actions by international bodies
such as the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) have promoted a mercury-free
mining which has had an enormous impact on miners and their communities' health (UNEP, 2012).
Furthermore, community training is essential for ensuring that all types of women and
marginalized people may participate in ASM activities and decisions by teaching them how to be
highly involved in the process. By providing equal economic opportunities, this inclusivity lessens
the disadvantage faced by women and contributes to the development of a just and equitable
society (Yakovleva, 2007). Effective community training will not only aid in resolving ASM's
social and environmental issues, but it will also have a beneficial impact by strengthening local
economies and communities.
Stakeholders’ policy regulations and reinforcement
Participation from the government in the form of capacity building, policy and legal framework
creation, and other activities aids in the establishment and application of appropriate norms. Strict
regulation of illicit mining and strong rules are two of the most important measures that should be
taken to prevent the negative effects of ASM. Policies aimed at regularizing ASM sector activities
and bringing them into the purview of the legal and regulatory frameworks ought to be among
them. The idea of regularization will not only help to reduce illicit mining operations but also
17
fulfill the sector's sustainability and accountability concerns (Hilson et al., 2018). Regulation
should be implemented by the government through the employment of environmentally safe
mineral extraction methods, environmental impact assessments, and the articulation of land
allocation procedures. This has recently been implemented in Ghana through the creation of a
certification system for small-scale miners. In addition, the licensing programs have reduced illicit
activity; nonetheless, there is still a problem with implementation (Teschner, 2012).
Rules cannot be enforced unless they are regularly reviewed and compliance is guaranteed. Task
forces are a necessary instrument for governments to use in order to regulate illicit mining by
examining the environmental and safety management of ASM operations. In addition, there is the
need to encourage collaboration between the local communities involved in artisanal and smallscale mining and stakeholders, as this collaboration will ensure that policies are in line with
practical realities. Collaboration methods such as including miners in policymaking discussions
bring about compliance as well as helping to foster trust in the community (Hilson & McQuilken,
2014). Moreover, international partnerships can also contribute technical expertise and funding for
ASM regulation, but they can also enhance the capacity of local authorities to do away with the
use of ASM in a sustainable way.
18
REFERENCES
Abdulai, A. G. (2017). Competitive clientelism and the political economy of mining in Ghana.
Available at: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2986754
Abubukar, M. Y., Zankan, J. A. A., & Isah, M. N. (2020). Impact of small-scale mining on rural
livelihoods in some parts of Yauri and Fakai local government areas of Kebbi state,
Nigeria. Scientific Research Journal, 8(4), 106-119.
ACET (2017b) The Impact of Expanding Artisanal and Small-scale Mining on Small Holder
Agriculture in West Africa. A Case Study of Burkina Faso, Ghana and Sierra Leone.
African Center for Economic Transformation. Ford Foundation.
Adetunde, L. A., Sackey, I., & Bismark, D. (2014). Effects of mining activities on the quality of
drinking water in Obuasi mine area and its environs in Ashanti Region of
Ghana. International Journal of Marine, Atmospheric and Earth Sciences, 2(1), 1-10.
Adranyi, E., Stringer, L. C., & Altink, H. (2024). Artisanal and small-scale gold mining governance
and cross-sectoral policy coherence in Ghana. Resources Policy, 96, 105235.
Adu-Yeboah, J. K., & Obiri-Yeboah, D. (2008). Practical social studies for senior high
schools. Ghana. Accra: Kwadwoan Publishing.
Afriyie, K., Ganle, J. K., & Adomako, J. A. A. (2016). The good in evil: a discourse analysis of the
galamsey industry in Ghana. Oxford Development Studies, 44(4), 493-508.
Amankwah, R. K., & Anim-Sackey, C. (2003). Strategies for sustainable development of the smallscale gold and diamond mining industry of Ghana. Resources Policy, 29(3-4), 131-138.
Aneani, F., Adu-Acheampong, R., & Sakyi-Dawson, O. (2017). Exploring opportunities for
enhancing innovation in agriculture: The case of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) production
in Ghana. Sustainable Agriculture Research, 7(1), 33-53.
Arthur, F., Agyemang-Duah, W., Gyasi, R. M., Yeboah, J. Y., & Otieku, E. (2016). Nexus between
Artisanal and Small‐Scale Gold Mining and Livelihood in Prestea Mining Region,
Ghana. Geography Journal, 2016(1), 1605427.
19
Arthur-Holmes, F., & Busia, K. A. (2020). Household dynamics and the bargaining power of
women in artisanal and small-scale mining in sub-Saharan Africa: A Ghanaian case
study. Resources Policy, 69, 101884.
Aryee, B. N., Ntibery, B. K., & Atorkui, E. (2003). Trends in the small-scale mining of precious
minerals
in
Ghana:
a
perspective
on
its
environmental
impact. Journal
of
CleanerPproduction, 11(2), 131-140.
Aryee, B. N., Ntibery, B. K., & Atorkui, E. (2003). Trends in the small-scale mining of precious
minerals in Ghana: a perspective on its environmental impact. Journal of Cleaner
Production, 11(2), 131-140.
Aryeetey, E., Bafour, O., & Twerefou, D. K. (2007). Impact of mining sector reforms on output,
employment and incomes in Ghana, 1980-2002. Technical Publication, 75.
Asamoah, K., & Osei-Kojo, A. (2016). A contextual analysis of implementation challenges of
small-scale mining laws in Ghana: a case study of Bekwai Municipality. Sage Open, 6(3),
2158244016665885.
Asare, A. A., Baddoo, N. A., & Calys-Tagoe, B. (2024). Vulnerability to infectious diseases and
risk reduction measures among galamsey gold mining communities in Ghana: A narrative
review. Health Sciences Investigations Journal, 5(2), 735-739.
Asiama, M. K. A. (2019). Impact of illegal small-scale mining on the livelihood of the residents of
East Akyem municipality (Doctoral dissertation, University of Cape Coast).
Asiedu, J. B. K. (2013). Technical report on reclamation of small-scale surface mined lands in
Ghana: a landscape perspective. American Journal of Environmental Protection, 1(2), 2833.
Asuamah Yeboah, S. (2023). Digging deeper: The impact of illegal mining on economic growth
and development in Ghana. MPRA Paper No. 117641. Retrieved from https://mpra.ub.unimuenchen.de/id/eprint/117641
Baddianaah, I., Peprah, K., & Adams, A. M. (2021). Spirituality, Land Degradation Nexus in Gold
Mining. Journal of Environmental and Agricultural Sciences (JEAS). Baddianaah et
al, 23(1&2), 19-29.
20
Banchirigah, S. M., & Hilson, G. (2010). De-agrarianization, re-agrarianization and local
economic development: Re-orientating livelihoods in African artisanal mining
communities. Policy Sciences, 43, 157-180.
Bansah, K. J., Dumakor-Dupey, N. K., Kansake, B. A., Assan, E., & Bekui, P. (2018).
Socioeconomic and environmental assessment of informal artisanal and small-scale mining
in Ghana. Journal of Cleaner Production, 202, 465-475.
Barenblitt, A., Payton, A., Lagomasino, D., Fatoyinbo, L., Asare, K., Aidoo, K., ... & Wood, D.
(2021). The large footprint of small-scale artisanal gold mining in Ghana. Science of the
Total Environment, 781, 146644.
Boafo, J., Paalo, S. A., & Dotsey, S. (2019). Illicit Chinese small-scale mining in Ghana: beyond
institutional weakness? Sustainability, 11(21), 5943.
Boakye, R. (2020). Assessment of the Effects of Illegal Small-Scale Mining on Cocoa Farming and
Livelihood Birim North District (Doctoral dissertation, University of Cape Coast).
Boateng, D. O., Codjoe, F. N., & Ofori, J. (2016). Illegal small-scale Mining (galamsey) awareness
and impact on cocoa production: A case study in Atiwa District of Ghana. International
Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology (IJSSA), 1, 31-44.
Boateng, D. O., Nana, F., Codjoe, Y., & Ofori, J. (2014). Impact of illegal small-scale mining
(Galamsey) on cocoa production in Atiwa district of Ghana. Int J Adv Agric Res, 2, 89-99.
Brown, C., Daniels, A., Boyd, D. S., Sowter, A., Foody, G., & Kara, S. (2020). Investigating the
potential of radar interferometry for monitoring rural artisanal cobalt mines in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo. Sustainability, 12(23), 9834.
Campion, B. B., & Acheampong, E. (2014). The chieftaincy institution in Ghana: causers and
arbitrators of conflicts in industrial Jatropha investments. Sustainability, 6(9), 6332-6350.
Chan, H. M., Scheuhammer, A. M., Ferran, A., Loupelle, C., Holloway, J., & Weech, S. (2003).
Impacts of mercury on freshwater fish-eating wildlife and humans. Human and Ecological
Risk Assessment, 9(4), 867-883.
21
Cheepsattayakorn A, Cheepsattayakorn R (2018) Silicosis-Associated Tuberculosis: Management
and Control. Am J Public Health Res. 6:125–9.
Dao, F., Djonor, S. K., Ayin, C. T. M., Adu, G. A., Sarfo, B., Nortey, P., ... & Danso-Appiah, A.
(2021). Burden of malaria in children under five and caregivers’ health-seeking behaviour
for malaria-related symptoms in artisanal mining communities in Ghana. Parasites &
vectors, 14(1), 418.
Denkyirah, E. K., Okoffo, E. D., Adu, D. T., & Bosompem, O. A. (2017). What are the drivers of
cocoa farmers’ choice of climate change adaptation strategies in Ghana? Cogent Food &
Agriculture, 3(1), 1334296.
Egyir, I. S., Baffoe-Bonnie, E., Otchere, G. O., Asante, S. A., & Oku-Afari, K. B. (2015). Systems
and Food Security in Forest Areas of Ghana: Conflicts, Controversies and Resolution.
Conference on International Research on Food Security, Natural Resource, 1-4.
Ehiakpor, D. S., Danso-Abbeam, G., & Baah, J. E. (2016). Cocoa farmer’s perception on climate
variability and its effects on adaptation strategies in the Suaman district of western region,
Ghana. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 2(1), 1210557.
Faamaa, O. B., Evans, A. K., & Bonsu, M. O. A. (2020). Assessing the factors influencing illegal
mining operations; Evidence from Ghana. International Journal of Economics, Commerce
and Management, 8(11), 86-99.
Faamaa, O. B., Evans, A. K., & Bonsu, M. O. A. (2020). Assessing the factors influencing illegal
mining operations; Evidence from Ghana. International Journal of Economics, Commerce
and Management, 8(11), 86-99.
Garr, J. S. (2021). Assessing the social impacts of illegal gold mining activities at Dunkwa-OnOffin (Doctoral dissertation).
Gatune, J., & Besada, H. (2020, November 8). Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) in Ghana
– Creating value or destroying value: The search for a way forward (Working Paper No.
WP-2021/5). Maastricht School of Management (MSM).
Ghebru, H., & Lambrecht, I. (2017). Drivers of perceived land tenure (in) security: Empirical
evidence from Ghana. Land Use Policy, 66, 293-303.
22
Gilbert, D., & Albert, O. B. (2016). Illegal small-scale gold mining in Ghana: A threat to food
security. Journal of Food Security, 4(5), 112-119.
Hashmiu, I., Agbenyega, O., & Dawoe, E. (2022). Cash crops and food security: Evidence from
smallholder cocoa and cashew farmers in Ghana. Agriculture & Food Security, 11(1), 12.
Hayford, E. K., Amin, A., Osae, E. K., & Kutu, J. (2009). Impact of gold mining on soil and some
staple foods collected from selected mining communities in and around Tarkwa-Prestea
area. West African Journal of Applied Ecology, 14(1).
Hilson, G. (2002). An overview of land use conflicts in mining communities. Land Use
Policy, 19(1), 65-73.
Hilson, G. (2002). The environmental impact of small‐scale gold mining in Ghana: identifying
problems and possible solutions. Geographical Journal, 168(1), 57-72.
Hilson, G. (2011). Artisanal mining, smallholder farming and livelihood diversification in rural
Sub‐Saharan Africa: An introduction. Journal of International Development, 23(8), 10311041.
Hilson, G. (2016). Farming, small-scale mining and rural livelihoods in Sub-Saharan Africa: A
critical overview. The Extractive Industries and Society, 3(2), 547-563.
Hilson, G., & Garforth, C. (2012). ‘Agricultural poverty’and the expansion of artisanal mining in
Sub-Saharan Africa: experiences from Southwest Mali and Southeast Ghana. Population
Research and Policy Review, 31, 435-464.
Hilson, G., & McQuilken, J. (2014). Four decades of support for artisanal and small-scale mining
in sub-Saharan Africa: a critical review. The Extractive Industries and Society, 1(1), 104118.
Hilson, G., & Osei, L. (2014). Tackling youth unemployment in sub-Saharan Africa: Is there a role
for artisanal and small-scale mining? Futures, 62, 83-94.
Hilson, G., Zolnikov, T. R., Ortiz, D. R., & Kumah, C. (2018). Formalizing artisanal gold mining
under
the
Minamata
convention:
Previewing
Africa. Environmental Science & Policy, 85, 123-131.
23
the
challenge
in
Sub-Saharan
Hinton, J., Veiga, M. M., & Beinhoff, C. (2003). Women and artisanal mining: Gender roles and
the road ahead. The Socio-Economic Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining in
Developing Countries, 2, 161-203.
Hirons, M. (2014). Decentralizing natural resource governance in Ghana: Critical reflections on
the artisanal and small-scale mining sector. Futures, 62, 21-31.
ILO, (2005). Safe work. Global estimates of fatal work-related diseases and occupational
accidents. World Bank Regions.
International Labour Organization (2005). Digging for survival, child miners: World Day against
Child Labour. Geneva.
IPEN (2013). Selected Mercury Waste Hot Spot Around the World. Available at
https://ipen.org/sites/default/files/documents/mercury_waste_hotspots_world_mapen.pdf.
Jaiye, D. J. (2013). The environmental implication of illegal mining activities in Nigeria, a case
study of Pandogari and Barkin Ladi/Buruku surface mines in Niger/plateau states. Journal
of Humanities and Social Sciences, 13(5), 13-19.
Kessey, K. D., & Arko, B. (2013). Small scale gold mining and environmental degradation, in
Ghana: issues of mining policy implementation and challenges. Journal of Studies in
Social Sciences, 5(1).
Kwawuvi, D., Bessah, E., & Owusu, G. (2021). An Overview of Forest Conservation Strategies in
Ghana. Ethiopian Journal of Environmental Studies & Management, 14(1), 23-46.
Macdonald, K. F., Lund, M. A., Blanchette, M. L., & Mccullough, C. D. (2014). Regulation of
artisanal small scale gold mining (ASGM) in Ghana and Indonesia as currently
implemented
fails
to
adequately
protect
aquatic
ecosystems.
Available
at:
https://ro.ecu.edu.au/ecuworkspost2013/863/
Macháček, J., Schlossarek, M., & Lindagato, P. (2022). The livelihood of artisanal and small-scale
miners and awareness of the use of 3T minerals in Rwanda—A case study in the Rutsiro
District: A qualitative assessment. International journal of environmental research and
public health, 19(19), 12570.
24
Mantey, J., Nyarko, K. B., Owusu-Nimo, F., Awua, K. A., Bempah, C. K., Amankwah, R. K., ... &
Appiah-Effah, E. (2020). Mercury contamination of soil and water media from different
illegal artisanal small-scale gold mining operations (galamsey). Heliyon, 6(6).
Marume, W. (2023). The implications of artisanal small-scale mining on food security in
Zimbabwe. Akdeniz Havzası ve Afrika Medeniyetleri Dergisi, 5(2), 65-80.
Mensah, A. K., Mahiri, I. O., Owusu, O., Mireku, O. D., Wireko, I., & Kissi, E. A. (2015).
Environmental impacts of mining: a study of mining communities in Ghana. Applied
Ecology and Environmental Sciences, 3(3), 81-94.
Mensah, L. (2021). Legal pluralism in practice: critical reflections on the formalisation of artisanal
and small-scale mining (ASM) and customary land tenure in Ghana. The Extractive
Industries and Society, 8(4), 100973.
Nordhagen, S., Lambertini, E., DeWaal, C. S., McClafferty, B., & Neufeld, L. M. (2022).
Integrating nutrition and food safety in food systems policy and programming. Global
Food Security, 32, 100593.
Nordhagen, S., Lambertini, E., DeWaal, C. S., McClafferty, B., & Neufeld, L. M. (2022).
Integrating nutrition and food safety in food systems policy and programming. Global
Food Security, 32, 100593.
Nyame, F. K., & Blocher, J. (2010). Influence of land tenure practices on artisanal mining activity
in Ghana. Resources Policy, 35(1), 47-53.
Obiri, S., Yeboah, P. O., Osae, S., Adu-Kumi, S., Cobbina, S. J., Armah, F. A., ... & Quansah, R.
(2016). Human health risk assessment of artisanal miners exposed to toxic chemicals in
water and sediments in the Prestea Huni Valley District of Ghana. International Journal of
Environmental Research and Public Health, 13(1), 139.
Ocansey, I. (2013). Mining impacts on agricultural lands and food security: Case study of towns
in
and
around
Kyebi
in
the
Eastern
https://www.theseus.fi/handle/10024/53720
25
Region
of
Ghana.
Available
at:
Ofosu, G., Dittmann, A., Sarpong, D., & Botchie, D. (2020). Socio-economic and environmental
implications of Artisanal and Small-scale Mining (ASM) on agriculture and
livelihoods. Environmental Science & Policy, 106, 210-220.
Onumah, J., Leeuwis, C., Boamah, P. O., & Salifu, T. (2013). Operations and frames of illegal
small-scale mining in Ghana. International Journal of Agriculture Innovations and
Research, 307-312.
Owusu, E. E., & Dwomoh, G. (2012). The impact of illegal mining on the Ghanaian youth:
evidence from Kwaebibirem district In Ghana. Research on Humanities and Social
Sciences, 2(6), 86-93.
Poku, N. O. (2016). Effects of illegal small-scale mining on crop production in Amansei Central,
Ghana (Doctoral dissertation, MSc. Thesis, Menel University in Brno. 91pp).
Reddy, S. G. (2005). A comparative analysis of diseases associated with mining and non-mining
communities: a case study of Obusai and Asankrangwa, Ghana. University of North Texas.
Sahu, H. B., & Dash, S. (2011). Land degradation due to mining in India and its mitigation
measures.
Available
at:
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Himanshu-Sahu-
2/publication/260405156_Land_Degradation_due_to_Mining_in_India_and_its_Mitigati
on_Measures/links/543757490cf2dc341db4d5d9/Land-Degradation-due-to-Mining-inIndia-and-its-Mitigation-Measures.pdf
Schueler, V., Kuemmerle, T., & Schröder, H. (2011). Impacts of surface gold mining on land use
systems in Western Ghana. Ambio, 40, 528-539.
Schwartz, F. W., Lee, S., & Darrah, T. H. (2021). A review of the scope of artisanal and small‐scale
mining worldwide, poverty, and the associated health impacts. GeoHealth, 5(1),
e2020GH000325.
Serfor-Armah, Y., Nyarko, B. J. B., Dampare, S. B., & Adomako, D. (2006). Levels of arsenic and
antimony in water and sediment from Prestea, a gold mining town in Ghana and its
environs. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 175, 181-192.
26
Snapir, B., Simms, D. M., & Waine, T. W. (2017). Mapping the expansion of galamsey gold mines
in the cocoa growing area of Ghana using optical remote sensing. International Journal of
Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 58, 225-233.
Sonone, S. S., Jadhav, S., Sankhla, M. S., & Kumar, R. (2020). Water contamination by heavy
metals and their toxic effect on aquaculture and human health through food Chain. Lett.
Appl. NanoBioScience, 10(2), 2148-2166.
Teschner, B. A. (2012). Small-scale mining in Ghana: The government and the
galamsey. Resources Policy, 37(3), 308-314.
Tetteh, K. (2010). An Overview of Ghana’s Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM)
Sector. Minerals Commission of Ghana.
Tschakert, P., & Singha, K. (2007). Contaminated identities: Mercury and marginalization in
Ghana’s artisanal mining sector. Geoforum, 38(6), 1304-1321.
UNEP (2012). Reducing Mercury Use in Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining: A Practical
Guide.
United
Nations
Programme.
Available
at:
https://www.unep.org/resources/report/reducing-mercury-use-artisanal-and-small-scalegold-mining-practical-guide
Veiga, M. M., Maxson, P. A., & Hylander, L. D. (2006). Origin and consumption of mercury in
small-scale gold mining. Journal of cleaner production, 14(3-4), 436-447.
Villar, D., & Schaeffer, D. J. (2019). Disarmament is the new war, gold is the new opium, and
ecohealth is the historic victim. Environmental Health Insights, 13, 1178630219862241.
Wegenast, T., & Beck, J. (2020). Mining, rural livelihoods and food security: A disaggregated
analysis of sub-Saharan Africa. World Development, 130, 104921.
WHO (2016). Artisanal and small-scale gold mining and health. World Health Organization.
2016:1–36.
Available
https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/247195/9789241510271-eng.pdf
27
from:
Worlanyo, A. S., & Jiangfeng, L. (2021). Evaluating the environmental and economic impact of
mining for post-mined land restoration and land-use: A review. Journal of Environmental
Management, 279, 111623.
World Bank Group. (2013). Global financial development report 2014: Financial inclusion (Vol.
2). World Bank Publications.
Yacim, J. (2013). Effects of abandoned mining pits on property value Dorowa-Jos South,
Nigeria (No. afres2013_124). African Real Estate Society (AfRES).
Yakovleva, N. (2007). Perspectives on female participation in artisanal and small-scale mining: A
case study of Birim North District of Ghana. Resources Policy, 32(1-2), 29-41.
Yeboah, S. (2014). 'Crops' or 'Carats'? Gold mining and cocoa production in Ghana. Retrieved
from
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/crops-carats-gold-maryee,2003, Overview
of
artisanal mining and its regularization in Ghana, Presentation at the Second CASM
Annual
Yelpaala, K. (2004). Mining, sustainable development and health in Ghana: The Akwatia case
study. Brown University, USA.
Zhang, L. X., Koroma, F., Fofana, M. L., Barry, A. O., Diallo, S., Lamilé Songbono, J., ... & Winch,
P. J. (2020). Food security in artisanal mining communities: An exploration of rural markets
in northern Guinea. Foods, 9(4), 479.
28