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Contents
Preface xxi
About the Authors xxv
Part I
Chapter 1 Supply Chain Management: An Overview 3
Supply Chain Profile: SAB Distribution: The Next Chapter
4
1-1 Introduction 5
1-2 Shaping the Supply Chains of the Twenty-First Century:
Evolution and Change 6
1-2a Globalization 7
1-2b Technology 9
1-2c Organizational Consolidation and Power Shifts 9
1-2d The Empowered Consumer 10
1-2e Government Policy and Regulation 10
On the Line: Changing Times for Drugs 11
1-2f Sustainability 12
1-3 Supply Chains: Development and Shaping
for the ­Twenty-First Century 13
1-3a Development of the Concept 13
1-4 Major Supply Chain Issues 18
1-4a Supply Chain Networks 19
1-4b Complexity 19
1-4c Inventory Deployment 19
1-4d Information 19
1-4e Cost and Value 20
1-4f Organizational Relationships 20
1-4g Performance Measurement 20
1-4h Technology 21
1-4i Transportation Management 21
1-4j Supply Chain Security 21
1-4k Talent Management 22
Summary 22
Study Questions 23
Case 1.1: Lehigh Valley Transport and Logistics Service
(LVTLS) 24
Case 1.2: Central Transport, Inc. 25
vii
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viii
Contents
Chapter 2 Global Dimensions of Supply Chains 27
Supply Chain Profile: The Impact of Changing Weather Patterns
28
2-1 Introduction 28
2-2 Rationale for Global Trade and Commerce 29
2-3 Contributing Factors for Global Commerce and
Supply Chain Flows 30
2-3a Global Demographics 30
2-3b Land and Resources 34
On the Line: Economic Growth and the Birth Rate 35
2-3c Technology and Information 35
2-4 Global Supply Chain Flows 36
2-5 Supply Chains in a Global Economy 39
On the Line: How Customer Experience Is Driving Supply
40
2-6 Global Markets and Strategy 41
2-7 Supply Chain Security: A Balancing Act 43
2-8 Ports 44
2-9 North American Free Trade Agreement 45
Summary 45
Study Questions 46
Case 2.1: Red Fish–Blue Fish, LLP 47
Case 2.2: Nike, Inc. Global Supply Chain Strategy 49
Chain ­Innovation
Chapter 3 Role of Logistics in Supply Chains 51
Supply Chain Profile: Girl Scouts Know Logistics
52
3-1 Introduction 52
3-2 What Is Logistics? 54
3-3 Value-Added Roles of Logistics 56
3-3a Form Utility 56
3-3b Place Utility and Time Utility 56
On the Line: Age of the Drone: Good News or Bad News???
57
3-3c Quantity Utility 58
3-3d Possession Utility 59
3-4 Logistics Activities 59
3-4a Transportation 59
3-4b Storage 60
3-4c Packaging 60
3-4d Materials Handling 60
3-4e Inventory Control 61
3-4f Order Fulfillment 61
3-4g Forecasting 61
3-4h Production Planning 62
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Contents
ix
3-4i Procurement 62
3-4j Customer Service 62
3-4k Facility Location 62
3-4l Other Activities 63
63
3-5 Logistics in the Economy: A Macro Perspective 64
3-6 Logistics in the Firm: The Micro Dimension 66
3-6a Logistics Interfaces with Manufacturing
or Operations 67
3-6b Logistics Interfaces with Marketing 68
3-6c Logistics Interfaces with Other Areas 69
3-7 Logistics in the Firm: Factors Affecting the Cost and
­Importance of Logistics 70
3-7a Competitive Relationships 70
3-7b Product Relationships 73
3-7c Spatial Relationships 76
3-7d Logistics and Systems Analysis 77
Summary 77
Study Questions 78
Case 3.1: Jordano Food Products 79
Case 3.2: Senco Electronics Company 81
On the Line: “UPS and Wiley Coyote”
Appendix 3A
Techniques of Logistics System Analysis 82
Short-Run/Static Analysis 82
Long-Run/Dynamic Analysis 83
Appendix 3B
Approaches to Analyzing Logistics Systems 85
Materials Management versus Physical Distribution
Nodes versus Links 86
Logistics Channels 87
85
Chapter 4 Supply Chain and Omni-Channel Network Design 91
Supply Chain Profile: Amazon Selects Nashville for New Center
92
4-1 Introduction 92
4-2 The Need for Long-Range Planning 94
4-2a The Strategic Importance of Supply Chain
Network Design 94
4-2b Changes to Global Trade Patterns 95
4-2c Changing Customer Service Requirements 95
4-2d Shifting Locations of Customer and/or
Supply Markets 96
4-2e Change in Corporate Ownership/Merger
and Acquisition Activity 96
of ­Excellence
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x
Contents
4-2f Cost Pressures 96
4-2g Competitive Capabilities 97
4-2h Corporate Organizational Change 97
4-3 Supply Chain Network Design 97
4-3a Step 1: Define the Supply Chain Network
Design Process 98
4-3b Step 2: Perform a Supply Chain Audit 99
4-3c Step 3: Examine the Supply Chain Network
Alternatives 100
4-3d Step 4: Conduct a Facility Location Analysis 100
4-3e Step 5: Make Decisions Regarding Network and
Facility Location 101
4-3f Step 6: Develop an Implementation Plan 101
4-4 Major Locational Determinants 101
4-4a Key Factors for Consideration 102
On the Line: Supply Chain ­Managers ­Target U.S. Cities for Onshoring
104
4-4b Current Trends Governing Site Selection 106
4-5 Modeling Approaches 107
4-5a Optimization Models 107
4-5b Simulation Models 111
4-5c Heuristic Models 111
4-5d Example of a Heuristic Modeling Approach:
The Grid Technique 112
4-5e Important Supply Chain Modeling Issues
and ­Concerns 116
4-6 Omni-Channel Network Design 117
4-6a Introduction 117
On the Line: Taking Urban Fulfillment Underground 118
4-6b Channels of Distribution 119
4-6c Customer Fulfillment Models 121
­Opportunities
On the Line: Distribution: What Does It Take to Be an Omni-Channel
124
Summary 128
Study Questions 128
Case 4.1: Home Depot’s Supply Chain Transformation 131
Case 4.2: Bigelow Stores 133
Fulfillment DC?
Appendix 4AGrid Method—Sensitivity Analyses and Application to
­Warehouse ­Location in a City 134
Grid Method—Sensitivity Analysis 134
Grid Method—Application to Distribution Center Location
in a City 136
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Contents
xi
Part II
Chapter 5 Sourcing Materials and Services 139
Supply Chain Profile: Strategic Sourcing ­Facilitates Innovation,
140
5-1 Introduction 140
5-2 Types and Importance of Items and
Services Acquired 142
5-3 Strategic Sourcing Process 145
5-3a Step 1: Develop Strategic Plan 146
5-3b Step 2: Understand Spend 146
5-3c Step 3: Evaluate Supply Sources 147
5-3d Step 4: Finalize Sourcing Strategy 147
5-3e Step 5: Implement Sourcing Strategy 150
5-3f Step 6: Onboarding and Transitioning 151
5-3g Step 7: Collaborative Process
Improvement 151
Transformation, and Cost Reduction
On the Line: Infosys Streamlines Pharma Sourcing
Strategies 152
5-4 Supplier Evaluation and Relationships 152
5-4a Effective Management of Strategic
Suppliers 153
5-5 Total Landed Cost (TLC) 154
5-6 E-Sourcing and E-Procurement 155
5-6a Which of These Solutions Should be
Considered 156
On the Line: Transportation Sourcing—Innovative Approaches to Bid
Optimization 159
5-7 E-Commerce Models 159
Summary 160
Study Questions 161
Case 5.1: Alligator, Inc. 162
Case 5.2: Trans-Changi, Inc. 164
Appendix 5AThe Special Case of Procurement Price 165
Sources of Price 165
Traditional Basic Input Costs 166
Direct Transaction Costs 166
Supplier Relational Costs 167
Landed Costs 167
Quality Costs/Factors 168
Operations Logistics Costs 168
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xii
Contents
Chapter 6 Producing Goods and Services
171
Supply Chain Profile: Capacity Expansion: ­Building the Tesla
­Gigafactory 3 in China 172
6-1 Introduction 173
6-2 The Role of Production Operations in Supply Chain
­Management (SCM) 173
6-2a Production Process Functionality 174
6-2b Production Tradeoffs 175
6-2c Production Challenges 177
6-3 Operations Strategy and Planning 178
6-3a Production Strategies 178
On the Line: Additive Manufacturing: No Longer a Novelty 183
6-3b Production Planning 184
6-4 Production Execution Decisions 186
6-4a Assembly Processes 186
On the Line: Have It Your Way 187
6-4b Production Process Layout 189
6-4c Packaging 191
On the Line: Developing More Sustainable Packaging 193
6-5 Production Metrics 194
6-5a Customer Experience and Responsiveness ­Metrics 194
6-5b Quality Manufacturing Metrics 195
6-5c Efficiency Manufacturing Metrics 195
6-5d Inventory Metrics 195
6-5e Compliance Metrics 195
6-5f Maintenance Manufacturing Metrics 195
6-5g Flexibility and Innovation 196
6-5h Costs and Profitability Manufacturing Metrics 196
6-6 Production Technology 196
Summary 198
Study Questions 199
Case 6.1: Hudson Guitars 201
Case 6.2: War Eagle Golf Ltd. 203
Chapter 7 Demand Management 205
Supply Chain Profile: ATA’s Freight Forecast Report
7-1 Introduction 207
7-2 Demand Management 207
7-3 Balancing Supply and Demand
206
210
On the Line: Volatility in Demand Has Become the Norm
210
7-4 Traditional Forecasting 211
7-4a Factors Affecting Demand 211
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Contents
xiii
7-5 Forecast Errors 212
7-6 Forecasting Techniques 214
7-6a Simple Moving Average 214
7-6b Weighted Moving Average 216
7-6c Exponential Smoothing 218
On the Line: S&OP Spans Horizons 220
7-7 Sales and Operations Planning 221
7-8 Collaborative Planning, Forecasting,
and Replenishment 222
Summary 226
Study Questions 226
Case 7.1: Tires for You, Inc. 227
Case 7.2: Playtime, Inc. 229
Chapter 8 Order Management and Customer Service 231
Supply Chain Profile: Rocky Brands Sees
232
8-1 Introduction 232
8-2 Influencing the Order—Customer Relationship
­Management 234
8-2a Step 1: Segment the Customer Base
by ­Profitability 234
8-2b Step 2: Identify the Product/Service Package
for Each Customer Segment 235
8-2c Step 3: Develop and Execute the Best
­Processes 235
8-2d Step 4: Measure Performance and Continuously
Improve 236
8-2e Activity-Based Costing and Customer
Profitability 237
8-3 Executing the Order—Order Management and Order
Fulfillment 243
8-3a Order-to-Cash (OTC) and Replenishment Cycles 244
8-3b Length and Variability of the Order-to-Cash Cycle 248
8-4 E-Commerce Order Fulfillment Strategies 250
8-5 Customer Service 250
8-5a The Logistics/Marketing Interface 251
8-5b Defining Customer Service 251
8-5c Elements of Customer Service 253
the Light
On the Line: FedEx Ground Increases Delivery Schedule
257
8-5d Performance Measures for Customer Service 257
to Sox Days a Week
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xiv
Contents
8-6 Expected Cost of Stockouts 259
8-6a Back Orders 260
8-6b Lost Sales 260
8-6c Lost Customer 261
8-6d Determining the Expected Cost of Stockouts 261
8-7 Order Management Influences on Customer
Service 261
8-7a Product Availability 262
8-7b Financial Impact 264
8-7c Order Cycle Time 267
8-7d Logistics Operations Responsiveness 270
8-7e Logistics System Information 273
8-7f Postsale Logistics Support 275
On the Line: After-Sales Service: The Forgotten Supply Chain 277
8-8 Service Recovery 278
Summary 279
Study Questions 279
Case 8.1: Telco Corporation 281
Case 8.2: Webers, Inc. 283
Part III
Chapter 9 Managing Inventory in the Supply Chain 287
Supply Chain Profile: Don’t Underestimate the
288
9-1 Introduction 289
9-2 Inventory in the U.S. Economy 289
9-3 Inventory in the Firm: Rationale for Inventory 291
9-3a Batching Economies or Cycle Stocks 292
9-3b Uncertainty and Safety Stocks 293
9-3c Time/In-Transit and Work-in-Process Stocks 294
9-3d Seasonal Stocks 296
9-3e Anticipatory Stocks 296
9-3f Summary of Inventory Accumulation 297
9-3g The Importance of Inventory in Other
Functional Areas 297
9-4 Inventory Costs 298
9-4a Inventory Carrying Cost 298
9-4b Ordering and Setup Cost 302
9-4c Carrying Cost Versus Ordering Cost 304
9-4d Expected Stockout Cost 306
Inventory-to-Sales Ratio
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Contents
xv
On the Line: Martignetti Reduces Daily Average Inventory, ­Maintains
In-stock Performance, Helps Buyers Make Better Decisions
Appendix 9A
309
9-4e In-Transit Inventory Carrying Cost 310
9-5 Fundamental Approaches to Managing Inventory 311
9-5a Key Differences Among Approaches
to Managing Inventory 312
9-5b Principal Approaches and Techniques
for Inventory Management 314
9-5c Fixed Order Quantity Approach
(Condition of Certainty) 314
9-5d Fixed Order Quantity Approach
(Condition of Uncertainty) 323
9-5e Fixed Order Interval Approach 330
9-5f Summary and Evaluation of EOQ Approaches
to Inventory Management 331
9-6 Additional Approaches to Inventory Management 332
9-6a Just-in-Time Approach 332
Supply Chain Technology: Dropping the Security Blanket 333
9-6b Materials Requirements Planning 336
9-6c Distribution Requirements Planning 341
9-6d Vendor-Managed Inventory 343
9-7 Classifying Inventory 345
9-7a ABC Analysis 345
9-7b Quadrant Model 348
9-7c Inventory at Multiple Locations—
The Square-Root Rule 349
Summary 351
Study Questions 352
Case 9.1: MAQ Corporation 353
Case 9.2: Baseball Card Emporium 354
Special Applications of the EOQ Approach 355
Adjusting the Simple EOQ Model for Modal Choice
Decisions—The Cost of Inventory in Transit 355
Adjusting the Simple EOQ Model for Volume
Transportation Rates 358
Adjusting the Simple EOQ Model for Private Carriage 361
Adjusting the Simple EOQ Model for the Establishment
and Application of In-Excess Rates 362
Summary 365
Chapter 10 Distribution—Managing Fulfillment Operations 367
Supply Chain Profile: The Changing Face of Distribution
368
10-1 Introduction 369
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xvi
Contents
10-2 The Role of Distribution Operations in SCM 369
10-2a Distribution Facility Functionality 370
10-2b Distribution Tradeoffs 372
10-2c Distribution Challenges 374
On the Line: DC Automation: ­Addressing the Labor Dilemma (and more)
375
10-3 Distribution Planning and Strategy 376
10-3a Capability Requirements 376
10-3b Network Design Issues 378
10-3c Facility Considerations 382
385
10-4 Distribution Execution 386
10-4a Product-Handling Functions 386
10-4b Support Functions 389
10-5 Distribution Metrics 390
10-6 Distribution Technology 392
10-6a Warehouse Management Systems 393
On the Line: The Alphabet Soup of ­Warehouse Technology 394
10-6b Automatic Identification Tools 395
Summary 396
Study Questions 397
Case 10.1: Pain Away Corporation 399
Case 10.2: TV Gadgetry 401
Summary 411
On the Line: Efficient and Environmentally Friendly DCs
Appendix 10A Materials Handling 403
Objectives and Principles of Materials Handling
Materials-Handling Equipment 405
Future Direction 410
Summary 411
403
Chapter 11 Transportation—Managing the Flow of the Supply Chain 413
Supply Chain Profile: Another Transportation ­Perfect Storm
414
11-1 Introduction 415
11-2 The Role of Transportation in Supply Chain
Management 415
11-2a Role Inhibitors 416
11-3 Modes of Transportation 418
11-3a Motor Carriers 419
11-3b Railroads 421
11-3c Air Carriers 423
11-3d Water Carriers 424
11-3e Pipelines 426
On the Line: Pipelines: Safe or Major Risks? 428
11-3f Intermodal Transportation 428
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Contents
xvii
11-4 Transportation Planning and Strategy 431
11-4a Functional Control of Transportation 431
11-4b Terms of Sale 432
11-4c Decision to Outsource Transportation 434
11-4d Modal Selection 435
11-4e Carrier Selection 439
On the Line: Clearing the Path to Shipper of Choice 440
11-4f Rate Negotiations 441
11-5 Transportation Execution and Control 441
11-5a Shipment Preparation and Tendering 441
11-5b Freight Documentation 442
11-5c Maintain In-Transit Visibility 444
11-5d Transportation Metrics 445
11-5e Monitor Service Quality 446
11-6 Transportation Technology 447
11-6a Transportation Management Systems 448
On the Line: Analytics-Driven Delivery Freight Visibility Solutions
Summary 450
Study Questions 451
Case 11.1: Vibrant Video 453
Case 11.2: Bob’s Custom BBQs
450
455
Appendix 11A Federal Regulation of the Transportation Industry 457
Economic Regulation 459
Safety Regulation 460
Summary 462
Appendix 11B Basis of Transportation Rates 463
Cost of Service 463
Value of Service 464
Distance 464
Weight of Shipment 466
Commodity Characteristics 466
Level of Service 467
Summary 468
Part IV
Chapter 12 Aligning Supply Chains 471
Supply Chain Profile: Why Is Strategic Alignment So Challenging?
472
12-1 Introduction 472
12-1a Scope and Intensity of Involvement 473
12-1b Model for Developing and Implementing
­Successful Supply Chain Relationships 475
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xviii
Contents
12-1c Imperative for Collaborative Relationships 478
12-2 Third-Party Logistics—Industry Overview 481
On the Line: Collaborative Distribution to Achieve Strategic Goals 481
12-2a Definition of Third-Party Logistics 482
12-2b Example Services of 3PL Providers 484
12-3 Annual Third-Party Logistics Research Study 485
12-3a Profile of Logistics Outsourcing Activities 486
12-3b Strategic Role of Information Technology 487
On the Line: Structured Collaboration Platforms Help 3PLs
488
12-3c Management and Relationship Issues 489
12-3d Customer Value Framework 491
12-3e Strategic View of Logistics and the Role of 3PLs 491
Summary 492
Study Questions 492
Case 12.1: Quik Chips, Inc. 494
Case 12.2: United Express 496
to Winmore Bids
Chapter 13Supply Chain Performance Measurement and Financial
Analysis 497
Supply Chain Profile: CLGN Book Distributors.com
498
13-1 Introduction 500
13-2 Dimensions of Supply Chain Performance
­Metrics 500
13-3 Developing Supply Chain Performance
Metrics 505
On the Line: Establishing Ocean-Alliance 506
13-4 Performance Categories 506
13-5 The Supply Chain–Finance Connection 511
13-6 The Revenue–Cost Savings Connection 512
13-7 The Supply Chain Financial Impact 513
On the Line: Competitive Pressures Are Forcing Supply Chain ­Managers
517
13-8 Financial Statements 517
13-9 Financial Impact of Supply Chain Decisions 519
13-10 Supply Chain Service Financial Implications 525
Summary 531
Study Questions 531
Case 13.1: Wash & Dry, Inc. 534
Case 13.2: Paper2Go.com 535
to Become ­Financial Managers
Appendix 13A Financial Terms 536
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Contents
xix
Chapter 14 Supply Chain Technology—Managing Information Flows 539
Supply Chain Profile: Blockchain Technology Promises Safer Food
540
14-1 Introduction 541
14-2 Information Requirements 541
14-2a Meet Quality Standards 542
14-2b Support Multidirectional Flows 544
14-2c Provide Decision Support 544
14-3 Systems Capabilities 545
14-3a Enable Process Excellence 546
14-3b Link Network Elements 547
14-3c Mitigate Known Risks 548
14-4 SCM Software 550
14-4a Planning 550
On the Line: Planning Software Drives Forecast Accuracy
551
14-4b Execution 552
14-4c Event Management 553
14-4d Business Analytics and Business Intelligence 553
14-4e Facilitating Tools 554
On the Line: RFID Drives Visibility, ­Security, and Sales 556
14-5 SCM Technology Implementation 557
14-5a Needs Assessment 557
14-5b Software Selection 557
14-5c Implementation Issues 559
14-6 Supply Chain Technology Innovations 561
Summary 563
Study Questions 563
Case 14.1: Inflate-a-Dome Innovations 565
Case 14.2: Vintage Shoes Inc. 567
Chapter 15 Strategic Challenges and Change for Supply Chains 569
570
15-1 Introduction 570
15-2 Principles of Supply Chain Management 571
15-2a Principle 1: Segment Customers Based on
Service Needs 571
15-2b Principle 2: Customize the Logistics Network 572
15-2c Principle 3: Listen to Signals of Market Demand
and Plan Accordingly 573
15-2d Principle 4: Differentiate Products Closer
to the Customer 573
15-2e Principle 5: Source Strategically 574
Supply Chain Profile: Keeping the Supply Chain Alive and Nimble
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Contents
15-2f Principle 6: Develop a Supply Chain-Wide
­Technology Strategy 575
15-2g Principle 7: Adopt Channel-Spanning ­Performance
Measures 575
15-2h Update on the Seven Principles of SCM 576
15-3 Game-Changing Supply Chain Technologies 576
15-3a Mobility 577
15-3b Digitization 577
15-3c Automation 578
15-3d Concluding Note 579
15-4 Supply Chain Analytics 580
On the Line: Predictive Analytics for Operations Grows 76 Percent
581
15-4a Supply Chain Analytics Maturity Model 581
15-4b Analytical Resources 583
15-4c Big Data and the Supply Chain 584
15-5 Imperatives for Supply Chain Talent Management 585
15-5a Top Issues Facing the Workforce 585
in Two Years
On the Line: 3PLs and Shippers Report Missing Key Talent
586
15-6 Sustainability 588
15-6a Benefits and Challenges to Supply Chain
Sustainability 588
15-6b Reducing Risk 589
15-6c Four “Rs” of Sustainability 589
at All Levels
On the Line: Sustainability and Corporate Social Responsibility
590
15-6d Reverse Flows 591
15-7 Supply Chain Innovation and Transformation 592
15-7a Supply Chain Innovation 592
15-7b Frugal versus Disruptive Innovation 593
15-7c Supply Chain Transformation 593
15-8 Closing Thoughts 595
Summary 597
Study Questions 597
Case 15.1 Amazon versus Alibaba 599
at H&M
Notes
Subject Index
Name Index
601
613
625
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Preface
The preparation of the 11th edition of Supply Chain Management: A Logistics P
­ erspective
has focused intensively on addressing the enormity of change that has been impacting
our global businesses and supply chains. The authors of the 11th edition feel that the past
several years have elevated the utility of the term “disruptive innovation” to disruptive
levels. Whether this refers to advances in information technology (e.g., cloud capabilities; software-as-a-service; Internet of Things; mobile capabilities; additive manufacturing;
blockchain), operational innovations (e.g., drones, robots, autonomous vehicles) global
economic and environmental factors, or new and more effective business and management strategies, the supply chain world is finding it necessary to develop new responses
to issues like these on an almost daily basis. Also, the growing presence and impacts of the
“Amazon effect” have challenged many types of organizations to go back to the drawing
board to re-think and to re-conceptualize the purposes, structure, and functioning of their
supply chains. These realities have significantly elevated the need for the effective execution
of change management in businesses and their supply chains. Global organizations have
learned that lean, fast, agile, and flexible supply chains are a requirement of the twenty-first
century where economic swings are typically quicker and of shorter duration than in the
past. Adaptability and readiness are also ingredients for continuing growth and profitability.
Through it all, logistics and supply chain management played an increasingly important
role to improve organizational efficiency, effectiveness, and competitiveness. Additionally,
and in an increasing number of organizations, supply chains have gained recognition at the
board level, and supply chain and logistics capabilities have become recognized as prerequisites for overall organizational success. Supply chain executive responsibilities now extend
well beyond cost management and customer service, and they have significant linkages
into finance, marketing, and manufacturing/operations strategies. Through the provision
of capable and innovative logistics services, supply chains have become enriched to help
create and deliver value to customers, shareholders and stakeholders, and the organization
itself. In short, many supply chains are now regarded as being key ingredients of overall
organizational success.
This 11th edition of Supply Chain Management: A Logistics Perspective is designed to
introduce the fundamentals of supply chain management, and also to focus on how supply
chains can drive internal value for organizations. Also, a key element of success will be the
ability of organizations to align their supply chain strategies and operations with those of
supplier and customer organizations. Similar to the phenomenon it takes to win in any
team sport, a requirement for success will be a focus on end-to-end supply chain management. While every supply chain organization has unique skills and capabilities, the ultimate
viability of the supply chain will depend on its ability to identify and achieve more pervasive
goals relating to delivering value to the end user customer, consumer, warfighter, etc.
Part I—Supply Chain Foundations
This section of the text provides a framework for an appreciation and understanding
of supply chain management as it has developed and expanded to meet the challenges of
the last 30 years. Chapter 1 provides an overview of the role and importance of supply
chain management in the twenty-first century. Considering the accelerating number of
xxi
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xxii
Preface
supply chain innovations that are becoming reality, there are a growing number of very
new ­opportunities as well as challenges for today’s supply chain executives. This is followed
by Chapter 2 that has been added to explore the global issues of the twenty-first century
among the various countries of the world with an in-depth look at demographics. Chapter 3
explores the important dimensions of logistics management in support of global supply
chain challenges. This provides due recognition to the critical role played by logistics as the
backbone of supply chains. The final chapter in Part I, Chapter 4, explores the challenges
of supply chain design in a traditional sense, as well as in the rapidly emerging context of
omni-channel distribution. Also, the continued growth of e-Commerce has had significant
impacts on the strategic decisions and imperatives for supply chain management.
Part II—Supply Chain Fundamentals
The underlying fundamentals of supply chains can be visualized in the so-called SCOR®
Model that provides a solid conceptual view of the key ingredients of a supply chain.
The content of this section continues in the spirit of the SCOR® model, with each chapter
exploring individual critical components of the model. Strategic sourcing is the topic for
Chapter 5 with consideration being given to sourcing materials and services. In this era of
outsourcing, the strategic global procurement of goods and services has taken on increased
importance and relevance. The focus of Chapter 6 is on operations. Efficient and effective
operations in manufacturing and related areas such as maintenance are of great significance
in the supply chain. Chapter 7 in this section examines the outbound-to-customer needs
and requirements to add value for customers. The fourth and final Chapter 8 in this section
considers customer service and order management with emphasis on measurement and
financial impact.
Part III—Cross-Chain Logistics Processes
This section takes an in-depth look at the major supply chain process areas that are
essential to achieving the objectives of customer order fulfillment. Referred to as “crosschain logistics processes,” these areas of competency are major contributors to successfully
executing the delivery of raw materials, components, and finished goods, consistent with
customer and consumer requirements. To provide useful insight and perspectives on this
topic, Chapter 9 focuses on contemporary and futuristic approaches to managing inventory
in the supply chain. Chapter 10 highlights the role of distribution as a key supply chain
responsibility and Chapter 11 provides broad coverage of the importance of transportation
as a key element of overall supply chain success. Successful execution of these processes
contributes significantly to achieving the goals of supply chain efficiency and effectiveness.
This helps to provide customers and consumers with the right product in the right quantities at the right place, right time, and at the right cost. This will lead to customer satisfaction and positive financial impacts from effective management of the “order-to-cash”
cycle. Customers will therefore be satisfied and the objective of order-to-cash flow should
be maximized. While perhaps not as “glamorous” as some other aspects of supply chain
management, the topics covered in this chapter are nevertheless components of successful
supply chains.
Part IV—Supply Chain Challenges and Future Directions
Part IV examines the strategic issues and challenges that face supply chain managers
as organizations strive to remain competitive in the global economy. One of the issues is
that of supply chain alignment that has been receiving increasing attention by supply chain
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Preface
xxiii
­ rofessionals and academics. Covered in Chapter 12 is the need for alignment among people,
p
processes, and technologies within an individual organization, also the need for alignment
among various participating organizations in the broader supply chain. Chapter 12 also
provides information regarding the role of third-party providers of logistics services, and
how they may contribute to desired degrees of alignment among members of the supply
chain. Chapter 13 focuses on the important areas of performance measurement and financial analysis that are so critical to successfully executing today’s supply chain responsibilities. The topic of technology is examined in Chapter 14 because of its increasingly critical
role in achieving supply chain success. Not only are supply chain technologies important
to the functioning of supply chains and the organizations that are involved, but they have
become key contributors to creating customer value and making significant contributions
to the success of overall organizations. In short, it has become apparent that the use of capable technologies has become critically important to help deal with the increasing pressures
as well as opportunities faced by supply chains. Last, Chapter 15 provides an insightful look
at some of the governing principles of supply chain management, and how they continue
to evolve and remain current in the fast-changing world of supply chain management. This
concluding chapter also provides in-depth commentaries on several topics that are of great
contemporary and future interest to achieving the goals of supply chain management and
overall business success.
Features
• Learning Objectives at the beginning of each chapter provide students with an overall
perspective of chapter material and also serve to establish a baseline for a working
knowledge of the topics that follow.
• Supply Chain Profiles are the opening vignettes at the beginning of each chapter that
introduce students to the chapter’s topics through familiar, real-world companies,
people, and events.
• On the Line features are applied, concrete examples that provide students with hands-on
managerial experience of the chapter topics.
• End-of-chapter summaries and study questions reinforce material presented in each
chapter.
• Short cases at the end of each chapter build upon what students have learned. Questions
that follow the cases sharpen critical thinking skills.
Ancillaries
The Web site contains three essential resources:
• The Instructors Manual includes chapter outlines, answers to end-of-chapter study
questions, commentaries on end-of-chapter short cases and end-of-text comprehensive
cases, and teaching tips.
• A convenient Test Bank offers a variety of true/false, multiple-choice, and essay
questions for each chapter.
• PowerPoint slides cover the main chapter topics and contain graphics from the main text.
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suggestion rather than realization. Gérôme is one of the best storytellers with the paint-brush of the present times, but what does he
mean by his “Napoleon before the Sphinx” (Plate 20)? Evidently a
contrast has been thought of—a contrast between the tiny figure on
horseback and the colossal head looming above the desert sands—
but what precisely does the contrast mean? Is this the modern world
against the whole vast past? Is it France, the latest of nations,
conquering Egypt, the earliest of nations? Or is this little man on
horseback the intellectual force, the Œdipus of the West, come at
last to Egypt to solve the riddle of the Sphinx? You see the actual
thought is not so accurately read. Again, I am disposed to think that
in Mr. Watts’s “Love and Death” the little god upon the doorstep
falling back among the flowers before the great outstretched arm of
Death means that into every house where love and joy and flowers
have been supreme, the spectre of death must sooner or later enter.
But I do not know that Mr. Watts had quite that idea when he painted
the picture. It is because the thought in painting is always more or
less indefinite as compared with literature that so many different
meanings are read into or out of celebrated pictures. Art-critics and
historians are still explaining Titian’s “Venus Equipping Cupid” and
Botticelli’s “Allegory of Spring.” Pictorial language is not like the
vernacular of speech; it is not even written so that all alike may
comprehend its spirit. At best it is a sign language that permits of
varying interpretations, and it is not by any means the best medium
of conveying abstract ideas from one mind to another. But like music
it is very responsive to emotional feeling and conveys the poetic
mood or sentiment, sometimes with great force.
Indeed, true pictorial feeling finds its way into still less clear
conceptions than we have cited. The very means of expression are
often tinged by it. There may be no deep sentiment in the subject or
characters. It may be only a group of tavern brawlers by Jan Steen
or a smirking fish-wife by Frans Hals, and yet the picture may be
handled in color and light with such charm as to produce a prismatic
poem. Diaz could and did paint flowers as worthy of Paradise as
Ghiberti’s “Gates of the Baptistery,” solely because of his fine feeling
for color. Sometimes there is a feeling for the sweep and flow of
lines, as in Raphael, Tintoretto, and Rubens, that is poetic in the best
sense of the word, and in Delacroix’s colors there is often the
haunting suggestion of passion, fury, fire, and death. The subject
may count for little. What the painter feels about it may make it
poetic. Decamp got poetry out of the exact value of a spot of
sunshine falling on the floor; and Chardin found it in the textures of
pots and pans in a kitchen.
Paint itself may be made poetic by the sympathetic handling of it,
just as words and sentences in literature. There is nothing
remarkably poetic in thought about Byron’s
“Before St. Mark’s still glow his steeds of brass,
Their gilded collars glittering in the sun,”
but can you not feel in the expression of it the stately and majestic
march of numbers? You may think there is nothing remarkable in
thought in the flying figures of William Blake. They are descriptions
like Byron’s couplet, but under them is the feeling of vast sweeping
power. This is all poetry of a most sovereign kind; and that, too,
shown in the means of expression—in the technique of art. The
same kind of feeling appears in the contours of Leonardo, in the
light-and-shade of Correggio, in the coloring of Paolo Veronese, in
the modelling of Velasquez, in the brush-work of Manet. It rises to
the sublime with Michael Angelo; it abides in the smallest things of
earth in the hands of the Japanese. Into the infinitely little as into the
infinitely great the feeling of the man may infuse that true poetry of
painting which is perhaps the highest as it is the ultimate aim of
pictorial art. That it is not the only aim we shall see immediately
when we come to discuss the decorative value of painting.
CHAPTER V
THE DECORATIVE QUALITY
We could easily settle, ex cathedra, this matter of art if our views
were the only ones to be considered; but, unfortunately, intelligent
people differ with us, and the painter himself is often our most
determined antagonist. The painter, in fact, has opinions of his own
about his pictures and he sometimes asserts them with no uncertain
voice. His most persistent assertion is that the picture should be
something decorative in form or color—be something beautiful to
look at—rather than something moral, intellectual, or narrative. But
the public, being differently minded, keeps insisting that the picture
should be something in subject or have some literary meaning; and,
consequently, it often misses the decorative altogether. So it is that
there is plenty of material for disagreement. The painter and his
public seem ever at swords’ points. Let us to-day review the case for
the plaintiff and to-morrow perhaps we can sum up for the defendant
public.
It is true, to begin with, that the average person who takes an
interest in painting and attends gallery exhibitions often shoots wide
of the mark in his appreciations. He starts wrong by devoting too
much attention to pictures that have pretty faces and tell pretty
stories. He is over-fond of heroes and heroines, plots and tales,
dramatic scenes from history, or familiar characters in fiction. The
ideal, whether in figure, face or landscape, pleases him; and he does
not object to a laugh over the comic or the ludicrous. But he cannot
abide coarse peasants or fishermen in art; Dutch pictures with their
tavern brawls are not to his taste; and he persists in
misunderstanding Italian people dressed in modern garb and
representing sacred characters. Anachronisms of type, furniture,
architecture, bother him beyond measure. The Madonna and the
Apostles were Jews and lived in Judea, and he wishes an
archæological report of the race, country, climate and soil. Of course,
he does not care for portraits by Velasquez with their outlandish
dresses, or large Flemish women by Rubens, or the “splashy”
painting of Dutch burghers by Frans Hals. In short the average
person is devoted to the pleasant subject in art and is continually
asking of the picture: What does it mean?
The view of the painter is very different from all this. He is not
interested in the pretty face. The Madonnas and Saints whether
Dutch, French, German, or Italian, do not interest him as Madonnas
and Saints. A figure, whether sacred or profane, is to him only a
figure. As for the pretty story, the ideal, the correct costume, he
usually turns up his nose at them. He is not always interested in
what a picture means. Too often perhaps he cares not a rap whether
it means anything or not. His question is first of all: What does it
look? He wishes to know whether that figure is well drawn, rightly
placed, beautiful as form solely and simply. Costume, whether right
or wrong, is no great matter; but does that Madonna’s robe make for
graceful line, or play well as a spot of color? The interior of a room
has no significance architecturally. It may be false to history; but
does it make a good setting for the figures, does it lend readily to
light-and-shade, has it atmosphere (Plate 27)? Finally, what is the
result of the workmanship as a whole? Has the painter handled his
materials artistically, has he drawn his figures effectively, has he
arranged them compactly, has he brought his lights-and-shades
together truthfully, and has he fused his color-masses harmoniously?
If so he has produced a work of art, whether its subject means much
or means little.
XXII. —HALS, The Jolly Man. Rijks Museum, Amsterdam.
The distinction which I would make is the old one between art as
representation and art as decoration. The Arabic numeral 8, for
example, conveys an abstract idea to the mind; but if you draw a
series of linked 8’s thus: 888888888888888888 you will have
something that conveys no idea and yet looks to the eye very like a
graceful pattern for an architectural frieze. The art which the
“average person” seeks in a picture-gallery represents an idea and
has an expressive meaning, the art which the painter seeks in a
gallery looks something and has a decorative meaning. It need not
be inferred that the two kinds of art are incompatible with each other.
On the contrary, they are closely united, for great art is both
expressive and decorative, and all art is more or less decorative
even when not expressive. Nor is it necessary to say that one is
better than the other. Perhaps it is the thing said rather than the
manner of saying that counts most with us; but what I wish to insist
upon just here is that the painter is first of all devoted to the manner
of saying, he is devoted to the decorative. We look at his pictures
and think how long he toiled over that conception, how he walked the
town, like Raphael, searching for that pretty face, how he must have
studied to verify all his archæological facts. But, no. His greatest
effort has perhaps gone out in the endeavor to make his tones
harmonize, to get his drawing right, to hold his picture together in its
planes, and make it one united impression of beautiful form and
color.
You perhaps fancy that this contention for the decorative on the
part of the painter is some fad of modernity. If you have that idea
pray dismiss it, for it has no basis in fact. The decorative sense goes
back to the dawn of history. It was the very first sign of the art instinct
in Primitive Man. Just how it originally came to the surface would be
difficult to determine. Years ago Schiller put forth a theory which has
been accepted by Mr. Herbert Spencer and others to the effect that it
arose through the play-impulse; and that art in its early significance
was merely the result of man’s superfluous energy—something done
for pleasure in an idle hour. That is to say, the Stone Age man
ornamented his weapons of the chase and his domestic utensils with
color and line because he had too great a supply of animal spirits.
And the safety valve where his spirits blew off was art! We are to
infer then that the decorative came into existence through man’s
delight in form and color and because he had nothing better to do.
The theory is ingenious but not wholly convincing. It is quite as
reasonable to argue with Mr. Whistler that when the so-called
Primitive Man set out for the chase in the morning there was some
weak or crippled brother of the tribe who had not enough animal
spirits to join the band, and was left behind with the women to do
camp work. He could not draw bow or fight and so it is possible that
he was put to work at making weapons, carving implements,
moulding, decorating, and baking pottery. He was at first no doubt an
awkward workman; but as his hands became more deft and his
senses more acute he rounded shapes and forms with growing
grace, and put patterns upon bowls and knife-handles with more
justness of balance and appropriateness of design.
It is interesting to observe that almost at the start this primitive
artist recognized the problem of adapting design and color to a given
space—a problem that is to-day continually up for solution in every
studio in the country. He recognized that the body of an ordinary
vase, for instance, was capable of receiving one sort of a design—an
open, free pattern perhaps,—the neck of it required something like a
narrow-band pattern, the top or cover required a circular pattern. It
was not long before our primitive artist found that the secret of good
decoration lay in filling given spaces symmetrically; and that the
sense of order, harmony, and proportion were necessities of his
craft. He found the same problem staring him in the face when he
left his pottery and its geometrical designs and began scratching the
outlines of animals and men upon weapons or flat surfaces of stone.
He had to adapt his figures to his space—adapt them rhythmically,
decoratively. If the space happened to be a dagger-handle then the
figures were necessarily of diminutive size or represented in
horizontal attitudes; if the space were a shield then the figures had to
carry the action around the centre in rows perhaps; if it were an
upright panel of clay or stone then the figures were required to stand
at full length and fill the space from bottom to top. The adaptation of
design and color to prescribed space was (and is) the primary
requisite of good decoration; and the early artist was accounted a
success or a failure just in proportion as he accepted or rejected this
requisite.
XXIII.—BONIFAZIO VERONESE, Moses Saved from the Nile. Brera, Milan.
Centuries after the period of Primitive Man—no one knows how
many centuries—when civilization had become established on the
banks of the Nile, we find pottery, household utensils, weapons of
warfare, furniture, embroideries, walls of temples and walls of tombs,
all covered with patterns, figures, and colors. The carvings and
paintings are better in execution, but not unlike those of more
barbaric times. And the artist here in Egypt, like his predecessor in
the Stone Age, is concerned with filling spaces decoratively. To be
sure the king in his chariot surrounded by his bowmen, the flying
enemy, the files of prisoners bearing tribute, the convocation of the
gods, the scenes from royal and humble life, are all records of
history, religion, or custom. The painter is saying something,
illustrating something, with his figures and groups and colors; but
how careful he is that he shall say it gracefully, pleasing the eye as
well as the mind. The composition usually runs in long tiers or bands
and the spaces are filled with standing or moving figures. The open
spots about the figures are dotted with accessory objects, such as
palms, fruits, implements, cartouches—all decorative in form or
color. Everywhere in the Egyptian temple the hieroglyphs appeared
in bands and rows—a text explanatory of the subject, but introduced
in such a manner that no space in the picture should look empty or
wanting in balance.
Assyrian art tells us the same tale. The alabaster slabs that lined
the palace walls of Nineveh were all cut of one size, and the colored
bas-reliefs upon them picturing warriors, chariots, horses, dogs,
hunting scenes, battle scenes, and sacred scenes conformed to that
size. Trees and city ramparts and rivers were used as accessory
objects, and often the cuneiform inscriptions ran across them and
held them together like a veil of atmosphere. With Greek art this
decorative filling-of-space reached its highest point in the ancient
world. You cannot to-day take up a red-figured vase, a silver coin, or
an engraved gem without being conscious that the artist’s first
thought was how to fill the given space effectively. There is little
attempt at fitting a round stone into a square hole. The whole surface
of the vase, the coin, or the gem is covered with a regard for the
general form of the space decorated. A Greek coin almost always
shows good decorative effect, because the disk is completely filled
with a round profile; an American coin usually shows poor decorative
effect because the space is not filled with one large object, but is
huddled full of small dates, figures, stars, liberty-caps, and shields.
The Greek die-sinker is influenced solely by decorative appearance,
whereas the American die-sinker or his employer wants to tell you on
a ten-cent piece all about the constitution, the flag, and the
magnificent freedom and general excellence of the greatest republic
on earth.
Not alone with small objects was the Greek a decorative workman.
The wall-paintings, the sculpture, the architecture, all exemplified his
skill in space-filling. It was no mere accident that the figures in the
highest part of a Parthenon pediment were shown standing, and that
they were seated or reclining in the lower angles. There was a
pedimental form to fill with figures, and Pheidias would not have
been Pheidias had he not placed the figures so that they would fill
the space gracefully, easily, and with no loss of dignity in their
attitudes. Just so with the Parthenon frieze of Athenian youths on
horseback. How gracefully they ride! And how well adapted the
moving train of horsemen to the long, lane-like frieze that conducts
them around the temple. It is obvious enough that the sculptor had to
consider the field upon which he worked, and he had to fill it so that it
would first of all be beautiful to the eye.
The step from ancient to modern art is a long one, but the
decorating motive did not die with the Greeks. The Gothic age had
perhaps more need for it than the age of Pericles. When painting
began to rise in Italy, the chief patron of it was the all-powerful
Church. At that time artists were not artists, in name at least. They
were mechanics, members of trades-unions called guilds, and were
hired to do certain kinds of work like carpenters, masons, stonecutters, and other mechanics. The painter at that time was often a
layer of colors, a gilder of altar-pieces, a modeller in clay, a hewer of
marble, a goldsmith, a frame-maker—all in one. When the church
was built he was called in to decorate it—that is, to make it beautiful
to look at, attractive in appearance. There were certain architectural
spaces—ovals, triangles, squares, panels—certain recesses in the
apse, the dome, the ceiling, that had to be filled with carvings,
designs, pictures. He filled them, and he was praised or criticised as
he filled those spaces decoratively or otherwise. He was a decorator
pure and simple. Then came Giotto. The same kind of spaces
needed filling, but Giotto filled them better than his predecessors. His
decorative sense was larger, his taste in color more refined; and he
could draw a figure nobler and with more flexibility as regards its
muscular play and action. Painting advanced with a bound. It did not
do so because of Giotto’s subjects, because he painted the
traditional Church themes like those before him; but because Giotto
was, for his time, a great craftsman.
A hundred or more years later came Masaccio. Art was once more
pushed suddenly forward, for Masaccio rounded the archaic line,
drew drapery with ease, fathomed the tones of colors, gave lightand-shade, perspective, values. Then another hundred years to
Michael Angelo and Raphael. With these two last-named artists
drawing reached a great height. It could not at that time be carried
further, and no painters in Florence were so famed for drawing and
composition as Michael Angelo and Raphael. They filled space quite
perfectly with lines and forms. (Plates 21 and 28.)
Contemporary with Michael Angelo and Raphael lived Leonardo
da Vinci. He was an excellent draughtsman but you do not often
hear him spoken of as such. His fame rests largely upon his
discovery and mastery of light-and-shade. Here was something new
with which to fill space. It made no difference that at this time
painting often came down from the apse and the ceiling and spread
itself upon canvas and wooden panel to make what we to-day call
the easel-picture. The decorative motive was not lost sight of for a
moment. Leonardo was just as solicitous that the panel should be
decoratively beautiful as the wall fresco, and he made it beautiful by
his mystery of light-and-shade, by his figures and colors. He was for
Florence the perfect craftsman, and many students followed his
initiative. Then came Correggio at Parma (Plate 8) and Giorgione at
Venice (Plate 24), varying the use of light-and-shade and making of
it a magnificent background upon which to weave colors. These
three men for Italy perfected and completed the decorative use of
light-and-shade, and you will always hear them spoken of as the
masters of chiaroscuro, the inventors of composition by masses of
light and dark.
One moment more to the school of Venice! You will remember that
from her infancy Venice was a trader with the East. She was the
carrier by sea, the broker, between Europe and that realm of
Mahomet lying back of Constantinople which has never known any
other art than colored ornament. This Moslem empire and its colorglamour had its influence upon the Venetians through their ships and
traders, and when the painters began the fabrication of altar-pieces
and mosaics for the Venetian churches it was not line or form or light
or shade that primarily interested them. It was color—the color of the
old decadent Eastern world—to which they were devoted. The
Bellinis began it, their pupils Giorgione and Titian made it glorious,
Paolo Veronese gave it final brilliancy and splendor. (Plates 5 and
14.) Again the height was reached. Space-filling at Venice was done
primarily by masses of color, and to-day you will always hear the
Venetians spoken of as the great colorists in art.
Now have you noticed that I have given you, in this little outline of
art-history, the names of the great masters in painting? Have you
noticed that the rise of that greatest school of all, the Italian, can be
adequately explained on purely decorative grounds? Art was great in
Italy primarily because the Italians were great technicians, great
decorators, great space-fillers. If you will turn back and read their
lives, their adventures, and their quarrels among themselves you will
discover that they were not wholly absorbed by the Madonnas and
Holy Families and the religious sentiment of art. Many of them had
piety and strong belief, and some of them had neither the one nor
the other. The subjects were dealt out to all of them alike by the
Church; but the manner in which they should be painted was
something taught in the bottega of the master, something dictated in
each case by the space (the wall or altar) which had to be decorated.
Even the pietists like Fra Angelico were not free of obligation to
the decorative. Nor did a single one of them ever wish to be free.
Whether they believed in religion or not, whether they had pietistic
sentiment or not, they all believed in the beauty of good form and
good color. If you will look again at Andrea del Sarto’s Holy Families
you will see little holiness about them or in them. They are only
Florentine people posed in traditional attitudes, with Andrea’s wife
enacting the part of the Madonna. But they are not wanting in
decorative charm. Andrea knew how to fill space if not how to paint
soul, and it was because he did fill space beautifully in the convent of
the Annunziata that his townspeople called him “the faultless
painter.” No one ever referred to him as “the faultless thinker” or “the
faultless sentimentalist” or “the pietistic painter.”
If you will look again at the pictures of Titian you will see only
handsome, well-fed, richly robed Venetians. Their brows are not
burdened with Christian ecstasy nor their faces furrowed with classic
thought. There is little to them but fine form and fine color. And yet I
venture to think that Titian, taking him for all in all, was the greatest
painter known to history. It was by and with such men—men devoted
to the material and technical side of their art—that Italian
craftsmanship rose step by step through three hundred years of
severe training until the Renaissance height was reached and great
art was the result. The pictorial voice of Italy would never have been
heard in this world had it not been for the decorative skill of the
workman, the craftsman of the Renaissance, the man we to-day call
a technician. And from beginning to end the first consideration of
Italian art was not religion, nor nature, nor the ideal nor the classic,
but rather the making of a beautiful decoration by the use of lines,
lights, shadows, and colors.
XXIV.—GIORGIONE, Madonna and Saints. Cathedral, Castelfranco.
I am aware that you regard all this as decidedly heterodox, and
possibly you may think I am distorting the facts to make a point in
argument. But no. I am stating the artist’s contention, giving his idea
of the development of art—the view held by the ancients and still
upheld to-day by the moderns. But let me ramble on a little further,
and consider this matter negatively. You know that with Raphael,
Michael Angelo, and Titian art in Italy reached its climax, and that
after them came that deluge known to history as the Decadence. But
why was there a decadence? What caused it? Nothing more nor less
than that the followers of the great men came to regard
craftsmanship as something of a trick to be readily picked up, and
failed to study with the severity of the early men. They thought to be
technicians without labor, to gain facility without skill, to produce
great pictures without knowledge. Their predecessors had achieved
technique, and the followers thought they had nothing to do but help
themselves to the result without bothering about going to the
fountain-head. So they tried to combine certain line-effects of
Raphael with Titian’s color and Correggio’s light-and-shade. Of
course this attempt at a unity of technical excellences was an
absurdity. Then, too, they began to think that the sublime or
sentimental subject was worth more than good workmanship, and
that Michael Angelo’s greatness lay in his mystery-haunted figures,
as Raphael’s in his round-faced Madonnas. So they began copying
these features, too. And as a result there appeared the ponderous
scowling Titans of Salviati and Vasari, the sugary, empty-headed
Madonnas of Carlo Dolci and Sassoferrato. They could not draw or
paint like the great masters, because their hands had not been
thoroughly trained; they could not design decoratively, because their
taste had become corrupted; they could not think effectively,
because they were following other people’s ideas rather than their
own. No wonder there was decadence. It would have been very
strange had there been anything else.
Two hundred years of this meretricious art followed the downfall of
the Renaissance. During those centuries painting in Europe lay
barren, save in some exceptional spots. It flourished in Holland with
Rembrandt; it flourished in Flanders with Rubens; it flourished in
Spain with Velasquez. Why did it flourish? If I were searching the
entire history of painting I could not name for you three greater
technicians than Rembrandt, Rubens, and Velasquez. With Titian,
they are the great masters of the craft. Art always flourishes in the
hands of the skilled craftsman; it always languishes in the hands of
the unskilled craftsman. And it is necessary to insist upon it again
that all these men were workmen, working with the decorative sense
uppermost. They were artists, too—artists who expressed great
thoughts, sentiments, and emotions, particularly Rembrandt; but they
never would have been artists, they never would have represented
any fact or thought worth considering, had they not been, first of all,
decorative workmen.
But you may say we have changed all that. The painter in those
days was only a court dependant—a varlet of the king—not different
from cabinet-makers, stone-cutters, and other mechanics; but to-day
he is an independent citizen, a creative genius, a teacher of
mankind, an influencer and moulder of public opinion. Yes; but the
picture is still the picture. And custom may change the painter’s skin,
but not his nature. He is still a skilled workman at heart, or at least
would be such. And his main aim is decorative craftsmanship.
Modern painting gives it proof. It is said, and truly enough, that art
has advanced in this century. Why has it advanced? Simply because
it has taken hold of the old technical and decorative problems, and
tried to better them. In France, Ingres was doing his best to draw like
Raphael, when Delacroix came to the front with a new kind of
drawing. Instead of line he substituted the patch of color, and made
the outer rim elastic, movable, life-like. Corot, Rousseau, and the
landscape painters; Courbet, Millet, and Manet, the genre painters,
helped complete it. Art under them rose rapidly, and the truth of
nature was more nearly approximated.
But the light was too dull, the shadows too black. A new man came
to the front to revise and re-edit the light-and-shade of Leonardo,
Correggio, and Rembrandt. That man was Monet, the so-called
impressionist. He changed the whole pitch of light by transposing the
scale, and giving both lights and darks a higher register. And has not
the rich deep color of the old Venetians been revised too? Look
about you at the high keys of color that greet you in every modern
picture exhibition. Claude Monet, whom people smiled at a dozen
years ago, but are now calling a genius, is responsible for this high
scale of color and light. He has transformed the whole decorative
aspect of landscape painting, by studying the intermixture and play
of pigments. We are now seeing colors in art that approximate, at
least, the colors of nature; and they are just as beautiful decoratively
as the old ones, only we are not yet accustomed to them.
Painting advances, breaks out new sails, and enters upon new
seas with such new knowledge of materials. And of course some of
the energy put into the study is to enable the painters to show a truer
life and nature than ever before; but we are not to forget that there is
beauty also in the new pitch of light and color and that the painter is
using them with a decorative purpose. Indeed it would be easy to
demonstrate that no present-day painter begins upon an oval, a
square, a triangle of wood or canvas, without first planning how to fill
that space gracefully with forms, lights, and colors. These
nineteenth-century painters have had few wall-spaces to fill, but it
has already been suggested that the decorative tradition has
descended to them, and that they are as considerate about filling a
panel or canvas as ever the old men were considerate about filling
an apse or spandrel.
XXV.—REYNOLDS, Lady Cockburn and Family. National Gallery, London.
But I fancy you are ready to stop me by protesting that these
motives are too material, too mechanical. You will perhaps insist that
true art is above all this petty planning, squaring, measuring, spacefilling; that genius knows not method, and that the ideal out-soars the
base materials that would hold it down to earth. There are those who
believe that inspiration dictates with the voice of an angel and that
the hand of the poet or painter but obeys the voice; there are those
who believe there is no labor or plan or design or foundation in the
work of art. And it is true that oftentimes painting and poetry appear
so effortless that we think them spontaneous and unpremeditated.
But those are always the works that have been slaved over the most.
Every great work of art is based in technical knowledge and has the
skilled workman back of it. And many are the poets born by nature,
yet lacking the accomplishment of verse. Did you ever read a great
piece of prose or poetry written by a man ignorant of grammar and
the rhythmical construction of sentences? Did you ever hear of a
good piece of architecture built by a man who knew not plans,
scales, and proportions? Did you ever see a great picture painted by
a man who could not draw decently or lay color harmoniously? We
are quite right in admiring the feeling, the enthusiasm, yes, the
inspiration, if you prefer that word, of some great violinist over his
instrument; but we should not forget the training of the hand, the
many years of dealing with the material that made enthusiasm and
feeling possible. How much of them should we have heard had the
hand remained untrained? Shelley’s poetic thoughts, yes, but
Shelley’s sense of melody, his knowledge of rhythm, his general
mastery of words and sentences, gave them meaning to the world.
And so, too, while we admire Tintoretto’s fertility of resource and his
bounding imagination we should not overlook the fact that it was his
absolute skill of hand, his knowledge of line and light and color, that
made an idyl of the “Ariadne and Bacchus” and an epic of that great
maëlstrom composition the “Paradise.”
Materials, craftsmanship, the decorative sense which requires that
a man’s work shall be interesting in itself, are the very bases of art;
and we often go astray in our judgments by not considering them.
We have with us to-day one of the best literary technicians of the
nineteenth century—Mr. James the novelist. It can hardly be