Unit 1 : Chemical Foundations
1. I Chemical
Overview
Chemistry
the
is
study of chemical rates and reactions
Atom-Refers to the smallest part of an
Chemical Reaction
-
The
change
object
in structures
substances
of
(introducing deleting adding more/ taking out elements
,
,
1. 3 Units of Measurement
&
terature
Physical Quantity
I
Name of
Mass
Kilogram
Length
Metre
Electric Current
Ammount of Substan
Luminous
Intensity
Abbreviation
Ky
seconds
m
Kelvin
,
Amphere
A
Mole
Mol
Candela
Cd
Litres
Volume
ImL
Relationship of volum and length
1. 1
Unit
I
L
In
:
Significant Figure
Non zero integers are
Leading
zeroes are
always significant
never
significant
.
Captive
zeroes
are
always significant
Trailing
zeroes
are
only significant if there is
In a
value
:
16 007
.
problem , count significant figures through
is
the least
precise)
(3
0 0346
:
a
sig figs)
sigfigs
(5
decimal :
the least
1500
(Isigtig)/15 00 14 sig figs
.
significant figure number in the problem
.
(Whichever
given
1 8
.
Temperature
three
ways
:
Celsius
,
Fahrenheit , Kelvin
Kelvin is the scientific number , based
Absolut Zero
k
1 9
.
%
+
=
K
-
=
0
2732
,
the theoretical
=
1
-
absolute zero
on
point when all matter ceases movement
273
Density
Relating volume and amount of substance
Mass/voluma
<
Density
>
Usually g/cms
=
glm
or
1. 10 Classification of Matter
Matter
7
Four
-
Is defined as
stages of matter
anything that takes space and has mass
:
Solid
Liquid
> Gas
>
[Mixtures
↳
Phase
-
A substance with a
variety of different elements and molecules
[Heterogenous] Mixtures w/ clearly visible parts
[Homogenous] Mixtures w/ indistinguishable parts
Matter
yes
No
-
Variable Composition ?
Mixtures
Purc Substances
Contains various types
Visibly distinguishable parts ?
Yes
Heterogenous
of atom?
no
No
Homogenous
Elements
I
Atoms
yes
Compounds
-
Unit 2 : Atoms , Molecules Fors,
. 2 Fundamental Chemical Laws
2
↳ Law of Conservation of Mass
↳ Matter cannot ba
destroyed nor created , only converted into other forms
↳ Law of Definite
↳
Proportions
Any given identical compound will always have the same proportion of elements by mass or counting
↳ Law of Multiple Proportions
compounds the ratios of two elements masses can be reduced to small
.
newhole numbers Dictating how much each element is portioned of the other
(Emporical Formula
↳ When two elements form
of
a scries
,
.
. 5 Modern View of Atom
2
↳ Contains three
parts
:
↳ Proton
↳ Found in the nucleus and has a
positive charge and was
↳ Electron
↳ Formu outside the
nucleus
,
negatively charged and of negligable mass
↳ Neutrons
↳ Found
in the
equal in mass to the proton
nucleus , no charge and
↳ [Nucleus] Small center of the atom contains
protons and noutons
,
↳ [Electron
↳
Orbits] Cloud which surrounds the nucleus center
,
[Isotopes] Identical elements but varying neutron compositions
,
positively charged and doesn't participate in chemical reactions
contains elections
,
,
negatively changed participates in chemical reactions
,
meaning differing masses
↳ Elements arc differentiated
through the number of protons
↳ Because
↳
)
chemistry is due to electrons
,
isotopes have the
different
[Atomic Mass] The "weight" or mass of an atom
,
for
clements
it is
same chemical
the
properties
average weight of all
isotopes of the elements
4) [Atomic Number) What differentiates elements based on the number of
protons in the atom
,
↳ Atomic notation :
↳X
=
↳A
=
"X
Element
Mass number (# of protons + # of neutrons = AMU (Atomic Mass Units)
)
↳ 2 Atomic number (# of
protons
=
. 6 Molecules and Ions
2
↳ [Covalent Bonds] Interaction between two non-metals
↳ [Irnic Bords] Interaction between metals and non-metals
electrons
,
,
sharing electrons
resulting from charge attraction due to non-metal taking metals
↳ [Fons] An atom or
↳ Cation
↳ Anion
-
-
of atoms who have
gained
group
Atoms who have lost electrons
loss electrons
or
forming a positive ion
Atoms who hour gained electrons
[Polyatomic Fors] Ions u/
↳
one
wo r k
or
atom
,
forming
negative
a
tractal as
a
ion
singular unit of charge
. 7 The Periodic Table
2
Groups/Families
Vertical columns ; share the sure chemical
properties ; sure # of valence electrons
Names
(1
Alkuli Metals : 1st column
Alkaline Earth Metals
Halogens
:
Prictogens
-
:
ion)
+
Ind column (Ition)
13th column (3 + ions) only B, Al and Ga
,
:
15 Column (3-ions)
.
Chalcogons : 16th column (2-ions)
Hologus 17 "Column (1-irus)
:
*
Noble Gasses : 18th column (Full valance shell)
-Periods
Horizontally Grouping elements
Share the sure # of orbits/shells
2 8
.
Naming Compounds
↳ Binary
Compounds (I atoms)
↳
Type I Naming
Root of anion
I
↳ Cation never + anion
↳
Type
name
ending
:
Naming
↳
Compos containing transitional motals (metals u/ multiple possible charges
+
anion tide
:
Polyatonic Compos
↳ Would
↳ If
CuBr-PerBanietide
anion is the
↳ Formulas for ionic
Naming
Covalent
↳
Nuneral
just be the name of the polyatonic + other element
monoatomic then add ide
:
Pb(NOble-Lead (It) Nitrate
Cation
↳ All ionic compounds must lead to a not zero charge
↳
-ide
Calle-Calcium Chlorite
2
↳ Cation nave + Romm numeral
↳
ide
in
compounds contain
the smallest whole number
Polyatomic
subscripts
Componals
Typer III Naves
Witelementname,adixe
hususudementedia
↳
Naming Acids
Compounds w/
↳
Fonic
4
Type 1
Union what
-
Hydrot
↳
↳
Oxygen
root + in
+
acid
:
HCN ri e
Type 11-Anion contains Oxygen and cuds in-ata
↳ Root + is
↳
H+
+
>
acid :
Type 111-Anion containing Oxygen ends in
↳ Root + our + acid
-
7 He
Unit 3:
[Stochiometry] Study of quantities of materials
↳ [Mass
system is based
a
on
it can ionize
its
own
use
a
mass
produced in chomical reactions
spectrometry to
m easure
atoms , those ionized atoms
fields , it gets thrown
how much it
-
'C standard 112C
exactly 12 Amu)
Spectromatiy] We can
as
consumed and
acid
our
SOn-Sulforas Frid
Stichiometry
. 2 Atomic Masses
3
↳ Modern
Root
it
:
-
↳
HNOS-tica
off course
,
go through
depending
on
an
magnetic
how much
it
the weight
field
gets
of
samples,
and due to it
,
producing
thrown off course is
weighs
allows us to count atons
↳
Weighing
↳)
Figure out averageatomic weights through isotopes
through weight calculations
[i(Decimal Value of Relative Abundance xAMU)
:
=
Elemental Mass
. 3 Moles and
3
Conversions
4) [Mole] A unit of measurement for the
↳ / mole
6 022 x 103 atous
=
.
↳ Designed in a
way
↳ [Molar Mass] Mass in
=
so that
grans
amount of atons in
Caragados
one
a
compound/substance
number
mole of
any
element will have
a
mass
in
gravs equal
wole of substance
of one
-
6 02241023
.
(Na
# of
Molur Mass
(mr)
Graus
Moles
particles
X
(Na)
(Mar)
6 022x1023
x Mola-Mass
.
to atomic mass
7
3
. 6 Percent Composition
↳ Method to determine atomical
4) Mass % of Element in
composition of compound
Compos
Mass ofClemon one
:
.7
3
Determining the Formula of Compound
↳
[Emporical Formula] Simplest whole number atomical composition of component
a
↳ Determined
1
:
through
Converting to moles
.
2 Divide each mole value
.
3
. If
not
by the smallest
whole numbers ,
given
↳ [Molecular Formula] the true formula of
↳ Determined
1.
through
multiply by the smallest whole number integer numbers give you subscripts for each atom
,
given compound
:
Obtaining ratio integar
molar mass molecular formula
n
through ; molar mass of emperical formula
2 Multiply each subscript ofcmperical formula by
.
3. a Chemical
4)
Equations + Stochiometric Composition
By law of conservation of
↳ Balanced
mass
,
↳ [Mole Ratios] Tools that
Stuchiometry Calculations
compare
.
. Using
2
a
↳
+
:
formulas
how
may
3Az + IB-
"moles" react
the "cofficients" o r
given
mole ratio
3. Convert back to
Limiting Reactant
gives
of atoms of each element must be written o n each side
per
AsB
reaction
moles of elements
required in
reaction
a
:
1 Convert to moles of
. 11
3
the same number
through adding coefficients to
↳ Each coefficient of each element
↳
integer 1.
,
value
Mole Natio
convert to moles for needed substance
unit that
question
Needed Element Coefficient
:
Obtaine Element Coefficiat
asked for
Percent Yuild
[Limiting Reactant] the reactant that rans out first and this limits the amount of product that could form
↳ [Excess Rcuctant]
Penstant left over after LR runs out
↳ LR determined
through :
1 Stochiomatical calculation
.
of how much each reactant can
1 Lowest amount of
productnade
.
↳ ER is determined
through
is
the
make
of
LR
:
1. Use LR to determine how much of LR react w ER
. Subtract consumed
2
↳
)
ER
from
original
ER amount
[Percent Yoild] An indicator for efficiency of reaction in
a
particular
solution
a
product in more
↳ % Yeild
:
ActualYeile
*
Lila
↳ [Theoretical Yeilm) How much is
100
produced in
an
ideal enviornment ,
fourd
through
Stoichiometric calculations
Unit 4 : Types of Chemical Reactions
4 1 Water Molecule
.
Many reactions that happen do so in an aqueous state
Aqueous lag) meaning dissolved in water
Waters characteristic of polarity allows it to be a really
good
solvent
Polarity stams from difference in electronegativity
Polarity produces partially charged sides which pulls compounds apart and "hydrates" them
Hydrating the ion (puts water u) them
Diagram of Water Molecule
15
Oxygen has the partial negative and hydrogen has partial positive
2
Oxygen has higher electronegativity therefore attracting
105
O
a
,
a
+
↳ Water is "bout" shape where
,
the
angle
between H-0-H is
0
St
105
H8-
4 1 Cont.
.
Solubility
↳ [Solution] Refers to a
homogenous mixture; made up of
↳ [Soluta] Substance
↳ [Solvant] Substance
a
solute and
solvent
being dissolved
doing the dissolving
[Aqueous Solution] A solution where water is the primary solvent
) [Solubility] Refers to the amount of substance that will dissolve
↳
↳
↳
)
Measured
↳
Solubility is based
4) In
in
general
mol/L
on
attraction of ions to water
and
to
each other
"Like dissolves Like "
Solubility Trends
↳
↳ Solids dissolve best in
surface area
high temperatures ul
↳ Gasses dissolve best in low
temperatures and high pressures
wore
↳ Saturation Levels
↳
[saturated) When solution contains the maximum
a mount of solute that can dissolve wout
↳ [Unsaturated] When the solution can dissolve more solute
↳
42
.
↳
[Supersaturated) When the solution cannot dissolve anyone
so
there are undissolved pieces
Electrolytes
[Electrolytes] Refer to solutions that
can
conduct electricity due to
having dissolved substances
going
of
over
solute
↳ Higher concentration of
4)
ions
means
greater ability to conduct electricity
Strong Electrolytes
Example of
↳ Substances that
when dissolved
produce
a
lot of ions
Strong acids (Produce lot of H ions)
↳
Strong acids (Produce lot of OH-ions)
↳
⑦
+
a
O
⑦
#
High Solubility Salts
strong electrolyte
0
⑦
↳ Exe :
↳
a
⑦
O
a
↳ Weak
Electrolytes
↳
Substances that when dissolved
↳ Exe
produce little amounts of
ions
Example of
⑦
↳ Non Electrolytes
↳ Substances that when
①
①
↳ Weak Bases
.
dissolved do not
O
produce ions
Usually covalent compounds that could dissolve
Composition ofSolutions
↳ [Concentration] Is a method of determining the abundance of substances in a solution
molarity (M)
↳ Also referred to as
↳ Measured
Mularity =
nol/2
in
↳ Concentration of Fons
↳ No exact
of determining
way
↳ Only
way is through using
↳
Multiply concentration of substance by coefficient of
a
stoichiometric calculation
Solution that
↳ [Dilution] Refers to
-
is highly
↳ Calculated
using
C V
,
,
=
moles of solute
LeVe
4 2) Basic Types of Chanical Reactions
.
↳
Synthesis
↳ Two
↳
compounds
combine to make
Decomposition
↳ One
solutes
Chemical reaction
known
concentrated
increasing volume by adding solvent to
does not alter # of
of the
ion
4) [Standard Solution] Solution whose concentration is accuretly
↳
) [Stock Solution]
↳ Note
electrolyt
solubility salts
↳ Weak Acids
4 3
weak
.
↳ Low
↳
a
breaks down into two
over
present
decrease concentration
①
Single Replacemat
↳
↳ When either the
↳ Double
cation or anion
in
a
compound is replaced by another
Replacement
↳ Two
compounds
cations
swap
or
anions
↳ Combustion
↳ When
↳
ul
substance reacts
a
Usually
carbon + hydrogen
a
and release
Oxygen
energy
in
light/wout form
compound
4 5 Precipitation Reactions
.
A double
↳
replacement reaction in which one of the substances that form is insoluble and leaves the solution through
↳
[Percipitate]
Refers to the solid that forms in a percipitation reaction
"slightly soluble"
↳ Insoluble and
↳
Solubility Pules
are
used
interchangeably
:
N-Nitrates
S-Sulfates
Always
A-Acetates
A- Ammonia
Souble
6-6 , metals
6-61 elements
Alinys
Soluble
Except
P-Lead
Ca-Calcium
M-Mercury
Gr-Strontium
S-Silver
Ba-Barium
4 7 Acid Base Reaction
.
↳
) also
known as neutralization reactions
↳ Refers to when
↳
Produces
salt
+
↳
Only works when
a
↳ To
46
.
a
water
strong acid
+
perform neutralized stachiometric
strong base reacts
:
moles of Ht
=
moles
of
OH
Describing Chanical Formulas
↳ Described through
Chemical
↳ Basic chemical
↳
Complete
formulas/equations
Equation / Molecular Formula
↳ Formula
↳
enough acid and base react that they cancel out
Usually
Ionic
changes
Equations
↳ Shows
all
↳ Strong
↳ Net Fonic
equation
only used to show state
components ionized of a solution
electrolytes are ions
Equation
↳ Includes
only substances which participate in Change
↳
Spectator ions arent included (ions that avent main participants to changel
↳
Usually only
ions + ions > percipitate
a
pluse change
[Note]
4 9 Redox Reactions
.
↳
Are reactions
electrons
in which
On
:
Oxidation
=
number
transferred
are
↳ Oxidation States
↳ Tool used to
1. Each monoatomic has
1 Ions have an
ON
.
3. G clements are
Fluorine
↳ [Oxidation] When
an
↳ [Reduction] When
an
↳ [Oxidizing
-
zero
charge
+
it
element loses an
element
Hydrogen is usually + 1 ; except when it forms
then it becomes
a
metal
.
6
Oxygen is usually I ; except when in
is
-1
,
gains
an
-
=
a
compound /
1
-
. Oxidation # of neutral compon
7
I
a
peroxide (H2O2)
0, Oxidation stakes can be fructions
electrons
electors
Agent] Substance being reduced
↳ [Reduction
↳
to
=
always
is
ON of
an
always
,
4)
5.
keep track of electrons
LEO
GER
11
Gaining Electors
Losing Electrons Oxidizes
Agent] Substance being oxidized
Reduced
Balancing Redox Reactions
1
.
Separate reactions into oxidation and reduction half
. Balance elements beside I are 0
2
. Balance waters by adding HeO then balance H
3
by adding H
4 Balance
charge by adding electrons
5
. Ensure each "half reaction" has same number ofclections (multiply by
integer it needed
.
6
. Combine each
half reaction :
adding similar elements on save side and canceling if on opposite sides
7
. If basic and OH-ions to both sides till all excess
-
A+ ions are
Unit 5 : Gases
gora
-
. 1 The nature of Gases
5
↳ Gases volume
is
↳ They
equal
mix
ul
completely
↳ Gases exhert
other
pressure on
↳ [Pressura] is
↳
Pressure
to their container as
gases
their
surroundings
essentially just the force of particles hitting containers
Force
=
Area
↳ [Standard Pressure] Refers to the
↳ =
↳ [Standard
latm
101 3 kPa
=
Temperature
↳ k 273
,
↳ P
late
=
.
=
=
they expand
,
and
atmospheric pressure at sea level
160 mmHg/forr
Pressure (STP)
Refers to what conditions most
=
101 3 kPa
.
,
160mmHg/ forr
reactions are studied under
then
5 2 Gas Laws
.
↳
[Boyles Lan] Stating that pressure and volume
↳
PU
,
,
↳ Pressure
atm
in
↳ [Charks Laws
↳
are
inversely related to each other
PeVe
:
volume in litres
and
Stating that volume our temperature are directly related
I=
↳ Pressure
temperature in Kalvin
↳
[Gay-Lussar LawT Relates pressure and temperature
atm and
in
=P
↳
↳ Pressure in in atm
aul
↳
are
↳
Volume in litres and
↳ [Ideal Gas Lan]
↳ PV
=
directly related
n = moles
Relating moles volue temperature and
.
pressure
,
,
nRT
↳ P atm
V
=
,
↳ [Ideal Gas] A
litres
=
↳ R universal
↳
.
they are directly related
temperature in Kelvin
[Avagadros Lan] Stating that moles and volue
↳
where
,
gas
,
nimoles
T Kelvin
=
,
constant = 0 08206 Latr/mol K
·
.
hypothetical gas that occupies negligable space and has not intermolecular interactions
Express gasses characteristics at low temperatures and high temperatures
. 11 Gas Stoichiometry + Calculations
5
↳ [Molar Volume] The volue of
gas per more of gas
↳ 12 4 Loo
is
21 4
p
cator
.
.
↳
↳
Only at STP
[Molar MassReferstothemus
↳ d=
↳
of
a
gase ae
density T Kelvin , R universal
=
=
,
[Density of Gas]
↳ d P
gas
constant
,
=
=
↳ density at StP : d
=
↳ [Daltons Law of Partial Pressures] States that the
pressure of a mixture of gases is the sun of the pressures
were alone
↳ Protal
↳
)
=
P + Pe + P
,
Ptotul
=
(U +neths
,
...
) It
↳ [Mole Fraction] The ratio of mole of a
↳
&
↳ X
total
=
,
=
P /ptotal
,
gas
to the total number of all
gaseous
moles
it
try
↳ Note that collecting
. 6 Kinetic Molecular
5
gasses
over
water unter Vapor is always mixed ths they have to be treated
,
,
as a mixture
Theory of Gasses
↳ Postulates of the Kinetic Molecular
Theory
↳ Particles are so small that their indivisual volumes
cou de considered
negligable
↳ Particles are in constant motion
↳ Particles are assumed to exhert no forces on each other
↳
Average Kinetic energy of gaseous mixtures
1 At the same
temperatures all gasses have the
↳ KE
=
faster than
more
average Kinetic energy
KE Emr2
save
,
↳ Smaller molecules
proportional to temperature
is
larger
:
ones
:
ERT
5 7 5 8 Ideal Us Qual Gasses
-
.
.
.
↳ [Effusion]
Passage of gas through a tiny chamber
↳ [Diffusion] basses
Ent
↳ Ideal Gas
↳ Real
Gasses]
mixing us other gasses
I
=
Any gasses that cannot be considered ideal
↳ Occurs when
pressure is high
↳ Concentration of
and
as
they do not follow the behaviour of ideal gasses
temperatures are low
gas is high and thus intermolecular
forces are
important
Unit 6 : Thermochemistry
6 1 Nature of Energy
.
↳
Energy is defined
↳
Energy
is
the
as
ability to do work or produce heat
conserved stated
always
4) [Heat] is the transfer of
↳ Heat flows
>
[Temperature]
:
is a
from hotI cold
property which reflects the kinetic energy of a substance
work
↳
and heart
any given pathway ,
[State Functions]
that do not
↳ Exe :
properties
depend
,
,
in
Energy
-
=
,
bond
energies
energy
of
a
magnitude
any way on
,
and
heat
of
energy
is
capacity
potential enargy lbond energy
the
system
chemical
converted into heat
system is the sun of all
will
the past and future
theut) flow into the system
=+, heat is converted into
4) The internal
differ but
,
↳ [Exothermic Reactions] Heat flows out of
↳ &H
may
Enthalpy energy temperature pressure
[Endothermic Reactions]
4) DH
Thermodynamics and the Law of Conservation of Energy
to a
energy from object to object due
temperature difference
↳ On
↳
law of
by the first
kinetic and potential
energies
always be the same
,
only the present
states
Change↳
↳
in
internal
DE
:
↳ Where
↳
heat and work
given by adding
energy
gth
is
: heat and
w = work
Sign reflects off of the POU of the system
↳ Work donc
↳ Work
given by
be
can
↳ W
=
-
62
.
can
compression
positive
of
expansion
or
gas
p
,
=
in atm
pressure
also be
,
OU
change in volume in litres
=
/Eat
:
given by the equation
101 35
=
.
described as the
is
↳ True definition is : H
=
Joules
charge in heat of
a
system at constant temperatures
E + PV
=
Enthalpy can be treated as an coefficient of energy of a system Lie allows us to do stochiometric calculations
↳
↳
[Calorimetry] is define
↳
[Specific Heat Capacity) the energy required to raise the temperature of
↳
↳
Capacity
Heat Capacity
Ste
↳
Energy
↳
of measuring heat
the science
as
=
4 18 (
.
/g
.
(g)
Where
is hout
=
g
a
g
:
to raise of
energy required
1 00
%
.
m =
,
:
mass in
nCn OT
is
.
S is
grans ,
heart , n woles
=
specific mass
by
one
one
mole
by one degree celesias
degree celsius
,
2n
=
specific heat capacity in
molar heat
S/g C
.
,
and Ot is chae in
temperature
capacity , OT temperature chye
=
COT
=
since
a
temperature of
callgo
↳ Where C heat
capacity
↳ Remember
to raise the
required hout
msO +
↳ where
↳ Or
is the
=
Released
:
-
The
↳ Could also be :
6
. 3-6 4
by one degree celsius
substance
a
represented as either s o r a
↳ Molar Heat
↳
(5
Enthalpy and Calorimetry
[Enthalpy]
↳
the
is
Par
↳ W = work
↳
by system to environment
energy
is
conserved ;
,
OT
and
Gost
=
=
temperatur change
G gained
Enthalpy
↳ You can add
eartholpics at steps of a reaction to get the total enthalpy change at the environment
↳ If reaction is reversed
sign will flip
, enthalpy
↳
If the reaction
↳ [Standard
in
multiplied by an integer so
is
will OH
Enthalpy of Formation (GH])] The eathly that accompanies a synthesis of
standard states
↳ [Standard States]
↳
State atwhich compounds/elements exist naturally in
Compounds gases pressure is exactly later
:
,
solution concentration is
↳ Elements : When there in their natural form at lath 250 their Ohe
,
IM
is zero
a
compound wher
all elements
are
Einphi-EinrOHE
↳ H :
coefficients) Ur
up= roles of product (multiply by
↳ Where
Notes of reactants
=
OH enthalpy change O standard
=
,
,
states , : formation
Unit 7 : Atomic Structure and Periodicity
7 /
-
Radiation
Electromagnetic
↳
.
EMR
is
form of
a
↳ ERR behaves like
↳ from a ware
energy traveling through space
a ware
and travel at the
speed
of
light in a
vaccum
Wavelength (X) frequency (v) speed (a-speed of light
wavelengths have higher frequencies
:
,
,
↳ Shorter
↳ V I
↳ C = X
frequeny)
↳ Where c
↳ Wave
speed of light
=
10
hertz
in
X
or
Icycla/second
Wavelength v frequency
inversely proportional to each other
,
:
=
,
Frequency Incrcuses
X-Rays Ultraviolet Visible Inferred
Rays
=
messured
aoul
frequency are
length
Gamma
(2
is
/1
+2
Mo,
1 1000
10.
=
:
2
=
Microwave
10 -
2
=
Radionau
/ 1
10-1
:
>
-
10"
↳/2 = meters
6 2 Nature of Matter
.
↳
Energy
can
↳ Where
↳
↳
DE
=
↳
whole number multiples of he
only he gained or loss in
his phlanks constant
Meaning energy
is
=
6 626x10"Js
.
,
and
v =
frequency
quantasized
nhu
Where n
is an
integer
↳ This can be extended to EMR
↳
↳
↳
↳
E = or E
wass on
can
↳ Matter and
↳
hr
X
speed of light ,
not at rest
Where his phanks Constant
Energy has
Energy
=
only
relatively
occur in
energy are
Energy
is
a
C is
,
units called
the sun
,
form of matter
as
=
havelength U frequency
quanta
matter
posses
wave like
=
,
characteristics and
energy
has particle like behavior
↳ Electrons orbit the nucleus
↳ [Line
Spectrum) Because electrons are only at certain energy levels they are quartied Thus when the
,
absorb light and become excited ,
they eventually release that energy and
from the numont of energy difference
7
.5
.
go
back to
resting
orbit releasing the light
between each level
Quartum Mechanical Model of Atom
standing waves ; a stationary
↳ Electrons act like
↳
(quarter levels
only at certain levels
Meaning only certain
↳ Orbit
pathing of electron
=
↳ Orbital
fit into certain orbits
can
nows
wave
of
possible area electron position
4
[Heischberg Uncertainty Principal) State that because an electron is so shall and is constantly in motion
be
truly certain of where it is at time . Only the possible aven it in in
=
,
we cannot
X
↳ An orbital
is where electrons
↳ Baccuse Emp and matter are
↳
,
so a re
orbitals
ul the nucleus
bigger the orbital is wider and the electron spends less time
,
ny , the
↳ as
electron has more
energy
tightly bonded to the nucleus
and is less
[Angular Momentum Quarter Number (173 Related to the shape of atomic Orbitals (IE subshells
↳ Values
l
↳
quartizat
[Principal Quantum Number (n)3 Relates to the size and energy of the Orbital
↳ Asa becomes
↳
90 % of their time in
spond
=
0
=
s
from
l
,
=
1
0
=
p
n-1
+
,
l 2
=
=
l
a
,
=
3
=
+
,
l
=
4 =
g
[Magnetic Quantum Number (me)) Related to the orientation of the Orbital in space
↳)
Essentially which way its facing
↳ Has
↳ [Electron
values between
-Land
+
(
Spin Quantum Number (mal] Starting each orbital can only hold Selectrons that must spir in opposite
directions
↳ Orbitals slow
probability distribution
↳ Sorbitals
; spherical
↳ Porbitals ; I lobes
↳ & Orbitals ; four lobes
↳ f orbitals ;
↳ In
↳
an
atom
,
5 possible sub intervals
suborbitals
elections can have
the sour set of four quarter numbers
Each suborbital can hold &electrons which must spir opposite directions
↳ [Aufbau
margy
↳
no
7
possible suborbitals
3
,
Principal) States that
electrons are added
one
by
on e
and
will
always occupy the lowest possible
first
Filling of
↳
orbitals
goin upaired
then
paired
&" , d , foort' were
become
5
from outermost
level
↳ Valance electrons are those of the outermost
↳ For
ions
we
4
remove
principal energy number
from the outermost
energy
Is , Is , Ip 35 3p 45 , 3d
In order :
,
,
,
Up 55 4d 5 p , 63 Ye
,
,
,
,
,
,
50
,
6p
,
is , 57 , 60
,
ip
G[Isoelectronic) Ions who share the same electron count
. 12 Peridic Trends
7
↳ [Ionization
Energy) The energy required to remove
↳ Ionization
↳
energy decreases as we go down
Increases from left
but
electron
coverage
↳ [Electron
experience
to
right
as
electron
one
colon as electrons
a
electrons in
are
number fill the
quarter principal
same
further from the
sure
pull
more
Affinity] Energy Chays associated ul adding an electron
↳
Essentially likelyhood to form
negative positive in
a
or
↳ [Atomic Radii] Define as half the distance
↳
Going downward
↳ Left to
↳
right
decreases
[Electronegativity) The tendency of
↳ ↑ accross
a
↓ down a
↳
.
electrons are pulled
as
group
electrons
as
4)
E
=
when
energy of a compone is
the
closer to nuclear
to attract electrons closer to itself
electrons
away
are more attracted to
nucleus
nucleus
from
lower than the
as
energy
a
unit
of the
separated atone
Bonding] Hold together dur to the attraction of opposite charges caused by the transfer of electrons
(2 31 x10 ) nm)(2)
·
.
↳ Colombs
law describes the
↳
A
↳
Q Charge
umber
↳ [Bond
↳ The
are further
levels added
a make them function
together
↳ a bord is the force that holds atoms
↳ Forms
,
energy
Unit 8 : Bonding-
Types of Chemical Bonds
↳ [Ionic
n or
atom in a molecule
an
period as radius decreases
-
8 1
between two nuclein
atomic radius as
increases
negatives
shows
:
,
a
energy
interaction of
a
pair
sign of attraction
r is
radius
Lengths Refers to the distance at which the system
energy
of
↳ Proton
a
-
is the
compound
Attraction
Electron
-
↳ Eonic
energy
potential
Nole : GEN
Repulsion
are
shared
meaning elections are
huypers
when
=
difference
in
electronegativety
shared
Non-polar moving electrons
↳ Polar
of all its kinetic and
minimal
Repulsion
Electron
↳ [Covulat Bonds] Electrons are
↳
sur
a
Electron
↳ Proton-Proton
↳
)
of ions
GENE 1 8
.
shared
equally happen
when
GEN <0 5
.
unequally happen when DEN10 5
.
nucleus
area
of
↳ Polar Bonds result in
↳
partial charges due to unequal sharing of electrons love side has
Dipoles Moments are the partial charges
which
8. 5 Energies of
↳ [Lattice
symetrical
the smaller in would be the
,
isoelectronic
are
has
less
us the polar bonds
↳ But the
molecule must not be
↳ Ions
one
more
one
ul the
greater nucleus Charge hi of protons
Binary Foniz Compounds
Enorgy] Is the relear of energy associated when two gaseous atons form
↳ Releases
energy as gasses have a
lot of
energy relative
to
an
ionic
solid
solids
↳ Therefore LE is exothermic
↳ Total reactions
due
↳
lattice
to
LE
OH
SOH
is
of
all
steps , wh the reaction usually being overall negative (exothermia
energy
((QQQ2)
=
proportionality constant Q Conic charges r
↳ LE↑ with
larger charges and smaller ion radius
↳ Where
↳
)
K
:
=
,
[Ionic Character of
↳ Where
↳
bond)
a
750%
=
,
Helps distinguish between
a
polar
radius
covalent and ionic bond
ionir character = Ionic
Only for gasses
↳) For solids
,
are
identified
molecule
arcut
ionics
as
those who are electrolytes
when
welted
8. 7 Covulent Bonds
↳ Electrons in
a
discrete , except
theyre "delocalized" mening they
are
free to move across the whole
molecule
↳ Bord
Energy
↳ There a three
↳
↳ The
↳ DH
possible bonds
to break
a
bord
:
↳ Double Bonds
(pi bonds) U shared electrons
↳ Triple Bonds
(Ipi bonds) 6 shared electrons
bird
the first and middle bond , while the
picnel Ipibonds are above and below
is
SiDBond Broken-E'D Bond Formed
BE of products
BE of reactants
8. 9
energy required
Single Bonds (Sigma bonds) I shared electrons
signe
:
the
is
Electron
↳ Electron
Bonding Models
assure
pairs are
↳ Love Pairs
-
↳ Bonding Pairs
to be localized to one
utom o r the
Electron localized to
-
Electrons localized
space
between two
one ato
in
the
space
of two atons to form
a
bond
↳ [Lewis Structures]
↳
octet rule where stable orbit form
,
Follows
↳) The
Depicts the chemistry affecting (valcua electrons of
best
↳ Steps for
stability for
making
autom follows
an
a
from
8 vulener electrons
noble
gas configuration
Louis Structure
a
an
atom
1. Determine total # of valance electrons in molecule
. Use
2
to form bonds
pairs of electrons
. Place love
3
↳ place love
pairs
to till to satisfy
pairs
on
↳ Actual structure will be the
↳ [Formal
are
rule
outer atom first
↳ [Resonance] Meters to when there a re more than
↳ Electrons
octet
average between
possible configuration for
one
all
a
molecule
resonance
delocalized
Charge) Used toevaluate non-equivalent lewis structures
↳An
equivalent structure is reconnative structure ul equal nuber of single double and triple bonds
↳ Molecules
close to zero as possible
try to get
↳ Formal
(shared c) All love pair electrons
Charge (total #0 -Valence)
a
,
as
-
=
↳ Formal
Charge can be evaluated for each
↳ Ensure that two atos
atom
bonded cannot
↳ The best structural definition of m
a olecule
are
on
↳
)
the most
-
be + +
or
would with
--
my
formal
charge
=
O
and
1
Draw Lewis Structure
.
1
.
Arrange electron pairs in which they are as far as possible
3
. Determine
Notes: Love Pair Electrons
more
room
negative formal charge
electronegative atom
[VESPR Mor1] a word that is determined through minimizing the electron
pair
↳ Steps :
require
or
atom
placementtrom step 2
repulsion
↳ [Hybridization] Refers to the
work stable
orbit of
↳
more
possibilities
two suborbitals of
combine
nearly equal energies
to form a
Sp2
energy
then the orbits below but less than the
orbits above it
:
When
:
sp
↳ Sp
↳
which
.
↳
↳
in
e
Hybrids have
↳ three
phenomena
nubar of
signbonds
:
When number of
Signe bords
:
When number of
signbords
-
1
-
=
1
-
1
=
1.
1
=
3
Unit 10 : Liquids and Solids
Liquid and Solids are pretty similar whereas gasses
are
very
different
10 2 Intermolecular Forces
.
↳ [Inter] refers to molecule-molecula bonds
↳ [Intra] waters to atom-atom bonds
↳ In
weaker than intramolecular forces
general intermolecular forces
↳ Three
types of Intermolular Forces
↳
Dipole-Dipole Forces
↳ Occurs in
polar molecules forces star from unequal distribution of -creating
are
:
,
a
negative and positive
center
↳
Hydrogen Bonding
↳ Je
↳ London
stronger type ofdipole-dipole occurs when hydrogen bonds to
,
an
extremely high electronegative atom (NOF)
Dispersion Forces
↳ Stems from the idea of delocalized
clections , where at some points in time there might
LDF due to more a
distribution of electrons ; occurs in all molecules ; larger molecules have
an
↳
stronger
unequal
:
7
London Dispersion forces
>
of
bonds
Bonds
intermolecular
Dipola-Dipola
Strength
Hydroqu
↳ [Polarizability) Refers to the ease at which
↳ Phase
an
unequal distribution of electrons could
changes occur dur changes win intermolacr bonds
high levels of intermolecular bonds , as energy is added atous start to
↳) Solids have
occur
move
forming liquids and ther gasses
↳ The
10 3
more
and
break bonds
strength of intermolecular forces determine when Itemperatural phase whages happen , essentially stronger intermolecular
forces meaning higher MP and BP
.
be
Characteristics of Liquids
↳
Liquids have high density and low compressibility
↳
[Viscosity] The resistance of
↳
a
liquid to flow
Stronger intermolecular forces and higher volecular complexity have
a
higher viscosity
↳ [Surface Tensions The resistance to brook
↑ Intermolecular forces
↳
↳
4
10 4
.
liquid up a tuba
a
forces are intermolecular forces between liquid and container can cohesive is
-
Properties of Solids
[Crystaline] Ordered structured
↳
[Amorphous] Disorganized
↳ [Lattica]
3D
system
of
↳
)
↳
which
points
↳ [Unit Cell) Smallest
[Molecular Solids)
↳ Metallic
points
Molecules at lattice
solids] delocalized
↳ [Network
Solids]
Crystals
points
Atoms at lattice points
↳[Metallic
↳ Assumes
designate positions of crystal
repeating unit of Lattice
[Ionic Solids] Ions at lattice
↳ [Atomic Solids)
autous
are
non-directional
and
bonding allowing for electricing
Strong directional covalent bonds (Creates girut molecules
can be modded
↳ Models for Electrons
the
Closet
through
uniform
and
Packing model
packed in layers
in solids
Array of cations wh mobile valance electrons
↳ [Electron Sen Model)
↳ [Band Modal (MOMol]
A model which describes the
valence electrons as
unlocalized and
cora ones
local
[Alloys) Rates to a mixture of elements ul metallic properties
↳
[Subsitutional Allogs] Some host atoms are replaced
↳ [Intersitial
Allog) Holes w/ in closet packing word
↳ [Network Solids] Atomic solids
that contain
are
filled
strong directional bonds
Graphite contains carbon atoms with ap hybridization
as
the extra
is
below BP
pairs
of
electrons are unlocalized
conductivity
10 9
.
liquid > liquid
generally have stronger adhesive forces while non-polar have cohesive
↳
for
of
rise
Requires adhesive forces) Cohesive forces
↳ Polar molecules will
↳
surface
[Capillary Action] Referring to the spontaneous
↳ where adhesive
↳
a
↑ surface tension
=
Changes of State
↳
Evaporation refers to liquid
↳
[Vapour Pressure) Refers to the pressures of rupour in
>
-
↳ Relates to Im forces
↳
Measure
↳
Dependent
of
on
gas
,
when
strong
likelyhood of
temperature
:
a
the
IM
=
liquid
closed
DUR
liquid to
↑ Temp
a
↑ UP
move
to
gas
container at
equilibrium
pi
bonding allowing
↳
When
UPI Atmospheric Pressure the
liquid is boiling
Boiling Point refers to the temperature at Up Ap
[Triple Point) tap and pressure combo where all three stats are at equilibrium ul each other
↳
↳
=
↳ [Critical Point) Refers to when
tap is
so
high
gas
cannot
go
back
to
liquid but
the
pressure at which
required
to
liquidity at that point is also given
↳
Molality
=
Unit 11 : Properties ofSolutions
holesofsolta
general in chanistry " Like Dissolves Like
↳ In
↳ Polar
.
"
,
>
-
Polar
Polar Non Polar
,
↳ For substances not alike
, they likely
11 2
-
require large amounts of
Energy ofSolutions
4) For the creation of
1.
solution
a
energy
:
Separate solute into its components
. Break Im
2
of
solvent
. Solute and Solvent interact
3
↳ If
the solute isn't volatile it
↳ If
the solute is dissolved the
solvents &P
the
increases
freezing point will lower
Unit 12 : Chemical Kinetics
12 1 Rates
.
↳ [Reaction Rate] LTA] where A
product reactant over time
value of rate at
specific moment in time
↳ [Rate Lau] Describes the rate of reactions
through the rates of reactants
is
a
or
↳ [Instantaneous Rate]
↳ Rate Law
↳
a
KLA]"[B]
=
.
Where K rate constant , [A] [B] are concentrations of reactants , and
=
,
↳ Make Law above is called the differential rate law
,
↳ Another rate low
is the
↳ Order of Reauturts
↳ Zero order
n=0
↳ First
n = 1
order
↳ Second order
DEAT
,
n= 2
↳ Overall Reaction order
integrated rate low which relates to time
GIA]
,
,
=
=
0[H) :
is
relating to concentrations
no
Orate
Grate
(Orate)
Einrctats , where n exponents in ratalun
=
n,m are order of reactants
12 "
.
Integrated Rate Law
OAS KLAS'
↳ Rate =
↳
First Order
=
In[A)
Integrated for time
=
↳ Relates concentration to
↳ Slope
is
-
K
linear
,
↳ K wite
YS
:
-1++ luTADo
time
graph when graphing In[A]
vs
.
↳ Secon Order : Rute = KIA) "
↳ For time
:
YA)
↳ kunits
Slope
↳
↳ Zero Order Rate
↳ For tine
[A]
:
K
↳ Slope
=
-
↳ Doesnt
graph if
done "/AS Us time
.
K++ [A]o
nol/s
=
-k
↳ [Half Life) The
linew
,
K
=
=
Kunits
↳
/wos
:
=
1/[A]o
K++
=
,
linew
graph it graphed [A] vs
.
+
point in time in which half of all reactants are consumed
depend
↳ Second order : +i
↳ Zero order :
concentrations
on
tin
↳ First order :
0
.
=
:
Ga
KEATo
[A)o
tin
:
2k
12 5 Reaction Mechanism
.
↳ Chemical Reactions
↳ For an
↳
↳
occur
in
steps called elementary stept
elementary step the order of reactants
=
crefficients
[Molecularity) Refering to how may species must collide to react
[Rak Determining Step) The slowest elementary
step which determines the overall rate of reaction
↳ [Intermediate) a molecule that
appears
in the
mechanism
but not in the overall
12 6 A model for Chemical Kinetics
.
↳ Molecules
must collide to react ; affected by :
↳ Activation
Energy EA
↳
Energy required to produce
↳
EA
=
a
reaction
DErcuctats > activated complex (when collision occurs
-
↳
Temperature
↳
Temperature ↑ Aug KE of Particles Y
↳)
Tempo
more
collisions and more successful collisions
(week EA)
reaction
↳
Molecular Orientation
1 Particles must be in
a
proper positioning in reaction
so
that bonds
can
form/break and therefore create
succesful reaction
↳
[Catalysis] Substance that speeds up
-
13 1
.
↳
Unit 13 ·
F nalibrium-
9
-
Equalibrium
Equalibriu is described
4)
point in which [A) reactants and products
the
as
This is as rate of reactants
:
↳ Where Ka
↳
reversed
is
,
reciprocal
Equalibrium can also be for pressure
↳ Purc Solids and
↳ Mostly used for
↳ K 21
product"
of
or
equalities is
species
predicting
the
Q) K
1 ,
,
if whole reaction is
multiplied by a integr : X
(Racistat Plu
can
be considered
teachery for a reaction to occur
,
and it much
↳ Reaction Quotient Q ; the number
=
Kp
ofkiuark
=
; and it much 71
favoured
reactant favoured
,
↳ Q
:
Equalibriu Constrat
product
↳
"favows
Liquids concentrations Do not 0 .: ; only ag and o
13. 5 Applications of
,
change
Kr is affected by
temperature only
4) If reaction
↳ KJ1
say that
we
equilibrium constant , n and more coefficients
=
do not
rate of products
theCalibripointcontainWe products
↳
by lowering Ex
reaction
a
system
,
<1
,
given by
,
till
go
does not
law of
completion
happen
mass action
to determine
system is in equalibrium or not
if
shift left
equalibrium
↳ Q Ck
,
system shift right
13 7 Le Chatliars Principle
.
↳ States
that
any changes imposed
↳ Concentration :
↳
↳ Pressure :
gas
,
a
system in equalibrium will try to be corrected by the system to get back to ke
System will shift away from component added , value of K remains the
Temperature Treat heat like concentration
it
cdded/removed heat
moles of
on
:
,
changes the value of
,
lendothermic on reartat side)
gas
is
system will shift any
or
toward heat side
K
Like concentration if added/removed
if on unreactive
same
added no shift
occurs ,
shift to opposite side
,
K value remains the same
ifw here is increased shift to side wh
work
-
Unit 14-15 : Acid Base
Equilibrium
Conjugate pain
14 1 Nature of Acid and Bases
.
↳
)
[Marhenious Model) arids when dissociated in water produce Atious and bases
↳
↳
↳A
.
↳
acid or base ,
Equalibrium
Ka
:
=
Hast hydronim
[HEA) He
where Ka) I
one
,
mother way of
writing
not included as it is a
Ht , water is amphoteric
liquida
between the two bases for the proton between the two bases
Equalibrium position represents
Strong acid yuilds
Types of Acid
14 3
·
,
meaning high dissociation
weak
cong base and rice verse
of aid
; while a weak acid is one where Ka <) and doesn't
loudly
↳
↳
Conjacid Conj base
Lowry Models acids domate protons (Ht) and bases accept the
Brings up conjugate pairs , where an acid creates a conjugate base and vice vers
strong acid is
dissociate as
Hy++ A
Basc
-
4) H2O can be an
↳ Acid Base
And
Only applies to an
↳ [Bronstad
↳
HA + HeO
OHiOns
a
·
:
↳
Oxycids : It w/
↳
Organic Acids
↳
Binary Acid
a
has
:
polycatomic ion / Oxygen
carboxyl
group
(COOH
+
w H
It attached us anything
else
:
The plt Scale
[H J IOH'] always
+
·
↳
[H T
+
1 0x10-14
=
.
IOH'] neutral
:
↳ [H + ] > IOH-] acidic
↳ [H+ ] <LOH-] Basic
↳
pit is a way to measure acidity of
↳
pH -log[H ]
↳
plt <
↳ Could also
↳ Useful
acidic
substance
plt
7 neutral
=
pH)7 basic
pot scale
use
↳
pol -loyTOH-j
↳
pot
=
equations
basic pOH (neutral
< >
=
pOH]) acidia
:
↳ [H + ) = 10-14
pK
↳ For a strong arid ; assure
↳ % dissociation
↳ It mixture of acids
,
:
=
logk logk log[H ] log[pOt] pKw pH pOt 14 00 pH pOH
dissociate
↳ [Percent Dissociation] Used to
↳
a
+
=
completely
:
[HAT
+
=
=
[H ]
+
+
For weat acid
help visualiza dissociation of a weak acid at equilibrium
Ex100
strongest asid
determines properties of mixture in terms of
plt
[Polyprotic Acids] Are those that can provide more than
↳ dissociate
+
=
At at a time
one
one
proton
:
+
.
perform ICE tables
Ka
=
10nkn
↳
↳
base of
Conj
·
Usually as the acid gives
↳
step become acid of
last
and
work
n ow
At ; ke
more
onc
lessons due to the
larger
-
change
Except HSOw , where first step is super strong to the point that second step is weak to go
on
to high [Ht) from
dee
first step
14 8
.
Properties of Sults from A-B Reactions
↳
Ionic
When dissolved in HeO could act as
compounds
↳
Strong Acid Anim
↳ Weak Acid Anion +
↳
Strong Base Cation
+
Strong Base Cation
Strong Acid Anion + Weak Basa Cation
↳ Hydrated Metal Fors also
↳
↳ H-F is
↳
Oxyacids ;
neutral solution
basic
acid
a
or
solution
solutions
acidic
O-H
bonds
+
to break
the
bond
attraction
in
+,
easier to
=
pull I off
not
Polarity (wore polar stronger will
=
Bond Strengh (stronger
a
=
:
produce acidicAt as polarized
↳ Structure ofmolecule determines it its
↳ Bord
=
acid or bases
bond
=
wank acid due to the high
as more
↳ [Acidin Oxides]
oxygens
Componds
↳ If
X
↳ If
X : ↓
=
are
u/
weaker
E
acid)
required
added acid
strongh increases and
Telectronegativety of central atom
acid
strength
H-0- X
group
↑ electronegatively , acidic in water
electronegativity
,
basic in water
14 11 Lewis A-B More
.
2) LA = electron
paix
↳ RB =
election
pair
acceptor
donor
15 1 Common Ion Effect & Buffers
.
Phenomen of having a
↳ [Common Frn]
product/reactant at
a
c o n -ze ro
initial condition therefore
driving equalition left
or
right
↳ Makes acids less acidic
↳ [Buffer Solutions] Are those that allow for the resistence of
Opl as they contro
a
weak acid/base
ul conjugate which results in
the common ion effect
↳ To determine effects of+ acid :
1. Perform a
.
2
↳
goas
to
completion ul
(R)
Equalibrim calculation to determine nauplt
[Henderson-Hasselbach Equation] used to determina pl of
↳
↳
stukioatric calculation Cassure reaction
[A-3-anion/conj
pH pka + log HA]-acid
=
.
a
buffer
bus
[Ruffering Capacity) Returning to the ammount of H /OH ions
+
↳ NTHA) and
[At Local) = ↑
capacity
a
butter on
"absorb" wh out dramatic
chaga in plt
↳ For
:
selecting a buffer
THAT = [A'S and
pla
=
desired put
15 4 Titration and plt Curves
.
↳
)
[Titration] Mehod used to determine amount of coid or hase in
↳
[Andlyte] solution being titrated
↳
[titrant] known solution to determine titration
↳
Strong Acid-Strong Basa
↳ Assure H + + Ot
↳
-
> H2O is actionic
10 not
=
↳ muol = Volu (mL) x
[Equivalence Point] When [H )
↳
+
↳ Weak Acid/Basa
+
↳ Reform
↳
a
solution
equation
-
Immol (millianoe)
a
volarity
=
[0t
-
>
this
neutralizing solution
Strong Acid/Basc
stachiometric
problem , assuming week part runs out
Eg calculation for plt
.
↳ [Half
Equivalence) When half of acid/buse has been converted
↳ ka = [H + ]
to
Long
.
pH plan
=
,
Unit 16 : Solubility and Complex For Equalibriu
16 1 Solubility Equalibria
.
[Solubility] Ammont of substance that dissolves in
↳
↳ Written as
given
substance
[A C [B
equilibriu Kap
:
↳ Note
Nksp Paolubility
Salts u/ same number of ious
↳
a
+
=
we can
compare
their
ksp/if its different
we
go by solubility
↳ Common
Iru can affect solubility
↳
pl etc
.
16 2 Qualtative
Analysis of
Kyp
↳
)
occurred
.
Q) Kap , percipitation
↳ Q
↳ Q=
17 1
.
kn , no percipitation , unsaturate
Ksp
,
saturatel
Spontarity
↳ Arcaction is
↳
, super saturated
Spontaneous
Unit 17 : Spontanoity ,
spontaneous
:
when it
can
occur
Entropy
w/out outside intervention
"Thermodynamically Favourable"
,
Free
Energy
↳
[Entropy] & measure of the disorder of the universa (how may possible orientations
↳ Drives
spontaneous reactions
↳ Increases
solid >
-
liquid o gas
,
By the second law of thermodynamics entropy of the
↳
,
↳ OScriverse
2)
=
17 4 Free
.
17 Free
↳
Oscriverse
=
=
always increasing
positive then spontaneous
negative spontaneous
:
mirose = O
not
but in
reverse
reaction
spontaneous
Energy
Energy allows
06
is
Obanslen + Obsurroundings
↳ OScriversa
↳ OS
universe
us
to link
temperature to spontaneity
H-TS
↳ 66 needs to be
negative in order for spontaneous
↳ Osreaction EmpSproruc-Einbrenterte
=
↳ The more
↳C
NG
further to the right (to completion) equilibrium will live
negative
System will establish equilibrium by acheiving its lowest possible free energy possible
the