Atomic Bomb Essay
Sofiyat Ettu
CHC2DI-07
Mr. Paul Riso
May 21, 2023
“War is the science of destruction” - John Abbott.1 The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki in 1945 represent a turning point in human history, illustrating the destructive power of
nuclear weapons and the consequences of war and raising questions such as the costs of the
bombings (environmental, economic, and deaths/suffering), racially motivated and Imperialist
mentality, Japan’s potential surrender thus inhibiting to Japan’s advancement, and the negative
effects of progress in nuclear technologies.2 The atomic bombings were the culmination of
scientific achievements and technological advancements that unleashed unparalleled devastation.
The use of those weapons introduced a new era of warfare, forever changing the ethical landscape
of armed conflict and challenging the traditional principles of just war theory.3 Thus, the
American-led bombing of the two Japanese cities was the result of the human costs of nuclear
warfare.
The first point is the moral objections of the inhumane event. The uranium bombs
detonated over Hiroshima and Nagasaki called Little Boy and Fat Man respectively on 6 August
1945 and had an explosive yield equal to 15,000 tonnes of TNT. It razed and burnt around 70
Mustard, Bouncy. 2022. “25 Powerful Quotes about War and Peace.” Bouncy Mustard.
March 1, 2022. https://bouncymustard.com/25-powerful-quotes-about-war-and-peace/.
1
History Crunch. 2016. “Reasons against the Atomic Bombing of Japan.” History Crunch
- History Articles, Summaries, Biographies, Resources and More. May 20,
2016.https://www.historycrunch.com/reasons-against-the-atomic-bombing-of-japan.html#/.
2
“Reasons against Dropping the Atomic Bomb - History.” 2018. History on the Net. July
6, 2018. https://www.historyonthenet.com/reasons-against-dropping-the-atomic-bomb.
3
percent of all buildings and caused an estimated 140,000 deaths by the end of 1945. A slightly
larger plutonium bomb exploded over Nagasaki three days later destroying 6.7 sq km. of the city
and killing 74,000 people. Ground temperatures reached 4,000°C and radioactive rain poured
down.4 It is still uncertain, the total casualties in Japanese cities as a result of the atomic bombing.
This is because of the immense destruction of civil installations (hospitals, fire and police
departments, and government agencies) and the state of utter disarray immediately following the
explosion.5 The number of total casualties has been estimated at various times since the bombings
with wide discrepancies and The Manhattan Engineer District's (The Manhattan Engineer District
was the codename for the military elements involved in the larger Manhattan Project) definite
figures are: 6
●
●
●
●
Pre-raid population: Hiroshima - 255,000 and Nagasaki - 195,000
Deaths by bombings: Hiroshima - 66,000 and Nagasaki - 39,000
Injuries by bombings: Hiroshima - 69,000 and Nagasaki - 25,000
Total: Hiroshima 140,000 and Nagasaki - 74,000
The percentage of deaths in Hiroshima by burns was 60%, falling debris 10% and other causes
10%. While, the percentage of deaths in Nagasaki by burns was 95%, falling debris 9%, flying
glass 7% and other causes 7%.7 Moreover, it caused long-term damaging health effects to the
“Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombings.” n.d. ICAN.
https://www.icanw.org/hiroshima_and_nagasaki_bombings#:~:text=The%20two%20atomic%20
bombs%20dropped.
4
Atomic Archive. 2020. “Total Casualties | the Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki | Historical Documents | Atomicarchive.com.” Www.atomicarchive.com. Atomic
archive. 2020. https://www.atomicarchive.com/resources/documents/med/med_chp10.html.
5
“Manhattan Engineer District Established.” 2012. The National WWII Museum Blog.
August 13, 2012. http://www.nww2m.com/2012/08/manhattan/.
6
7
Atomic Archive, 2020
inhabitants. Within 20 to 30 days of the atomic bomb called Little Boy hitting Hiroshima, radiation
exposure is believed to cause the deaths of 6,000 people who survived the blast.8 The long-term
health effects of that radiation exposure still aren’t fully understood but the long-term suffering it
caused has been well-documented. Radiation from the bombs can be classified into two types:
initial radiation that was directly emitted from the bombs, and residual radiation. Residual radiation
includes two types of radioactive results.9 The first is radiation emitted from induced radioisotopes
in soil and metals activated by the bomb's neutrons; the second is nuclear fission products
contained in radioactive fallout (both applicable to the victims). Both cities saw an increase in the
number of leukemia cases after the bombings.10 This was the first delayed reaction to radiation
exposure among survivors, first appearing two years after the attacks and going six to eight years
late after exposure. It was noted that the appearance of leukemia in victims was higher among
those who were closer to the hypocentre.11 An epidemiological study made up of atomic bomb
survivors called Life Span Study (LSS) conducted a survey.12 In the late 1950s, LSS members
“Hiroshima and Nagasaki: The Long Term Health Effects | K=1 Project.” n.d.
K1project.columbia.edu.https://k1project.columbia.edu/news/hiroshima-andnagasaki#:~:text=Though%20exposure%20to%20radiation%20can.
8
Genetics Society of America. 2019. “Long-Term Health Effects of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki Atomic Bombs Not as Dire as Perceived: Mismatch between Public Perception and
Decades of Research on Nearly 200,000 Survivors and Their Children.” ScienceDaily. 2019.
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/08/160811120353.htm.
9
Atkins, Harry. 2018. “What Were the Long Term Effects of the Bombings of Hiroshima
and Nagasaki?” History Hit. June 20, 2018. https://www.historyhit.com/what-were-the-longterm-effects-of-the-bombings-of-hiroshima-and-nagasaki/.
11
Atkins, 2018
10
Ozasa, Kotaro. 2016. “Epidemiological Research on Radiation-Induced Cancer in Atomic
Bomb Survivors.” Journal of Radiation Research 57 (S1): i112–17.
https://doi.org/10.1093/jrr/rrw005.
12
exposed to atomic bomb radiation within ∼2 km of the hypocenters were asked to complete a
second survey to collect more detailed information about the effect of their position at the time of
the bombings, (precise locations on the maps, terrain conditions such as landforms, buildings and
nature’s objects that may have shielded them from the explosions, layouts of houses and buildings,
and individuals' position to the epicenter).13 This information was used in order to accurately
estimate their individual doses of radiation. The energy absorbed in the human body from exposure
to radiation is called an absorbed dose. The absorbed dose is measured in a unit called the gray
(Gy).14 To put into perspective, a dose of 1 gray is equivalent to 1 joule of energy deposited in a
kilogram of a substance.15 For LSS members who did not complete this second survey the average
transparency coefficient for a wooden house (which was a typical Japanese abode in 1945), was
calculated by detailed estimation procedures.16 This coefficient was then applied to members who
were exposed in wooden houses in distal areas to estimate their individual doses of radiation.
Individual doses for 15 organs were calculated for a majority of LSS members in comparison to
non-radiation-exposed people and of course, concluded that the radiation absorption of survivors
was astronomical and deadly.17 The chances of leukemia were ∼70 times higher among children
exposed at the age of 10 and rapidly decreased for people exposed to older ages.18 According to
13
Ozasa, 2018
14
Ozasa, 2018
15
Ozasa, 2018
16
Ozasa, 2018
17
Ozasa, 2018
18
Ozasa, 2018
the LSS, for more than five decades, a heightened risk persisted for individuals exposed at earlier
ages, while those exposed at age 30 or older had almost no increased risk, even in the earliest
period after the bombings.19 Other forms of cancer, including thyroid, lung and breast cancer, also
saw an increase (albeit less significant).20 So did anemia, a blood disorder that prevents the creation
of enough red blood cells. More common health effects among survivors were cataracts, which
often formed years after the attacks, and keloids, an abnormally protruding scar tissue that forms
after burned skin heals.21 Pregnant women exposed to the bombings experienced higher rates of
miscarriage and deaths among their infants; their children were more likely to have intellectual
disabilities, impaired growth and an increased risk of developing cancer.22 Survivors of physical
injuries and acute radiation syndrome continue to suffer the stochastic effects and late-onset
deterministic effects of atomic bomb radiation exposure.23 These survivors have come to be known
as “hibakusha”, which translates to “bomb-affected people”.24 Niju hibakusha, double survivors,
means the 160 people who were present at both Hiroshima and Nagasaki.25 Currently, over
19
Ozasa, 2018
Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission. 2009. “Radiation Doses - Canadian Nuclear
Safety Commission.” Nuclearsafety.gc.ca. 2009.
http://nuclearsafety.gc.ca/eng/resources/radiation/introduction-to-radiation/radiation-doses.cfm.
20
21
Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission. 2009
Rothman, Lily. 2017. “Survivors of the Atomic Bomb Share Their Stories.” TIME.com.
TIME. 2017. https://time.com/after-the-bomb/.
22
23
Rothman, Lily. 2017
“Disarmament Education.” n.d. Education.unoda.org.
https://education.unoda.org/presentations/hibakusha.html.
24
25
Denver, Mailing Address: Manhattan Project National Historical Park c/o NPS Intermountain
Regional Office P. O. Box 25287, and CO 80225-0287 Phone: Hanford: 509 376 1647 Los
Alamos: 505 661 6277 Oak Ridge: 865 482 1942 Contact Us. n.d. “Atomic Bomb Survivors -
525,000 hibakusha have died and are named in memorials, more than 330,000 from Hiroshima
and more than 190,000 from Nagasaki.26 Hibakusha receive support from the Japanese
government, including a medical allowance.27 However, in Japan, there continues to be
discrimination against both the hibakusha and their children, and even grandchildren, based on the
common belief that they may be physically or psychologically weakened and that radiation effects
are hereditary or contagious.28 As such, many hibakusha do not want their status to be known, as
it can impact them regarding employment or marriage. 29 While these individuals survived the
immediate effects of the blasts, the hibakusha suffered in many more ways from the effects of
radiation sickness to loss of family and friends and discrimination.30
The bombs also affected Japan financially, inhibiting Japan’s economy for years to come.
It is estimated a whopping 884,100,000 yen was lost or 16,882,000 US dollars (For reference, the
exchange rates for Japanese yen to U.S. dollar was 50 yen/dollar in 1947 (military exchange rate)
and 360 yen/dollar in 1949).31 This amount was equivalent to the annual income of 850,000
Manhattan Project National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service).” Www.nps.gov.
https://www.nps.gov/mapr/learn/historyculture/atomic-bomb-survivors.htm.
Sink, Bob. 2009. “Who Are the Hibakusha?” Hibakusha Stories. 2009.
https://hibakushastories.org/who-are-the-hibakusha/.
26
27
Sink, Bob. 2009
28
Sink, Bob. 2009
29
Sink, Bob. 2009
30
Sink, Bob. 2009
“Q5 How Severe Were the Economic Losses Following the Atomic Bombing and How
Were Industries and the Economy Restored? | Hiroshima for Global Peace.” n.d. Hiroshima for
Global Peace. https://hiroshimaforpeace.com/en/reconstruction/page-2-5/.
31
average Japanese persons at that time since Japan's per-capita income in 1944 was 1,044 yen.32
Unfortunately, estimating the value of tangible assets that were lost was challenging as crucial
documents and books were victims of the bombing.33 However, there are ways to estimate the
value of the physical property that was lost. For example, a survey conducted by the City of
Hiroshima revealed that 70,147 out of a total of 76,327 buildings including houses, stores,
factories, and schools had been totally destroyed.34 This number included 64,000 private homes
and 600 factories.35 According to the Municipal Handbook published by the City of Hiroshima,
the total amount of damage fell into six categories: private homes, buildings, bridges, roads, private
property, and communication facilities and was estimated to have been 763,430,000 yen in
damages.36 Furthermore, the esteemed Robert Oppenheimer the physicist who headed the
Manhattan Project (also known as the “father of the atomic bomb”) is known to have regretted his
involvement in the creation of the atomic bomb that would level Hiroshima and Nagasaki.37
Oppenheimer believed that he had blood on his hands for his role in the development of the atomic
bomb.38 But Oppenheimer's guilt was not over the use of the bomb during World War II because
“Q5 How Severe Were the Economic Losses Following the Atomic Bombing and How
Were Industries and the Economy Restored? | Hiroshima for Global Peace.” n.d.
32
Bostick, Grant. n.d. “The Aftermath of the Atomic Bomb · Narratives of World War II in
the Pacific · Bell Library Exhibits.” Www.tamucc.edu.
https://www.tamucc.edu/library/exhibits/s/hist4350/page/the-aftermath-of-the-atomic-bomb.
33
34
Bostick, Grant. n.d.
35
Bostick, Grant. n.d.
36
Bostick, Grant. n.d.
“The Agony of Atomic Genius.” 2019. The New Atlantis. 2019.
https://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/the-agony-of-atomic-genius.
37
Anderson, Tim. 2016. “Oppenheimer’s Dilemma.” Large.stanford.edu. April 19, 2016.
http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2016/ph241/anderson1/.
38
he felt the bomb had been morally justified.39 Instead, Oppenheimer felt he held responsibility for
the ensuing arms race and threat to civilization brought about by the bomb.40 He hoped that nuclear
technology could find peaceful civilian applications, specifically in nuclear power.41 Oppenheimer
was conflicted, proud but guilty, relieved that many American soldiers would be spared yet
saddened by the mass death inflicted on America’s enemies.42 However, Oppenheimer’s guilt did
not eliminate the great pride of his scientific achievement.43 According to the News Atlantic the
evening of August 6, 1945, after the uranium bomb razed Hiroshima, before a packed and cheering
auditorium at Los Alamos (the site, Oppenheimer was very joyous and festive, playing hero to the
crowd. Quite literally cheering for the Japanese citizens’ deaths.44 At the same time. Oppenheimer
bemoaned the unfortunate accompaniment of science with human cruelty in an address to the
American Philosophical Society by saying: “We have made a thing, a most terrible weapon, that
has altered abruptly and profoundly the nature of the world … a thing that by all the standards of
the world we grew up in is an evil thing.45 And by so doing … we have raised again the question
of whether science is good for man.” Thus, this public admission of personal guilt could not be
clearer of the true alignment of his conscience.46 The realization that while his creation was
39
Anderson, Tim. 2016
40
Anderson, Tim. 2016
41
Anderson, Tim. 2016
42
Anderson, Tim. 2016
43
Anderson, Tim. 2016
44
The New Atlantis. 2019
45
The New Atlantis. 2019
46
The New Atlantis. 2019
legendary it went against morals and ethics by its inhumane.47 Oppenheimer could have been
regretful of the bombings of the cities or unremorseful in spite of the lives lost, either way, the
bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were the unfortunate consequences of his invention.
Another point to support the argument of the immorality of the atomic bombings was its
racist undertones.48 When the Americans were made aware of the bombing many did not support
it and questioned why it went the way it did . Like the venerable black poet Langston Hughes
recognized the unconscionable act of executing 100,000 people and reasoned racism as a huge part
that caused it: “How come we did not try them [atomic bombs] on Germany…They just did not
want to use them on white folks.” Although the building of the weapon was completed only after
Germany surrendered on May 7, 1945, Japan had been designated the target on September 18,
1944, and training for its execution had already been initiated in that same month, illustrating that
it was a planned massacre.49 The reason America didn’t target Germany or Italy is because of antiJapanese sentiment and views of racial superiority. 50 An example would be the infamous Time
magazine which declared that "The ordinary unreasoning Jap is ignorant. Perhaps he is human.
47
The New Atlantis. 2019
“Why Japan? The Racism of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombings.” n.d. The Ecologist.
https://theecologist.org/2016/aug/17/why-japan-racism-hiroshima-and-nagasaki-bombings.
48
49
“Why Japan? The Racism of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombings.” n.d.
Scarry, Elaine. 2020. “Memorial Days: The Racial Underpinnings of the Hiroshima and
Nagasaki Bombings.” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, August 3, 2020.
https://thebulletin.org/2020/08/memorial-days/.
50
Nothing ... indicates it."51 This view of racial superiority is evident in the way they were treating
non-whites at the time with Jim Crow laws against black people still in place and segregation still
legal. And especially the way Japanese American immigrants were treated in America. 52 On
February 12, 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt caved into the pressure of the fear-mongered
public and signed Executive Order 9066 which ordered over 120,000 of his fellow Americans to
detention camps for the rest of the war.53 With less than two weeks' notice, and without trials, the
U.S. Government forced Japanese Americans to leave millions of dollars in property behind and
move to internment camps.54 Despite never being charged with a crime, and without due cause,
they were forcibly removed from their homes and communities and incarcerated, simply because
of their heritage.55 The government cited national security as justification for this policy although
it violated many of the most basic constitutional rights of Japanese Americans and was just
unjustified fear that morphed into prejudice.56 Which is why that prejudice was probably the
motivation for the bombing. Thus the bombings were in part due to prejudiced ideas and white
Intondi, Vincent. 2020. “Reflections on Injustice, Racism, and the Bomb.” Arms Control
Today 50 (6): 12–15. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26975392.
51
The National WWII Museum. 2018. “Japanese American Incarceration.” The National
WWII Museum | New Orleans. The National WWII Museum. 2018.
https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/japanese-american-incarceration.
53
The National WWII Museum. 2018.
52
National Park Service. 2020. “Japanese Americans at War - World War II Memorial
(U.S. National Park Service).” Www.nps.gov. May 12, 2020.
https://www.nps.gov/wwii/learn/historyculture/japanese-americans-at-war.htm.
54
55
National Park Service. 2020.
History.com editors. 2009. “Japanese Internment Camps.” HISTORY. A&E Television
Networks. October 29, 2009. https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/japanese-americanrelocation.
56
supremacist sentiments.
Lastly, the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki caused disastrous effects on the
environment. When the bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki exploded in the middle of the air, a
high degree of radiation was emitted and carried by wind to areas even beyond the cities.57 It then
dispersed gradually and led to radioactive air contamination.58 The consequences of the atomic
bombing in Hiroshima and Nagasaki were further drastic climate change as when the atomic
bombs were dropped, enormous amounts of heat waves were released into the air.59 The smoke
released into the atmosphere by the wildfires also produced soot that causes the global temperature
to fall.60 The massive amount of nitric oxide that is transported to the atmosphere weakens the
concentration of the protective ozone layer which is essential to block and protect us from the
deadly ultraviolet rays from entering the Earth’s surface. 61 In short, the atomic bombs dropped in
Nagasaki and Hiroshima brought destruction to the environment of the cities, at the same time
contributed to global pollution and possibly a lot more that have yet to be found.62
Secondly, Japan was already willing to surrender and the bombing was just a boast of
power by the US. Prior to the atomic attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, there were indications
“Environmental Impacts of the Manhattan Project.” n.d. UKEssays.com.
https://www.ukessays.com/essays/environmental-studies/long-term-environmental-impacts-ofthe-manhattan-project.php#:~:text=When%20the%20bombs%20in%20Hiroshima.
57
58
“Environmental Impacts of the Manhattan Project.” n.d.
Lemon, Kylie. 2018. “Environmental Effects of the Atomic Bomb.” Sciencing. 2018.
https://sciencing.com/environmental-effects-atomic-bomb-8203814.html.
60
Lemon, Kylie. 2018.
59
61
Lemon, Kylie. 2018.
62
Lemon, Kylie. 2018.
of a possible surrender from Japan because, in June and July 1945, Japan attempted to enlist the
help of the Soviet Union to serve as an intermediary in negotiations. 63 Nothing came of it as no
direct communication occurred with the United States about peace talks, but American leaders
knew of the content of these exchanges because the United States for a long time had been
intercepting and decoding many internal Japanese diplomatic communications.64 From these
decoded messages, the United States learned that some within the Japanese government even
advocated complete surrender.65 General Dwight Eisenhower, in his memoirs, recalled a visit from
Secretary of War Henry Stimson in late July 1945: “I voiced to him my grave misgivings, first on
the basis of my belief that Japan was already defeated and that dropping the bomb was completely
unnecessary, and secondly because I thought that our country should avoid shocking world opinion
by the use of a weapon whose employment was, I thought, no longer mandatory as a measure to
save American lives. It was my belief that Japan was, at that very moment, seeking some way to
surrender with a minimum loss of ‘face.’”66 Eisenhower reiterated the point years later in a
Newsweek interview in 1963, saying that “the Japanese were ready to surrender and it wasn’t
necessary to hit them with that awful thing”.67 In fact, seven out of eight top U.S military
commanders believed it was redundant to use nuclear weapons on Japan, like General Curtis
U.S. Department of Energy. 2019. “Manhattan Project: Japan Surrenders, August 10-15,
1945.” Osti.gov. 2019. https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-projecthistory/Events/1945/surrender.htm.
63
64
U.S. Department of Energy. 2019
65
U.S. Department of Energy. 2019
“Milestones: 1945–1952 - Office of the Historian.” n.d. History.state.gov.
https://history.state.gov/milestones/19451952/atomic#:~:text=In%201965%2C%20historian%20Gar%20Alperovitz.
66
67
“Milestones: 1945–1952 - Office of the Historian.” n.d.
LeMay, the architect of the air war against Japan who said: “ the new weapons were unnecessary,
because his bombers were already destroying the Japanese cities”. 68 The fact that the Japanese
were on the verge of defeat was made clear to the president in a top-secret memorandum from
Secretary of War Henry Stimson on July 2, 1945. 69 Stimson noted that Japan “has no allies,” its
“navy is nearly destroyed,” she is vulnerable to an economic blockade depriving her “of sufficient
food and supplies for her population,” she is “terribly vulnerable to our concentrated air attack
upon her crowded cities, industrial, and food resources,” she “has against her not only the AngloAmerican forces but the rising forces of China and the ominous threat of Russia,” and the United
States has “inexhaustible and untouched industrial resources to bring to bear against her
diminishing potential.”70 Continuance of Japan’s constitutional emperor was the main sticking
point for Japan’s War Council, the six-person decision-making body over which Emperor Hirohito
nominally presided.71 The council members were well aware of Japan’s dire predicament but not
necessarily ready to surrender unconditionally.72 They were unwilling to concede to America’s
“negotiated peace” which just meant to them, begging the US not to continue attacking Japan.73
They were split between avaricious members seeking to get the most out of a peace agreement,
Kuzmarov, Jeremy, and Roger Peace. 2021. “Was There a Diplomatic Alternative? The
Atomic Bombing and Japan’s Surrender.” The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. October 15,
2021. https://apjjf.org/2021/20/Kuzmarov-Peace.html.
68
69
Kuzmarov, Jeremy, and Roger Peace. 2021.
70
Kuzmarov, Jeremy, and Roger Peace. 2021.
71
Kuzmarov, Jeremy, and Roger Peace. 2021.
72
Kuzmarov, Jeremy, and Roger Peace. 2021.
73
Kuzmarov, Jeremy, and Roger Peace. 2021.
like the implausible request of Japan to maintain control over parts of China, and tentative
members inclined to give way on every condition but one, the preservation of the emperor.74 This
was the consensus stipulation of Japanese officials to America, that their head of state remains as
should their system of government.75 This posed no difficulty for the Allies since there had been
some discussion of exempting the emperor from war trials and allowing him to remain as
ceremonial head of state.76 However, America obstinately would not accept anything other than
complete surrender. General MacArthur believed that Japan would have surrendered as early as
May 1945 if the U.S. had not insisted upon “unconditional surrender.” MacArthur was appalled at
the Potsdam Declaration, issued by the U.S., Britain, and China on July 26, which threatened “utter
destruction” if Japan did not surrender unconditionally.77 As his biographer, William Manchester
wrote:
“He knew that the Japanese would never renounce their emperor and that without him an orderly
transition to peace would be impossible, because his people would never submit to Allied
occupation unless he ordered it. Ironically, when the surrender did come, it was conditional, and
the condition was a continuation of the imperial reign. Had the General’s advice been followed,
the resort to atomic weapons at Hiroshima and Nagasaki might have been unnecessary.” 78 Others
74
Kuzmarov, Jeremy, and Roger Peace. 2021.
75
Kuzmarov, Jeremy, and Roger Peace. 2021.
76
Kuzmarov, Jeremy, and Roger Peace. 2021.
77
Kuzmarov, Jeremy, and Roger Peace. 2021.
78
Kuzmarov, Jeremy, and Roger Peace. 2021.
appealed to the president to back off from his hard-nosed demand.79 Former president Herbert
Hoover visited Truman on May 28, 1945, to argue that the best way to end the war quickly was to
alter the terms of surrender.80 Others appealed to the president to back off from his hard-nosed
demand like former president Herbert Hoover visited Truman and advised that the best way to end
the war quickly was to alter the terms of surrender and stop being so stubborn.81 In fact, there were
early drafts of the Potsdam Declaration that offered assurances of the emperor’s status, but these
were thrown out by Secretary of State James Byrnes, who encouraged Truman’s rigid demands.82
Members of General George Marshall’s staff argued in June 1945 that the term “unconditional
surrender” must be written in the form of “an ultimatum” and not in a way to “invite negotiation”
with the Japanese.83 It was assumed that the American public was in favour of this inflexible
position. Admiral Leahy, on the other hand, “said he could not agree with those who said to him
that unless we obtain the unconditional surrender of the Japanese that we will have lost the war,”
according to the June 18 meeting minutes.84 As well as the impending entry into the war by the
Soviet Union made Japan’s surrender all the more likely. in a letter to Prime Minister Winston
Churchill, British General Hastings Ismay concluded that “when Russia came into the war against
Japan, the Japanese would probably wish to get out on almost any terms short of the dethronement
79
Kuzmarov, Jeremy, and Roger Peace. 2021.
80
Kuzmarov, Jeremy, and Roger Peace. 2021.
81
Kuzmarov, Jeremy, and Roger Peace. 2021.
82
Kuzmarov, Jeremy, and Roger Peace. 2021.
83
Kuzmarov, Jeremy, and Roger Peace. 2021.
84
Kuzmarov, Jeremy, and Roger Peace. 2021.
of the Emperor.” And President Truman was well aware of this.85 At the Big Three meeting in
Potsdam, Germany, Truman recorded in his journal on July 18, “Believe Japs will fold up before
Russia comes in. I am sure they will when Manhattan [atomic bomb] appears over their
homeland”86 As it was, the final Potsdam Declaration demanded that there “must be eliminated
for all time the authority and influence of those who have deceived and misled the people of Japan
into embarking on world conquest,” and that a government must be “established in accordance
with the freely expressed will of the Japanese people.”87 Essentially saying that Japan’s current
government, the one that wanted to expand its influence was not one they liked and wanted to
replace it by vote of Japanese citizens. So then, Japan’s War Council who saw no ameliorating
language in this declaration publicly rejected surrender and on July 25, 1945, President Truman
gave the order to commence atomic attacks on Japan as soon as possible. 88
Another reason why the United States dropped the atomic bombs, (specifically, the second
one on Nagasaki) has to do with the Soviet Union. On August 8, 1945, two days after the
Hiroshima bombing, Joseph Stalin and the Soviet Union declared war on Japan. 89 It could be that
U.S. President Harry Truman ordered the atomic bomb to be dropped on Nagasaki not only to
further force Japan to surrender but also to keep the Soviets out of Japan by displaying American
85
Kuzmarov, Jeremy, and Roger Peace. 2021.
86
Kuzmarov, Jeremy, and Roger Peace. 2021.
87
Kuzmarov, Jeremy, and Roger Peace. 2021.
88
“Milestones: 1945–1952 - Office of the Historian.” n.d.
The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. 2023. “Why Did the Atomic Bombings of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki Happen? | Britannica.” Www.britannica.com. February 20, 2023.
https://www.britannica.com/question/Why-did-the-atomic-bombings-of-Hiroshima-andNagasaki-happen.
89
military power.90 In 1965, historian Gar Alperovitz published a book which argued that the use of
nuclear weapons on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki was intended to gain a stronger
position for postwar diplomatic bargaining with the Soviet Union, as the weapons themselves were
not needed to force the Japanese surrender.91 At this time in the war, the US recognized that the
USSR would fill the shoes of Germany as the new power-hungry country. Truman knew that
America and the Soviets were not truly allies because of their differing ideologies having only
allied with Stalin for political and military expediency. The US felt the need to intimidate Russia
because it was clear that it was on its way to becoming an expansionist power. It was imperative
to end the war quickly because the Soviets were planning on gaining more territory and expanding
their borders in East Asia. And so because they thought the USSR might expand their influence,
many felt that it was necessary for the US to show its might and superior weapons. The belief in
the dropping of the bomb was that it would give America the more dominant position and show
the Soviets that America could substantiate its threats of global supremacy. Certainly, the
diplomatic and political implications of the atomic bomb contributed to the decision by America
to end all those lives.
In conclusion, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were inhumane and
unnecessary because of their many different costs, the racial dominant opinions of white people at
the time, and the fact that Japan was close to surrendering before the bomb detonated. This is why
the bombing of these two cities will be remembered as one of mankind’s greatest atrocities.
90
The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. 2023.
Office of the Historian. 2019. “Milestones: 1945–1952 - Office of the Historian.”
State.gov. 2019. https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/atomic.
91
Bibliography
Mustard, Bouncy. 2022. “25 Powerful Quotes about War and Peace.”
https://bouncymustard.com/25-powerful-quotes-about-war-and-peace/.
History Crunch. 2016. “Reasons against the Atomic Bombing of Japan.”
2016.https://www.historycrunch.com/reasons-against-the-atomic-bombing-of-japan.html#/.
“Reasons against Dropping the Atomic Bomb - History.”
https://www.historyonthenet.com/reasons-against-dropping-the-atomic-bomb.
“Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombings.” n.d. ICAN.
https://www.icanw.org/hiroshima_and_nagasaki_bombings#:~:text=The%20two%20atomic%20
bombs%20dropped.
Atomic Archive. 2020. “Total Casualties | the Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki”
"https://www.atomicarchive.com/resources/documents/med/med_chp10.html.
“Manhattan Engineer District Established.” 2012. The National WWII Museum Blog. August
13, 2012. http://www.nww2m.com/2012/08/manhattan/.
“Hiroshima and Nagasaki: The Long Term Health Effects | K=1 Project.” n.d.
https://k1project.columbia.edu/news/hiroshima-andnagasaki#:~:text=Though%20exposure%20to%20radiation%20can.
Genetics Society of America. 2019. “Long-Term Health Effects of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Atomic Bombs” https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/08/160811120353.htm.
Atkins, Harry. 2018. “What Were the Long Term Effects of the Bombings of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki?” https://www.historyhit.com/what-were-the-long-term-effects-of-the-bombings-ofhiroshima-and-nagasaki/.
Ozasa, Kotaro. 2016. “Epidemiological Research on Radiation-Induced Cancer in Atomic Bomb
Survivors.” https://doi.org/10.1093/jrr/rrw005.
Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission. 2009. “Radiation Doses - Canadian Nuclear Safety
Commission.” http://nuclearsafety.gc.ca/eng/resources/radiation/introduction-toradiation/radiation-doses.cfm.
Rothman, Lily. 2017. “Survivors of the Atomic Bomb Share Their Stories.”
https://time.com/after-the-bomb/.
“Disarmament Education.” n.d.
Education.unoda.org.https://education.unoda.org/presentations/hibakusha.html.
Sink, Bob. 2009. “Who Are the Hibakusha?” Hibakusha Stories. 2009.
https://hibakushastories.org/who-are-the-hibakusha/.
“Q5 How Severe Were the Economic Losses Following the Atomic Bombing and How Were
Industries and the Economy Restored?” https://hiroshimaforpeace.com/en/reconstruction/page-25/.
Bostick, Grant. n.d. “The Aftermath of the Atomic Bomb · Narratives of World War II in the
Pacific” https://www.tamucc.edu/library/exhibits/s/hist4350/page/the-aftermath-of-the-atomicbomb.
“The Agony of Atomic Genius.” 2019. The New Atlantis. 2019.
https://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/the-agony-of-atomic-genius.
Anderson, Tim. 2016. “Oppenheimer’s Dilemma.” Large.stanford.edu. April 19, 2016.
http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2016/ph241/anderson1/.
“Why Japan? The Racism of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombings.” n.d. The Ecologist.
https://theecologist.org/2016/aug/17/why-japan-racism-hiroshima-and-nagasaki-bombings.
Scarry, Elaine. 2020. “Memorial Days: The Racial Underpinnings of the Hiroshima and
Nagasaki Bombings.” https://thebulletin.org/2020/08/memorial-days/.
Intondi, Vincent. 2020. “Reflections on Injustice, Racism, and the Bomb.”
https://www.jstor.org/stable/26975392.
The National WWII Museum. 2018. “Japanese American Incarceration.”
https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/japanese-american-incarceration.
National Park Service. 2020. “Japanese Americans at War - World War II Memorial
https://www.nps.gov/wwii/learn/historyculture/japanese-americans-at-war.htm.
History.com editors. 2009. “Japanese Internment Camps.”
https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/japanese-american-relocation.
“Environmental Impacts of the Manhattan Project.” n.d. UKEssays.com.
https://www.ukessays.com/essays/environmental-studies/long-term-environmental-impacts-ofthe-manhattan-project.php#:~:text=When%20the%20bombs%20in%20Hiroshima.
Lemon, Kylie. 2018. “Environmental Effects of the Atomic Bomb.”
https://sciencing.com/environmental-effects-atomic-bomb-8203814.html.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2019. “Manhattan Project: Japan Surrenders,”
gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Events/1945/surrender.htm.
“Milestones: 1945–1952 - Office of the Historian.” n.d. History.state.gov.
https://history.state.gov/milestones/19451952/atomic#:~:text=In%201965%2C%20historian%20Gar%20Alperovitz.
Kuzmarov, Jeremy, and Roger Peace. 2021. “Was There a Diplomatic Alternative? The Atomic
Bombing and Japan’s Surrender.” https://apjjf.org/2021/20/Kuzmarov-Peace.html.
The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. 2023. “Why Did the Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima
and Nagasaki Happen? https://www.britannica.com/question/Why-did-the-atomic-bombings-ofHiroshima-and-Nagasaki-happen.
Office of the Historian. 2019. “Milestones: 1945–1952 - Office of the Historian.”
https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/atomic.