Chapter 1: Introduction to Training and Development
• Module Purpose: The module aims to explore learning, training, and development as a
function of Human Resource Management, covering basic fundamentals, training methods,
the training process, and relevant legislation.
• Importance of Training and Development: Employee training and development are
crucial for organisational effectiveness, influencing productivity, health and safety, and
personal development. Organisations generally invest resources in T&D, considering it good
management practice for current and future expertise. It's vital for competitiveness in a
rapidly changing business environment, ensuring a highly competent workforce to produce
and adapt products/services quickly.
• Key Reasons for T&D in Organisations:
◦ To ensure delivery of products and services by staff with required competencies.
◦ To increase employee motivation through satisfying needs via increased job satisfaction
and helping staff achieve goals.
◦ To provide for the organisation's future needs in terms of trained manpower.
• Challenges in South Africa: The country faces a serious shortage of skilled employees,
particularly in previously disadvantaged communities, and a high unemployment rate among
unskilled employees. Organisations need to help bridge this gap through broader training
initiatives.
• Definitions:
◦ Education: Activities providing knowledge, skills, moral values, and understanding for
the normal course of life; developing a general base for life without specific job skills.
(Example: university education, gaining a matric, clinical knowledge about AIDS).
◦ Training: An organised process for people to learn knowledge, skills, attitudes, and
values to competently perform a job or task. It can improve current job performance or
enable new jobs. (Example: training a switchboard operator in telephone skills, training a
welder). Dr. Robert H. Essenhigh differentiates training as "how to get it done".
◦ Development: Systematic efforts affecting individuals' knowledge or skills for personal
growth or future jobs/roles, occurring continuously throughout an employee's career.
• Differences between Training and Development:
◦ Training: Focuses on improving performance in current jobs. Aims for planned learning
(acquisition of knowledge and skills) and is a short-term intervention.
◦ Development: Focuses on developing competencies for future job roles. Aims for longterm learning intervention, stimulating new ideas/insights, and focusing on individual
creativity and experience.
• Purposes of Training and Development (General):
◦ Performance Improvement: Addressing underperformance due to lack of skills.
◦ Update Skills: Adapting to technology upgrades to remain competitive.
◦ Prevent Managerial Obsolescence: Managers updating skills for impactful
contributions.
◦ Solve Organisational Problems: Providing skills to address challenges.
◦ Orientate New Employees: Socialising new recruits into the organisation's culture and
operations.
◦ Prepare for Promotion & Managerial Succession: Key for succession plans and
retention.
◦ Satisfy Personal Growth Needs: Meeting achievement needs through challenging
interventions, promoting satisfaction and retention.
• Importance of T&D in Hospitality: Critical for guest satisfaction, affecting every job from
dishwashers to managers. Proper training ensures employee-guest encounters are positive,
leading to repeat business. It's important for new recruits to learn standard operating
procedures and for developing top performers into future supervisors and managers.
Ongoing T&D helps maintain competitiveness in a fast-paced, evolving industry.
• Problems Associated with Training:
◦ Training without valid reasons, leading to wasted resources.
◦ Over-reliance on specialist training staff, neglecting departmental managers'
responsibility.
◦ Inexperienced trainers failing to achieve desired outcomes.
◦ Inadequate evaluation leading to repetition of ineffective training.
◦ Lack of managerial support due to perceived time constraints or doubts about efficacy.
◦ Incorrect or premature employee assessment leading to unnecessary training.
◦ Poorly designed training with too much emphasis on theory over practical application.
◦ Employees not being prepared for training or understanding its purpose.
• Approaches to Training Interventions: Organisations may use a combination of these
approaches.
◦ Learning by Exposure: Informal, by-chance individual learning with help from
colleagues.
◦ Educational Approach: Meets individual needs, formal programmes leading to
qualifications, long-term planning, involving classes or distance learning.
◦ Systems Approach: T&D as an open system, receiving input from internal (job
description, HR planning, recruitment, assessment, organisational functioning) and external
environments (market, technology, competition, consumer needs).
◦ Problem Centred Approach: Solves short-term, operational problems for individuals or
groups, often with allocated budgets.
◦ Action Learning Approach: Managers study and solve real-life problems, fostering
development and growth opportunities.
◦ Analytical Approach: Associated with TNA, analysing knowledge, skills, and attitudes
for specific jobs from job descriptions/specifications to develop courses for new entrants or
determine training gaps.
◦ Competence Approach: Focuses on job 'outcome' rather than learning method, with
student and trainer deciding how competency in specific performance is achieved.
◦ Training Process or Procedural Approach: Follows basic requirements: training
policy, responsibilities in job descriptions, regular needs definition, training plans, resource
provision, implementation, and assessment of results.
◦ Knowledge Management System: Uses IT to store and make information accessible,
assisting employees with personal needs and development.
Chapter 2: Training Methods
• Types of Training Methods:
◦ On-the-job training (OJT): Training at the workplace, learning by performing tasks.
Useful for new hires, upskilling, cross-training, and orienting promoted/transferred
employees. Beneficial for all employee levels, including executive coaching for management.
◦ Off-the-job training: Training away from the immediate work area, such as in-house
programmes by internal/external specialists or off-site at educational institutions.
• Popular On-the-Job Training Methods:
◦ Job Rotation: Employees move between departments for short periods to gain broad
skills and practical experience quickly. Frequently used in the hotel industry.
◦ Internships: 'Vacation work' or 'graduate workplace experience' to expose learners to
workplace dynamics, integrating knowledge and practice. Often requires achieving specific
hours/skills.
◦ Apprenticeships / Learnerships: Work-study training combining OJT and classroom
training. Apprenticeships are for technical trades; learnerships (specific to SA) are similar but
encompass most occupations, leading to NQF-registered qualifications.
◦ Coaching: Planned one-to-one instruction where a coach guides, sets goals, and
provides feedback. Executive coaching is common for top management.
◦ Mentoring: An experienced manager guides a junior manager/professional, facilitating
personal development. Informal mentoring often more successful than formal.
◦ Understudies: Trainees work closely with experienced workers/managers to learn
through observation and questioning, often as assistants to acquire necessary skills for
promotion.
◦ Job Enlargement & Enrichment: Adding job duties, increasing autonomy and
responsibilities for existing employees, particularly in front-line and management positions,
to learn about the job/department/organisation and enhance motivation/satisfaction.
• Advantages of On-the-Job Training:
◦ Learner is involved in actual work, not simulated tasks.
◦ Experienced employee/supervisor guides the learner.
◦ No special facilities needed, learning occurs in the workplace.
◦ Builds cooperative working relationships.
◦ Inexpensive and easy to schedule.
• Disadvantages of On-the-Job Training:
◦ Trainer may not be motivated or have the ability to effectively train others.
◦ Trainer may lack time and rush the process.
◦ Initial low performance, inefficient resource use, and costly errors may occur during
learning.
• Popular Off-the-Job Training Methods:
◦ Lecture: One-sided presentation of information to a large group. Effective for knowledge
building, but less interactive. Can be enhanced with discussions and seminars.
◦ Conference: Group discussions with an organised plan to develop knowledge through
verbal participation. Promotes problem-solving and innovation, providing immediate
feedback.
◦ Simulation: Represents real-life situations in an artificial environment, allowing trainees
to see outcomes of decisions. Useful for hazardous situations or where distractions are high.
(Example: flight simulator). Expensive.
◦ Case Study: Trainees analyse hypothetical business problems containing real-life
elements to choose and implement solutions. Develops analytical thinking, problem-solving,
and decision-making skills.
◦ Role-Play: Learners act out parts in real work situations (e.g., supervisor, salesperson)
to develop interpersonal skills (e.g., selling, interviewing, counselling).
◦ Programmed Learning: Self-instruction method where learners work at their own pace
through structured information, tested section by section.
◦ University/College Non-Degree Programmes: Part-time courses for managers to stay
updated on organisational context, suitable for senior managers' career development.
◦ Management Games: Learners make decisions affecting a hypothetical organisation,
providing high participation and application for adult learning.
◦ In-Basket Exercise: Learners deal with a series of hypothetical problems managers
typically encounter, developing analytical and problem-solving skills for lower-level
managers.
◦ Membership of Professional Organisation: Provides ongoing informal development,
networking, and idea exchange (e.g., SABPP, IPM for HR practitioners in SA).
◦ Wilderness Training (Adventure Training): Develops teamwork and leadership
through structured outdoor activities (e.g., mountain climbing, obstacle courses). Requires
linking to training needs and facilitated discussions.
◦ Behaviour Modelling: Combines methods; involves learning points, watching model
behaviour (DVD), practice/role play, and feedback/reinforcement. Effective for military
training, manager-employee interaction, productivity, and change introduction.
◦ E-Learning (Technology Based Training):
▪ Forms: CD-ROM, Web-based training (internet/intranets), Video conferencing, Mlearning (mobile devices).
▪ M-learning types: Formal (notifications, courseware on mobile), Informal (interactive
messaging, social media), Self-Directed (user-directed learning, podcasts, videos).
▪ Benefits of M-learning: Easy access to updated info, reinforcement, reaches diverse
groups, learner-centred, cost-efficient, flexible, fast knowledge exchange, collaboration,
gamification, high completion rates.
▪ Gamification: Implementing gaming elements (points, badges, leaderboards) in nongaming environments to increase engagement and motivation. Benefits include
interactive/fun experience, improved retention, practicality (real-world application),
immediate feedback, and enhanced cooperation.
• Advantages of Off-the-Job Training:
◦ More cost-effective for groups.
◦ Trainers often more competent as it's their core job.
◦ Learners learn in a pleasant environment, away from workplace pressures.
◦ Off-site providers make training accessible to smaller organisations.
• Disadvantages of Off-the-Job Training:
◦ Immediate decrease in productivity.
◦ Challenges for transfer of learning to the workplace.
◦ Requires more planning and organisation.
• Selecting Training and Development Methods: Consider the following guidelines:
◦ Chapter Outcomes: Ensure the method addresses practical skills, cognitive skills,
attitudes, and knowledge.
◦ Facilitates Learning & Development: Promotes understanding, meaningful content,
practice opportunities, and feedback.
◦ Facilitates Transfer of Training: Ensures application of new competence on the job.
◦ Affordability: Consider development and administrative costs, budget availability.
◦ Fits Workplace Culture: Ensure support from the environment and leadership.
◦ Effectiveness: Certain methods are more effective in specific situations (e.g., OJT for
transfer, e-learning for cost-effectiveness).
• New Learning Methods:
◦ Flipped Classroom: Students learn content at home, practice actively at university.
Doubles access to professor, allows self-paced learning, stretches time on task, promotes
active/applied learning, better skill transfer.
◦ Project Based Learning (PBL): Students learn by engaging in real-world, meaningful
projects, focusing on solving complex questions over time. Develops deep content
knowledge, critical thinking, collaboration, creativity, communication skills.
◦ Peer to Peer Collaborative Learning: Students co-construct knowledge and learn from
each other with educator guidance. Engages learners, develops social support, positive
atmosphere, reduces anxiety, promotes critical thinking, improves achievement,
personalises lectures.
◦ Adaptive Learning: Customised learning experiences using technology based on
individual needs and data. Combines mastery learning and one-to-one tutoring. Provides
individualised pace, increases perseverance/confidence. Can be costly and time-consuming
to implement, and less effective for higher-order thinking or all disciplines
augmented & Virtual Reality (AR/VR): Allows immersive, hands-on practice, exploration,
and learning. Not limited by age/education level. Improves understanding, knowledge
acquisition, creative thinking, allows safe experimentation, and saves budget. VR requires
headset, AR overlays graphics on real environment via mobile camera.
◦ Work Integrated Learning (WIL): Formally integrates academic studies into
work/internship settings. Partnership between institution, company, and student. Decreases
skills gaps, smooths transition to work. Examples include job shadowing, internships,
practicums. Benefits for students include awareness of workplace culture, enhanced
theoretical knowledge, practice of interpersonal/decision-making/project management skills,
and professional networking. Benefits for companies include extra support, future hire
pipeline, new ideas, and community strengthening.
Chapter 3: Training Process
• The Training Process (Instructional Systems Design): Consists of five phases:
1. Training Needs Analysis
2. Design Training
3. Develop Training
4. Deliver Training
5. Evaluate Training
• Phase 1: Training Needs Analysis (TNA): The first stage, determines if training is the
right solution for an identified problem.
◦ Organisational Analysis: Considers organisational context (strategic impact,
resources, manager/peer support). Questions asked include where training is needed, where
it's likely to succeed, and if it fits the culture.
▪ Factors considered: Company's Strategic Direction (training initiatives should
facilitate business strategy achievement, influenced by business environment, goals,
resources, options). Training Resources Available (budget, time, expertise, often sourced via
Request for Proposal (RFP)). Support of Managers and Peers (impacts effectiveness,
addresses managers' opposition due to productivity loss or doubt in training efficacy).
◦ Person Analysis: Identifies which employees require training and which do not, saving
costs and allowing customisation of programmes to address specific deficiencies.
◦ Task Analysis: Determines training programme content by listing job tasks, steps to
execute tasks, and defining required performance skills and knowledge. For decisionoriented/knowledge-intensive jobs, Competency Assessment is more appropriate, focusing
on skills, knowledge, motivation, personality, and interpersonal skills within the
organisational context.
◦ Reasons for Neglecting TNA: Lack of time/resources, incorrect belief that training
solves all problems, inadequate knowledge of TNA benefits.
• Phase 2 & 3: Design and Development Training: Uses TNA information to:
◦ Formulate Chapter Outcomes & Objectives:
▪ Training Objectives: Focus on what the trainer plans to do.
▪ Chapter Outcomes: Focus on what the learner should be able to do upon
completion.
▪ Well-written Chapter Outcomes specify: Outcome Behaviour (how learner acts postprogramme), Performance Conditions (circumstances of performance), and Performance
Standards (how well learner should perform). They guide programme design, assessment,
and inform the learner.
◦ Employee Readiness for Learning: Considers if employees have personal
characteristics (ability, attitudes, beliefs, motivation) and if the work environment supports
learning and application.
▪ Factors influencing motivation:
• Self-Efficacy: Employees' belief in their ability to learn and apply content.
Increased by clarifying training purpose, providing information, and peer success examples.
• Understanding Benefits of Training: Communicating job-related, personal, and
career benefits enhances motivation, but expectations must be realistic.
• Awareness of Training Needs & Career Goals: Linking training to individual
needs/goals, often through appraisals or self-evaluations. Giving choice in programmes
maximises motivation.
• Work Environment Characteristics: Situational constraints (lack of tools, time)
and social support (managers/peers willingness) impact motivation. Managers should
provide resources, positive discussion, reinforcement, and opportunities to apply new skills.
• Basic Skills: Cognitive ability (comprehension, quantitative, reasoning) and
reading ability. Gaps in fundamental skills (common in African countries) need to be
addressed (e.g., through Adult Basic Education and Training - ABET) before advanced
training.
• Phase 4: Deliver Training: Actual presentation of training, with attention to factors
affecting transfer of training (technology, peer, management support).
◦ Characteristics of an Effective Trainer: Confident, professional, uses lesson plans,
practices presentation, pays attention to voice, uses eye contact, aware of body language,
projects credibility, thinks before speaking, knows material, can assist learners.
◦ Lesson Plans: Essential blueprint for instruction, ensuring all content is covered
logically and sequentially, dictating timing, case studies, discussions, and questions.
◦ Questioning as Part of Training: Used to stimulate thought, test effectiveness,
establish learner knowledge, create understanding, maintain interest, and keep people alert.
▪ Types: Open-ended (encourages detailed answers) and Closed-ended (yes/no,
specific answers).
• Phase 5: Evaluate Training: Imperative to assess if training goals are met and if it's the
best method, given the significant investment.
◦ Reasons for Evaluation: Determine strengths/weaknesses, identify learning/application
contribution, identify learners who benefited most/least, gather market data, identify financial
costs/benefits, compare with other interventions.
◦ Kirkpatrick’s Model for Evaluation: Still relevant, but Level 3 and 4 are often
neglected.
▪ Level 1: Reaction: Assesses learners’ immediate feelings/satisfaction with the
training. (e.g., questionnaires/smiley sheets).
▪ Level 2: Learning: Determines degree to which learners acquired knowledge, skills,
and attitudes. Uses pre-tests and post-tests, often with a control group to attribute changes
to training.
▪ Level 3: Behaviour: Measures actual on-the-job changes in behaviour due to
training. Conducted weeks/months after training, by various individuals (learner, superior,
subordinates, peers).
• Transfer of Training: Effective application of learned principles to the job.
Enhanced by: identical elements in training/job, focus on general principles, and establishing
a supportive climate for transfer.
▪ Level 4: Results: Proves positive impact of training investment on the organisation's
bottom line. Measured by Return on Investment (ROI).
• ROI: Benefits derived from training relative to costs incurred (e.g., higher revenues,
increased productivity, improved quality, lower costs, satisfied customers, job satisfaction,
lower turnover).
• Formula: ROI = Results / Training Costs. ROI > 1 indicates benefits outweigh
costs.
Chapter 4: Theories and Principles of Learning
• Theories of Learning: Conceptual frameworks describing how information is absorbed,
processed, and retained. Influenced by cognitive, emotional, environmental factors, and prior
experience.
◦ Behaviourist Theory: Learner is passive, behaviour shaped by positive/negative
reinforcement (increases likelihood) or positive/negative punishment (decreases
likelihood). Focuses on external, observable causes of behaviour (B.F. Skinner, Pavlov).
◦ Cognitive Theory: Emerged in the 1960s, focuses on inner mental activities (thinking,
memory, problem-solving). Learning is a change in a learner's schemata. People are rational
beings, active participants, not just programmed responders (mind as a computer).
▪ Gestalt Theory: "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts." Emphasises higherorder cognitive processes, critical thinking, and problem-solving to find underlying similarities
and relationships in concepts.
▪ Constructivism: Learning is an active, contextualised process of constructing
knowledge based on personal experiences and hypotheses, continuously tested through
social negotiation. Learners are not blank slates.
◦ Humanistic Theory: Emerged in the 1960s, focuses on human freedom, dignity, and
potential. People act with intentionality and values. Learning is student-centred,
personalised, with the educator as a facilitator. Goal is to develop self-actualised,
autonomous people in a cooperative, supportive environment.
▪ Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Human actions directed toward goal attainment. Five
levels (physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualisation). Lower-level needs
must be satisfied before higher-order needs influence behaviour.
◦ Social (Learning) Theory (Vygotsky):
▪ Social Interaction: Fundamental role in cognitive development; social learning
precedes development.
▪ More Knowledgeable Other (MKO): Anyone with better understanding or higher
ability than the learner (teacher, peer, computer).
▪ Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Distance between what a student can do
with guidance and what they can do independently. Learning occurs in this zone.
▪ Humans use cultural tools (speech, writing) to mediate social environments,
internalising them for higher thinking skills. Promotes active learning, with reciprocal roles for
teacher and student.
• Principles of Learning:
◦ Motivation: People learn better when motivated by perceived benefits and interest.
◦ Rate of Learning: Individuals learn at different rates and different tasks at different
rates.
◦ Memory: Varying abilities to memorise and retain facts.
◦ Learning by Doing/Practicing: Essential for new skills/knowledge. Includes active
practice (more involvement = quicker learning/longer retention) and overlearning (practice
beyond correct performance, making task second nature, critical for high-stress/infrequent
tasks).
◦ Feedback: Information about attempts to improve, essential for learning and motivation,
focusing on what was done correctly.
◦ Transfer of Learning/Training: Applying skills/knowledge from one learning situation to
another, particularly to the job. Can be positive, negative, or neutral.
◦ Meaningfulness of the Material: Easier to learn/remember when meaningful; relevance
and similarity to job situation facilitate understanding and transfer.
◦ Whole vs. Part Learning: Learning is often improved by breaking tasks into parts and
combining them step-by-step.
◦ Learning by Making Mistakes: Helps understand why tasks are performed a certain
way and potential consequences, especially beneficial in off-the-job training where mistakes
don't impact operations.
◦ Adult Learning Principles (Andragogy): Adults learn differently from children.
▪ Self-concept: Adults are responsible, don't like being talked down to, and should be
involved in establishing needs, planning, and evaluating their learning.
▪ Accumulated Experiences: Adults have a wealth of knowledge that should be
incorporated into learning; new content must link to existing knowledge.
▪ Readiness to Learn: Adults are ready to learn when they need to grow, often linked
to job requirements or personal development.
▪ Orientation toward Learning: Learning activities are life-oriented, task-oriented, and
problem-oriented; content must be problem-centred and person-centred.
▪ Motivation: Adults are often problem-centred, results-oriented, self-directed, sceptical
of new info, seek direct relevance to needs, and accept responsibility. Motivations include
social relationships, social welfare, personal advancement, escape/stimulation, and cognitive
interest.
◦ Additional Principles
: Learning is learner-activated; meaningful learning is permanent; learners learn what they
"do"; learners are a "rich resource"; learning can be painful (resistance to change); people
have own learning styles; different learning requires different processes.
• How to Make Learning Easier:
◦ Respect for teachers/learner perspectives.
◦ Considering difference desirable (no single correct answer).
◦ Accepting mistakes (stimulates growth).
◦ Encouraging active participation (learner finds answers through exploration/discussion).
◦ Focus on subject matter meeting learner needs.
◦ Learner/teacher confrontation (questions indicate learning).
◦ Accepting people (gradual change, not imposed).
• How Technology Makes Learning Easier:
◦ Virtual Simulations: Visual aids for complex concepts, good for tactile/visual learners.
◦ Online Degrees: Addresses challenges for physically challenged, housebound, or
working individuals.
◦ Better Communication: Information networks, forums for questions, structured
communication records, good for quiet students.
◦ Continuous Assessment: Easier practice, progress monitoring, reduced bias in
grading, allows early intervention.
◦ eBooks and Advanced Information: Easier access to information, faster research,
often cheaper than physical books.
◦ Self-guided Learning: Allows students to learn at their own pace, moving ahead or
reviewing as needed, without feeling intimidated.
◦ Learning should be Fun: Online videos, tutorials, live streaming, gamification, and
virtual reality make learning enjoyable, leading to better retention and enthusiasm.
◦ Access to Information: Many free online resources enable self-directed learning.
• Adult Learners vs. Child Learners:
◦ Adults: Self-directing/autonomous, answer questions from experience, incorporate
learnings from experience, bring "baggage" (psychological barriers, negative experiences,
incorrect prior learnings). Motivated by internal factors (emotions, self-esteem, selfactualisation). Learning is pedagogy (teacher-focused).
◦ Children: Dependant, expect answers from outside sources, expect to be told what to
do, bring little "baggage". Motivated by external factors (competition, peer pressure,
consequences of failure). Learning is andragogy (learner-focused).
Chapter 5: Skills Development
• What is Skills Development?: Refers to Education, Training & Development (ETD)
initiatives, or Human Resource Development (HRD), within organisations.
◦ Incorporates:
▪ Training: Planned, short-term effort to modify competencies (attitudes/beliefs,
knowledge, skills) through learning experiences.
▪ Education: Medium-term effort to prepare for upward/horizontal career progression.
▪ Development: Long-term effort to broaden individuals through experience and new
insights.
◦ HRD Challenge: To develop people with the Knowledge, Skills, and Attitudes (KSAs) for
successful work.
• Reskilling and Upskilling:
◦ Upskilling: Process of learning new skills or teaching workers new skills to advance
along their current career path or perform their current job more effectively/efficiently (e.g.,
learning new software for the same reporting role).
◦ Reskilling: Process of learning new skills to do a different job, or training people for a
different job. Involves looking for people with 'adjacent skills' for a lateral learning experience
(e.g., data entry specialist to data analyst).
◦ Importance: Both combat perennial skills shortages. By 2025, 85 million jobs could be
displaced, while 97 million new roles created, and 40% of core skills will change. Investment
in these retains employees.
• Why is Skills Development Important?:
◦ A country's economic well-being depends on education, skill, knowledge, and
productivity.
◦ In South Africa: Addresses challenges like unemployment (especially youth),
educational system issues, low productivity, unskilled labour, illiteracy, unequal
development/opportunities, changing economic environment, and need for competitiveness.
◦ Benefits: Improves performance, updates skills, reduces obsolescence/redundancy,
solves problems, promotes employability and sustainable employment, enhances
designated groups' employability, and accelerates employment equity.
• South Africa’s Skills Development Strategy, Policy and Context:
◦ Impacts economic growth, political stability, and social upliftment.
◦ National Skills Development Strategy (NSDS): Developed post-1994, provides an
integrated approach to education and training for economic, social, and individual needs.
▪ Core Components: National Qualifications Framework (NQF) for credit system,
nationally recognised qualifications, meeting needs of business, state, community, labour,
and individuals.
◦ Legislation: South African Qualifications Authority Act, Skills Development Act, Skills
Development Levies Act. Aims to develop skills, increase investment in T&D, encourage
employer participation (workplace learning, new skills, work experience for new
entrants/disadvantaged, quality learning), and assist job-seekers/retrenched workers.
• Skills Development Levies Act (SDLA) No. 9 of 1999:
◦ Requires employers with annual payroll exceeding R500,000 to pay 1% of total payroll
as a Skills Development Levy (SDL).
◦ Organisations can recover a percentage by: appointing a Skills Development Facilitator,
submitting annual Workplace Skills Plans and Training Reports to relevant SETA, and
implementing initiatives like learnerships for Black employees.
• National Qualifications Framework (NQF):
◦ Established by the South African Qualifications Authority Act No. 58 of 1995.
◦ Objectives: Create a single integrated national framework for learning achievements,
facilitate access/mobility/progression, enhance quality, and accelerate redress of past
discrimination.
◦ Structure: 10 levels divided into three bands (Levels 1-4: high school/vocational; Levels
5-7: college diplomas/technical; Levels 7-10: university degrees).
• Sector Education Training Authorities (SETAs):
◦ Established under the SDA.
◦ Functions: Raise skills, bring skills to employed/unemployed in their sector, ensure
learned skills are needed by employers/communities, ensure agreed standards within
national framework, and quality control. They develop/implement skills plans, promote
learning programmes, register agreements, disburse levies, and liaise with National Skills
Authority.
• Learnerships:
◦ Definition: A work-based learning programme leading to an NQF-registered
qualification, directly related to an occupation.
◦ Management: Managed by SETAs, introduced by government to skill learners for the
workplace.
◦ Structure: Legally binding agreement between employer, learner, and training provider.
Involves a fixed-term employment contract while studying. Requires theoretical course and
practical workplace training under a mentor.
◦ Eligibility: Young people (16-35) who completed school/college. Unemployed can
participate if an employer provides work experience.
◦ Benefits for Learners: Better employment opportunities, fixed-term employment,
improved on-the-job performance, nationally recognised qualification, learner allowance.
◦ Completion: Learners receive an NQF-registered qualification and certificate upon
successful completion of assignments, tasks, and tests.
How do adults learn?
Adults learn in distinct ways compared to children, and this understanding is central to
effective training and development practices, often referred to as andragogy. This approach
to learning is learner-focused, unlike the teacher-focused pedagogy used for children.
Here are the key characteristics and principles that explain how adults learn:
• Need to Know Adults are motivated to learn when they understand the reasons for learning
something and how it will benefit them in their lives or work. Training programmes for adults
are therefore designed around identified needs, and it is crucial to involve employees in the
needs assessment process to enhance their motivation.
• Self-Concept and Self-Direction As individuals mature, they transition from dependency to
self-directedness. Adults perceive themselves as responsible individuals capable of
managing their own lives. They prefer to be actively involved in diagnosing their training
needs, planning their learning, participating in the learning process, and evaluating their
progress. A conducive learning environment for adults is collaborative rather than
authoritarian.
• Accumulated Experience Adult learners bring a wealth of life and work experience to the
training environment. This extensive experience serves as a rich resource that trainers can
utilise to enhance group learning through discussions and feedback. New learning content
should be linked to their existing knowledge and experiences, and theories should be related
to their real-life situations to make them more meaningful.
• Readiness to Learn Adults become ready to learn when they recognise a direct need for
personal or professional growth, often driven by a desire to solve a problem or meet a new
job standard. This readiness is closely tied to their self-directedness and self-motivation.
• Orientation Towards Learning Adult learning activities are typically life-oriented, taskoriented, and problem-oriented. They are usually driven by a purpose to solve problems and
accomplish tasks, and they prefer to apply what they learn directly to their personal
circumstances. Therefore, training programmes for adults should be designed to be
problem-centred and person-centred.
• Motivation to Learn Adults are primarily driven by internal motivators, such as the desire for
social relationships, social welfare, personal advancement, escape or stimulation, and
cognitive interest. Unlike children who may respond more to external factors like competition
or peer pressure, adults seek education that is directly relevant and applicable to their
perceived needs.
• Learning by Doing or Practising Active involvement in training, through practice, leads to
more rapid learning and better retention of information and skills. This includes both active
practice during the learning process and "over-learning," where skills are practised beyond
the point of initial mastery until they become second nature.
• Feedback Receiving timely and constructive feedback is essential for both learning and
maintaining motivation in adults. Feedback should ideally highlight what the trainee has done
correctly.
• Meaningfulness of Material Factual material is easier for adults to learn and remember
when it is meaningful and highly relevant to their job situation. This relevance increases the
likelihood that the acquired skills and knowledge will be transferred effectively to the
workplace.
• Learning by Making Mistakes Adults learn significantly from making and analysing their
mistakes. This process helps them understand the rationale behind certain procedures and
the potential consequences of errors.
The role of the trainer in adult learning shifts from being a traditional teacher to a facilitator
who guides the learner and creates a positive learning environment. Effective facilitators
possess expertise in their subject matter, make content engaging, demonstrate a supportive
personality, and utilise strong interpersonal and instructional design skills. This ensures that
adult learners are not just passively receiving information, but actively participating in a
learning experience that leads to tangible outcomes and improved performance
Outline adult learning principles.
Adults learn in distinct ways compared to children, a field of study often referred to as
andragogy, as opposed to pedagogy which focuses on children's learning. Andragogy is a
learner-focused approach, where the adult learner is seen as a mature individual capable of
self-direction.
Here are the key principles of adult learning:
• Need to Know Adults are motivated to learn when they understand why they need to learn
something. They need to see how the knowledge and skills will benefit them and be
applicable to their own lives. Therefore, training programmes for adults are designed around
identified needs, and involving employees in the needs assessment process is crucial for
their motivation.
• Self-Concept and Self-Direction As individuals mature, they transition from dependency to
self-directedness. Adults perceive themselves as responsible individuals capable of
managing their own lives and prefer to be involved in diagnosing their training needs,
planning their learning, participating in the learning process, and evaluating their progress. A
conducive learning environment for adults is collaborative rather than authoritarian.
• Accumulated Experience Adult learners bring a wealth of life and work experience to the
training environment. This extensive experience serves as a rich resource that trainers can
utilise to enhance group learning through discussions and feedback. New learning content
should be linked to their existing knowledge and experiences, and theories should be related
to their real-life situations to make them more meaningful.
• Readiness to Learn Adults become ready to learn when they recognise a direct need for
personal or professional growth, often driven by a desire to solve a problem or meet a new
job standard. This readiness is closely tied to their self-directedness and self-motivation.
• Orientation Towards Learning Adult learning activities are typically life-oriented, taskoriented, and problem-oriented. They are usually driven by a purpose to solve problems and
accomplish tasks, and they prefer to apply what they learn directly to their personal
circumstances. Therefore, training programmes for adults should be designed to be
problem-centred and person-centred, with the syllabus being problem-orientated.
• Motivation to Learn Adults are primarily driven by internal motivators, such as the desire for
social relationships, social welfare, personal advancement, escape or stimulation, and
cognitive interest. Unlike children who may respond more to external factors like competition
or peer pressure, adults seek education that is directly relevant and applicable to their
perceived needs.
• Learning by Doing or Practising Active involvement in training, through practice, leads to
more rapid learning and better retention of information and skills. This includes both active
practice during the learning process and "over-learning," where skills are practised beyond
the point of initial mastery until they become second nature, especially for tasks performed
infrequently or under stress.
• Feedback Receiving timely and constructive feedback is essential for both learning and
maintaining motivation in adults. The emphasis of feedback should be on what the trainee
has done correctly.
• Meaningfulness of Material Factual material is easier for adults to learn and remember
when it is meaningful and highly relevant to their job situation. This relevance increases the
likelihood that the acquired skills and knowledge will be transferred effectively to the
workplace.
• Learning by Making Mistakes Adults learn significantly from making and analysing their
mistakes. This process helps them understand the rationale behind certain procedures and
the potential consequences of errors. Training carried out away from the workplace can be
advantageous in this regard, as trainees can make mistakes without affecting organisational
operations.
The role of the trainer in adult learning shifts from being a traditional teacher to a facilitator
who guides the learner and creates a positive learning environment. Effective facilitators
possess expertise in their subject matter, make content engaging, demonstrate a supportive
personality, and utilise strong interpersonal and instructional design skills. This ensures that
adult learners are not just passively receiving information, but actively participating in a
learning experience that leads to tangible outcomes and improved performance
Outline reasons for training
Training is a crucial function within Human Resource Management, and organisations invest
in it for several key reasons, contributing to both individual and organisational effectiveness.
Here are the main reasons for conducting training and development:
• Performance Improvement Training is used to address underperformance when it is
identified as being due to a lack of skills. It equips employees with the necessary
competencies to perform their current jobs effectively and correctly.
• Update Skills In competitive business environments, organisations frequently upgrade
technology to remain competitive, which necessitates upskilling employees to use new
systems and tools.
• Prevent Managerial Obsolescence Managers must continuously update their skills to
ensure they can continue to make impactful contributions to the organisation.
• Solve Organisational Problems Training programmes can provide employees and
managers with the skills needed to address various organisational problems and challenges.
For instance, it helps an organisation adapt quickly to a changing world, narrowing the gap
between what employees know and what they ought to know.
• Orientate New Employees Orientation programmes are implemented to socialise newly
recruited employees, helping them understand the company culture and integrate into the
organisation effectively from the beginning of their employment.
• Prepare for Promotion & Managerial Succession Training and development are vital for
implementing organisational succession plans and are important for employee retention.
This includes preparing employees for future job roles and advancing their careers.
• Satisfy Personal Growth Needs For many managers and professional employees, the need
for achievement can be satisfied through challenging training and development
interventions, which promotes employee satisfaction and retention. It also allows individuals
to enhance their confidence, broaden their horizons, and engage with new ideas.
• Bridge Skills Gaps Training helps bridge the gap between what an individual is supposed
to do (desired performance) and what they can actually do (actual performance), by filling
the identified deficiencies in skills and knowledge.
• Ensure Product and Service Delivery Training ensures that the products and services
offered by the organisation are delivered effectively, as this requires specific competencies
from staff.
• Enhance Competitiveness and Economic Growth A highly competent workforce is key to
an organisation's competitiveness in a rapidly changing global business environment. Skills
development also improves individual opportunity, organisational competitiveness, and
overall economic growth.
• Address Societal and National Challenges In countries like South Africa, training is crucial
for bridging the gap between a shortage of skilled employees and an oversupply of unskilled
labour, contributing to broader training needs across sectors and industries. It also plays a
role in social upliftment and political stability.
In essence, organisations undertake training to maintain appropriate expertise now and in
the future, which is considered good management practice.
Distinguish training from education
Training and education, while both involving learning, serve distinct purposes and have
different focuses.
Education Education refers to activities that aim to provide knowledge, skills, moral values,
and understanding required for a general course of life. It focuses on developing a person's
body of knowledge and understanding, creating a broad base that prepares an individual for
life without necessarily developing specific job-related skills. Essentially, education is about
furthering someone's knowledge rather than acquiring a skill.
Examples of education include:
• A university education.
• Gaining a matric (high school qualification).
• Acquiring clinical knowledge about AIDS.
Training Training is a structured process through which individuals acquire knowledge, skills,
attitudes, and values to competently perform a specific job or task. The aim of training is
typically to improve a trainee's performance in their current job or to equip them with the
skills and knowledge needed for new job roles.
Examples of training include:
• Training a switchboard operator in telephone skills.
• Training a welder on how to weld.
• A two-day workshop to train call-centre staff on using a new information system.
Key Distinctions A concise way to distinguish between training and education is that training
is about "how to get it done" in a given situation, while education is about "why it should be
done". For instance, a pilot is trained on how to fly a plane, whereas an aeronautical
engineer is educated on why the plane flies.
Here's a more detailed breakdown of their differences:
• Focus
◦ Education is generally focused on preparing an individual for a future job or broader life
experiences.
◦ Training is directly related to improving performance in present jobs or specific tasks.
• Approach
◦ Education involves a change in knowledge and is often initiated by individuals for
personal growth or career preparation.
◦ Training involves planned learning for the acquisition of knowledge and skills, typically
provided by employers to employees.
• Aims and Outcomes
◦ Education aims to help individuals qualify for advancement and results in a change in
attitudes or values that are not always directly job-related. It is considered a long-term
learning intervention.
◦ Training is usually a short-term learning intervention aimed at achieving specific changes
in skills.
In summary, education provides a foundational, broader understanding and knowledge
base, often with a long-term perspective, whereas training provides targeted, practical skills
and knowledge for immediate job performance, usually in the short term.
List training evaluation types.
raining evaluation is a critical part of the training process, serving to determine the success
and effectiveness of a training programme [001_2018_4_b-25, 11.2, 11.4.1]. It is distinct
from learner assessment, which focuses on whether individual learning outcomes were
achieved, though both processes are interconnected [001_2018_4_b-25, 11.2].
The evaluation process aims to determine both the effectiveness (whether the correct type
of training was presented) and the efficiency (whether the correct methods and techniques
were used) of the training programme [001_2018_4_b-25, 11.2, 11.4.1].
Here are the main types of training evaluation:
• Formative Evaluation This is a continuous process of checking the programme's
success throughout its duration [001_2018_4_b-25, 11.4.3.1]. Information is collected from
participants and stakeholders to ensure the programme meets their needs. It allows the
trainer to make real-time corrections or adjustments to instructional strategies or media while
the training is still ongoing [001_2018_4_b-25, 11.4.3.1].
• Summative Evaluation This type of evaluation occurs at the end of the programme to
determine its overall success, failure, or shortcomings. It focuses on the effectiveness of
completed interventions [001_2018_4_b-25, 11.4.3.2]. A common framework for summative
evaluation is Kirkpatrick's Four-Level Training Evaluation Model, which assesses the
results of training at different levels [001_2018_4_b-25, 11.4.3.2; BCOMHRM - Training and
Development (New January 2023 intake), 3.5.2].
• Kirkpatrick's levels include:
◦ Level 1: Reaction This assesses learners' immediate reactions to the training, usually
through a questionnaire completed right after the programme [001_2018_4_b-25, 11.4.3.2;
BCOMHRM - Training and Development (New January 2023 intake), 3.5.2]. It helps
understand how well the training was received and identifies areas for future improvement
[BCOMHRM - Training and Development (New January 2023 intake), 3.5.2]. Questions
might include whether trainees felt the training was worthwhile or what its strengths and
weaknesses were [BCOMHRM - Training and Development (New January 2023 intake),
3.5.2].
◦ Level 2: Learning This determines the degree to which learners acquired the intended
knowledge, skills, and attitudes as a result of their participation [001_2018_4_b-25,
11.4.3.2; BCOMHRM - Training and Development (New January 2023 intake), 3.5.2]. This
can be measured using pre-tests (before training) and post-tests (after training) to gauge
improvement. A control group (employees who did not receive training but are also
assessed) can be used to confirm that improvements are due to the training and not other
factors [BCOMHRM - Training and Development (New January 2023 intake), 3.5.2].
◦ Level 3: Behaviour This measures the actual on-the-job changes in behaviour that
result from attending the training programme [001_2018_4_b-25, 11.4.3.2; BCOMHRM Training and Development (New January 2023 intake), 3.5.2]. It assesses the "transfer of
training," meaning how effectively principles learned in training are applied in the workplace
[BCOMHRM - Training and Development (New January 2023 intake), 3.5.2]. Appraisals of
behaviour should be made by multiple individuals (learner, superior, subordinates, peers)
weeks or months after the training [BCOMHRM - Training and Development (New January
2023 intake), 3.5.2].
◦ Level 4: Results This evaluates the positive impact of training on the organisation's
bottom line and its strategic goals [001_2018_4_b-25, 11.4.3.2; BCOMHRM - Training and
Development (New January 2023 intake), 3.5.2]. This often involves a Return on
Investment (ROI) evaluation, which measures the monetary benefits obtained relative to the
costs incurred [001_2018_4_b-25, 11.4.5; BCOMHRM - Training and Development (New
January 2023 intake), 3.5.2]. Benefits can include increased productivity, higher revenues,
improved quality, lower costs, increased job satisfaction, and reduced employee turnover
[BCOMHRM - Training and Development (New January 2023 intake), 3.5.2]. The ROI
formula is (monetary benefits – cost of training) / cost of training x 100 [001_2018_4_b-25,
11.4.5; BCOMHRM - Training and Development (New January 2023 intake), 3.5.2].
• Practical Evaluation This is closely related to summative evaluation and is conducted in
the work environment approximately three months after training [001_2018_4_b-25,
11.4.3.3]. Its purpose is to specifically determine if an employee's job performance has
improved due to the training and if the initial "gap" (discrepancy between desired and actual
performance) has been reduced or eliminated [001_2018_4_b-25, 11.4.3.3]. This can also
involve pre-tests and post-tests, and the use of control groups to isolate the impact of the
training [001_2018_4_b-25, 11.4.3.3].
Training evaluation is considered a form of quality control and should be well-planned with
clear outcomes [001_2018_4_b-25, 11.4.2]. If an evaluation reveals that a programme was
not successful, it can lead back to the first stage of the training cycle (needs analysis) to
revise and improve future programmes [001_2018_4_b-25, 11.4].
Training and Development Practices: A Detailed Briefing
This briefing document reviews the main themes, key ideas, and important facts concerning
training and development practices, drawing insights from two primary sources:
"001_2018_4_b-25.pdf" (Unisa Study Guide HRD2602) and "BCOMHRM - Training and
Development (New January 2023 intake).pdf" (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL Module
Guide). Both sources are heavily based on "Managing Training and Development" by
Erasmus et al., indicating a common foundational understanding of the subject.
1. Introduction to Training and Development
Both sources emphasize the critical role of training and development (T&D) in contemporary
organizations, especially given the "highly competitive business environment" and the
"digital revolution". Investment in T&D is viewed as "good management practice to maintain
appropriate expertise now and in the future" (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 2).
1.1. Core Concepts: Education, Training, and Development
It's crucial to differentiate between these three interconnected terms:
 Education: "Activities directed at providing the knowledge, skills, moral values, and
understanding required in the normal course of life." It creates a "general base that
prepares the individual for life without any specific job-related skill being developed."
(REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 11). It focuses on "know WHY" (REGENT
BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 12).
 Training: "The process by which people learn knowledge, skills, attitudes and values
in an organised way so that they will be able to perform a job or task competently." It
focuses on "improving employees’ performance in their current jobs" (REGENT
BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 12). It is the "how to get it done" in a given situation
(REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 12).
 Development: A "systematic effort affecting individuals’ knowledge or skills for
purposes of personal growth or future jobs and/or roles" (REGENT BUSINESS
SCHOOL, p. 13). It is a "long-term learning intervention" focused on "stimulating new
ideas/insights through planned learning" and emphasizing "creativity and experience
of the individual" (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 14).
Key Differences (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 13-14):
FeatureTrainingDevelopmentFocusLearning related to present jobsLearning focused on a
future jobAimsPlanned learning (acquisition of knowledge and skills)Primary emphasis on
career preparation; stimulating new ideasOutcomeChange in skillsNot always job-related
change in attitudes or values
1.2. Purposes and Reasons for Training
T&D serves multiple purposes within an organization (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 1617; HRD2602, p. 2):
 Performance Improvement: Rectifying underperformance due to lack of skills.
 Update Skills: Necessary for technology upgrades to remain competitive.
 Prevent Managerial Obsolescence: Managers continually update skills for impactful
contributions.
 Solve Organisational Problems: Providing employees with skills to address
challenges.
 Orientate New Employees: Socializing new hires into the organization's culture and
procedures.
 Prepare for Promotion & Managerial Succession: Key for succession planning and
retention.
 Satisfy Personal Growth Needs: Meeting employees' need for achievement,
promoting satisfaction and retention.
2. Challenges and Problems in Training
Despite its importance, training can face significant problems (REGENT BUSINESS
SCHOOL, p. 19; HRD2602, p. 154):
 Wastage of Resources: Training without valid reasons leads to financial waste and
no benefit.
 Sole Responsibility on Training Staff: No single department can train all employees;
departmental managers must also be responsible.
 Inexperienced Trainers: May not achieve desired outcomes, leading to wasted effort.
 Inadequate Evaluation: Results in repeating ineffective training.
 Lack of Managerial Support: Managers may feel too busy or question efficacy,
negatively impacting productivity and application of new skills.
 Incorrect Needs Identification: Assessing employees incorrectly or too soon can lead
to unnecessary training.
 Poorly Designed Training: Overemphasis on theory without practical application.
 Employees Unprepared for Training: Lack of understanding of "why they are
undergoing training" reduces motivation.
 Work Environment Doesn't Support New Behaviours: Learned skills may not be
applied on the job if the environment is not conducive.
 Insufficient Time and Funding: Constraints can hinder effective implementation.
3. Approaches to Training Interventions
Organizations can adopt various approaches to training, each with its advantages and
disadvantages (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 20; HRD2602, p. 97). The module
HRD2602 emphasizes the Systems Approach and the Training Cycle.
3.1. The Systems Approach and Training Cycle
The "systems approach" views training as a "set of interrelated parts, all of which work
together towards a defined goal" (HRD2602, p. 97). An organization is an "open system"
interacting with its internal and external environments (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p.
21).
The Training Cycle is a continuous, four-stage process (HRD2602, p. 97, 109, 133, 144):
 Analysing the Training and Development Needs: The starting point, identifying the
"gap between what an employee ought to be doing and what he or she is actually
doing" (HRD2602, p. 101).
 Designing and Developing the Programme and Course: Formulating learning
outcomes, selecting and sequencing content, and choosing instructional strategies
and media.
 Preparing and Presenting Training and Development: Creating a positive learning
environment and delivering the training.
 Assessing Learning and Evaluating Training and Development: Determining if
learning outcomes were achieved and if the program was successful. This stage
feeds back into stage 1 for continuous improvement.
3.2. Other Approaches (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 20-22):
 Learning by Exposure: Unplanned, informal learning.
 Educational Approach: Formal, externally developed programs leading to
qualifications.
 Problem Centred Approach: Solves short-term, operational problems.
 Action Learning Approach: Managers study and solve real-life problems, focusing on
practical application.
 Analytical Approach: Associated with organizational TNA, analyzing knowledge,
skills, and attitudes for specific jobs.
 Competence Approach: Focuses on job "outcomes" rather than learning methods.
 Training Process or Procedural Approach: Follows a set of basic requirements (e.g.,
policy, needs definition, planning, implementation, assessment).
 Knowledge Management System: Utilizes structured information systems to store
and disseminate knowledge.
4. Training Needs Analysis (TNA) - Phase 1
TNA is the "first stage of the training process" and determines whether training is the
appropriate solution to an identified problem (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 76). It
identifies the "gap between what a person MUST do and what he or she CAN do"
(HRD2602, p. 101).
4.1. Levels of Training Needs (HRD2602, p. 102-103):
 Macro-level: International and national issues impacting companies (e.g., politics,
social issues, economics).
 Meso-level: Organizational needs, how the local organization adapts to changes
(e.g., culture, resources, goals).
 Micro-level: Immediate working environment/operational level, focusing on individual
employee performance (e.g., knowledge, skills, attitude gaps).
 Mega-level: Organizational contributions adding measurable value to society and
external clients (e.g., safety, health, environmental protection).
4.2. Components of TNA (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 76-79):
 Organisational Analysis: Considers the company's strategic direction, available
training resources (budget, time, expertise), and managerial and peer support for
training.
 Task Analysis: Determines program content by listing job tasks, steps to execute
tasks, and required performance skills and knowledge. More complex jobs may
require "competency assessment" (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 78).
 Person Analysis: Identifies which employees require training based on individual
deficiencies.
5. Designing and Developing Training - Phases 2 & 3
This phase uses TNA findings to formulate outcomes, prepare lesson plans, and develop
training materials.
5.1. Learning Outcomes vs. Objectives (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 80-81;
HRD2602, p. 110-112):
 Training Objectives: Focus on "what the trainer plans to do during the training
process."
 Learning Outcomes: Focus on "what the learner should be able to do on completion
of the training programme."
 Well-written learning outcomes specify:
 Outcome Behaviour: How a learner should act or behave (observable action verbs).
 Performance Conditions: Circumstances under which the behavior is performed.
 Performance Standards: How well the learner should perform. SAQA (South African
Qualifications Authority) mandates the formulation of outcomes using "observable
action words" (HRD2602, p. 112).
5.2. Content Selection and Sequencing (HRD2602, p. 114-118):
 Content Selection: Influenced by subject-matter characteristics, learner
characteristics (culture, language, learning styles), and trainer abilities. Primary
sources include job data, technical manuals, and online resources.
 Sequencing: Organizing material for efficiency and effectiveness. Approaches
include chronological, whole-to-part, part-to-whole, known-to-unknown, step-by-step,
general-to-specific, and concrete-to-abstract.
5.3. Instructional Strategies and Media (HRD2602, p. 122-127):
Instructional Strategy: The trainer's plan for how the material will be learned to achieve
desired outcomes. Must be compatible with outcomes, suited to the institution, match
facilities/equipment, align with learner background/competency, and match trainer abilities.
Instructional Media: Anything other than written/spoken word that enhances the program
(e.g., graphics, videos, case studies).
Common Instructional Strategies (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 32-48):
 Lectures: One-sided presentation, effective for large audiences. Can be enhanced
with discussions, seminars, and interactive elements.
 Conferences/Group Discussions: Trainer develops knowledge through verbal
participation; ideal for problem-solving and innovation.
 Simulation: Represents real-life situations in an artificial environment, allowing
trainees to see outcomes of decisions. Useful for hazardous or distracting real
situations.
 Case Study: Analysis of hypothetical business problems. Develops analytical
thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making skills.
 Role-Play: Learners act out parts in scenarios, developing interpersonal skills.
 Programmed Learning: Self-instruction method where learners progress at their own
pace through structured material.
 University/College Non-Degree Programs: Part-time courses for managers to update
knowledge.
 Management Games: Learners make decisions for hypothetical organizations,
providing high participation.
 In-Basket Exercise: Learners deal with typical daily managerial problems.
 Membership of Professional Organisations: Ongoing informal development,
networking, and staying abreast of field developments.
 Wilderness Training (Adventure Training): Develops teamwork and leadership
through structured outdoor activities.
 Behaviour Modelling: Combines learning points, modelling (demonstrating behavior),
practice/role-play, and feedback/reinforcement.
 E-Learning (Technology-Based Training): Learning via electronic networks (LAN,
WAN, internet). Includes CD-ROM, web-based training, video conferencing, and
mobile learning (m-learning).
5.4. Lesson Plans (HRD2602, p. 128-130):
A "blueprint for your instruction" that ensures "all the essential lesson contents are included
in a logical, sequential order" (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 86). It outlines:
What learners need to achieve (outcomes).
How they will achieve it (content, strategy, media).
How learning will be assessed.
6. Principles of Learning and Adult Learning
Understanding how people learn is fundamental to effective training design.
6.1. General Principles of Learning (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 114-117;
HRD2602, p. 78-90):
 Motivation: People learn better when motivated and interested in the subject.
 Active Learning ("Learning by doing or practicing"): "The more learners are actively
involved in the training, the quicker they will learn and the longer they will remember"
(REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 115). Includes active practice and overlearning.
 Feedback: Essential for learning and motivation, emphasizing what was done
correctly.
 Rate of Learning: Individuals learn at different rates and different tasks at different
rates.
 Memory: People have differing abilities to memorize facts.
 Transfer of Learning/Training: Applying knowledge/skills from a learning situation to
another, especially the job.
 Meaningfulness of Material: Easier to learn and remember when relevant and similar
to the job situation.
 Whole vs. Part Learning: Tasks can be broken down into parts for easier learning.
 Learning by Making Mistakes: Mistakes aid understanding and retention.
 Learning is a Learner's Experience: Activated by the learner; learning happens inside
the learner.
 Memorized facts are not permanent, but meaningful learning becomes permanent.
 Learners are "rich resources": Their experiences, ideas, and feelings can augment
the learning process.
 Learning can be painful: Change can be resisted.
 Different Learning Styles: People learn at their own pace and prefer shorter,
applicable courses.
 Different Learning Requires Different Training Processes.
6.2. Adult Learning Principles (Andragogy) (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 122-123;
HRD2602, p. 92-93):
Adults learn differently from children (pedagogy). Key principles include:
 Self-concept: Adults are self-directing and prefer to be involved in diagnosing needs,
planning, and evaluating their learning.
 Accumulated Experiences: Adults bring a wealth of experience, which trainers can
leverage to augment learning.
 Readiness to Learn: Adults are ready to learn when they perceive a need for growth
relevant to their lives.
 Orientation toward Learning: Adults are problem-centered, task-oriented, and lifeoriented. They learn with purpose.
 Motivation to Learn: Driven by internal motivators (e.g., social relationships, personal
advancement, cognitive interest) rather than external factors (e.g., competition, peer
pressure).
 How Adults Differ from Children as Learners (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p.
125):
 Adult LearnersChild LearnersSelf-directing and autonomousDependantExpect to
answer questions from experiencem Expect questions answered by outside
sourcesIncorporate experience in actionsExpect to be told what to doBring
"baggage" (psychological barriers, etc.)Bring very little, if any, baggage
6.3. Making Learning Easier (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 118-119):
 Respect for teachers' and learners' perspectives.
 Accepting difference as desirable.
 Accepting that people make mistakes.
 Encouraging active participation and exploration.
 Focusing on learner's needs, not trainer's dictates.
 Allowing learners to confront the teacher and vice versa.
 Accepting people, as change should be gradual.
7. Delivery Training - Phase 4
This phase involves the actual presentation of training, focusing on the learning environment
and the facilitator's role.
7.1. Creating a Learning Environment (HRD2602, p. 134-138):
 A positive learning environment is influenced by:
 Notification of Training: Informing learners in advance, allowing preparation and
managing expectations.
 Resource Availability: Ensuring all equipment, stationery, and facilities are checked
and in working order.
 Facility Selection: Choosing a venue that suits instructional strategies, with adequate
space, lighting, ventilation, and accessibility (acoustics, parking, safety).
7.2. Role of the Facilitator (HRD2602, p. 140-141; REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 8586):
A learning facilitator "creates and promotes learning experiences" and guides the learner as
an active participant. They are not simply teachers covering material.
Characteristics and Competencies:






Focus on Students: Prioritizing trainee improvement.
Expertise in Subject Matter: Proficiency and passion in the content area.
Making Content Interesting: Engaging and stimulating delivery.
Personality: Cultivating a conducive personality.
Interpersonal and Human Relations Skills: Listening, genuine interest, patience.
Instructional Design: Knowledge and skills in preparing subject matter for
presentation.
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Learning Transaction Skills: Understanding how learning takes place and various
learning styles.
Knowledge of Group Dynamics.
Communication and Questioning Skills.
Feedback, Flexibility, Time Management.
7.3. Questioning as Part of Training (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 87):
Questions "stimulate thought," "test how effective training has been," "establish what the
learner knows," "create understanding," "maintain interest," and "keep people alert."
Open-ended questions: Require detailed answers, encouraging discussion.
Closed-ended questions: Require short, specific answers (e.g., yes/no).
8. Evaluation of Training - Phase 5 (Feedback to Phase 1)
Evaluation and assessment are crucial for determining the success and impact of training
programs. These processes are distinct but interconnected (HRD2602, p. 146).
Assessment: "Structured process for gathering evidence about the candidate’s (i.e. the
learner’s) achievements in relation to specific learning outcomes" (HRD2602, p. 147).
Answers: "Has learning really taken place?"
Evaluation: "Effort that goes into determining the extent to which a training programme has
accomplished what it set out to accomplish" (HRD2602, p. 146). Answers: "To what extent
the training programme was/is successful."
8.1. Purposes of Evaluation (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 90-91; HRD2602, p. 154):
Determine strengths and weaknesses of the intervention.
Identify whether content, structure, and administration contribute to learning.
Identify which learners benefited most/least.
Gather market data (why attended, recommend).
Identify financial costs and benefits.
Compare costs/benefits with other interventions.
Compare costs/benefits with other organizational development interventions.
8.2. Kirkpatrick’s Model for Evaluation (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 91-95;
HRD2602, p. 156-157):
A four-level taxonomy for post-instructional evaluation:
Level 1: Reaction: Assessing learners' feelings about the training. Usually a "one-page
questionnaire" immediately after training.
Level 2: Learning: Determining the degree to which learners "acquired the intended
knowledge, skills and attitude." Measured by pre-tests and post-tests, often with a control
group.
Level 3: Behaviour: Measures "actual on-the-job changes in behaviour" resulting from
training. Conducted weeks or months after training through observations and interviews.
Focuses on "Transfer of Training."
Level 4: Results: Measures the positive impact on the organization's "bottom line."
Includes metrics like "higher revenues generated, increased productivity, improved quality,
lower costs and more satisfied customers, higher job satisfaction and lower employee
turnover." Often involves Return on Investment (ROI) calculation.
8.3. Principles of Assessment (HRD2602, p. 149-150):
Transparency: Process clear and open to candidates.
Validity: Assesses what it claims to assess, evidence demonstrates outcomes met.
Reliability: Consistent judgments regardless of context or assessor.
Objectivity: Eliminates scorer bias.
Practicality: Feasible given financial resources, facilities, time.
Fairness: Does not disadvantage anyone based on race, gender, etc., and considers
learning styles/experiences.
Flexibility: Accommodates variations in learner contexts and needs.
Authenticity: Evidence produced by the student themselves.
8.4. Types of Assessment (HRD2602, p. 148-149):
Formative Assessment: Monitors learners' abilities throughout the program (e.g., activities,
role-playing, projects). Provides ongoing feedback.
Summative Assessment: Takes place at the end of the program to determine overall
achievement of learning outcomes (e.g., final examinations).
8.5. Measuring Return on Investment (ROI) (HRD2602, p. 157):
ROI is a "measure of the monetary benefits obtained by an organisation over a specified
period in return for a given investment in a learning programme." Formula: ROI = (monetary
benefits – cost of training) / cost of training x 100
8.6. Diagnosing Training Failures (HRD2602, p. 158):
Reasons for failure include: inaccurate needs analyses, lack of motivation, insufficient
funding, work environment not supporting new behaviours, and lack of on-the-job rewards
for learned skills.
9. Skills Development in South Africa
Both sources highlight the unique challenges and legislative framework for skills
development in South Africa, given its history.
9.1. Importance of Skills Development in SA (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 138139; HRD2602, p. 42):
Addresses a "serious shortage of skilled employees," especially for previously
disadvantaged communities.
Bridges the "gap between the great shortage of skilled employees and an oversupply of
unskilled employees."
Promotes economic growth, political stability, and social upliftment.
Improves individual opportunity, organizational competitiveness, and productivity.
9.2. Key Legislation and Frameworks:
National Skills Development Strategy (NSDS): Government initiative to provide an integrated
approach to education and training (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 139).
National Qualifications Framework (NQF): A "credit system for achieving Chapter
Outcomes" established by the SAQA Act No. 58 of 1995. It has 10 levels across three
bands, aiming to create a single integrated framework, facilitate access and progression,
enhance quality, and redress past discrimination (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 140141; HRD2602, p. 42).
Skills Development Act (SDA) No. 97 of 1998: Provides a framework for skills
development, integrates with the NQF, provides for learnerships, and finances development
via a levy-grant scheme (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 141; HRD2602, p. 42).
Skills Development Levies Act (SDLA) No. 9 of 1999: Requires employers with an annual
payroll over R500,000 to pay a 1% "Skills Development Levy (SDL)." Funds SETAs and the
National Skills Fund. A significant portion can be recovered by implementing T&D initiatives
(REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 142; HRD2602, p. 45).
9.3. Key Institutions:
National Skills Authority (NSA): Advises the Minister on skills development policy, strategy,
and funding allocation (HRD2602, p. 43).
National Skills Fund (NSF): Receives 20% of skills development levies and other funds for
national priorities (HRD2602, p. 44).
Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs): Key to implementing the SDA and
SDLA. There are 21 SETAs, each responsible for a specific economic sector. Their functions
include:
Developing and implementing sector skills plans (SSP).
Promoting learnerships and skills programs.
Allocating grants to employers.
Monitoring education and training.
Liaising with the NSA and Department of Labour.
Collecting and disbursing skills development levies (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 142143; HRD2602, p. 52, 56).
Skills Development Facilitator (SDF): A crucial role within organizations responsible for
developing and planning the skills development strategy, including the annual Workplace
Skills Plan (WSP) and annual training report (ATR). They assist employers with SETA
accreditation, advise on WSP implementation, and act as a contact person with the SETA
(HRD2602, p. 61-62).
Workplace Skills Plan (WSP): An annual plan outlining an employer's skills development
interventions to address training needs. Approved by the relevant SETA, it details training
interventions, estimated costs, job types, and employment equity information (HRD2602, p.
63-65).
Learnerships: "Work based learning programme that leads to an NQF registered
qualification." They combine theoretical knowledge with practical experience, are directly
related to an occupation, and are managed by SETAs. Learnerships require a legally binding
agreement between employer, learner, and training provider (REGENT BUSINESS
SCHOOL, p. 144-145; HRD2602, p. 66-70).
9.4. Reskilling and Upskilling in SA (REGENT BUSINESS SCHOOL, p. 136-138):
These are critical strategies to combat the skills deficit and prepare for the "fourth industrial
revolution (4IR)".
Upskilling: Learning new, advanced skills for the same role to improve effectiveness or adapt
to new technologies.
Reskilling: Learning new skills to perform a different job, especially relevant for roles that
have become obsolete or when shifting personnel.
Both are seen as vital for organizations to "develop the skills needed to remain competitive"
and address the high unemployment rate, particularly among youth.
Conclusion
The sources collectively present a comprehensive view of training and development as an
essential, systematic, and continuously evolving function within Human Resource
Management. They underscore the importance of aligning T&D with organizational strategy,
adhering to legal frameworks (especially in the South African context), and implementing
effective learning and evaluation practices to ensure a competent and adaptable workforce.
The emphasis on active, learner-centered approaches, varied instructional strategies, and
rigorous evaluation (including ROI) reflects a modern understanding of effective T&D.