Construction and Building Materials 410 (2024) 134221
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Construction and Building Materials
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat
Review
Application of ultra-high-performance concrete as bridge pavement
overlays: Literature review and case studies
Joaquín Abellán-García a, *, 1, Juan S. Carvajal-Muñoz a, 2, César Ramírez-Munévar b, 3
a
b
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universidad del Norte, Barranquilla, Colombia
Civil Engineer, Department of Civil Engineering, Escuela Colombiana de Ingeniería Julio Garavito, Bogota, Colombia
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords:
UHPC
Whitetopping
Bridge pavement
Concrete
Rehabilitation
Overlays
Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) has emerged as a suitable material for pavement rehabilitation,
particularly in the context of bridge engineering. This material’ attributes and performance-related character­
istics have attracted attention due to the numerous advantages and potential for enhanced long-term durability
of deteriorated pavements, either cementitious or asphaltic. Because of its relevance and increased use in recent
years for pavement engineering applications, this paper presents a comprehensive review of recent case studies
that investigate the application of UHPC in bridge pavement rehabilitation or reconstruction projects. The
selected case studies include projects conducted in America, Asia, and Europe, and provide valuable insights into
the design, construction, and performance of UHPC overlays. These showcase the effectiveness of UHPC in
addressing common issues such as cracking, rutting, and structural deficiencies in bridge pavements. Further­
more, these highlight the superior flexural and compressive strength of UHPC, which contributes to improved
load-carrying capacity and resistance to permanent deformation. Moreover, some environmental benefits derived
from UHPC such as smaller carbon footprint are highlighted in the paper as well as cost-effectiveness consid­
erations in light of the long-term performance and reduced maintenance obtained with UHPC overlays. Overall,
the comprehensive literature review and case studies presented in this paper provide valuable data on material
properties, project types, construction techniques, and post-rehabilitation evaluations. These findings can guide
future research and assist practitioners in making informed decisions regarding the implementation of UHPC
overlays for pavement rehabilitation. Finally, this paper contributes to the existing body of knowledge on UHPC
overlays and emphasizes their significance in improving the longevity and sustainability of bridge pavements.
1. Introduction
Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) is a type of highly engi­
neered concrete material that combines high strength and durability
with lightweight, low-cost construction. The concept, originally termed
reactive powder concretes (RPC) by Richard and Cheyrezy [1,2], pro­
posed the initial theoretical foundations that propelled the advancement
in the field, along with the work mentioned later in this section. Ac­
cording to the authors [1,2], RPC might overcome the poor
strength-to-weight ratio, which is one of the disadvantages of conven­
tional concrete, by using particle packing density theory and a
steam-heat curing method. Using significant volumes of short steel fibers
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jabellan@uninorte.edu.co (J. Abellán-García).
1
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000–0002-0353–322X
2
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000–0003-2472–1390
3
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000–0001-6241–7934
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.134221
Available online 22 November 2023
0950-0618/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
might potentially enhance the poor ductility of standard concrete [3,4].
In addition, the fact that UHPC has been proven to exhibit positive
properties and desirable characteristics by research validates the
increasing popularity of the material from the early nineties in various
civil engineering applications [3,5]. Among these properties, it is to
highlight its compressive strength, energy absorption capacity,
remarkable durability, excellent fatigue resistance, and vastly superior
permeability features (in the order of 220 times lower for chloride-ion
and 110 times for oxygen penetration) than that of conventional con­
crete [5,6]. Subsequently, UHPC reinforced with fibers, sometimes
referred to as UHFRPC in the literature, has recently been used in
pavement engineering, for instance in bridge pavements, to improve the
J. Abellán-García et al.
Construction and Building Materials 410 (2024) 134221
recycling at the plant involves taking RAP (Reclaimed Asphalt Pave­
ment) or recycled pavement to a hot mix factory, where the material is
characterised and processed for its use [20]. Furthermore, it is crucial to
consider that maintaining the world’s road network in good condition is
critical due to the global rise in commercial, public, and private vehicles,
while in parallel the load regimes also increase in the existing roads.
Keeping roadway pavements in good working order is one of the most
challenging issues for transportation departments worldwide [19,21]. In
fact, one needs to consider that the condition of a country’s roads is
closely linked to its economic progress, as lower travel times between
locations reduce transportation expenses and the riding quality affects
various parameters linked to safety and comfort. Consequently, as it will
be covered in detail later in this paper, various countries over the world
are implementing new projects or rehabilitation strategies with UHPC to
establish high-quality roads, support foreign trade, and showcase
themselves as centres of growth and development [9,22].
Previous works validates the usefulness of UHPC for road infra­
structure applications. For instance, Tayeh et al. [23] found that UHPC
has the potential for engineering rehabilitation of reinforced concrete
structures such as bridges and buildings, while it also offers significant
potential for the construction and performance enhancement of new
infrastructure [24,25]. Considering the lower environmental impact of
UHPC reported by recent research [14,26], its application as a surrogate
of conventional rehabilitation overlays leads to a more sustainable or
“environmentally friendly” approach. Among other civil engineering
applications, UHPC has been previously reported as a useful paving
material for noise reduction and extended durability [27]. For instance,
the use of a filigree surface structure that can reduce noise was suc­
cessfully placed in a Kassel (Germany) trial section, which, according to
Piotrowski et al. [28], validates additional benefits to those of structural
toughening derived from traditional whitetopping. It is, however,
important to consider that using UHPC as a rehabilitation layer placed
on top of an existing layer (i.e., flexible or rigid layer) will require
special care to assure appropriate bonding between the layers, as pre­
viously indicated by Lu et al. [29].
Similarly, previous research suggests that UHPC can be used for
pavement rehabilitation [30–32], but there are challenges associated
with its implementation. For instance, Abbas et al. [33] highlights some
constraints such as the higher initial cost of UHPC, lack of contractor
experience, and absence of widely accepted design provisions.
Conversely, Yu and colleagues [34] provide a more optimistic state­
ment, suggesting that UHPC manufacturing can significantly reduce the
environmental impact when recycled materials such as fly ash, ground
granulated blast furnace, or limestone powder are incorporated. The
latter, as expected, represents a major goal pursued by the pavement
engineering industry worldwide in an attempt to produce more envi­
ronmentally sustainable solutions than those typically used over the past
decades.
performance of existing pavements. UHPC is, therefore, often used in
pavement rehabilitation or new construction projects as it offers supe­
rior performance compared to traditional road surfaces. UHPC can be
used in various ways throughout the rehabilitation process, from
providing a structurally sound foundation for new layers of asphalt or
concrete to offering protection from water damage and wear and tear.
Some of the most seminal works on high-performance fiber-rein­
forced cementitious composites include the original work by Dr. Victor
Li and colleagues in the 90 s [7,8]. Among other detailed concepts and
analytical conceptions, their work described the fundamental properties
of these materials and the micromechanical modelling approach used to
design the material. The work by Drs. Michael Schmidt and colleagues
demonstrated the potential of fiber-reinforced UHPC to achieve high
strength and ductility through a series of experiments on the use of fiber
reinforcement in UHPC [9–11]. The work by Dr. Joost Walraven and his
colleagues at the Technical University of Delft in the Netherlands
developed a new approach to UHPC mix design using a combination of
particle packing and micromechanical modelling [12,13]. Recent work
by Amran et al. [14] provides insightful information on the historical
evolution of UHPC, challenges, and limitations. Ullah et al. [15] fur­
nishes an overview of UHPC, including its composition, mechanical and
durability characteristics, fire resistance, and environmental benefits.
The research presented by Bajaber et al. [16] discusses the potential of
UHPC to be used in construction, including its advantages and disad­
vantages. For its part, Du et al. [17] reviews the state-of-the-art tech­
nologies for developing UHPC mixtures with improved properties.
Finally, the study reported by Park et al. [18] studies the effect of
Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs) on the properties of
UHPC. Overall, these works, and others conducted over the past years
have contributed to the understanding and advancement of UHPC and
have helped to establish it as a unique and important material in the
field of concrete technology.
Furthermore, when dealing with bridge structures, the pavement
layer represents one of the most important and basic elements to
improve its durability [19]. It is, therefore, imperative to understand the
effect of the constitutive materials composing the layer to warrant its
functional and structural capacity over time. As such, the use of UHPC as
a surrogate of commonly used overlays in bridge pavements is covered
in detail in this paper, initially considering the conceptual framework of
the road infrastructure, then the UHPC material characteristics and
mechanical performance, and later studying successful study cases in
three continents with proven benefits of the rehabilitation or construc­
tion of a new UHPC overlay for a long-lasting and cost-effective solution
in road infrastructure projects, either preservation or expansion of the
road network for the cases covered in North America, Europe and Asia.
1.1. Road rehabilitation and new construction with UHPC
Road pavement rehabilitation entails restoring, repairing, or reha­
bilitating existing pavement surfaces to extend their usable life, avert
future road problems, and increase performance and durability. Pave­
ment rehabilitation is necessary when any of the following factors exist:
discomfort for vehicular traffic, excessive surface defects, reduced
adherence between the road and vehicle tires, an excessive need for
routine maintenance services, high operating costs for users, and
insufficient structural capacity for the anticipated traffic [20]. One of the
most common strategies for pavement preservation are overlays, which
are composed of layers of stone materials and bonding products that are
placed on an existing degraded pavement. Their main functions are to
restore adequate service characteristics and to strengthen the pave­
ment’s structural resistance. Other options for pavement rehabilitation
or restoration include: (i) cape seal surface treatment that involves
performing a simple surface treatment and then pouring asphalt slurry
over it. (ii) Bituminous binders are used for in-situ asphalt pavement
recycling, which involves grinding the old pavement and applying an
emulsion-water mixture for in-situ recycling. (iii) Asphalt pavement
1.2. Cost-effectiveness of UHPC
UHPC offers several benefits over more traditional flexible pave­
ments such as asphalt and concrete, particularly in terms of costeffectiveness. The use of UHPC has been shown to result in consider­
able cost savings in comparison with traditional pavement solutions.
UHPC is typically less expensive than asphalt or concrete when it comes
to initial installation as well as long-term maintenance costs. For
example, research conducted by the National University of Singapore
found that UHPC was 2–4 times cheaper than asphalt for road con­
struction applications, which can get even further when considering
alternative recycled materials such as calcined marine clays, biochar
derived from wood, blast furnace slag, among others [35–37]. UHPC
also requires less frequent maintenance compared to asphalt or con­
crete, which can greatly reduce long-term costs associated with ongoing
road repairs [35–37]. In addition, UHPC provides substantially superior
strength compared to other similar materials: UHPC’s compressive
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Construction and Building Materials 410 (2024) 134221
strength rating can reach up to 292 MPa, which is several times greater
than conventional concrete and more than ten times higher than asphalt
[34,35,38,39]. This superior strength and expected durability would
allow UHPC pavements to withstand extreme weather conditions and
heavy traffic without suffering from premature failure, deformation, or
fatigue cracking [14,40,41]. As a result, UHPC has the potential to last
much longer and require fewer repairs than conventional materials
while still offering excellent mechanical performance. Consequently,
UHPC is rapidly gaining popularity among civil engineers worldwide as
an innovative alternative when it comes to pavement rehabilitation
projects. Furthermore, if one argues that the upfront cost of UHPC may
be higher than other materials, such as asphalt, the long-term cost-ef­
fectiveness of UHPC can be regarded as better due to its long lifespan
and reduced maintenance needs. UHPC can also be used in thin and
ultrathin sections, for instance, as whitetopping, which can reduce the
amount of material needed for repairs, leading to further cost savings.
Similarly, even though, for specific circumstances, the upfront cost of
flexible pavement overlays could be lower than that of UHPC, there is a
substantial risk in obtaining a shorter lifespan and more frequent
maintenance interventions, which can result in higher costs over the
long run. A detailed cost-effectiveness comparison of UHPC material by
using the net present value method is provided in a recent work by
Schmidt C. & Schmidt M. [21]. The authors concluded that UHPC thin
overlays produce significant savings in a 54-year period in terms of
reduced costs for construction, traffic congestion and accidents, that
comes as a consequence of longer renewal periods. A cost comparison
among conventional solutions for overlays further substantiate differ­
ences among various solutions (Table 1). It is, however, important to
note that UHPC costs need to be compared considering the typically
lower thicknesses used for overlays in structures such as bridges and
pavements.
retrofit potentials for compressive and flexural strengthening, as well as
strong bonding strength and bond endurance. Alkaysi et al. [45] found
that all UHPC mixtures exhibited limited chloride ion penetration and
great resistance to freeze-thaw, with mass loss substantially below the
limit after more than 60 freeze-thaw cycles. Imam and colleagues [46]
also indicated that UHPC is regarded as a realistic and long-term option
for enhanced sustainable construction, leading to greater resistance to
harsh situations. Similar conclusions were achieved by Jaramillo et al.
[6] when using greener UHPC-making components for partial replace­
ment of cement and silica fume. Due to its thick microstructure and
damage-resistance properties, Karmacharya et al. [47] stated that UHPC
significantly improves the durability of concrete buildings. These attri­
butes may greatly minimize the amount of repair, rehabilitation, and
maintenance work, extending the service life of transportation infra­
structure. Furthermore, Fehling et al. [48] substantiated that UHPC had
ultra-high strength, outstanding fatigue resistance, and incredibly low
porosity. Yücel et al. [49] indicated that UHPC is highly resistant to
water and chloride-ion permeability, steel reinforcement corrosion,
carbonation, freeze–thaw resistance, chemical attack resistance,
alkali-silica reaction, and abrasion resistance. For its part, Karmacharya
and Chao [47] suggested that prefabricated UHPC panels may be used
for pavement restoration without the usage of dowel bars with a high
potential for increased durability. The research presented by Paredes
et al. [50] found that combining nano-silica, metakaolin, and silica fume
improved durability in UHPC. Moreover, Ahlborn et al. [51] pointed out
that UHPC had negligible chloride ion penetration, high resistance to
freeze-thaw cycling (durability factor of 100), and coefficient of thermal
expansion values similar to that of normal strength concretes for both
ambient cured and thermally treated specimens.
In agreement with the above, the review paper presented by Shi et al.
[38] reported that UHPC is characterized by high strength, stiffness, and
superior durability. The research conducted by Wang et al. [52] found
that up to 60% mineral admixture powder addition can improve UHPC
durability and also found that red mud can improve UHPC durability but
at the cost of reduced workability. However, Du et al. [17] indicated that
some challenges limit the wider application of UHPC, such as low
workability for large-volume production, high autogenous shrinkage,
insufficient flexural/tensile properties, and unpredictable durability
after concrete cracking. Previous work, however, substantiates the fact
that crack onset and propagation in UHPC is very small (i.e., 30 – 50 µm
with homogeneous crack distribution), which supposes a clear benefit in
terms of fatigue and other forms of cracking, adding up improvements in
the energy dissipation capacity and deformation of the structure that are
derived from the tensile strain-hardening response of the thin UHPC
overlays [44]. These challenges need to be addressed in order to
improve UHPC durability.
Additional work by Graybeal and Tanesi [53] found that UHPC ex­
hibits significantly enhanced durability properties as compared to
normal and high-performance concretes. Abellan-Garcia et al. [54]
recently studied the drying shrinkage of UHPC through a simple yet
time-consuming methodology (using a strain gauge with a precision of
0.001 mm) to further understand the effects of mixture design and fibers
dosage and type on the drying volumetric changes of the produced
mixtures. It was concluded that UHPC mixtures exhibit very low drying
shrinkage in comparison to conventional concrete. However, because of
its unique microstructure, the autogenous shrinkage of UHPC is
considerable, specially at early age [55]. Considering the paramount
importance of reducing autogenous shrinkage in UHPC, to decrease its
cracking failure potential and improve durability and safety, recent
research work has extensively studied the autogenous shrinkage of
UHPC mixtures demonstrating that the proper fiber dosage could reduce
this phenomenon in more than a 65% [55,56]. Another relevant factors
to take into account are superplasticizer type and dosage, silica fume
content, and water-to-binder ratio [57].
Additional work by Spragg et al. [58] proposed a simplified meth­
odology, termed Formation Factor (using Second Fick’s Law and AC
1.3. Durability aspects
This section emphasizes the importance of durability in achieving
long-term functionality and sound integrity of repaired pavement
structures such as those of bridge pavements. As an initial conception, it
is imperative that a bridge pavement exhibits high durability as a
consequence of its mechanical and functional characteristics [19]. Pre­
vious work validating the durability of UHPC is introduced. For
instance, Li et al. [43] reported that UHPC has very high strength, elastic
modulus, ductility, and excellent durability. The authors also discovered
that UHPC has exceptionally low water and chemical permeability,
about one to two orders of magnitude lower than conventional concrete
and HPC. Tayeh et al. [44] indicated that UHPC has great repair and
Table 1
Cost comparison of various overlay applications [42].
Overlay Type
Overlay Thickness,
inches (mm)
Cost*, $/ft2
($/m2)
HPC
1–5 (25–127)
Low slump concrete
1.5–4 (38–102)
LMC
1–5 (25–127)
Asphalt with a membrane
Polymer-based
1.5–4 (38–102)
0.13–6 (3–152)
Non-proprietary UHPC
Proprietary UHPC
1–2 (25–52)
1–2 (25–52)
Rehabilitation of the Chillon Viaduct
(Switzerland) using a Proprietary UHPC
Overlay
Bridge deck replacement
1.6 (40)
17–25
(183–269)
13–19
(140–204)
18–39
(193–419)
3–8 (32–86)
10–17
(107–183)
3–6 (32–64)
9–18
(97–184)
20 (215)
*
Not applicable
43–53
(462–570)
Cost presented in US Dollars
3
J. Abellán-García et al.
Construction and Building Materials 410 (2024) 134221
resistivity meter), to characterize durability in UHPC materials by
forecasting the time corrosion would occur. Precisely, based on their
work and the set of UHPC materials studied, the authors estimated a
time span of 210 years needed for corrosion onset that is still under
validation with further materials combinations and variables indicated
by the authors [58]. Table 2 provides a comparison between some
durability parameters among conventional concrete and UHPC pro­
posed by the French Association of Civil Engineering (AFGC) [59]. This
comparison provides further indication of higher durability expected for
UHPC mixtures in contrast to other types of concrete commonly used. In
the report by AFGC, further recommendations regarding UHPC char­
acteristics such as rehydration, corrosion, chemical interaction, and
stability are also provided.
In consequence of the improvements in durability reported by
literature, it becomes clear that UHPC can be used as an overlay material
on existing surfaces such as bridges and pavements. Precisely, UHPC
overlays are typically thin yet highly durable layers that repair de­
ficiencies such as cracks and potholes while also providing increased
protection from further damage to the structure. Moreover, UHPC is also
frequently used for bridge deck repairs since its unique composition
makes it resistant to heavy loads and corrosion caused by weathering
agents such as salt, sand, ice melt products, and chemical spills, resulting
in an enhanced bridge deck durability while reducing maintenance costs
over time [41,42,60–62].
Overall, UHPC has, over the years, become an essential component of
many roadways’ rehabilitation projects due to its combination of
strength, durability, low-cost construction, and ease of installation.
Utilizing UHPC in pavement engineering projects not only creates
smoother driving surfaces that last longer but also reduces long-term
maintenance costs associated with traditional materials such as
asphalt and concrete [6,43,53,63,64]. Because of the above and the fact
that UHPC can be produced with widely available raw materials and
common technologies [38,65], this section validates that UHPC is a
durable and sustainable material that may increase the durability of
bridge pavements subjected to rehabilitation or reconstruction.
that various supplementary cementitious materials can be used in
UHPC, and these have different effects on the properties of UHPC, which
is relevant to the assess the environmental feasibility of “greener” UHPC.
Together, these papers and their main findings suggest that UHPC rep­
resents an environmentally feasible option that can help to gradually
reduce global pollution and degradation of natural resources and can
therefore foster the achievement of global sustainable development
goals (SDGs). The latter is of special interest, considering the existing
link between infrastructure (including roads), socioeconomic, environ­
mental, and societal development worldwide [71–73].
In summary, although the production of UHPC still requires signifi­
cant amounts of energy and raw materials, including cement, sand, and
aggregates, its longer lifespan and fewer maintenance interventions
required in contrast to other materials (such as asphaltic overlays), as
described earlier, can lead to a lower environmental impact and carbon
footprint in the long term. Additionally, its manufacturing with recycled
materials can further reduce its environmental impact.
1.5. Overall comparison of asphalt and UHPC overlays
Currently, the approach to use UHPC as an overlay for rehabilitation
or new projects represents an innovative alternative for bridge pave­
ments and roadways restoration in contrast to the traditionally used
asphaltic overlays. In practical terms, the use of UHPC as an overlay
entails milling the existing pavement in preparation for the future
pouring of the concrete, covering afflicted regions or existing cracks
(preferably structures with low to moderate damage). The main differ­
ence between UHPC and asphalt overlays is the thickness required to
withstand traffic loads and environmental regimes over time. In fact,
UHPC typically requires thicknesses between 1 and 2 in. (25–50 mm),
which is substantially smaller than those for normal asphalt overlays
[74,75]. The selection of UHPC thickness is critical in providing
adequate performance, and it depends upon important factors such as
the material properties, long-term durability, and structural re­
quirements. In contrast to asphalt overlays, the typical thickness tends to
be lower as a result of a substantially higher stiffness/lower deform­
ability of UHPC that allows the material to withstand high load regimes
with thinner thicknesses. It is, however, important to consider that
specific mixture designs for tailored applications will have specific
material responses that should be taken into account through compar­
ative studies that could benefit from evaluations such as load distribu­
tion, performance evaluation, and life cycle cost analysis. More
specifically, the analysis for load distribution (load transfer mecha­
nisms) would allow for assessing the stress distribution, strain levels,
and load carrying capacities; the study on the performance of the layer
through comparisons of rutting, cracking, roughness, maintenance re­
quirements can be of benefit and can be obtained via field measure­
ments, visual inspection, and non-destructive techniques [76,77].
Because of the large number of fines, cement, and cementitious
materials in UHPC (properly proportioned by means of a particle
packing density theory), the permeability is essentially non-existent, and
the obtained strength is very high, allowing the new pavement to be
much more durable and less susceptible to deformation and deflection
[78]. Moreover, UHPC normally reacts well to adhesion with the exist­
ing pavement or bridge deck [29]. Reduced thicknesses allow for the
addition of steel without increasing the weight of a structure such as a
bridge and thereby improves its structural resistance, with values
ranging between 25 and 50 mm that have proven effects on the extended
service life of the repaired deck structure [42,77]. A comparison of
typical thicknesses for overlay applications is presented in Table 3.
Moreover, UHPC has several advantages when compared with other
pavement options such as flexible pavements. UHPC is more durable
than traditional paving materials, allowing it to last longer without
needing replacement or repair [41]. UHPC also provides higher strength
and stiffness than traditional pavements, resulting in greater resistance
to cracking and deformation under load, as is further explained by
1.4. Environmental considerations
Due to the growing pressure on the environment derived from raw
materials extraction, earthworks, construction, and maintenance oper­
ations, a clear need for sustainable development of the road infrastruc­
ture industry is urgently needed, especially considering the fact that
paving materials are one of the greatest contributors to greenhouse
emissions and energy consumption worldwide [66–68]. Previous liter­
ature suggests that UHPC is an environmentally feasible option for
overlay applications compared to conventional concrete pavements
[69]. The work of Yu et al. [34] suggested that the use of fly ash, ground
granulated blast-furnace slag, and limestone powder can significantly
reduce the environmental impact of UHPC. Dong [70] found that the use
of UHPC can result in a significant reduction of concrete volume and CO2
emissions compared with conventional concrete. Shi et al. [38] indi­
cated that UHPC could be made with widely available raw materials and
common
technology,
such
as
conventional
casting
and
room-temperature curing. As previously stated, Park et al. [18] found
Table 2
Comparison of durability among various concrete types, including UHPC [59].
Durability parameter
OCa
HPCb
VHPCc
UHPC
Water porosity (%)
Oxygen permeability (m2)
Chloride-ion diffusion factor (m2/s)
Portlandite content (kg/m3)
14 – 20
10− 16
2×10− 11
76
10 – 13
10− 17
2×10− 12
86
6–9
10− 18
10− 13
66
1.5 – 5
< 10− 19
2×10− 14
0
a
Conventional concrete,
High performance concrete,
c
Very High Performance Concrete
b
4
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Construction and Building Materials 410 (2024) 134221
• The low deformability of this material can be partially explained in
terms of its elastic modulus. As per ACI-239R-18 [91], it has been
observed that the modulus of elasticity for Ultra-High Performance
Concrete (UHPC) falls within the range of 40–50 GPa. This is in
contrast to the typical range of 25–30 GPa observed for conventional
concrete.
• The low permeability of UHPC restricts/prevents water infiltration
that could cause damage to the underlying layers of flexible pave­
ment or bridge deck due to the water interaction, responsible for the
moisture damage and its related distresses and corrosion. Also, low
permeability can prevent freeze-thaw damage cycles, which is vital
in geographic locations with harsh environmental conditions or
where the use of de-icing salts is employed. This is also ideal for
preventing the intrusion of oxygen, chloride ions, and other harmful
chemical agents in reinforced concrete structures.
• The relatively rapid initial settlement and curing of UHPC allows a
very high practicality in the placement of the material in the field
and achieve high resistance values within a shorter time span after its
placement. The foregoing translates into agile repairs/interventions
that require considerably shorter traffic blockades than other types
of rehabilitation. The initial setting time of UHPC is typically in the
range of 1–4 h, allowing for efficient handling and placement of the
material [56]. According to previous studies, the final setting time of
UHPC is between 6 and 12 h, but it could reach up to 20 h as stated by
Abbas et al. [92]. However, the use of curing accelerators such as
silica fume can reduce the setting time significantly to values as low
as 47 and 73 min [93]. Overall, the initial and final setting time of
UHPC is greatly affected by the addition of superplasticizers that are
of typical use for these concrete types in contrast to conventional
concrete [94]. It is, however, important to denote that UHPC mix­
tures’ setting and curing times will depend upon specific mixture
formulations, the temperature of the placement area, project speci­
fications, environmental conditions, and its final mechanical prop­
erties are achieved after longer time lapses that are needed for its
long-term strength that depends upon factors such as hydration re­
actions and densification of the microstructure [95–97].
• Thin and ultra-thin sections can be built that can have thicknesses as
low as 20 mm, which is suitable for rehabilitation applications for
damage such as fractures (crocodile skin), chipping, and other sur­
face damage to existing pavements.
• UHPC’s high resistance to abrasion, corrosion, and other forms of
wear and tear [3,42,43] makes it a highly durable material for which
reductions in the frequency of repairs and replacements are ex­
pected, leading to a long service life of the wearing course with
UHPC and lower costs associated with its maintenance and
preservation.
• From the perspective of environmental sustainability, UHPC is a
material that represents a sustainable alternative to conventional
concrete based on the lower consumption of materials required to
achieve resistance and durability. Likewise, with the rise of supple­
mentary cementitious materials in recent years, such as fly ash,
ground glass, blast furnace slag, rice husks, and others, further re­
ductions in the environmental impacts associated with their pro­
duction are encouraged. Therefore, its life cycle is expected to be
much less aggressive to the environment.
• Functional and user comfort aspects, such as those reported by Pio­
trowski et al. [28], suggest reductions in noise generation in UHPC
overlays thanks to the innovative surface typologies that can be
achieved.
• UHPC high particle packing, derived from the utilization of particle
packing theories in the mixture proportion definition and its
improved homogeneity due to the absence of coarse aggregates, re­
sults in a better mechanical response and stability of the mix. The
improvement in the mechanical response due to the high particle
packing has an effect on the suitable use of UHPC for pavement ap­
plications as a result of the following. On the one hand, dense and
Table 3
Typical overlay thickness comparison.
Overlay type
Overlay thickness, in (mm)
High-performance concrete
Low slump concrete
Latex-modified concrete
Asphalt with a membrane
Polymer-based
UHPC
1 – 5 (25.4 – 127)
1.5 – 4 (25.4 – 101.6)
1 – 5 (25.4 – 127)
1.5 – 4 (25.4 – 101.6)
0.13 – 6 (3.3 – 152.4)
1 – 2 (25.4 – 50.8)
Source:Adapted from Krauss et al. [79].
fracture mechanics and micromechanics theories. In fact, not only the
stiffness and strength of the material lead to superior cracking resis­
tance, but also its ductility, which, ultimately, would conduce to a
balanced structural performance (ductile and strong) [4,80]. Further­
more, according to Yücel et al. [49], UHPC can be used for various
pavement applications because of its ability to reduce reflective
cracking, improve the load-bearing capacity and the fatigue life. More­
over, UHPC can be quickly installed due to its fast-curing time, meaning
that the time needed for installation is significantly shorter than with
traditional pavement materials. This can result in substantial savings in
labor costs over the lifespan of the project [21]. In terms of
cost-effectiveness, UHPC typically requires less material than flexible
pavements because of its lower thickness and the fact that it has a much
lower porosity rate than conventional materials, which means that far
fewer particles are lost during compaction processes. Additionally,
UHPC does not need sealants or coatings to maintain its performance
over time, as these are usually necessary for paved surfaces such as
asphalt or concrete. This makes UHPC a much more cost-effective so­
lution in comparison to flexible pavements, which require sealants and
coatings in order to perform optimally over time [81–84].
UHPC can be used in various ways throughout the bridge/pavement
rehabilitation process, from providing a structurally sound foundation
for new layers of asphalt or concrete to providing protection from water
damage and wear and tear [69]. When UHPC is used as a base layer for a
new surface, it acts as a bond between the existing pavement and the
new surface [60], which substantiates the need to maximize this
bonding and make it long-lasting through various techniques and ma­
terial combinations [92,132–134]. This bond creates greater structural
integrity when stress is applied to the pavement due to traffic or weather
conditions [85–87]. UHPC also provides improved resistance to water
penetration, making it a great choice for areas that are prone to higher
levels of precipitation or flooding. UHPC’s properties also make it suit­
able for use in areas subject to freeze/thaw cycles or other extreme
temperature changes, which often lead to thermal/reflective cracking in
traditional pavement materials [88,89]. Finally, the use of UHPC for
bridge deck repairs has become of common use over the world as a
consequence of its properties that allow for increased resistance to heavy
loads and corrosion due to agents such as salt, sand, ice melt products,
and chemical spills. In consequence, UHPC has been reported as a suc­
cessful alternative for bridge pavement rehabilitation that comes with
benefits from the cost perspective [21,76,77,90].
1.6. Main reasons supporting UHPC use for pavement rehabilitation
As mentioned above, UHPC is a type of concrete that exhibits
exceptional strength, durability, and long-term performance properties,
making it an excellent candidate for pavement rehabilitation. Precisely,
some of the UHPC characteristics that support its application include:
• High compressive strength that can reach and exceed values of 150
Mpa (21,800 psi), much higher than those conventional concrete (17
and 70 Mpa; 2500 – 10,000 psi). Such compressive strength gives
UHPC low deformability and makes it ideal for withstanding high
load stresses, as well as resisting various types of typical pavement
damage (i.e., rutting, fatigue, potholes, and moisture damage)[91].
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Construction and Building Materials 410 (2024) 134221
optimized packing enhances strength, durability, and resistance to
deformation [5,98]. The reduction in voids leads to ensuring efficient
interparticle contact that improves load transfer, reduces the mixture
permeability, and enhances permanent deformation and cracking
resistance [6,99]. In this respect, the proper selection of aggregates
and the use of mineral admixtures are of paramount importance in
obtaining an optimized particle packing [18,100].
• The thixotropy of the material (i.e., its ability to exhibit reduced
viscosity and increased workability under shear stress while
regaining its original viscosity and stiffness when the stress is
removed) allows adjustments for specific applications depending on
the concentration of fibers and the tailored mix design. Some of the
various applications of UHPC as a function of its thixotropy can
include self-consolidating concrete; rapid repairs; joint fillers,
grouting, and anchoring; overlays, and thin layers. The thixotropy of
the mixture is essential to be able to work with slopes [75,101].
production of UHPC (around 800 kg/m3) has a detrimental impact on
the material’s carbon footprint [104,105]. In addition to requiring vast
amounts of energy to produce, Portland cement adds to significant CO2
emissions, which have severe effects on global warming [30,106]. Pre­
cisely, the manufacture of one ton of Portland cement clinker emits
between 0.7 and 1 ton of CO2 into the environment [107]. Portland
cement is responsible for roughly 7% of global CO2 emissions [107],
given that the global cement output is expected to be close to 1.5 × 109
tons per year. Thus, the production of UHPC with less cement and,
therefore, a smaller carbon footprint is one of the most important sus­
tainability challenges: the main goal of various research throughout the
globe. Regarding the ultimate price of this unique fiber-reinforced
concrete, the use of significant amounts of other costly components,
such as cement, silica fume, or quartz powder, also has a substantial
effect (Fig. 1).
As a consequence, UHPC is deemed as a suitable alternative for
overlay applications, which, in summary, offers potential advantages.
The next sections of the paper will cover in detail the composition, main
characteristics, and properties of UHPC.
2.2. Use of fibers in UHPC
While the matrix of UHPC is very brittle, concrete is reinforced with
fibers to produce ductility [4]. Hence, usual dosages of UHPC include at
least 2% of fiber by volume ratio. The required fiber volume fraction to
attain the desired post-cracking characteristics relies on a number of
factors, such as the aspect ratio of the fiber (lf/df), the form and sub­
stance of the fibers, and synergies should be sought between them [4,
108]. Even though the partial replacement of silica fume and cement
may help reduce the ultimate cost of concrete, it is important to
remember, as illustrated in Fig. 1, that the fiber dosage has the biggest
impact on UHPC final price. Engineers and researchers face the difficulty
of reducing the number of needed fibers while preserving the ductility
criteria necessary for UHPC applications. Several studies have analyzed
the use of high-tech, low-cost fibers and the hybrid mixing of fibers [34,
109,110] in an effort to lessen the effect on fiber costs. Commonly used
fiber types for UHPC reinforcement are shown in Fig. 2.
The use of high-tech fibers, namely high-strength twisted steel fibers,
is another approach to this issue [108,112,113]. Using these particular
fibers allows for the development of outstanding ductility qualities in
the UHPC with just a 1% volume ratio [108], which is a major drop in
fiber volume ratio compared to the typical dose shown in Fig. 1.
Nevertheless, the high-tech steel fibers described in a number of publi­
cations are laboratory-produced fibers [108,112,113] that are not
commercially available in even the most developed countries. A hybrid
fiber mix is an alternate solution to the fiber cost issue in UHPC. Many
studies [114–116] have investigated the influence of various types of
2. UHPC overview
2.1. Typical composition of UHPC and cost weighing
A typical generic UHPC comprises several components, such as
Portland cement (C), silica fume (SF), fine siliceous sand (SS), quartz
powder (QP), polycarboxylate ether-based high-range water-reducer
superplasticizers (HRWR), and steel fibers [102,103]. A midpoint
UHPC mixture proportion, derived from 150 different mixtures from
prior research, is depicted in Fig. 1. This dosage was obtained from
mixtures that had specific characteristics, including a compressive
strength exceeding 150 MPa without the use of heat or special curing
methods, a maximum sand particle size ranging from 0.5 to 0.6 mm, and
a 2% steel fiber volume. Fig. 1 also provides an analysis of the cost
implications of the UHPC components based on market prices in
Colombia. A more detailed description of the material properties and
design protocols is available in a recent article [5].
Fig. 1 demonstrates that steel fibers have a significant impact on the
ultimate cost of UHPC, with just 2% of the volumetric content ac­
counting for about 40% of the entire cost of this kind of fiber-reinforced
concrete. In addition, the high quantity of cement needed in the
Mixtu re proportion (%)
Cost weighing (%)
40
37
Percentage by total mix
34
30
26
20
20
18
12
10
12
9
8
10
6
3
0
0
Silica
sand
Cement
Wa ter
Silica
fume
Quartz
powder
2
HRWR Steel fiber
2
1
SCM
UHPC component
Fig. 1. Typical composition of a midpoint UHPC dosage with related costs of production. Adapted from [102,103].
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Construction and Building Materials 410 (2024) 134221
Fig. 2. Various fiber types used for UHPC. Adapted from [109,111].
reinforcement on the ductility of UHPC. These results indicated the
synergy formed by the hybrid mixing of micro and macro fibers, which
expands the worldwide usage of fibers in this kind of concrete [117].
The diagram in Fig. 3 depicts a hybrid microfiber and macrofiber rein­
forcing system, where the effect of micro- and macro-fibers on the microand macro-cracks is clearly observed. On the other hand, using cheap
fibers would be the least researched option: in this scenario, a greater
quantity of fibers is used, yet the overall cost of the fibers is still cheaper
than that of fewer fibers of higher quality. Since import costs for
specialized fibers are often expensive, this last method is especially
tempting in developing countries [103].
3.2. Elasticity modulus
According to ACI-239R-18 [91], the modulus of elasticity of UHPC
ranges from 40 to 50 GPa, as opposed to the standard 25–30 GPa for
conventional concrete. ASTM C469 provides a typical test setup to
measure the elastic modulus of UHPC.
3.3. Flexural response
The three-point test on 40×40×160 mm beams is the most wellknown and widely used test for evaluating material bending [34,109].
In general, three stages of classification are commonly observed: (a)
brittle fracture, (b) softening by deflection, and (c) hardening by
deflection. Each material response is determined by the amount and
type of fibers incorporated in the concrete, whether scarce/adequate or
not. The last level is induced by cracking, where there is evidence of
hardening (because of direct tensile deformation) and resistance in­
crease (as a result of multi-cracking and, therefore, pseudo-ductile
behaviour of UHPC). Resistances of up to 24 MPa [34] have been
achieved.
3. Performance-related and durability characteristics of UHPC
3.1. Compressive strength
UHPC can endure stresses more than 150 MPa when exposed to a
compression test [91], which is one of the most crucial mechanical
properties of concrete for civil engineering applications. Moreover, it is
capable of absorbing compression energy. A high degree of particle
packing is one of the primary causes behind these exceptional qualities.
In this aspect, the particle packing density of UHPC is much greater than
that of conventional concrete since its dosing is done at the micro level,
hence lowering the proportion of voids [6]. Standard methods for testing
the compressive strength of UHPC/UHFRPC include cubes with a 50 mm
side, per ASTM C109 [118], and cylinders with a 100 mm diameter and
200 mm height, following ASTM C39 [119].
3.4. Tensile performance
The typical tensile response of UHPC is characterised by three zones.
Zone 1 is the elastic zone in which the material can be restored to its
original state. Strain hardening occurs in zone 2, which begins after the
first crack appears when the stress σ cc is achieved. Because it has already
reached the cracking stress, the material does not recover to its normal
state in this zone (plastic deformation). This region also experiences
energy absorption and the multi-cracking phenomenon. Finally, after
Fig. 3. Schematics of UHPC hybrid reinforcement system.
Adapted from [5].
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Construction and Building Materials 410 (2024) 134221
achieving the maximum stress σpc, zone 3 is approached, where defor­
mation causes softening, slippage of the fibers, and, ultimately, fracture.
For its part, the direct tensile energy absorption capacity (g) is measured
as the area under this stress-strain graph up to the maximum postcracking stress σpc. It should be emphasized that the location, kind,
dispersion, and orientation of the fibers affect the results of the response
[102].
deck deterioration, corrosion, structural and functional damage [62,
125]. The section is presented in terms of the basic description of the
intervention, later accompanied by a description of the materials and
methods and a set of comments regarding possible follow-up work
conducted on the project. In some instances, a lack of detailed infor­
mation on the projects was found during the literature review process.
However, for the sake of covering most study cases, these were kept for
reference.
3.5. Thixotropic behaviour
4.1. Mud Creek Bridge, Iowa (United States, 2016)
The thixotropic response is crucial for pavement applications using
UHPC as overlays. Thixotropy refers to the property of UHPC to exhibit
reduced viscosity and increased workability under shear stress, while
regaining its original viscosity and stiffness when the stress is removed.
This unique characteristic of UHPC opens up opportunities for innova­
tive applications in pavement engineering [101,120–122]:
Self-Consolidating Concrete (SCC); Rapid Repairs; Joint Fillers; Grouting
and Anchoring; Overlays and Thin Layers. Overall, these applications
can contribute to improved construction quality, increased durability,
and enhanced performance of pavement systems. The thixotropy in the
UHPC mixture is accomplished by changing the water and super­
plasticizer contents within specific ranges to produce a compliant
mixture. Aspects such as the cement’s hydration processes and the vis­
cosity required for the extraction of trapped air in the concrete must be
considered. Details on the thixotropy concept and its fundamental
interpretation and analysis is available elsewhere [101,120–122].
4.1.1. Description of the intervention
This project represents the first engineering work to use UHPC as an
overlay to repair a bridge surface wearing course affected by wear and
tear (time, load- and weather-related) [125]. The condition of the sur­
face wearing layer (flexible pavement) did exhibited signs of
slight-to-moderate functional and structural damage (potholes, rutting,
cracking, moisture-damage) (Fig. 4). The bridge, a two-lane straight
continuous concrete slab bridge with 100 ft long and 28 ft wide, was
originally built in the 1960 s in Buchanan County, Iowa. The contractors
opted for UHPC as a new overlay with a reduced thickness of just about
40 mm. The procedure is explained in the next section.
4.1.2. Materials and methods
A special type of thixotropic UHPC mix was developed for the project
to allow for surface crowning, where superelevation and sloping sur­
faces existed. The main characteristics of the UHPC mixture are pre­
sented in Table 5. The construction process, as illustrated in Fig. 4,
involved the removal of the old asphalt overlay and damaged concrete
before proceeding with the installation of the UHPC overlay. The deck’s
surface was prepared by grinding and incising to expose the aggregate
and attain the desired surface roughness of about 1/8 in. or 3 mm.
Following this, reinforcing rods were placed at the pier locations, and
the UHPC overlay was applied to the entire length of one lane to prevent
the formation of construction seams in the transverse direction. The
application was carried out using a standard vibratory concrete screed,
and a concrete curing compound was immediately applied to the sur­
face. After a few days, the other lane was also overlaid with UHPC, and a
construction junction was created at the centerline of the bridge,
without any special detailing. Upon the hardening of the UHPC, the
surface was ground and incised to the appropriate texture for vehicular
traffic. The thickness of the UHPC overlay was 1.5 in. or 38 mm. As seen
in Fig. 4, the new UHPC wearing surface does exhibit good macro- and
meso-texture that helps achieving desired roughness, friction and en­
hances safety [124,125].
3.6. Permeability
UHPC is not very permeable because it contains a large amount of
cement, cementitious ingredients, and fines, resulting in a mixture with
a high density due to particle packing. As a result, UHPC has reduced
porosity and hence increased durability. The cement content varies
between 600 and 1000 kilos per cubic meter; to minimize the amount of
cement, alternative cementitious materials can be applied (fly ash, blast
furnace slag, metakaolin, etc.). Silica fume is often utilized in UHPC
blends because its particles are 0.15 µm in size (cement particles are
between 8 and 20 µm), filling the gaps between cement particles [123,
124]. UHPC/UHFRPC is thought to have 30 times lower water perme­
ability than low-permeability-concrete and six times the resistance to
chloride ion penetration of ordinary concrete [6107].
3.7. Fatigue resistance
UHPC has excellent cyclic load resistance, with a maximum defor­
mation of the structure defined at 10 million load cycles. This is a critical
component in understanding its potential response to traffic loads on
pavements [75]. In addition to this and previous sections, the Federal
Highway Administration (FHWA) provides certain typical properties
and characteristics of UHPC [125]. The next sections of the paper will
cover a set of case studies for which UHPC had proven successful in the
rehabilitation or reconstruction of bridge pavements in various
geographic locations over the world.
4.1.3. Follow-up and testing of the intervention and conclusions
Thermal images and pull-off tests were conducted on the section and
in laboratory-fabricated specimens (UHPC slabs) to evaluate its perfor­
mance. Additional tests were carried out with trial slabs for which
applied force, displacement and slip of the interfaces was investigated.
The follow-up for the intervention concluded that delamination did not
occur at the interface of the UHPC and normal concrete but at the
interface with the metal bridge deck, which could have occurred before
the intervention, according to the authors. The thermal imaging results
indicated consistent results with pull-off testing, suggesting strong
bonding between the UHPC and the concrete layer. Further details on
the results can be found at [125].
4. Analysis of case studies of UHPC use as pavement overlay
This section presents a set of case studies from the US territory,
Europe and Asia involving the use of UHPC as an overlay, either for
complete or partial rehabilitation of road/bridge structures for which a
durable, lightweight, safe, comfortable, and structurally sound wearing
surface for vehicles was needed to minimize the need for future in­
terventions of the enhanced structures. The latter is of paramount
importance considering the vast investments needed for rehabilitation
of engineering structures, such as pavements and bridges. For instance,
the FHWA estimated in 2015 that at least 200–300 billion $USD would
be needed to repair or replace existing bridges with deficiencies such as
4.2. Laporte Road Bridge. Iowa (United States, 2016)
4.2.1. Description of the intervention
The Laport Road Bridge, located near Brandon, Iowa (United States),
and spanning the Mud Creek, was the subject of a bridge restoration
project. This 30.5-meter-long and 8.53-meter-wide loose concrete
bridge allows the passage of heavy vehicles carrying agricultural
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Construction and Building Materials 410 (2024) 134221
Fig. 4. Construction procedure for the overlay deck in Mud Creek Bridge.
Adapted from [125].
substructure and the UHPC overlay. It should be underlined that the
adhesion to the concrete is mechanical and chemical since the silica
fume from the overlay material interacts with the portlandite of the
existing concrete, generating CSH gel (providing concrete properties)
between the UHPC and the treated surface [31]. The surface was,
therefore, scarified, as seen in Fig. 5, and the debris and fines remaining
were removed prior to pouring the UHPC [126]. Two mixers were used
to empty and compress the layer, with one downloading and the other
loading, a process that was continuously performed during the inter­
vention. As indicated in Fig. 5, the material was brought to the appli­
cation site in a motorized buggy. Workers armed with hand tools were
responsible for placing and uniformly spreading the concrete poured
from the buggies. After the necessary thickness (e=38 mm) was ach­
ieved, the vibrating screed was put progressively on the rail for
compaction [126]. After that, a particular curing agent was used to
prevent the UHPC from drying out. As seen in Fig. 5 [126], a plastic
covering was applied over the weatherproofing material upon comple­
tion of the overlay to minimize moisture loss during the curing phase.
Finally, the surface was milled to give a surface finish that promotes tire
adhesion to the pavement. As illustrated in Fig. 5 [126], the surface
grooves of this finish are longitudinal rather than transverse to road
traffic.
Table 5
Characteristics of the UHPC mixture produced for the new overlay. From
Jacomo et al. [124].
Property
Typical value
Uniaxial tensile behavior type
Total shrinkage at 90 days
Elastic tensile strength at 28 days
Tensile strength at 28 days
Strain when the tensile strength is reached (hardening)
Compressive strength on cube at 28 days
Modulus of elasticity at 28 days
Water porosity at 90 days
Diffusion coefficient of chloride ions at 90 days
Apparent gas permeability at 90 days
500 µstrain
1.2 ksi (8.27 MPa)
1.3 ksi (8.96 MPa)
0.35%
18 ksi (124 MPa)
6530 ksi (45,022 MPa)
6%
≤ 1.1×10− 12 ft2.s− 1
≤ 5.3×10− 18 ft2
commodities, despite its low average daily traffic (ADT). It is situated
56.3 km northwest of Cedar Rapids. The project was completed in May
2016, with the installation of the bridge’s two rails. The Iowa Depart­
ment of Transportation funded this extensive project [126].
4.2.2. Materials and methods
The UHPC used in this project would have qualities comparable to
FHWA reference values [126]. Fig. 5 illustrates the condition of the
bridge deck before the intervention, clearly revealing structural and
functional damage on the rolling surface, which posed a threat to
passing vehicles. The exposure of steel reinforcing bars and the loss of
structural integrity of the layer suggested a progressive deterioration
that could eventually lead to complete failure within a few years. Thus,
the engineers and contractors recognized the necessity of obtaining a
new high-quality surface.
The first stage of the intervention involved the removal of existing
portions of the layer with damage that were identified through pave­
ment condition surveys and other strategies. The fact this was a bridge
pavement rehabilitation required the old concrete to be milled, as
installing the new UHPC overlay would increase the dead weight of the
structure and might lead to overstress not considered in the original
structural design. The surface was then roughened (increase macro- and
meso-texture) to ease the bonding between the existing concrete
4.2.3. Follow-up and testing of the intervention and conclusions
Once the bridge repair project was done, there was conjecture that
the overlap between the UHPC and the concrete substrate led to disin­
tegration or delamination. Hence, it was necessary to extract cores from
areas where the adherence of the UHPC to the existing concrete was
questioned [126]. These nuclei were retrieved utilizing UHPC-attached
and-subsequently-removed discs. Before the disk was activated, the
cylinders’ perimeters were drilled 2.5 cm below the original concrete
base. Fig. 6 illustrates the complete procedure. The visuals of some
extracted cores that were subjected to further analysis with respect to
the rehabilitation procedure that took place are depicted in Fig. 6. The
results would be good if the cylinder is shattered at a reasonable distance
from the UHPC. This fracture should not occur at the UHPC or very near
the overlap between the material and the concrete substrate. Fig. 6 il­
lustrates various fractures, with type A being desired and type D being
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Construction and Building Materials 410 (2024) 134221
Fig. 5. Constructive process for the pavement overlay in UHPC for the Laporte Road Bridge in Iowa [126].
undesirable. When enough adhesion was identified between the con­
crete substrate and the UHPC, favourable results were seen. The tensile
strengths were much higher than those of other concretes used as
binders. Nevertheless, in zone B, deterioration to the concrete substrate
was observed, which may be reflected in the UHPC overlay. Therefore,
steps were taken to avoid overlay cracking [126].
Overall, the company responsible for the project and subsequent
examinations found the rehabilitation with UHPC overlay to be suc­
cessful. While there were some worries regarding the bonding between
the UHPC and the existing concrete (whether scarified or not), it was
frequently proven that the cores reacted suitably and withstood high
tensile stresses in the joint or material interface (UHPC/Normal con­
crete). According to the constructors, the intervention brought benefits
in communication and facilitated the shipping of agricultural goods,
leading to a boost in the local economy.
4.3.2. Materials and methods
The overall constructive process, adapted from [127], is presented in
Fig. 7. The UHPC overlay on Bridge 11–438 was installed in two phases,
with a longitudinal connection over a UHPC box beam connection at the
bridge’s center. However, the labour schedule was modified to account
for the 1.25-inch differential camber before installation. During the
grinding of the UHPC overpour, the higher box beam edge at the lon­
gitudinal connections was machined to widen the transitions between
the high and low box beams. Moreover, DelDOT decided to reduce the
minimum overlay thickness to one inch in necessary areas due to the
increased total quantity of UHPC overlay required. This decision was
based on several successful Swiss projects that used a 1-inch minimum
UHPC overlay and the location of the UHPC box beam connections
beneath the minimum overlay thickness regions [127].
Concerns were raised about the bond between the previously
installed UHPC overlay and the UHPC repair due to the patch’s thick­
ness, ranging from 0.25 to 0.5 in.. However, the repair material has
withstood subsequent honing of the surface and has not deteriorated
since the bridge opened to traffic. At the longitudinal junction between
the two UHPC overlay phases, a bonding compound was used without
additional measures to ensure a hermetic connection, such as scaling the
joint or positioning rebar in the overlay across the joint. The conse­
quences of any leakage would be minimal because the overlay was as
thin as one inch at some points along the joint and because the joint is
located directly above a UHPC longitudinal box beam connection [127].
After both phases of the UHPC overlay reached 75% of the minimum
28-day compressive strength, a 4-foot grinder polished the surface. The
polishing exposed the steel filaments of the UHPC deck overlay, which
will degrade and be eroded away by traffic over time. The final riding
surface is not smooth to the touch due to the protruding fibers, but it
rides smoothly like a cast-in-place concrete deck. According to DelDOT,
the UHPC deck overlay provides a more durable and maintenance-free
riding surface for the next 100 years on the new bridge (Fig. 7) [127].
4.3. Blackbird Station Road over Blackbird Creek, Delaware (United
States, 2017)
4.3.1. Description of the intervention
In 2017, corrosion and soil instability led to the complete replace­
ment of Bridge 11–438 on Blackbird Station Road over Blackbird Creek
near Townsend, Delaware. The Delaware Department of Transportation
(DelDOT), acting as the proprietor and in-house designer, aimed to
incorporate innovative accelerated bridge construction (ABC) tech­
niques during the replacement process. To achieve this, the bridge was
entirely built from prefabricated components, including precast adja­
cent box beams, abutments, wingwalls, and concrete foundations, along
with prefabricated steel railing. This construction method made Bridge
11–438 the first precast bridge in Delaware. UHPC longitudinal con­
nections were used between the precast adjacent box beams, UHPC end
diaphragms, and a UHPC deck veneer, making it the second bridge in the
nation to use this technology [127].
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Construction and Building Materials 410 (2024) 134221
Fig. 6. Visuals for the procedure to obtain extracted cores and their corresponding forensic evaluation [126].
4.3.3. Follow-up and testing of the intervention and conclusions
The constructors did not report any follow-up or testing after the
construction of the rebuilt Bridge 1–438. The Delaware Department of
Transportation (DelDOT) expects the bridge to have a design life of 100
years with minimal maintenance. The combination of precast compo­
nents with UHPC connections and a UHPC deck overlay is expected to
lower on-site construction time and future maintenance costs, resulting
in reduced user costs and improved bridge safety throughout its service
life. However, further testing and monitoring of the bridge’s perfor­
mance over time are recommended to validate its long-term durability
and functionality.
primary highway bridge, was conducted. This project was planned for
years and executed in short time by the Iowa Department of Trans­
portation (IDOT). This rehabilitation project was completed utilizing an
UHPC overlay and specialized equipment for the first time. The bridge is
62.5 m in length and 13.4 m in width. This large-scale repair project was
performed by WALO company [128].
4.4.2. Materials and methods
This project’s UHPC may be comparable to those previously con­
structed in Switzerland by the same company (i.e., Chillon Viaduct and
Kander Viaduct) to waterproof the bridge’s surface, reduce future
maintenance expenditures and prolong the bridge’s lifespan by decades.
Using hydro demolition (also termed hydro milling in some literature),
the original worn material on the bridge was demolished and removed
prior to the installation of the UHPC overlay. This type of demolition
was desirable as it minimized microcracking or structural damage to the
4.4. Bridge over Floyd River, Iowa (United States, 2018)
4.4.1. Description of the intervention
In 2018, the restoration of Sheldon Bridge Over Floyd River, Iowa’s
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Fig. 7. Constructive process for the pavement overlay in UHPC for the Blacbird Station Road. Adpated form [127].
existing structure. In addition, compared to other surface preparation
procedures (e.g., scarification, diamond grinding), hydro demolition is a
rapid, efficient, and productive process. The hydro demolition equip­
ment shown in Fig. 8 eroded the existing surface layer of the bridge with
a localized high-pressure water jet. Hydro milling improved results by
guaranteeing great adhesion between the new and old materials [126].
When this procedure was completed, the debris were collected and
removed, using a backhoe loader to prepare the ground for the next steps
in the rehabilitation [128]. A UHPC manufacturing facility was con­
structed near the bridge (i.e., on-site plant) (Fig. 8). The material was
carried in loader backhoes to the paver, that oversaw dropping it on the
bridge’s surface and desired location. When the paver was emptying the
material, two individuals in the rear spread the excess material using a
rake to cover the remaining empty spaces [128]. When the material was
emptied and compressed, a plastic sheet was put over it to allow it to
cure and solidify. Specialized curing material was immediately applied
to the newly laid UHPC layer to prevent the mixture from drying and, in
due time, the grooving of the surface was carried out to obtain a lon­
gitudinal pattern in the wearing surface with excellent macro- and
meso-texture to improve friction, tyre-pavement interaction, reduce
hydroplaning and enhance the safety of the end users of the new layer.
Fig. 8. Constructive process for the pavement overlay in UHPC for the Bridge Over Floyd River [129].
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4.4.3. Follow-up and testing of the intervention and conclusions
As per the final report [128], the construction and design re­
quirements were accurate, resulting in favourable results for the bridge
pavement rehabilitation. This project posed a considerable challenge for
the company, since it was the first time in the United States that
specialized equipment was used to install UHPC overlays. Nonetheless,
according to the constructors, excellent results were obtained consid­
ering: that the bridge’s usable life was prolonged by nearly 20 years; the
repair time lasted just two weeks, and the region’s traffic was not
significantly impeded. The overlay thickness was 45 mm for about
838 m2 [128].
average thickness of 74 mm [129]. After the hydro demolition tech­
nique, the worn material was retrieved and cleaned. In three days, the
UHPC was emptied straight from the loader backhoes that transported it
from the on-site facility to the emptying area [129]. The UHPC was
distributed and compacted using the same vibrating rollers as in previ­
ous cases. Three lanes of 5.4 m and two lanes of 3.7 m were added to the
UHPC. The joints of the bridge were located between the rails [129].
To ensure adequate strength development, a plastic covering was
placed over the concrete during the curing process to reduce moisture
loss and shrinkage cracking. Low temperatures demanded an increase in
temperature during the first three days of curing. Therefore, the cover­
ings were removed after twenty-four hours, and a heating technique was
employed. To avoid the UHPC layer from freezing and sticking to the
surface, the temperature had to be increased. Above and below the
bridge deck, forced air and hydraulic hose systems were used to achieve
this [129]. The surface was then polished with diamond to fulfill surface
texture specifications, such as smoothness and microtexture.
4.5. Little Heaven Bridge, Delaware (United States, 2019)
4.5.1. Description of the intervention
This application case was conducted in Bowers, Delaware in
February 2019. It included the repair of two bridges, each measuring
36.6 m in length and 12.8 m in width, whose highly porous surfaces
were degrading the general state of the structure. The UHPC overlay
restoration project [129] was sponsored by the Delaware Department of
Transportation (DelDOT).
4.5.3. Follow-up and testing of the intervention and conclusions
The Department of Transportation in Delaware did not record any
post-hoc testing [129]. The Delaware Department of Transportation
recognized the benefits of this technology above traditional approaches
in terms of installation time and cost. This job was finished in around
two weeks. Yet, it is essential to highlight that, according to [129], the
material’s properties extend the bridge’s usable life by two decades and
provide structural resistance. However, despite the challenges con­
nected with the local climate, positive outcomes were achieved. The
designed mixture and its components had a substantial effect on the
UHPC application circumstances since it might alter its adherence to the
existing surface [129].
4.5.2. Materials and methods
This project’s UHPC characteristics are undefined. However,
compressive strengths of around 100 MPa and a reinforcing fiber con­
tent of 3.25% were stated by the contractors. As with the Floyd River
bridge, a hydro demolition (hydro milling) procedure was undertaken to
finish the rehabilitation of the bridges using UHPC decking. The
equipment deployed was identical to that seen in Fig. 9, except for the
design of 45 mm and 115 mm overlays in certain regions, with an
Fig. 9. Installation procedure for UHPC overlay in Little Heave Bridge, Delaware [129].
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4.6. New Jersey Overlay Interventions in Bridge Decks (United States,
2021)
weather conditions), and the importance of keep conducting flow tests
to assure appropriate mixture consistency and mixing. Also, they
concluded that thicker overlays might be suitable for the repair of
existing structures with moderate to severe damage [130].
4.6.1. Description of the intervention
Although scarce information is available on the literature regarding
the details of the interventions, a recent report by the New Jersey
Department of Transportation (NJDOT) indicates that, at least, four
bridge deck overlays with 1.5 in thickness (38 mm) had been repaired as
part of an effort to improve the condition of the rolling surface and
enhance the resistance of the bridge deck to the effect of environmental
conditions, which derives from the benefits associated to UHPC mixtures
[130]. The NJDOT considers this a set of pilot projects. The designated
bridges for the pilot program were in acceptable condition in order to
capitalize on the perceived extended service life of UHPC and prevent
other factors from limiting the prospective service life. Prior to the
advancement of the four structures, eight candidate structures were
thoroughly evaluated and tested. The nominated bridges varied in age,
scale, and architectural style. Each bridge had an existing asphaltic
overlay. Based on structural evaluations, chloride content within the
deck, feasible construction phases, traffic analysis results, and existing
overlay depths, the program evaluated the suitability of all structures
included in the program [130]. The chloride content of each bridge deck
by analyzing concrete core samples was also completed by the con­
tractors. On the bridge deck, the UHPC overlay was installed concur­
rently with the reconstruction of deteriorated deck joints [130].
According to the NJDOT, some important lessons learned through
the pilot projects included consideration on the type of existing layer
(asphaltic type as a preference), the substantial cost savings derived
from the thin layer used, the benefit of using a pan mixer to control the
fluidity of the UHPC (of paramount importance when dealing with high
deflection structures and big temperature fluctuations or extreme
4.7. Chillon viaduct, Montreux (Zwitzerland, 2018)
4.7.1. Description of the intervention
The Chillon Viaduct is situated in Switzerland, close to Montreux and
Lake Geneva’s eastern shore. It is comprised of two prestressed concrete
box girder bridges that link the east and westbound Swiss A9 highway.
In the 1960 s, it was one of the biggest prestressed concrete structures
ever constructed. It was originally designed to handle 10,000 cars per
day, but today accommodates 50,000. Owing to structural defects and
adverse chemical reactions (such as aggregate-alkali reaction), a com­
plete replacement of the bridge was considered, for which WALO com­
pany engaged in its restoration [128].
4.7.2. Materials and methods
In certain regions with UHPC without fibers, reinforcements such as
steel bars were employed; in areas where steel reinforcement was not
used, the concrete was UHPC. The preceding is to satisfy the project’s
demands and complete the necessary criteria to solve the problem’s
complexity at the lowest feasible cost. The fact that UHPC is a
strengthened and waterproofed material that was simple to install and
allowed the road to be opened as quickly as possible, reducing costs and
interruptions, attracted the constructors. An on-site manufacturing fa­
cility was constructed at one of the bridge’s ends [128]. After this, the
existing layer of the bridge was milled to remove the old material, as
seen in Fig. 10, and a dump truck was used to dispose of the milling
waste [198]. At this stage, two-wheeled and one-crawler backhoes were
Fig. 10. Constructive process for the pavement overlay in UHPC for the Chillon viaduct [128].
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Construction and Building Materials 410 (2024) 134221
used to remove the last remnants of the existing mat that the milling
machine had disintegrated. Fig. 10 [128] shows that the resultant waste
was loaded into dump trucks and tire buggies for delivery to a landfill or
recycling facility.
As seen in Fig. 10, after the removal of the previous layer from the
viaduct, a sweeper was used to clean and prepare the area where the
UHPC would be poured, leaving no residue. The surface was strength­
ened with wetted steel mesh in preparation for the future pouring of
UHPC. As per Fig. 10, the UHPC was emptied and distributed using a
paver. As observed in Fig. 10, the buggies used to remove the old ma­
terial that were also employed to transfer UHPC from the factory to the
resurfacer to continuously feed the material [128]. At the back of the
resurfacer’s casting there was a rake that levels the surface and spreads
the material evenly. Four personnel inspected the uniformity of the
overlay’s leveling from behind the resurfacer [128]. After validating the
levelling and suitable thickness (45 mm) behind the resurfacing ma­
chine, a plastic covering was put in place to minimize moisture loss and
shield the UHPC from the weather during the curing process. As
depicted in Fig. 10, the surface was consistently hydrated from the day
after the casting.
Fig. 11. Traditional slipform paver used for placing a 10 cm UHPC overlay and
surface finishing [131].
4.8.3. Follow-up and testing of the intervention and conclusions
The concrete’s workability was adjusted to meet the specific re­
quirements of standard concrete slip-form pavers. Field investigations,
utilizing conventional equipment, have demonstrated that it is feasible
to implement, compact, and refine thin layers of cost-effective UHPC
that are rich in aggregates. The initiative and investigation are still
ongoing, with further research aimed at improving the mixture refine­
ment under actual conditions and its eventual adaptation to the road
paver. In particular, the homogeneity of the mixture and the control of
hydration heat development depend on the execution of the succeeding
test series.
4.7.3. Follow-up and testing of the intervention and conclusions
The constructor did not disclose the test findings after the procedure,
which does not mean these were not conducted [128]. The significance
of conducting follow-up tests has been proven in other instances as
indicated in other case studies in this paper. Nevertheless, after
completing work on the Chillon viaduct, the constructor concluded on
the suitable use of UHPC for quickly restoring infrastructure in critical
situations along with the waterproofing, reinforcement, durability, and
upgrading benefits on such a big civil engineering structure. Further­
more, UHPC use was relevant due to the fact that it decreased one year
the construction time and costs to the point that it became a competitive
solution with respect to other rehabilitation alternatives considered. As
a summary, some of the features of this overlay project were: 4.4 km
total length; 24 m width; 53,000 m2 of total area; 45 mm thickness.
With the rehabilitation, it was calculated that the viaduct could trans­
port up to 50,000 vehicles per day and between 24 and 44 tons of cargo
[128].
4.9. Interventions for Steel Bridge Deck Pavements (China, 2011–2016)
4.9.1. Description of the intervention
Although scarce information is available on the literature regarding
the details of the interventions, a recent paper by Abdal et al. [58] re­
ports six UHPC projects conducted in China aimed at using UHPC as the
main wearing layer for bridge decks. The list is presented in Table 7.
To provide an example of the above, for the Zhaoqing Mafang bridge,
a 50 mm thick UHPC overlay was placed on top of the existing structure
to repair it. Mafang Bridge employs a simply supported steel box girder
with 14 spans of 64 m each, measuring 919.6 m overall in length and
12.1 m in width. The bridge platform is constructed from an orthotropic
steel plate. Since its construction in 1984, the bridge has undergone
several maintenance procedures, but its pavement and steel structure
continued to suffer from severe damage until the intervention took place
and was completed in 2011 [133].
4.8. Kassel (Germany, 2012)
4.8.1. Description of the intervention
As part of the investigation associated with this field application, a
number of field experiments were conducted to validate laboratory tests
and adapt them to field conditions. Initially, the suitability of UHPC
integration and the required equipment were determined. According to
the authors [131], due to the high concentration of fine materials, UHPC
required a significant amount of blending energy to disperse agglom­
erations and attain the desired homogeneity. However, the mixing time
was kept short to maintain the concrete temperature within permissible
limits and ensure a consistent supply of concrete to the paver on the
construction site, which was located in Kassel, Germany, and conducted
in 2012. Unlike other case studies presented in this paper, the thickness
of the layer for this particular project was 100 mm, and it was not a
bridge pavement surface but a regular pavement overlay.
5. Discussion of the significance for the literature review and
case studies
5.1. Thickness of UHPC overlays
The thickness of the UHPC overlay in different cases varied based on
the specific requirements of the project and the condition of the existing
pavement. Several studies and case reports have provided insights into
Table 7
Projects of UHPC Overlays for Bridge Decks in China.
4.8.2. Materials and methods
A cement-rich early high-strength concrete used to restore individual
concrete pavement surfaces was effectively mixed using a mobile 5 m3
mixer. For prolonged projects, the authors [131] recommended a sta­
tionary mixing plant with a standard pan mixer and additional agitators
as sufficient. Fig. 11 depicts the placement and compaction of concrete
using a typical concrete slip-form paver. Due to the mixture thixotropy,
the concrete was properly compacted and held its shape for the desired
application and intended use as a wearing course.
Year
Name
Location
2011
2014
2015
2015
2015
2016
Zhaoqing Mafang
Buddha Chen
Dong Ting Lake Second
Tong Hui
Hai, He
Rong Jiang
Guangdong Province
Guangdong Province
Hunan Province
Beijing
Tianjing
Guangdong Province
Source:Adapted from: Abdal et al. [132].
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the selection of appropriate overlay thickness for UHPC applications. In
general, the thickness of UHPC overlays ranged from 20 mm to 100 mm,
depending on the desired performance objectives and the level of
deterioration of the base concrete slab. Thicker overlays are often cho­
sen for heavily damaged or deteriorated pavements, while thinner
overlays are suitable for minor surface defects or preventive mainte­
nance purposes. It is crucial to consider the existing pavement condition,
traffic loads, and long-term performance expectations when deter­
mining the appropriate thickness of the UHPC overlay. Furthermore,
proper selection of the UHPC thickness requires cost-effectiveness
criteria due to the simple fact of UHPC being substantially more
expensive than typical concrete mixtures. As such, it becomes crucial to
consider the economic efficiency as well as constructability criteria,
that, for instance, could pose limitations to the project execution phase
when considering too-thick layers without use of stud or anchors that
might flow along the slope of the bridge and produce an uneven surface
that is nor desirable from the structural, aesthetical and functional point
of view.
texture in UHPC overlays contributes to improved surface characteris­
tics, including increased skid resistance, reduced splash and spray, and
enhanced water drainage, thereby enhancing the overall safety and
performance of the pavement [124,125,129]. Examples of typical
grooving equipment include point laser ranger-based profiling equip­
ment that, according to Wang et al. [130], is of common use due to its
ability to measure pavement grooving dimensions over time. In regard
to the grooving time and spacing, typical values depend upon specific
project requirements and conditions such as the length of the pavement
section, the complexity of the grooving pattern, and the efficiency of the
equipment being used for that purpose [130]. Although not strictly
related to UHPC overlays, a recent study suggested the use of
rectangular-shaped groove with large center spacing of 25 cm for
improved pavement surface macrotexture [131].
5.4. Importance of enhanced bonding between layers
Achieving a strong and durable bond between the UHPC overlay and
the base concrete slab is crucial for the long-term performance of the
overlay system. Several measures can be implemented to ensure
adequate bonding. Proper surface preparation of the base concrete,
including cleaning, roughening, and removal of any loose or deterio­
rated materials, is essential [124–129]. The use of bonding agents or
primers that are compatible with UHPC can significantly enhance the
adhesion between the two layers. One example of the latter could be the
polyurethane/epoxy resin modified asphalt as adhesive layer material
reported in [62]. Additionally, ensuring a proper fit between the overlay
thickness and the surface irregularities of the base concrete can facilitate
mechanical interlocking and enhance bond strength. Adequate curing of
the UHPC overlay is also vital to promote hydration, strength develop­
ment, and bond formation (for example, by means of the UHPC pozzo­
lanic materials and the portlandite crystals of old concrete) [23,44,125].
By employing these measures, the bond strength between the UHPC
overlay and the base concrete slab can be maximized, ensuring the
long-term integrity and performance.
Furthermore, previous research substantiates the usefulness of other
methods for improving the bonding between the existing layer and the
new UHPC overlay. Grooving is among the most commonly used
methods to enhance the bonding and involves creating grooves with
varying configurations such as angles, widths, spacing. The effectiveness
of the bonding derived from grooving procedure can be assessed by
means of push-off tests [132]. The interfacial bond strength can also be
studied through: (1) the use of standard test methods such as ASTM
C1583 [129]; (2) the use of U-shaped stirrups at strategically selected
locations to cross the interface of UHPC and normal concrete play a
significant role in increasing the overall shear strength and bond
strength [127]; (3) due to some limitations in the slip capacity of stud
shear connectors embedded in UHPC the use of rubber-sleeved stud
shear connectors was proposed by Zhang & Xu as an alternative to
address the issue and meet the requirements for ductile connectors,
therefore improving the resistance of the composite members [133].
Efforts aimed at improving the design of overlay systems by
considering the bonding among existing and new layer have been un­
dertaken by recent research by Bhattacharya et al. [126]. The procedure
relates to the use of a thin bonded layer with varying joint spacings and
strong bonding or high-friction between the layers. The overall goal of
these methods is to provide proper bonding between the UHPC and
supporting layer so as to assure structural integrity and longevity of the
combined structural system.
5.2. UHPC overlay construction process
The construction process for applying UHPC overlays involves
several key steps: (1) Evaluation of existing pavement: the condition
of the existing pavement must be thoroughly evaluated prior by
considering the structural integrity, surface distresses and other possible
underlaying issues that might exist with potential to affect the overlay
performance [126]. (2) Surface preparation: to promote adequate
bonding between the existing and overlaying solution, it is required to
clean the surface by removing debris or vegetation, and repairing cracks
or potholes [126]. (3) Bonding agent application: The bonding agent
ensures proper adhesion and friction between the layers [127]. (4)
UHPC mixture preparation: Combination of pre-selected and designed
materials for an optimized mixture are put together to achieve desired
mechanical properties, strength, durability and workability [127]. (5)
Placement and compaction: Traditional or specialized equipment can
be used for this purpose to spread UHPC material evenly and compacted
for a desired thickness and density. (6) Joint construction: the
expansion and contraction phenomena typically occurring to concrete
mixtures are controlled by the use of joints, which are designed on the
basis of specific project requirements and local specification demands
(7) Curing: proper hydration and strength development are critical
stages of UHPC that can be managed through strategies such as curing
compounds, moist curing, application of insulating blankets or other
research-based strategies adjusted to local conditions and materials
available. Altogether, these allow to keep proper temperature and a
moisture environment suitable for the enhancement of the UHPC
properties. (8) Quality control and testing: test and quality control
measures are of paramount importance for assuring adequate perfor­
mance and durability of the UHPC. At least, it should include tests on the
fresh UHPC mixture for workability and consistency, strength tests on
cured specinmens, and field tests [126–129].
5.3. Importance of macro- and -meso surface texture (grooving) for
abrasion purposes
To enhance the abrasion resistance and skid resistance of UHPC
overlays, macro and meso surface texture techniques can be employed.
Macro texture refers to the larger-scale texture elements, such as grooves
or patterns, incorporated into the surface of the overlay. These grooves
are typically created using specialized tools or equipment during the
placement or immediately after the UHPC has achieved the desired
consistency. The dimensions, spacing, and depth of the grooves can be
tailored based on specific project requirements and the desired level of
surface friction. Meso texture, on the other hand, refers to the finer-scale
surface roughness that is naturally present in the UHPC matrix or
induced by the aggregate particles. The combination of macro and meso
5.5. Concerns of UHPC overlays: shrinkage stress at the interface layers
One of the major concerns associated with UHPC overlay applica­
tions is the potential for induced shrinkage stress at the interface layer
between the overlay and the base concrete slab. As UHPC undergoes
hydration and curing, it experiences autogenous shrinkage, which is the
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Construction and Building Materials 410 (2024) 134221
inherent volume reduction due to chemical reactions without external
drying. This autogenous shrinkage can lead to the development of ten­
sile stresses within the UHPC overlay, especially at the interface with the
base concrete slab. A limiting value for UHPC shrinkage depends upon
various conditions such as the autogenous shrinkage and drying
shrinkage. The former can be controlled through internal curing (i.e.,
using of porous or super absorbent polymers that gradually release
water to the concrete so that a more favorable moisture gradient is ob­
tained) with special care considering this might have an impact on other
types of shrinkage such as chemical or drying. Calcined zeolite and
natural zeolite sand have also proven benefits in reducing autogenous
shrinkage of UHPC according to recent research [134,135].
The induced shrinkage stress at the interface layer can pose a risk of
cracking and debonding, compromising the overall performance and
longevity of the overlay system. To address this concern, several stra­
tegies can be implemented [55,56,81,124,129]: (1) Joint Design: This
includes the provision of control joints, expansion joints, or crack in­
ducers at specific intervals to relieve the stress and allow for controlled
cracking [136]; (2) Bonding Techniques: Proper surface preparation,
including cleaning, roughening, and application of suitable bonding
agents, helps enhance the adhesion and bond strength; (3) Fiber Rein­
forcement: By dispersing fibers throughout the overlay, they act as
reinforcement and help distribute the induced shrinkage stresses,
reducing the concentration of stress at the interface layer; (4) Curing
Techniques: Adequate curing helps in reducing the rate of shrinkage and
allowing sufficient time for hydration and development of strength; (5)
Material Selection and Mix Design: the use of supplementary cementi­
tious materials and optimizing the particle size distribution and aggre­
gate grading can help improve packing density, reduce voids, and
minimize shrinkage.
protocol, which makes it necessary proper adjustments and control of
the steam curing.
In addition, previous research indicates that curing of UHPC can be
achieved through a combination of various techniques, both at the
laboratory- and field-scale [137]. More precisely, the authors high­
lighted the importance of curing procedure to obtain an UHPC mixture
with desirable strength and mechanical performance. The curing tech­
niques included: (1) microwave, (2) autoclave, (3) carbon, (4) steam, (5)
electric, (6) ambient and air, and (7) water curing.
It is important to note that these curing methods are not mutually
exclusive, and combinations of different techniques may be employed
based on project-specific requirements and regional preferences. The
choice of curing method depends on factors such as project scale,
climate conditions, available resources, and construction practices.
Proper curing is essential to ensure optimal performance and long-term
durability of UHPC overlays, regardless of the specific method
employed.
6. Conclusive remarks and recommendations for future research
The analysis of various case studies has demonstrated the effective­
ness and efficiency of UHPC overlays in pavement rehabilitation. UHPC
proves to be a viable and sustainable material for bridge and pavement
rehabilitation, offering numerous advantages such as high strength, low
permeability, and enhanced durability. These properties contribute to
reduced maintenance needs and significant long-term cost savings.
Additionally, UHPC can be manufactured using recycled materials,
further reducing its environmental impact. Comparatively, while flex­
ible pavement overlays may be initially less expensive, they often
require frequent maintenance interventions, resulting in higher longterm costs. The choice between UHPC and flexible pavement overlays
ultimately depends on the specific needs and budget of the project.
UHPC is particularly beneficial for high-traffic areas and regions with
harsh weather conditions, where its increased durability and reduced
maintenance needs result in substantial cost savings over time. On the
other hand, flexible pavement overlays may be more suitable for lowtraffic areas or projects with tighter budgets.
The presented case studies demonstrate that UHPC overlays signifi­
cantly improve the mechanical properties and durability of road and
bridge structures, prolonging their useful life. Furthermore, the con­
struction process for UHPC overlays is efficient, with minimal con­
struction times when utilizing specialized machinery. This reduction in
machinery and labor usage leads to cost savings compared to traditional
rehabilitation methods. Proper bonding between the new UHPC overlay
and the existing substrate is crucial for the durability of the structure.
Hydro demolition, which creates macro- and meso-texture, has been
shown to provide satisfactory bonding and minimize damage to the
existing layer. The consolidation of UHPC material is also influenced by
its formulation and thixotropy.
To gain a deeper understanding of UHPC consolidation, shrinkage
behavior, and bonding with the existing layer, forensic techniques such
as pull-off testing and thermal imaging are employed. These techniques
contribute to the validation of benefits and identification of limitations
in current practices.
Costs associated with UHPC overlay technology are comparable to or
less than those of rehabilitation with conventional materials, consid­
ering various factors for tailored solutions to specific needs. The shorter
construction time and the material’s properties significantly reduce
future maintenance and repair costs, allowing for a reduction in overlay
thickness. Consequently, UHPC overlay technology has been adopted in
road rehabilitation projects in countries like Switzerland, China, and the
United States.
Although UHPC has been extensively studied in civil engineering
applications, further comprehensive research on its use in road infra­
structure is necessary. In particular, the application of UHPC for pave­
ment rehabilitation in developing countries requires attention and
5.6. Curing methods of UHPC
Curing methods for UHPC in overlay applications can vary across
different regions, including the USA, Asia, and Europe. While specific
practices may differ, the objective remains consistent: to promote proper
hydration, strength development, and long-term durability of the UHPC
overlay. A detailed comparison of the curing methods employed in these
regions is explained below [134–137]: (i) Moist curing. Traditional
moist curing methods involve the application of water to the UHPC
surface and covering it with impermeable membranes or wet curing
blankets. This approach helps maintain moisture and temperature con­
ditions favorable for hydration and strength gain. Curing duration
typically ranges from several days to a few weeks, depending on project
specifications and environmental factors; (ii) Curing compounds: Liquid
curing compounds, such as membrane-forming compounds or evapo­
ration retarders, are frequently used. These compounds form a thin film
on the surface of the UHPC overlay, reducing moisture loss and
providing a barrier against premature drying. Curing compounds are
particularly suitable for large-scale projects where continuous moist
curing may be challenging; (iii) Moisture retention systems: Advanced
moisture retention systems, such as wet curing fabrics or absorbent
mats, can be employed. These systems absorb and retain water, allowing
for continuous moisture supply to the UHPC overlay. They are especially
beneficial in areas with limited water availability or in situations where
frequent re-wetting is impractical. In Europe, other reported curing
methods for UHPC overlays are steam curing and autogenous curing. For
steam curing method, previous work by Hamada et al. [137] indicated
its predominant use to reduce the production time for precast concrete
so as to obtain desirable performance and strength. The typical steps
considered for steam curing include four: (1) pre-curing, (2) heating, (3)
constant temperature, and (4) cooling. Additional positive effects of
steam curing include the stimulation of cement hydration, accelerates
early-strength and obtention of hydration products. However, adverse
impacts on the late strength, durability and microstructure of the pro­
duced concrete could be observed as a consequence of the steam curing
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Construction and Building Materials 410 (2024) 134221
practical implementation. Future research should focus on assessing the
overall performance-related response of UHPC overlays under specific
environmental and loading conditions, including fatigue cracking
studies, slab deflection, friction studies, and tire-pavement interactions,
among other indicators of pavement durability.
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CRediT authorship contribution statement
Carvajal-Muñoz Juan S.: Writing – original draft. RamírezMunévar César: Investigation, Data curation. Abellan-Garcia Joa­
quin: Supervision, Investigation, Conceptualization.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
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