Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE
ICT
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Create a Database Structure
Contents
Types of Database
Primary & Foreign Keys
Perform Calculations
Sorting & Searching Data
Form Design
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Types of Database
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What is a database?
A Database is a structured, persistent collection of data
It allows easy storage, retrieval, and management of information
Electronic databases offer a number of key benefits:
Easier to add, delete, modify and update data
Data can be backed up and copied easier
Multiple users, from multiple locations, can access the same database at the
same time
There are two main types of database
Flat file
Relational
Flat file
What is a flat file database?
A flat file database is one that stores all data in a single table
It is simple and easy to understand but causes data redundancy, inefficient storage and
is harder to maintain
Consider this example flat file table of students
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This table has redundant data - the tutor and form room information repeats, this is
inefficient
If a tutor changed their name we would need to find all instances of that name and
change them all
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Missing any would mean the table had inconsistent data
Relational
What is a relational database?
A relational database is one that organises data into multiple tables
It uses keys to connect related data which reduces data redundancy, makes efficient
use of storage and is easier to maintain
A relational database solves the issues in a flat file database:
A new table could be created to store the tutor information and the tutor
information in the student table could be moved to the new table
Then a foreign key in the student table (TutorID) could link a student to their tutor
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Now the name of each tutor and their form room is stored only once
This means if they change only one piece of data, the data is updated in the entire
database and inconsistency is avoided
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Tables & records
What is a table?
A table is a complete set of records about the same subject/topic in a database
An example of a database table named cars is below
cars
car_id
make
model
colour
price
1
Peugeot
2008
Red
24950
2
Mazda
MX5
Blue
17995
3
Citroen
DS4
Black
21450
4
Ford
Puma
White
19500
What is a record?
A record is complete set of fields on a single entity in a table (row)
An example of a record in the cars table below is highlighted in green
cars
car_id
make
model
colour
price
1
Peugeot
2008
Red
24950
2
Mazda
MX5
Blue
17995
3
Citroen
DS4
Black
21450
4
Ford
Puma
White
19500
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Primary & Foreign Keys
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Fields & data types
What is a field?
A field is a single piece of data in a table (column)
'Make' is an example of a field in the 'cars' table below
cars
car_id
make
model
colour
price
1
Peugeot
2008
Red
24950
2
Mazda
MX5
Blue
17995
3
Citroen
DS4
Black
21450
4
Ford
Puma
White
19500
What is a data type?
A data type is the type of data that can be held in a field and is defined when designing a
table
Examples of common datatypes are:
Numeric - whole/decimal
Character/string - text data
Date/Time
Boolean - true or false values
In the car table above, the following datatypes would be used:
car_id: numeric
make: string
model: string
colour: string
price: numeric
Primary Keys & Foreign Keys
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What is a primary key?
A primary key is a unique field that can be used to identify a record in a table
Your notes
order_id is the primary key for the orders table
customer_id is the primary key for the customers table
What is a foreign key?
A foreign key is a field in a table that refers to the primary key in another table.
A foreign key is used to link tables and create relationships
In the orders table customer_id is a foreign key - it links an order back to the customer
that made the order in the customer table
Key database terminology
Term
Definition
Table
A collection of records with a similar structure
Record
A group of related fields, representing one data entry
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Field
A single piece of data in a record
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Data type Type of data held in a field
Primary
key
A unique identifier for each record in a table. Usually an ID number
Foreign
key
A field in a table that refers to the primary key in another table. Used to link
tables and create relationships
Worked Example
A relational database has been developed for a dance club to store information about
their members and the styles of dance they practice.
The database contains two tables: Members and Styles
Figure A shows some data from the tables.
Members
MemberID
FirstName
LastName
DateJoined
1
Zarmeen
Hussain
2024-01-19
2
Fyn
Ball
2024-02-01
3
George
Johnson
2024-02-25
4
Ella
Franks
2024-03-04
Styles
StyleID
MemberID
Style
DateStarted
1
1
Hip Hop
2024-01-22
2
1
Ballroom
2024-02-13
3
3
Contemporary
2024-03-01
4
2
Street
2024-03-07
(a) State one benefit of using relational databases [1]
(b) State the name of the field from the Members table that is the most suitable to use
as the primary key [1]
(c) State the name of the field from the Styles table that is a foreign key [1]
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Answers
(a) reduces data redundancy // reduces data inconsistency [1]
(b) MemberID [1]
(c) MemberID [1]
Guidance
Your notes
Ignore case (for example: memberid)
No mark if inside quotation marks (for example: "MemberID")
No mark if there is an obvious space in response (Member ID)
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Perform Calculations
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Perform calculations
How do you perform calculations in a database?
In a database, you can use arithmetic operations or numeric functions to perform
calculations
Calculated fields are fields that carry out a calculation based on other number fields in
the database
For example, a 'products' table with a stock and unit_price fields
You could use a calculated field named stockvalue to calculate unit_price * stock
This calculation multiplies the price of each item by its quantity to find the total value
of the stock
Adding a calculated field to a database table
Calculated controls are objects you place on forms or reports to display the result of an
expression
For example, a form in a sales database where you input the QuantitySold and UnitPrice
A calculated control could be used to display the TotalSale
TotalSale = QuantitySold * UnitPrice
This displays the total sale on the form without storing it in the database
Using formulae and functions to perform calculations
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Databases allow you to use formulae and functions to perform calculations at run time
This can include basic arithmetic operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division
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For example, you have a discount field and you want to subtract it from the total cost,
you could use a subtraction operation like this:
FinalCost = TotalCost - Discount
Aggregate functions
You can also use aggregate functions to calculate statistical information about a set of
records
Some examples include:
Sum
Adds together all the numbers in a column
SUM(TotalCost)
Average
Computes the average of a set of numbers in a column
AVERAGE(Price)
Maximum
Finds the highest number in a column
MAX(Price)
Minimum
Finds the lowest number in a column
MIN(Price)
Count
Counts the number of rows in a column
COUNT(ProductID)
Remember that the actual syntax and function names might differ slightly depending on
the specific database system being used.
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Sorting & Searching Data
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Sorting
What is sorting?
Sorting is a crucial function in databases that helps organise and present data in a
meaningful way
Using a single criterion to sort data
You can sort data based on a single criterion - such as by name, date, or numerical value
For example, you might sort a list of customers in ascending order by their last names
To sort the customer's table by LastName in either ascending or descending order:
Open the table in 'Datasheet View'
Click on the column header for the field to be sorted
For example, a table of customers to be sorted by LastName, click on the LastName
column header
Click on the "Sort Ascending" or "Sort Descending" button in the toolbar at the
top of the screen
Sorting a table of information using only one criterion
Using multiple criteria to sort data
You can also sort data based on multiple criteria
For instance, you might want to sort a list of customers first by LastName (ascending), and
within each LastName, by City (descending)
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To sort the customer's table first by City, and then by LastName within each city:
Open the table in 'Datasheet View'
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Click on the 'Advanced' button in the Sort & Filter section above
Select 'Advanced Filter/Sort'
Add the first column to sort data by, by dragging in to the QBE grid and from the
sort row choose ascending or descending
Repeat for second criteria
Selecting 'Advanced' again and choose 'Apply Filter/Sort'
Sorting a table of information using more than one criterion
Ascending and descending order
Ascending Order - Data is sorted from smallest to largest (e.g., from A to Z, or from 1 to
100)
Descending Order - Data is sorted from largest to smallest (e.g., from Z to A, or from 100
to 1)
Searching
What is searching?
Searching is the process of using keywords, phrases or criteria to find specific
information within a database
Searching in databases is typically done using queries
Queries can be based on a single criterion or multiple criteria
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Using a single criterion to select subsets of data
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You can use a single criterion to select specific data
For example, you might want to select all customers from a specific county
E.g. to return all customers from Devon:
Open the 'Query Design View'
Add the table you want to query
Drag the field you want to query to the QBE grid
For instance, if you're looking for customers from a specific county, drag the
County field
In the Criteria row under this field, type the value you're looking for (e.g., 'Devon')
Creating a search within a database using one criterion
Using multiple criteria to select subsets of data
You can also use multiple criteria to select data
For instance, you might want to select all customers from a specific city who have also
purchased in the last month
E.g. to return all customers from London who purchased in the last 30 days:
Follow the steps above to start a new query and add the City field with 'London' as
the criteria
Drag another field you want to query to the QBE grid
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For example, if you're looking for customers who purchased in the last month,
drag the LastPurchaseDate field
In the Criteria row under this field, type Date()-30
Your notes
Hit run
Using operators to perform searches
AND - Returns true if both conditions are met
OR - Returns true if at least one condition is met
NOT - Returns true if the condition is not met
LIKE - Returns true if the value matches a pattern (used with wildcards)
>, <, =, >=, <=, <> - These are comparison operators, they return true if the comparison
between the values is correct
Using wildcards to perform searches
Wildcards are used with the LIKE operator to search for patterns
The most common wildcard characters are:
% - Represents zero, one, or multiple characters
_ - Represents a single character
* - Represents all
E.g. to return all customers whose names start with 'L':
Start a new query and drag the field you want to query to the QBE grid
For example, if you're looking for customers whose names start with 'L', drag the
LastName field
In the Criteria row under this field, type L*
Hit run
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Your notes
Searching a database using a wildcard function
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Form Design
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Form design
What is a database form?
Forms of a tool used to capture data to be stored in a database
Examples of forms include:
Online form to sign up to a website
Filling in personal details on a mobile device to join a gym
Database forms follow set design principles to ensure they include particular features
Characteristics of good form design
Simplicity - The design should be clean and straightforward, not cluttered
Ease of use - Users should be able to understand how to fill out the form quickly
Intuitive layout - Related fields should be grouped together, and the sequence of fields
should follow a logical order
Clear labels - Each field should have a clear, concise label indicating what information is
expected
Appropriate controls - Use controls such as:
radio buttons
checkboxes
drop-down menus
Submit button
Save button
Next/previous records
Creating a Data Entry Form
You need to specify the fields required for data input
Choose the appropriate font styles and sizes. Aim for consistency and readability
Keep adequate spacing between fields for clarity and ease of use
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Your notes
Fine-Tuning Form Design
Appropriate Spacing
The spacing between individual characters in fields should be adjusted for readability
The use of white space is crucial - it improves readability and reduces cognitive load
Control Elements
Radio Buttons - Used when there is a list of two or more options that are mutually
exclusive
Check Boxes - Used when the user can select multiple options from a list
Drop Down Menus - Used when you want to provide many options but conserve space
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Always focus on simplicity and user-friendliness in form design
Make sure your form uses clear labels, logical field grouping, and intuitive
sequence
Worked Example
A school is setting up a new computerised system to manage many aspects of the
school administration. The data from the registration system is saved in the school
administration database. The headteacher will need to check the attendance records
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for any student for any semester. She will type in the Student_ID and the Semester
(Autumn, Spring or Summer). After she has done this the following data will appear on
the same screen.
Your notes
Field name
Student_name
Days_present
Number_of_lates
Number_absences
Parents_phone_number
Tutor_group
Design a suitable screen layout to display one record. It must have appropriate
spacing for each field, navigation aids and a space to type in search data.
Do not include examples of student data. [6]
Answer
Include 4 of:
Appropriate spacing for each field [1]
Forward/backward buttons [1]
Submit/search button [1]
Information attempts to fill the page AND the design looks appropriate to scenario [1]
Box/boxes to enter Semester or Student_ID [1]
Drop down for the Semester or Student_ID // radio button for semester [1]
Suitable title [1]
Instructions/help [1]
2 marks for all six fields
1 mark for three to five fields
0 marks for less than three fields
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