LEVEL 1 - BSN (A.Y. 2023-2024)
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NAIL ROOT
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Dense/hard - provide structural support and movement
Covered in the periosteum where muscles and tendons
attach
LUMULE
2.
SPONGY BONE
●
●
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(Cancellous) - Tissue on the winside" of the bone.
Made up of slender fibers and lamellae and is filled with
marrow, which creates red blood cells
Adds flexibility and a level of shock absorption to the bone,
and stores minerals (99% of the body's Calcium)
●
Germinal
White crescent / Defining the free edge of the
distal nail plate
EPONYCHIUM
●
Skin (living tissue)attached to the nail plate
OSTEON
HYPONYCHIUM
●
Skin just under the free edge of the nail
PROXIMAL NAIL FOLDS
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Wedge of thickened skin at the base of the nail.
SUBTOPIC #5: SKELETAL SYSTEM
Osteons are the functional units of compact bone.
Compact bone is cylindrically-shaped made of osteons
connected together.
Osteon is made of lamellae, lacunae, and osteocytes
arranged around a central canal
○ Clopton Havers was the first to study osteons in
depth, publishing the first description of an
osteon in his 1691
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
●
●
●
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Skeleton comes from a Greek word meaning dried up body.
Bone appears dead and dried up - Bone is ole living tissue
Newborn human has 350 bones
Adult human has 206 bones
FUNCTIONS OF BONES
●
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Support of the body (framework)
Protection of soft organs
○ Skull protecting the brain
○ Rib cage protecting the vital organs of the thorax
Serve as levers (with help from muscles)
Allow movement
○ Muscles use the bones as levers to move the
body.
Storage of minerals and fats (calcium)
○ Fat is stored in the internal (marrow) cavities of
bones
○ Most of the body's calcium is deposited in the
bones as calcium salts
Blood cell formation
○ Occurs within the marrow cavities of certain
bones
LAMELLAE
●
●
●
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DID YOU KNOW THAT…
●
The skeleton weighs about 30 pounds.
A. BONES OF THE HUMAN BODY
TWO BASIC TYPES OF BONE TISSUE
1.
COMPACT BONE
Lamellae (singular: lamella) are layers of matrix.
Extracellular matrix around the cells that gives compact
bone its hardness and rigidity.
Made of both organic and inorganic materials. (Collagen provides tensile strength and hydroxyapatite crystals
provide the bone with compressive strength.
There are three types of lamellae:
○ Interstitial lamellae are irregularly shaped and
fill in the spaces between osteons
○ Circumferential lamellae wrap around the
circumference of the entire bone
○ Concentric lamellae are circular, arranged
concentrically around the central canal of each
osteon
LACUNAE
●
●
Lacunae (singular: lacuna) are gaps or empty spaces
Lacunae within the lamellae contain osteocytes.
CANALS
●
Concentric lamella are arranged around the central canal,
also known as the Haversian canal.
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CENTRAL CANAL
●
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Runs parallel to the long axis of the bone
Blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves are located.
Contains a small amount of connective tissue.
Fibrous connective tissue membrane
Serves as an attachment for muscle
ARTICULAR CARTILAGE
●
●
Made of Hyaline cartilage
Reduces friction and acts as a shock absorber.
PERFORATING CANALS (VOLKMANN’S CANALS)
ARTERIES
●
●
Run at right angles to central canals.
Perforating canals connect the central canal's blood vessels
with the periosteum’s blood supply.
●
Supply bone cells with nutrients
STRUCTURE OF A LONG BONE
DID YOU KNOW THAT…
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Medullary cavity of the shaft
Bone is made of the same type of minerals as limestone.
GROSS ANATOMY OF A BONE
ADULT
●
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DIAPHYSIS
●
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Shaft
Walls are composed of dense and hard compact bone
Hollow region (medullary cavity) which is filled with
yellow marrow.
Cavity is lined with endosteum (composed of delicate
connective tissues where bone growth, repair, and
remodeling occur.
EPIPHYSIS
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INFANTS
●
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EPIPHYSEAL GROWTH PLATE
●
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Contains hyaline cartilage in a growing bone.
Once the bone stops growing, the cartilage is replaced by
osseous tissue and the plate becomes a line.
●
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In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage
During development, much of this cartilage is replaced by
bone
Cartilage remains in isolated areas
○ Bridge of the nose
○ Parts of ribs
○ Joints
BONE GROWTH
●
PERIOSTEUM
Contains red marrow (for blood cell formation) in infants
till age of 7.
CHANGES IN THE HUMAN SKELETON
●
●
Ends of the bone
Composed mostly of spongy bone
Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat)
Red marrow is confined in cavities of spongy bones (Hip
bone and epiphysis of long bones)
Fibrous membrane that contains blood vessels, nerves, and
lymphatic vessels.
Tendons and ligaments attach to the bone.
Outside covering of the diaphysis
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY (3/2)
Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone during
childhood
○ New cartilage is continuously formed
○ Older cartilage becomes ossified
○ Cartilage is broken down
○ Bone replaces cartilage
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EPIPHYSEAL DISC
●
●
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Growth plate
The cartilage near the epiphyseal disc multipli and
eventually becomes ossified (turns to bone)
As long as new cartilage continues to form the bone
continues to lengthen.
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DID YOU KNOW…
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Bones stop growing in length during puberty, but they can
grow in diameter and in density through exercise.
To retain normal proportions and strength during long bone
growth (increase in body size and weight)
In response to:
1. Calcium Ion in the blood
2. Pull of gravity and muscle on the skeleton
A combined action of osteoblasts (bone forming cells) and
osteoclasts (bone destroying cells)
Osteoblasts deposit bone on the external bone surface(like a
brick layer)
Osteoclasts break down bone from the inside
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
BONE GROWTH
●
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Bones are remodeled and lengthened until growth stops
Grow longitudinally for height
Bones grow in width to support weight (Appositional
growth)
EPIPHYSEAL DISC (CONT.)
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When the growth plate hardens and becomes ossified
growth stops
Hormones play a big part in this
○ Growth and Sex hormones stimulates growth
○ Sex hormones stop growth.
BONE WIDTH
●
●
Long after longitudinal bone growth has stopped, bones
continue to grow in thickness and width.
Bones are continuously being reshaped
DID YOU KNOW THAT…
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LONG BONES
Your skeleton is replaced every 10 years.
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TYPES OF BONE CELLS
OSTEOCYTES
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Mature bone cells
Osteocytes have access to blood vessels and provide the
bone with nutrients
OSTEOBLASTS
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Bone-forming cells (secreting extracellular matrix)
OSTEOCLASTS
●
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Bone-destroying cells
Break down bone matrix for remodeling and release of
calcium
BONE REMODELING
●
Bone remodeling is a process by both osteoblasts and
osteoclasts
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Typically longer than wide
Have a shaft with heads at both ends
Contain mostly compact bone
Responsible for absorbing the stress of the body's weight at
several different points.
Found in legs and arms (radius)
Examples: Femur, humerus
SHORT BONES
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Generally cube-shape and small
Contain mostly spongy bone
Found in wrist, ankles, and toes
Examples: Carpals, Tarsals
FLAT BONES
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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY (3/2)
Thin and flattened
Usually curved
Cover organs/provide muscle
Thin layers of cer layer of spongy bone
Examples: Skull, ribs sternum
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IRREGULAR BONES
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Irregular shape
Do not fit into other bor classification categories
Example: Vertebrae, and hips
Example: Sacrum
HEAD
SESAMOID BONES
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Embedded in tendons
The most notable evarole bone of a sesamoid is the patella.
Sesamoid bones vary in number from person to person, and
are typically only a few millimeters in size.
Fun fact: The word “sesamoid” comes from the Latin
"sesamum, meaning “sesame seed”
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GENERAL BONE MARKINGS
ARTICULATION
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FACET
●
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Area where two bones meet
Example: Right humerus and scapula
A smooth and flat surface that help from gliding joint
Example: Lumbar 1 and Lumbar 2 vertebrae
CONDYLE
PROJECTION
●
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Round surface of a bone that helps form a joint
Example: Right Talus
An area that project above the surface of the bone
Example: left temporal bone
HOLE
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Provides structural support and absorbs most of the force
exerted by the joint
Example: Left Tibia
NECK
●
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Opening or groove in the bone that allows blood vessels
and nerves to enter
Narrowing of the bone where the shaft of the long bone
(diaphysis) meets the end of the long bone
BODY
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The largest and main segment of the bone.
EPICONDYLE
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A large projection on the side of the bone that Y allows
connective tissues to connect to the bone.
A moderate projection that allows connective tissues to
connect to the bone.
TUBERCOLE
●
A rounded projection that sits on top of the condyle and
allows connective tissues to connect to the bone.
CREST
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A raised ridge projection that is part of the edge of a bone
and allows connective tissues to connect to the bone.
A small round projection that allows the connective tissues
to connect to the bone.
FORAMEN
SPINE (SPINOUS PROCESS)
●
A more pronounced, raised, sharp elevation of bone that
allows connective tissues and muscles to connect to the
bone.
●
A round hole where blood vessels, nerves, or ligaments
pass through.
MEATUS
TUBEROSITY
●
A tube-like channel that provides a passage and projection
to the nerves and vessel within the bone.
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FISSURE
●
A cavity within an organ or tissue.
CHANGES IN THE HUMAN SKELETON
●
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In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage
During development, much of this cartilage is replaced by
bone
Cartilage remains in isolated areas:
○
Bridge of the nose
○
Parts of ribs
○
Joints
BONE GROWTH
●
A slit in the bone that usually houses nerves and blood
vessels
●
SULCUS
●
Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone during
childhood
○ New cartilage is continuously formed
○ Older cartilage becomes ossified
○ Cartilage is broken down
○ Bone replaces cartilage
Bones are remodeled and lengthened until growth stops
○ Grow longitudinally for height
○ Bones grow in width to support weight
EPIPHYSEAL DISC
●
●
●
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A grove that accommodates a nerve, blood vessel, or
tendon
FOSSA
●
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Growth plate
The cartilage near the epiphyseal disc multiplies and
eventually becomes ossified (turns to bone)
As long as new cartilage continues to form the bone
continues to lengthen.
When the growth plate hardens and becomes ossified,
growth stops
Hormones play a big part in this
○ Growth hormone stimulates growth
○ Sex hormones stop growth
Long after longitudinal bone growth has stopped, bones
continue to grow in thickness and width.
Bones are continuously being reshaped
BONE WIDTH
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A shallow depression in a bone's surface that allows other
bones to articulate with it.
Long after longitudinal bone growth has stopped, bones
continue to grow in thickness and width.
Bones are continuously being reshaped
LONG BONE FORMATION AND GROWTH
SINUS
BONE FRACTURE
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A break in a bone
Types of bone fractures:
○ Closed (simple) fracture – break that does
not penetrate the skin
○ Open (compound) fracture – broken
bone penetrates through the skin
Bone fractures are treated by reduction and immobilization
○ Realignment of the bone
COMMON TYPES OF FRACTURES
Fracture Type and
Illustration
Comment
Bone breaks into
three
or
more
fragments.
Particularly
common in older
people,
whose
bones are more
brittle.
Bone is crushed
Common
in
porous
bones
(i.e.
osteoporotic
bones of older
people)
Compression
REPAIR OF BONE FRACTURES
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●
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●
Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed
Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a soft callus
○ Blood vessels grow into the hematoma
Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony callus
Bony callus is remodeled to form a permanent patch
STAGES IN HEALING OF A BONE FRACTURE
Description
Comminuted
heal than bone tissue.
Broken bone
portion
is
pressed inward
Typical of skull
fracture
Broken
bone
ends are forced
into each other
Commonly
occurs
when
someone
attempts
to
break a fall with
outstretched
arms
Ragged
break
occurs
when
twisting forces
are applied to a
bone
Common
sports fracture
Bone
breaks
incompletely,
much in a green
twig breaks
Common
in
children, whose
bones are more
flexible that those
of adults.
DIVISIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
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●
Axial skeleton
○ bones of the cranium, face, vertebral column,
and bony thorax.
Appendicular skeleton
○ includes the bones of the pelvic girdles, the
upper extremities and lower extremities.
Depressed
Impacted
Spiral
Greenstick
THE AXIAL SKELETON
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DISLOCATION OF JOINT
●
●
Displacement of bones at the joint
○ Often caused by impact trauma to that joint
Can be more damaging and painful than a fracture
○ Damage to the joint capsule and surrounding
ligaments and tendons often takes much longer to
Forms the longitudinal part of the body
Divided into three parts:
○ Skull
○ Laryngeal skeleton
○ Vertebral column
○ Bony thorax
THE SKULL
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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY (3/2)
Sits on top of the vertebral column
Two sets of bones
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LEVEL 1 - BSN (A.Y. 2023-2024)
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●
○ Cranium (8 bones)
○ Facial bones (14 bones)
Bones are joined by sutures
Only the mandible is attached by a freely movable joint
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●
CRANIAL BONES
5.
6.
THE CRANIUM
back and base of the cranium
Protects the occipital lobe and also gives passage to
the medulla oblongata, which connects the brain to
the spinal cord
● Includes the foramen magnum(Foramen=HOLE)
○ Large hole for the brainstem and spinal cord
to connect
Sphenoid Bone (1)
● Forms sides of cranium and parts of orbits of the eyes
● Butterfly shaped
○ Includes Sella Turcica (Turk’s Saddle)
■ Where pituitary gland sits NOTE: The
sphenoid and the ethmoid are not part of the
calvaria but are part of the cranium. They
protect the underside of the brain
Ethmoid Bone (1)
● irregularly shaped bone located between the eye
orbits
● Spongy, cubed bone that gives shape to part of the
roof of the nose and the orbits
● The ethmoid is also home to numerous foramina
through which the branches of the olfactory nerves
pass
●
Numbers enclosed in () indicates how many type of
that bone is present in the cranium. (i.e Parietal
Bone (2) - means there are two parietal bones.)
SUTURE
●
●
●
●
A suture is a fibrous joint found only in the skull. The
parietal bones (in blue) come together to form the
sagittal suture and also form the coronal suture with the
frontal bone.
Bony structure that encases and protects the brain.
The calvaria (skull cap) is the upper part of the cranium
Each bone in the calvaria is named for the corresponding
lobe of the cerebrum — the largest part of the brain
○ Frontal bone protects the frontal lobe.
○ Parietal bones protect the parietal lobes.
○ Occipital bone protects the occipital lobe.
○ Temporal bone protects the temporal lobe
BONES OF THE CRANIUM (8)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Frontal Bone (1)
● gives shape to the forehead, orbits, and nasal cavity,
● Not part of the facial skeleton. It is part of the calvaria.
● The frontal bone articulates with 12 other bones (10 of
the 12 belong to the facial skeleton).
Parietal Bone (2)
● Upper sides of the head and the roof of the cranial
cavity (top of the head).
Temporal Bones (2)
● Sides of the head, close to ears.
● Commonly called the temples
● Includes the external auditory meatus(Opening for the
ear)
● Includes the zygomatic process (Part of
the cheekbone)
● Note: The pointed projections you see at the bottom
of the temporal bone is called the styloid process.
Muscles of the neck and extrinsic tongue attach there
Occipital Bone (1)
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THE FACIAL SKELETONS
●
FACIAL BONES
●
●
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14 bones
Most of these bones come in pairs
Only the mandible and vomer are single bones
1.
MANDIBLE (1)
●
●
●
●
●
2.
the lower jaw bone
Horseshoe-shaped mandible is the largest and
strongest of the facial bones
Carries the lower teeth
The anterior portion forms the chin
Only freely movable joint in the skull The
mandible articulates with the temporal bones
at the temporomandibular joint
●
4.
ZYGOMATIC BONES (2)
●
●
●
the cheekbones
Also forms a part of the orbits of the eyes
Facts: People with high cheekbones simply have
zygomatic bones that project outward more
5.
NASAL (2) AND LACRIMAL BONES (2)
●
●
inner wall of eye sockets
Make up the bridge of the nose and attach to the
nasal cartilage
The lacrimal bones (inside the orbits) contain the
lacrimal sacs that continue as the nasolacrimal ducts, or
tear ducts.
The nasal and lacrimal bones are some of the
smallest bones to make up the facial bones
MAXILLA (2)
●
●
●
3.
Form the posterior part of the hard palate and the floor
of the nasal cavity.
The posterior borders of the palatines serves as the
attachment site of the soft palate, and the sharp medial
borders form the posterior nasal spine for the attachment
of the uvula
Note: Failure of the palatine and/or maxillary bones to
fuse causes a cleft palate.
Upper jaw
Form the upper jaw and the boundary of three cavities:
1. Roof of the mouth
2. Floor and lateral wall of the nasal cavity
3.
Floors of the orbits.
●
6.
VOMER
●
●
Nasal Septum
The superior half of the vomer is fused with the
PALATINE BONES (3)
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perpendicular plate of the ethmoid, and its lower
half attaches to the septal cartilage.
The posterior border is free and separates the
choanae, also known as the internal nares
7.
INFERIOR NASAL CONCHAE (2)
●
The nasal conchae consist of a layer of spongy
bone curled up on itself like a scroll
The medial surface of the conchae are perforated for
the passage of numerous vessels.
The folds of the conchae increase the surface area of
the nasal cavities. This enhances the warming and
humidifying air passing over them
●
●
PARANASAL SINUSES
●
●
Air filled cavities
Functions of paranasal sinuses
○ Lighten the skull
○ Give resonance and amplification to voice
THE HYOID BONE
●
●
●
U shaped Found in the upper neck
The only bone that does not articulate with another bone
Serves as a moveable base for the tongue
THE FETAL SKULL
●
The fetal skull is large compared to the infants total
body length
●
Fontanelles – fibrous membranes connecting the cranial
bones
○ Allow the brain to grow
○ Convert to bone within 24 months after birth
MIDDLE EAR
●
●
●
3 Tiny bones
transmit vibrations
All derived from Latin words
●
●
●
Incus (anvil)
Stapes (stirrup) - the smallest and lightest bone
All three ear bones (the malleus, incus, and stapes)
laid end to end are only one inch long
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ATLAS AND AXIS
●
●
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
●
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
●
●
The atlas is the top-most vertebra, sitting just below the
skull. The axis is below it.
Together, the atlas and axis support the skull, facilitate
head and neck movement, and protect the spinal cord.
There are many types of vertebral joints, but the atlas and
axis form the only craniovertebral joints in the human body
ATLAS
The backbone or spine
Consists of 26 bones called vertebrae
●
ATLAS AND AXIS
●
It is ring-like and consists of an anterior and posterior arch,
and two lateral masses
The holes in the processes, or foramina, give passage to
the vertebral artery and vertebral vein
ATLAS - C01
●
●
The atlas and axis are part of the seven
cervical vertebrae.
These vertebrae have a few unique features:
○ They are the smallest of the vertebrae.
○ C01—C06 have three foramina: (one vertebral
and two transverse)
○ The protrusion that can be felt at the back of the
neck is the non-bifid spinous process of C07
●
●
●
●
ATLANTO-OCCIPITAL JOINT
●
AXIS
The atlanto-occipital joint connects the atlas to the
occipital bone. It flexes the neck, allowing you to nod
your head
The atlantoaxial joint connects the axis to the
atlas. It permits rotational movement of the head
The axis is somewhat analogous to the other cervical
vertebrae in that it has a spinous process that is not
obviously bifid like the rest of the cervical vertebrae
The dens rises perpendicular from the upper surface of
the axis body. It articulates with the ring formed by the
anterior arch and the transverse ligament of the atlas,
creating the pivot joint
The spinous process serves as the attachment site for
many muscles of the spine, as well as the nuchal
ligament.
AXIS - C02
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ATLAS AND AXIS
SACRUM
●
●
●
●
●
Curved bone of the lower back (posterior wall of the
pelvis)
Fused sacral vertebrae
○ 5 vertebrae at birth
The word “sacrum” comes from the Latin “os sacrum” or
“sacred bone.”
The bone was considered sacred because it was often the
part of an animal that was offered in sacrifices.
In a female skeleton, the sacrum is shorter and wider than
in the male, and it is directed more obliquely backward,
increasing the size of the pelvic cavity.
LUMBAR VERTEBRAE
COCCYX
●
●
●
LUMBAR COLUMN
●
●
●
●
Vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs (act as
shock absorbers)
The spine has a normal curvature
Each vertebrae is given a name according to its location
A human has 7 cervical vertebrae
●
Coccyx ~ the tailbone
4 vertebrae at birth
The coccyx is the terminal portion of the vertebral column
and forms part of the posterior wall of the pelvic cavity.
It resembles a miniature sacrum in shape
●
Vertebral foramen ~ opening for spinal cord.
C1-C7
●
in the neck region (7 cervical vertebrae)
T1-T12
●
Located in the chest region (12 thoracic vertebrae)
L1-L5
●
located in the lower back (5 lumbar vertebrae)
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THE BONY THORAX (THORACIC CAGE)
●
●
●
The chest region
Forms a cage to protect major organs
Composed of sternum, ribs and thoracic vertebrae.
BONY FRAMEWORK OF HEAD AND NECK (LATERAL
VIEW)
THORACIC CAGE
●
●
Sternum - breastbone.
○ Dagger-shaped bone located along the midline of
the anterior chest.
Ribs ~ 12 pairs of ribs attach posteriorly to the
thoracic vertebrae
○ True ribs ~ first 7 pair
○ False ribs ~ last 5 pairs (floating ribs; not connected)
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
THE BONY THORAX (THORACIC CAGE)
SKULL (ANTERIOR VIEW)
BONY FRAMEWORK OF THORAX
SKULL (LATERAL VIEW)
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BONY FRAMEWORK OF ABDOMEN
HUMERUS AND SCAPULA (ANTERIOR VIEW - FEATURES)
HIP JOINT (ANTERIOR VIEW)
RIGHT RADIUS AND ULNA IN SUPINATION (ANTERIOR
VIEW)
FEMUR (ANTERIOR VIEW)
BONES OF RIGHT
PALMAR VIEW)
WRIST
AND
HAND (ANTERIOR
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KNEE (RIGHT KNEE SLIGHTLY IN FLEXION - JOIN
OPENED)
TIBIA AND FIBULA OF RIGHT LEG (ANTERIOR VIEW)
BONES OF FOOT (LATERAL VIEW)
BONES OF FOOT (DORSAL VIEW)
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MIDTERMS
TOPIC OUTLINE (MIDTERMS):
I.
II.
III.
IV.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
EYE MUSCLE
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
SUBTOPIC #1: SKELETAL SYSTEM
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
●
●
●
●
Consists of 126 Bones
Limbs (appendages)
Pectoral (shoulder) girdle
Pelvic girdle - weight bearing, connected on the lower
extremities.
BONES OF THE SHOULDER GIRDLE
●
●
●
●
CLAVICLE
●
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Composed of two bones
○ Clavicle - "collarbone"
○ Scapula - "shoulder blade"
These bones allow the upper limb to have exceptionally
free movement due to the following factors:
○ Each shoulder girdle attaches to the axial
skeleton at only one point, the sternoclavicular
joint.
○ The loose attachment of the scapula allows it to
slide back and forth against the thorax as muscles
act.
○ The glenoid cavity is shallow, and the shoulder
joint is poorly reinforced by ligaments.
The collarbone is the most commonly broken bone among
children.
It usually occurs by falling on an outstretched arm.
A slender bone that connect parts of the anterior thorax
The clavicle acts as a brace to hold the arm away from the
top of the thorax and prevent shoulder dislocation.
○ Medial (sternal) end - connected on the
manubrium (head of the sternum).
○ Clavicular notch - where the medial end of the
clavicle sits on.
○ Lateral (acromial) end - directly connected to
the
acromion;
connected
by
the
acromioclavicular joint.
SCAPULA
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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY (3/2)
Sometimes called the "wing" because they flare when we
move our arms posteriorly.
Each scapula has a flattened body with three borders:
superior, medial, lateral.
It also has three angles: superior, inferior, lateral Shoulder
joint is poorly reinforced by Ligaments.
Acromion
○ Where the lateral end of the clavicle is connected
to.
○ Enlarged lateral end of the spine of the scapula.\
Acromioclavicular Joint
○ Where the acromion connects with the clavicle
laterally.
Glenoid Cavity
○ Shallow socket that receives the head of the
humerus.
Suprascapular Notch
○ Where nerves pass through.
Superior Angle and Subscapular Fossa
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LEVEL 1 - BSN (A.Y. 2023-2024)
○
Where muscles of the chest are inserted into.
2 PROCESSES OF THE SCAPULA
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Acromion Process
○ Enlarged lateral end of the spine.
Coracoid Process
○ "Beaklike"
○ Points laterally over the top of the shoulder.
○ Anchors some muscles of the arms.
BONES OF THE UPPER LIMB
THE FOREARM
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Has two bones:
Ulna
○ The longer of the two forearm bones
○ Located on the medial or little finger side of the
forearm.
The Olecranon process consists of the bone of the
proximal ulna from the base of the coronoid process
proximally.
THE ARM
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The arm is formed by a single bone
Humerus
○ Head of humerus allows for rotation
RADIUS
2 TUBERCULES OF THE HUMERUS
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Greater tubercle of the humerus
Lesser tubercle of the humerus
Anatomical Neck
○ A slight constriction immediately inferior to the
head.
Surgical neck (the line)
○ Common site of fracture or breakage of the
humerus.
Deltoid Tuberosity
○ Just below the surgical neck.
○ Where deltoid muscles are attached
○ Deltoid muscle is the largest arm muscle
■ Site of intramuscular injection.
Capitulum & Trochlea
○ Parts that are being connected to the forearm.
Coronoid fossa
○ Has a depression wherein the part of the ulna is
connected.
Radial groove
○ Runs obliquely down the posterior aspect of the
shaft.
○ Where radial nerve passes on.
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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY (3/2)
Located on the lateral or thumb side when the palm of the
hand is facing forward
The head of the radius forms a joint with the capitulum of
the humerus.
Styloid Process
○ Articulated on the wrist
Radial Tuberosity
○ Articulated near the proximal radioulnar joint.
○ Where tendons of the bicep muscles attaches,
Radioulnar joint
○ Where both proximally and distally the radius
and ulna articulate
Interosseous Membrane
○ Connects the two bones
“Arms are among the most commonly broken bones,
accounting for almost half of all adults’ broken bones.”
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LEVEL 1 - BSN (A.Y. 2023-2024)
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Note: pelvic girdle and pelvis have slightly different
meanings.
○ Pelvic girdle comprises the coxal bones and the
sacrum.
○ Pelvis comprises the coxal bones, sacrum and
соссух.
ILIUM
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ISCHIUM (SIT DOWN BONE)
THE HAND
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Connect posteriorly with the sacrum.
Large flaring bone that forms most of the hip bone
"Alae" - wing like portion of ilium
Sacroiliac joint - the one that joints the ilium and part of
the sacrum.
Carpals (8) - wrist
○ Scaphoid bone - one of the biggest bones in the
carpal.
○ Lunate
○ Triquetral
○ Pisiform - smallest bone in the carpal.
○ Trapezium
○ Trapezoid
○ Capitate
○ Hamate
○ Metacarpals (5) - palm
○ Phalanges (14) - fingers
■ Distal - the thumb doesn't have a
median phalange.
■ Middle
■ Proximal
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Ischial tuberosity - receives body weight when in a sitting
position
Ischial spine - superior to the tuberosity.
Narrows the outlet of the pelvis
PUBIS
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The most anterior and inferior part.
Forms in the fusion of Rami of the pubis
Obturator foramen - opening that allows blood vessels
and nerves to pass into the anterior part of the thigh.
Pubic symphysis - pubic bones of each hip articulate
anterior to form a cartilaginous joint.
During birth, the baby passes through the pelvic brim.
THE PELVIS
BONES OF THE PELVIC GIRDLE
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Composed of two coxal bones (hip bones)
○ Composed of three pairs of fused bones
■ Ilium
■ Ischium
■ Pubis
The total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis
Protects several organs
○ Reproductive organs
○ Urinary bladder
○ Part of the large intestine
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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY (3/2)
Acetabulum - Deep socket formed by the fusion of Ilium,
ischium and pubis
○ Accommodates the head of the femur.
False Pelvis
○ Superior to the true pelvis
○ The area medial to the flaring portions of the ilia.
True Pelvis
○ Surrounded by bone
○ Lies inferior to the flaring parts of the ilia and the
pelvic brim.
Outlet
○ The inferior opening of the pelvis measured
between the ischial spines.
Inlet
○ Superior opening between the right and left sides
of the pelvic brim.
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LEVEL 1 - BSN (A.Y. 2023-2024)
GENDER DIFFERENCES OF THE PELVIS
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Female inlet is larger and more circular
Female pelvis is shallower
Bone are lighter and thinner
Female ilia flare more laterally
Female sacrum is shorter and less curved
Female ischial spine are shorter and farther apart (bigger
outlet)
Female pubic arch is more rounded.
BONES OF THE LOWER LIMB
THE LEG
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The leg has two bones
Tibia - shin bone; larger
○ Tibial Tuberosity
■ a roughened area on the anterior tibial
surface.
○ Medial Malleolus
■ Forms the inner bulge of the ankle.
○ Anterior Border
■ Unprotected by muscles which makes it
easily felt beneath the skin.
Fibula - long and thin
○ Lateral Malleolus
■ On the distal end
Forms the outer part of the ankle
THE THIGH
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The thigh has one bone:
Femur - thigh bone
○ Longest, heaviest, and strongest long bone of the
human body.
○ Its proximal end has a ball-like head, a neck, and
a greater trochanter and lesser trochanter,
separated anteriorly by the intertrochanteric line
and posteriorly by the intertrochanteric crest.
Lateral and Medial Condyle
○ distal on the femur
○ articulate with the tibia
○ separated by the intercondylar fossa.
Patella - knee cap
○ Triangular bone located within a tendon that
passes over the knee.
○ Protects the anterior articular surface of the knee
joint.
○ Patellar surface - anteriorly on the distal femur,
forms a joint with the patella.
THE FOOT
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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY (3/2)
The foot
○ Tarsal (7) - ankle
■ Body weight is carried mostly by the
Calcaneus and Talus.
■ Calcaneus - heel bone: largest tarsal
■ Talus - second largest tarsal; lies
superior to the calcaneus.
○ Metatarsals (5) - sole/instep
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LEVEL 1 - BSN (A.Y. 2023-2024)
○
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Phalanges (14) - toes
JOINTS
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Bones connected by cartilage
Examples:
○ Pubic Symphysis
○ Intervertebral Joints
Articulations of bones
Functions of joints include:
○ Holds bones together
○ Provide flexibility
Ways joints are classified:
○ By their function
○ By their structure
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS
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Synarthroses - immovable joints
Amphiarthroses - slightly moveable joints
Diarthroses - freely movable joints Fibrous joints generally immovable
Cartilaginous Joints - Immovable or slightly moveable
Synovial Joints - Freely moveable
SYNOVIAL JOINTS
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6 TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS
FIBROUS JOINTS (SYNARTHROSIS)
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Articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity
Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity
Reinforced by ligaments
All joints in the limbs are synovial joints
Bursae - small fluid-filled sacs that reduce friction between
moving parts in your body's joints.
Synovial Joints have 4 distinct features:
○ Articular Cartilage - covers the ands of the
bones forming the joints.
○ Articular Capsule - The joint surfaces are
enclosed by a sleeve of fibrous connective tissue
lined with a smooth synovial membrane.
○ Joint Cavity - The articular capsule encloses a
cavity called the joint cavity which contains a
lubricating synovial fluid.
○ Reinforcing Ligaments - The fibrous layer of
the capsule is usually reinforced with ligaments
Bones united by fibrous tissue - largely immovable.
Examples include sutures of the skull.
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CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS (AMPHIARTHROSIS)
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY (3/2)
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Hinge Joint
○ Movement is like two boards joined
together by a hinge.
○ Movement in one direction;
■ Elbow, knees, fingers.
Ball and Socket Joint
○ When ball-shaped end of one bone fits
into the cup-shaped socket of another
○ Bones can move in many directions
■ Shoulder, hip
Pivot Joint
○ Allows for rotation around the length of
a bone.
○ Allows only for rotation
■ Head (side to side "no" action
■ Forearm
joints
(palms)
supination/pronation
Saddle Joint
○ When the surfaces of both articulation
bones are saddle-shaped
○ Concave/Convex
■ Thumbs
○ Wide range of motion
Gliding Joint
○ Interaction of flat surfaces of
articulating bones
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LEVEL 1 - BSN (A.Y. 2023-2024)
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Limited but complex movement
■ Wrist, ankle
Condyloid Joint
○ Oval-shaped articular surface of one
bone fits into the oval-shaped
depression of another
■ Mandible, knuckles
INFLAMMATORY
JOINTS
CONDITIONS
ASSOCIATED
WITH
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Bursitis
○ inflammation caused by a bursa usually caused
by a blow or friction.
● Tendonitis
○ inflammation of tendon sheaths.
● Arthritis
○ Inflammatory or degenerative diseases of joints.
■ Over 100 different types
■ The most widespread crippling disease
in the United States
CLINICAL FORMS OF ARTHRITIS
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Osteoarthritis
○ Most common chronic arthritis
○ Probably related to normal aging processes
Rheumatoid arthritis
○ An autoimmune disease - the immune system
attacks the joints
○ Symptoms begin with bilateral inflammation of
certain joints
○ Often leads to deformities
Gouty Arthritis
○ Inflammation of joints is caused by a deposition
of urate crystals from the blood
○ Can usually be controlled with diet
■ Red meat and wine are high in uric acid
>
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Extensible (they can extend or stretch)
Elastic (they can return to their original shape)
THREE TYPES OF MUSCULAR TISSUE
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Skeletal Muscle
○ Fibers are huge, cigar shaped, multinucleate
Smooth Muscle
○ Spindle-shaped
○ Surrounded by scant endomysium
○ Contraction is slow and sustained.
Cardiac Muscle
○ Cushioned by small amount of soft connective
tissues (endomysium)
○ Arranged in spiral or figure 8-shaped bundles
○ Contact at a fairly steady rate (Pacemaker)
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=>
SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBERS
=
SUBTOPIC #2: MUSCULAR SYSTEM
MUSCLE
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Latin word “mus” - “Little mouse”
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FUNCTIONS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Skeletal muscle is the only organ of the muscular system
○ Largest - 30 cm (1 foot in length)
○ Forms contour of body
Skeletal muscle is composed of skeletal muscle tissue and
also contains nervous tissue, blood vessels and connective
tissue
Half of the body’s weight is muscle tissue
○ Skeletal muscle = 40% in males, 32% in females
○ Cardiac muscle = 10%
Allow for movement, facial expressions, breathing,
swallowing, writing, talking and singing, posture, heat
production
1.
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Producing Movement - contraction of skeletal muscle
Respond to change in external; environment
Express emotion (smile and frown)
2.
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Maintaining Posture and Body Position
Muscle adjust after the other - maintain posture
3.
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Stabilizing Joints
Skeletal muscle pulls on bone
Muscle tendon reinforces and stabilizes joints
4.
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Generate heat
Body heat - product of muscle activity (ATP)
Heat maintain normal body temperature
Like nervous tissue, muscles are excitable or “irritable”
○ they have the ability to respond to a stimulus.
Unlike nerves, however, muscles are also:
○ Contractible (they can shorten in length)
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CONNECTIVE TISSUE COVERINGS
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Fascia
○
surrounds an individual skeletal
separating it from other muscles.
muscle,
Tendon
○ fascia extending beyond the ends of the muscle.
Aponeurosis
○ Fascia connecting to a muscle.
ORGANIZATION OF MUSCLE TISSUE
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY (3/2)
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