Radiotherapy and Chemotherapy 1
Margaret Semeshchuk
Mrs. Scrivner
Engl. 128; 19813
Final Essay
3.13.2024
Radiotherapy and Chemotherapy:
How Advancements in Cancer Treatment Fundamentally Changed Mankind
At some point in our lives, we have heard about cancer, a disease in which the cells
reproduce uncontrollably and may spread to other parts of the body. We’ve heard miraculous
stories of people beating cancer, stories of people living years past their estimated survival time.
We have heard stories of people surviving cancer when all the odds were against them, and
we’ve read articles describing to us how this doctor healed this person and so on. With the new
advancements in cancer treatments, these stories are not hard to believe. However, imagine this:
overnight, all those treatments disappear. People are no longer able to treat cancer in any way,
shape, or form. Do you think their stories would change?
For people that lived before the 20th century, they wouldn’t have to imagine that. For
them, a doctor declaring that they have cancer would be a death sentence. During that time, the
only available treatment would be surgery, which was not as advanced as it is today. In fact, the
procedure was not guaranteed to kill cancer cells, simply to remove them, meaning that the
cancer had a high chance of returning. It all changed with the discovery of radiation in 1895. The
discovery led to further study in this new field of science, opening the doors to the discovery of
radiotherapy.
Now, imagine it's 50 years later. You are thriving in life, everything going according to
the plan you thought of 10 years ago. One day, you get a sharp pain in your lungs. You go to the
hospital to get checked out, where the doctors tell you the bad news: you have metastatic lung
Radiotherapy and Chemotherapy 2
cancer, and radiotherapy is unable to treat it. Fortunately, doctors and scientists have discovered
a new way to treat cancer called chemotherapy. Chemotherapy increases the chance of recovery
for patients, saving lives. It manages to do that by interfering with the cell’s ability to grow
(Mayo Clinic, 2022, para 1-3).
The development of these treatments allows patients a fighting chance. Radiotherapy was
the first treatment that allowed doctors to mitigate cancerous cells. Thus, radiotherapy
fundamentally changed mankind by using radiation to get rid of life-threatening cancer.
However, radiotherapy is not able to treat every patient, showing us the need for another type of
treatment. Chemotherapy was the second treatment used for mitigating cancer. It saves lives by
using specific drugs to get rid of cancerous cells.
Historical Invention Paper
Historical Invention
First, radiotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses radiation. The use of radiotherapy
increases the patient’s chance of recovery. Radiotherapy is a cancer treatment. The cells inside
your body grow and divide in order
to form new cells. That is the same
for cancer cells; however, they are
able to multiply much faster. In order
to slow/stop the spread of the cancer,
oncologists use radiotherapy to
damage the cancer cells. There are
two different forms of radiotherapy:
external beam radiotherapy or internal radiotherapy (called brachytherapy). During external
Radiotherapy and Chemotherapy 3
beam radiotherapy, the patient is administered radiation through an outside device. The treatment
is local, meaning that the patient will receive treatment only on the affected area. During
brachytherapy, a small radioactive device is implanted into the patient’s body. The treatment is
not local, meaning the whole body will receive some amount of radiation. (Mayo Clinic, 2023,
para. 4-5) Radiotherapy administers a high dose of radiation. During radiotherapy, the patient is
exposed to high doses of radiation over the course of several sessions. The unit Gray (Gy) is used
to measure the total amount of exposure the patient received to radiation. For treatment of neck,
head, and/or breast cancer, the typical total dosage is 45-60 Gy. Radiologists may use different
kinds of radiation to administer this dosage. The type of radiation often used are x-rays.
However, particles such as gamma rays, electron beams, or protons may also be used. (Smith,
2021, para. 3-4) Radiotherapy increases the patient’s chance of recovery. Before radiation and
radiotherapy were invented, the only treatment for cancer was surgery. After the discovery of xrays in 1896, scientists and doctors began using them to treat cancer. Within a couple years,
radiotherapy was the most common treatment for cancer. Currently, radiotherapy contributes to
40% of cancer cures world-wide. Radiotherapy may also be used to relieve symptoms of
advanced cancer. (American Cancer Society, 2019, para.1; Radiation Oncology Targeting
Cancer, 2020, para.3)
Impact I- Lung Cancer
Secondly, radiotherapy is able to mitigate tumors of lung cancer, which has the highest
mortality rate. As a result, doctors are able to increase the patient's chance of survival. Lung
cancer is cancer that grows in the lungs. There are two forms of lung cancer: small celled and
non-small celled. Small cell carcinoma is commonly seen in smokers, while non-small cell
carcinoma affects both smokers and non-smokers alike. Non-small cell carcinoma is more
Radiotherapy and Chemotherapy 4
common, as it makes up 80-85% of lung cancers. It also grows slower than small cell carcinoma.
Small cell carcinoma is less common, and makes up around 10-15% of all lung cancers. Both
types of lung cancer may spread to the brain if not treated as soon as possible. (American Cancer
Society, 2023, para. 9-18) Lung cancer forms tumors. During lung cancer, the cancer cells divide
to grow in size, and clump together. This causes a tumor to form in the lungs, and it may spread
through the bronchioles (cancer that spreads is called metastases). When metastasis occurs, there
is a possibility that the cancer will spread to the brain. Lung cancer takes the lives of 21% males
and females, making it the deadliest cancer. (Nish, 2023, para. 5,7;John Hopkins Medicine, N/A,
para. 4) As a result, doctors are able to increase the survival rate of lung cancer. Because lung
cancer is such an aggressive cancer (with the survival rate being 21 percent for males and
females alike), radiotherapy cannot be the only treatment used. Radiotherapy in addition to
chemotherapy has shown results of increasing the survival rate for patients. Patients receiving
chemo-radiotherapy have their survival rate increased by 5.4%. The use of chemo-radiotherapy
also is 25% better at controlling the local growth of the tumor.
Impact II- Breast Cancer
Thirdly, radiotherapy is able to mitigate tumors of breast cancer, which have a high death
rate among female patients. As a result, doctors are able to lower the death rate for breast cancer.
Breast cancer is a cancer that makes the breast cells grow out of control. It occurs when cells that
are located in the breast grow out of control. There are two main types of breast cancer: invasive
ductal carcinoma (IDC) and invasive lobular carcinoma (ILC). The difference between the two is
where the cancer begins. In IDC, the cancer begins in the ducts of the breast and then spreads to
other surrounding tissue. In ILC, the cancer begins in the lobules and then spreads to surrounding
tissues. In both cases, the cancer can spread to the rest of the body. (CDC, 2023, para.1) (CDC,
Radiotherapy and Chemotherapy 5
2023, para.4-5) Breast cancer forms tumors. When the cancer is left unchecked, the cells begin to
clump together and form lumps (or tumors). About 80% of these tumors may spread to the rest of
the body, and become fatal. Through radiation, doctors are able to shrink the tumor and prevent
it from spreading to the rest of the body. (Cleveland Clinic, 2023, para. 2) As a result, the use of
radiotherapy lowers the death rate of breast cancer. Breast cancer accounts for 15 percent of all
cancer deaths, making it a cancer with the second-highest mortality rate. In certain cases of
breast cancer, oncologists may recommend radiotherapy as the only treatment for cancer.
However, depending on the stage and type of cancer, doctors may combine treatments in order to
receive better results. Currently, radiotherapy reduces the 10-year return risk of any type of
cancer from 35.0% to 19.3%, which significantly improves the odds of the cancer not coming
back. (Early Breast Cancer Trialists' Collaborative Group, 2011, para. 3; Nish, 2023, para. 6)
Efficacy
Lastly, while radiotherapy is effective in mitigating cancer cells, high doses of radiation
may cause cancer. This causes doctors to be more careful with radiation. Radiation is highenergy particles. High-energy particles are particles that originate from the sun. Traveling at the
speed of light, they are weightless and pure. When they enter our solar system, the particles
break apart. This causes all things on earth to have some percent of radiation. Radiation of
certain wavelengths, such as gamma rays and x-rays, are called ionizing radiation. This is the
radiation that is used for cancer treatment, as the high-energy of the particles is able to kill off
any cancerous cells. (CERN, 2024) Radiation may cause cancer. In the beginning of the 20th
century, not long after radiation was discovered, scientists came to the conclusion that ionizing
radiation causes cancer. The atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki also improved our
knowledge about cancer-causing radiation, and studies done on the survivors of these events
Radiotherapy and Chemotherapy 6
show that those exposed to the radioactive sites were at higher risk of developing cancer. In these
situations, it was mostly children who experienced the increased risk of cancer. The discovery
caused doctors and scientists to be more careful with radiation. After scientists realized that
being exposed to certain doses of radiation in fact causes cancer, they were stricter on the
guidelines surrounding cancer treatment. There are strict regulations for radiotherapy patients in
order to prevent the patients from exposing other people to radiation. In addition, curiosity about
radiotherapy and other cancer treatments paved the way for the discovery of chemotherapy.
Modern Invention Paper
Modern Invention
First, chemotherapy is the most common cancer treatment. Using specific medication, it
increases a patient’s survival rate by stopping
the spread of cancer. Chemotherapy is a cancer
treatment. Cancer is a disease in which some of
your body’s cells grow uncontrollably, and
may spread to other parts of the body. As the
cells continue to grow with no way of stopping,
they may clump together and form tumors.
There are two types of tumors: benign or
malignant. Benign tumors mean that the cancer
does not spread, while malignant tumors mean
that the cancer is spreading. Chemotherapy is a
cancer treatment that involves the use of
medication to slow cancer. It is one of the three
Radiotherapy and Chemotherapy 7
main treatments used to treat cancer and/or symptoms of cancer. (Mayo Clinic, 2022, para. 2-3;
American Cancer Society, 2014, para.1; National Cancer Institute, 2021, para. 1-5)
Chemotherapy drugs are most commonly used to mitigate cancer. There are many different types
of drugs used in chemotherapy, including alkaline agents, antimetabolites, topoisomerase
inhibitors, and/or mitotic inhibitors. Chemotherapy may be used on its own or in addition with
other treatments in order to be the most effective. The other treatments that may be used
alongside chemotherapy are radiotherapy and/or surgical removal of the tumor. (Cleveland
Clinic, 2022, para. 9-22) As a result, the spread of cancer may be mitigated through the use of
chemotherapy. Through the use of chemotherapy drugs, the spread of cancer is slowed down by
either not allowing the cancer cells to divide or by damaging the cancer’s DNA. Chemotherapy
greatly improved the odds of survival for cancer patients, as chemotherapy-exposed patients had
an overall survival rate of 61.6% vs. 54.3% for patients not exposed to chemotherapy.
Chemotherapy may also be used to relieve symptoms of cancer, which is called palliative
chemotherapy (Hoeh, 2021, para. 4)
Impact III- Colon Cancer
Secondly, chemotherapy is able to mitigate tumors of colon cancer, which is the third
most common cancer. The use of chemotherapy allowed patients a 90% chance of recovery.
Colon cancer is a cancer that begins in your colon. Your colon, a specific part of your large
intestine, is included in your digestive system. Your digestive system is responsible for breaking
down food into things your body can use.When cancer forms in the tissues of the colon, it creates
a blockage in the food’s passageway. This causes side effects such as constipation, diarrhea, and
bleeding when using the restroom. Colon cancer forms tumors. When the cancerous cells start to
grow, they are too small to reach each other. Over time they may expand and clump together,
Radiotherapy and Chemotherapy 8
forming a tumor. Tumors in your colon are especially bad as, depending on the stage of the
cancer, the tumor may spread to the blood vessels surrounding the colon, your rectum, and your
liver. There are four stages of colon cancer, ranging from stage one to stage four. Stage one is the
lightest form of cancer, while stage four is the deadliest (Johnson & Soliman, MD., 2024, para.
5; City of Hope, 2022, para. 3). Fortunately, chemotherapy gives patients with colon cancer a
90% chance of recovery. Without the use of chemotherapy, patients would have a lower chance
of survival. A study done on patients that had colon cancer and received chemotherapy had a
90% chance of survival, rather than an 82.4% survival rate for patients who did not do
chemotherapy. Chemotherapy may also be given after surgery in order to decrease the chance of
the cancer coming back; this procedure is called adjuvant chemotherapy (Pang, 2022, para. 4;
Johnson & Soliman, MD., 2024, para. 1).
Impact IV- Pancreatic Cancer
Thirdly, chemotherapy is able to mitigate pancreatic cancer, which is the fourth most
common cancer. The use of chemotherapy allowed patients with pancreatic cancer a higher
chance of recovery. Pancreatic cancer is a cancer that begins in the pancreas. Your pancreas is a
gland in your body that produces hormones and digestive juices. It is also responsible for the
production of insulin. The most common type of cancer is cancer that begins in the cells that
form the digestive juices. This is called exocrine pancreatic cancer. Cancer that begins in the
insulin-forming cells of the pancreas is called endocrine pancreatic cancers (Cancer Research
UK, 2022, para.1, 2 & 5). Pancreatic cancer forms tumors, which causes issues in the body.
Pancreatic cancer begins in the tissues of the pancreas. It is rarely detected in the early stages,
meaning that it has the chance to form a large tumor and/or spread to other parts of the body.
Pancreatic cancer is especially deadly as the patient does not show any symptoms, meaning it is
Radiotherapy and Chemotherapy 9
next to impossible to catch it early on. (Johns Hopkins Medicine, 2024, para. 4) Chemotherapy
gives patients with pancreatic cancer a higher chance of recovery. Because pancreatic cancer has
an extremely low survival rate (around 5 to 10 percent for metastatic cancer), chemotherapy
cannot be the only treatment used. Doctors and oncologists recommend a mix of chemotherapy
and surgical removal of the tumor. This combined treatment is highly effective, as the
chemotherapy administered after the surgery kills off any remaining cancer cells (Johns Hopkins
Medicine, para. 6).
Impact V- Liver Cancer
Fourthly, chemotherapy may be able to mitigate tumors from liver cancer, which is the
fifth most common cancer. The use of chemotherapy gives patients an increased life expectancy.
Liver cancer is cancer that begins in your liver. The liver is an organ in your body that filters
blood and toxins, such as poison or alcohol. Overindulgence in alcohol may cause the cells in the
liver to malfunction, causing cancer. The most common type of liver cancer that develops in
adults is hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the most common liver cancer is cancer that
has spread from other organs to the liver. (Mayo Clinic, 2023, para. 1-3) Liver cancer forms
tumors. When cells start to duplicate excessively, this causes a buildup of cells, causing cancer.
In the liver, this is especially deadly as the liver is responsible for filtering out our blood. When
the cells clump together, they block the normal flow of blood in the liver and keep the liver from
working as it should. (National Cancer Institute, 2023, para. 6) As a result, chemotherapy,
combined with other treatments, gives an extended life expectancy to 80 percent of patients.
Unfortunately, liver cancer is so severe that it is untreatable in most cases. However,
chemotherapy is often used in addition to other treatments to extend the life expectancy of the
patient, as the cancer does not respond well to chemotherapy alone. Studies have shown that the
Radiotherapy and Chemotherapy 10
use of both chemotherapy and immunotherapy slows the spread of the tumor in 80 percent of
people, allowing them to live longer (Sethi, 2023, para. 30).
Future Forecast Paper
Current Invention
Immunotherapy is one of the most recent advancements in cancer treatment. By using
your body’s own immune system, it allows doctors to mitigate the spread of cancer,
Immunotherapy is a cancer
treatment. To begin with, there are
three main treatments currently
used to mitigate cancer: radiation,
chemotherapy, and surgery.
However, doctors and researchers
have discovered another treatment
which is not as
commonly known, called
immunotherapy. It is part of a new
method of treatment, called precision medicine, that tailors treatment specifically to each patient
(Johns Hopkins Medicine, 2024, para. 1-2; National Cancer Institute, 2021, para. 1).
Immunotherapy uses your immune system to fight cancer cells. Recent studies have found that
many cancers prevent the body’s immune cells from attacking and killing the tumor. By getting
rid of the hold put on the body’s immune cells, immunotherapy gives the body a boost against
fighting the cancer. There are many different types of immunotherapy, but the most common one
uses immune checkpoint inhibitors. Immune checkpoints are a normal part of the immune
Radiotherapy and Chemotherapy 11
system, and prevent the body’s response to the disease from being too strong. The immune
checkpoint inhibitors release the hold put on the immune cells, allowing their response to the
cancer cells to be stronger than usual (National Cancer Institute, 2019, para. 3, 8; National
Cancer Institute, 2022, para. 1, 3; Johns Hopkins Medicine, 2024, para. 3). As a result, the spread
of cancer may be mitigated through the use of immunotherapy. Since immunotherapy uses your
own immune system to help you, in theory it is able to be used for every cancer. As of 2024, the
number of cancers successfully treated by immunotherapy stands at 15 and is continuously
growing. One of the most groundbreaking aspects of immunotherapy is that it may lead to longterm protection against cancer, as an ability of the immune system is that it can “memorize”
diseases. Since the immune cells have successfully fought against cancer cells, theoretically they
are now able to better resist cancer in the future (Johns Hopkins Medicine, 2024, para. 2;
McCluskey, 2016, para. 10).
Impact VI- Melanoma
To begin with, melanoma is one of the most aggressive and deadly skin cancers. Through
the use of immunotherapy, doctors are able to increase the duration of survival for patients.
Melanoma is an aggressive skin cancer. Melanoma is a cancer that begins in the melanocytes,
which are the cells that give the skin its pigment (also referred to as melanin). When a melanoma
begins to form, the first sign is an irregular mole that either changed from an existing mole or
formed a new one. Melanoma is triggered by UV rays, and more commonly is found on the parts
of the body that receive constant exposure to the sun (Mayo Clinic, 2023, para. 1)
Immunotherapy is able to mitigate melanoma. If melanoma is left untreated, there is a high
chance that it will metastasize (spread to other parts of the body). Malignant melanoma has a
survival rate from 5-19% for stage IV, meaning it has one of the highest mortality rates. In 2011,
Radiotherapy and Chemotherapy 12
the FDA approved the first treatment for melanoma, a drug called Ipilimumab (Yervoy®). It was
first used for patients with stage IV melanoma, and within five years the FDA approved it for
treating patients with stage III (Halpern & Kleiman, 2024, para. 20; As a result, doctors are able
to increase the patient's chance of survival. Melanoma is an aggressive and deadly cancer, and in
the past had the average survival duration of six months. However, with the start of using
immunotherapy as treatment for melanoma, studies have shown that the survival duration for
patients with stage IV melanoma increased to six years. This shows us a 1,100% increase. In
addition, the special ability of immune cells to memorize diseases works to their benefit, as cells
that have fought cancer will be able to remember how to fight against it in the case of recurrence
(Sandru et al., 2014, para. 1).
Conclusion
The advancement of cancer treatments, such as radiotherapy and chemotherapy, saves
lives daily, fundamentally changing mankind.
When radiation was first discovered, scientists were elated to find out it was able to kill
cancer cells. However, further examination of radiation and people experiencing radiation led to
the conclusion that high doses of radiation cause cancer. In 1902, the first radiation-caused ulcer
was reported, and in 1911 leukemia cases were on the rise in radiation workers. In fact, much of
what we know about radiation and how it affects people comes from studying survivors of the
Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings (Shah et al., 2012, para. 3). Currently, studies have shown
that around 17-19% of patients develop secondary cancer, showing plausible concern (Rheingold
et al., 2003, para. 3). In addition, patients who received a dosage of radiotherapy higher than 30
Gy showed signs of a second sarcoma, furthering patients' concern (Rheingold et al., 2003, para.
2). Which is why it is necessary to monitor patients following treatment, as if the second cancer
Radiotherapy and Chemotherapy 13
is caught early it is much simpler to remove it. (American Cancer Society, 2020, para. 1-10;
American Cancer Society, 2020, para. 1-4)
Chemotherapy has also been a wonderful discovery in the world of cancer treatment.
However, some side effects may cause patients to rethink choosing chemotherapy as their
treatment. One of these side effects is changes in your memory. Our brain is a fickle thing, and
scientists have not yet been able to fully understand it. However, studies have shown that
treatments such as chemotherapy may cause memory loss and/or difficulty concentrating on
certain tasks. This side effect, called “chemo brain”, is a result of the drugs used in
chemotherapy (American Cancer Society, 2024, para. 1). Chemo brain causes concern in patients
as constantly forgetting things can be one of the greatest forms of torture. In addition, studies on
chemo brain have found data that relates chemotherapy with premature brain aging (Kovalchuk
& Kolb, 2017, para. 1-8). In order to try and manage these problems, scientists and doctors
recommend coming in for regular checkups, getting an adequate amount of sleep, and meditating
(American Cancer Society, 2024, para. 3)
Finally, the discovery of immunotherapy may be one of the greatest advancements in the
field of cancer research. The ability to retrain the body’s own cells to fight against cancer is a
feat that people one hundred years ago would not even have managed to think of. However, one
unfortunate side of immunotherapy is that it will not work for every patient. While people look
the same with our outward characteristics, no two people have the same DNA and scientists have
not yet managed to understand the reason why some people respond to immunotherapy and
others do not. Currently, immunotherapy response rates range from 20 to 50% in certain study
groups (Johns Hopkins Medicine, 2024, para. 4, 22). Studies are being done in order to figure out
why immunotherapy does not work for some people, but those studies cannot continue without
Radiotherapy and Chemotherapy 14
funds and test volunteers. This makes us realize that no matter how good an invention or
discovery seems to be, it is not - and cannot - be perfect.
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