Study Guide
Building and Furniture Technology for CSEC® A CXC Study Gulde has been developed
by experienced teachers and examiners, working closely with the Caribbean Examinations
Council (CXC®) and focuses on the development of competencies. It concentrates on the
areas of the syllabus that are most chal lenging to learn and are cons idered essential to
the development of skills required by the programme and entry into the world of work.
The content has been constructed around activities in the classroom and the workshop
to support the process of relating theory to practice and practice to t heory. These are
designed to align with the school-based assessment and allow students to review
progress effectively. This gives the student a positive role in managing their own learning.
Additionally, there are opportunit ies for students to use reflective techniques to identify
what went wel l, what might have been done more effectively and how similar activities
might be approached in the future (skill tra nsfer).
The study guide and associated activities support a range of pedagogy to make learning
engaging, interactive and efficient, leading to a deeper understanding. The range of
pedagogy includes:
1 . Assessment of and for learning
2 . Cooperative learn ing
3.
Diffe rentiation
4.
Embedding language, literacy and numeracy
5.
Experiential learning
6.
Learning conversations
7.
8.
Relating theory and practice
Using e-learning and technology.
Remember, whe re applicable, candidates who successfully complete the CSEC
examinations in the Technical Syllabuses will rece ive two awards: the CSEC Technical
Proficiency Certificate and a CVQ* (Caribbean Vocational Qualification) Statement of
Competence.
We are confident that this book will provide students with the skills to succeed in their
course of study and beyond.
• CVQ i s t he Registered Trademark of the Caribbean Association of National Training Authorities.
1. An introduction to health and safety:
working safely ................ .............. ... 4
23. Mortar and concrete ........ .. ..... .... .. . 50
24. Sheet materials .............. .. ... .. ...... . 52
2. Health and safety: we lfare and
emergency procedures .................. ... 8
25. Storage of materials ........ .. ............ 54
3. The natural and built environ ment ... 10
26. Principles of drawing ........ .. ..... .... .. . 56
4. Building design .............................. 12
27. Drawing equipment .......... ....... ....... 58
5. Building elements: substructure ..... 14
28. Sketching and pictorial drawings ..... 60
6. Building elements: superstructure .... 16
29. Brickwork.................. ....... ............. 62
7. Building elements: j oinery,
kitchens and bath rooms ..... ....... ..... 18
30. Bricklaying tools ......... .. ... .. ............ 64
8. Building elements: sta ircases,
services and fi nishings ................... 20
9. Preparations for building ................ 22
10. Site layout .................. .. .... ........ .... 24
1 1. Site conditions ............ .. .... .. .......... 26
12. Plant .......................... .. ..... ...... ..... 28
13. Plans and drawings ........... .. ...... .... 30
14. Pictorial projection ....... .................. 32
15 . setr1ng ou t a site
· .............. ,........... 34
16. Setting out levels ........ .. .... .. .......... 36
17 . T'1mber science
.
.................. ,........... 38
18. Properties of timber.... ....... .. .......... 40
19. Timber conversion ............. .. .......... 42
20. Timber: natural defects .. .... ............ 44
21. Timber: seasoning defects ............. 46
22. Solid building materia ls ....... .......... 48
3 1. Setting out ..... ....... ... ... .... ....... ... ... . 66
32. Laying bricks and blocks ................ 68
33. Pointing and rendering ..... .. ............ 70
34. Plastering and t iling ....................... 72
35. Concrete: formwork and
steel fixing ..... .. .... ...... ..... .. .... ....... . 7 4
36. Painting and decorating ... ...... .. ...... 7 6
37. Working with wood .................. ,...... 78
38. Carpentry power tools ............ .. ... .. . 82
39. Woodworking machinery ... ...... .. ...... 84
40. Woodworkingjoints .... ...... .. .... .. ... .. . 88
41. Roof construction .. ..... ..... .. .... ....... . 96
42 . Doors and windows ... .. .... .. .......... 100
43. Timber floors ............. ...... .. .......... 106
44. Staircases ..... .. ......... .. .... .. .......... 112
45. Plumbing ....... , ...... ..... ..... ........ .... 116
Index ........ ..... ............ ..... ....... ..... 126
1. An introduction to health and safety:
working safely
It is very important to stay safe and healthy when working. There are many dangers in
the construction industry. You could injure yourself in an accident or come into contact
with a harmfu l substance which could damage your health.
The industry has become safer in some areas in recent years, but thousands of people
are still injured or even killed each year on building sites and in workshops because of
a lack of safety knowledge. Th ose who get hurt may have a family or other people who
depend on thern, so the knock-on effect can be huge, both emotionally and financially.
Many more people suffer from health problems, some of them long-term, caused by
work. These include back problems, lung damage, cancer, hearing loss, skin problems
and so on. These can severely affect that worker's quality of life, and even reduce
lifespan. Therefore it is very important to discuss health and safety first.
Both the employer and employee play an important part in safety. Employers must
ensure the workplace is safe. This means that they take responsibility for access
equipment, properly functioning machinery and safe methods of working. Employees
must cooperate with the employer in relation to safety measures and work in a safe
manner, including use of personal protective equipment (PPE).
A
There are five basic types of safety sign.
Do not
use ladder
Figure 1 .1 A prohibition sign
Caution
Figure 1 .2 A caution sign Figure 1 .3 A mandatory sign
AUTHORISED
PERSONS
ONLY
Figure 1 .4 A safety sign
Wear glasses
Figure 1 .5 A supplementary sign
Draw one example of each type of sign.
1.1 Substances hazardous to health
A lot of substances found on a construction site or workshop are hazardous to health.
Some examples are fuel, wood dust or paint.
-
Figure 1 .6 Typical hazard warning label on packaging
In small groups, select
three hazardous
substances that cou Id be
encountered on a building
site. Discuss in your
group the potential harm
these substances might
do to a worker or passerby. How could these
substances be moved,
stored or used safely?
1.2 Fire
A fire needs three things to burn: oxygen, heat and fuel. If one element is not present then
there will be no fire . This is important to remember in both preventing and fighting fire.
The risk of fire can be reduced by several means. For example, good housekeeping is
important - piles of waste t imber are a serious hazard; smoking around flammable
substances must be avoided; and dust is explosive, so extractors should be fitted to
woodworking machines to reduce dust.
BLACK
RED
BLUE
CREAM
Water
Dry Powder
Foam
Ordinary
Combustibles
Electrical
Appliances
Carbon Dioxide
•
•
Combustible
Metals
Flammable
Gases
Figure 1.7 Types of fire extinguisher
-
Find the nearest fire extinguisher in your school. What type is it?
What sort of fires will it extinguish? Is there any type of fire you must
not tackle with it?
Look at the scene.
□
Figure 1 .8 Spot the hazards
How many hazards can you spot? As a class, discuss each hazard and how it
can be removed or reduced.
1.3 Lifting
One of the most common injuries workers compla in about is a bad back. It is very easy
to injure your back by overstraining it. Using the kinet ic method of lifting is a good way of
minimising any potential back injury.
Figure 1. 9 Lifting correctly
Step 1: Consider the load first. How heavy is it? Even something that is relatively light
can be difficu lt to lift if it has an awkward shape. Do you have to stretch? If it's not
manageable, get help. Maybe use a lifting aid such as a whee lbarrow.
Step 2: Check the path you will be using. Are there any obstacles? Is there a free area
to put the item down?
Step 3 : Lift with your back straight, elbows in, knees bent and feet slightly apart.
Step 4 : After moving the object, put it down carefully; don't trap your fingers!
Step 5: Make sure the materials are stacked safely and securely.
Practise picking up an object properly in the classroom using an empty
cardboard box. Ask other students to watch you and tell you if you are doing
anything incorrectly.
1.4 Faulty tools and equipment
Both power tools and hand tools can be hazardous if they are not kept in good repa ir.
Blunt and damaged tools can lead to needing excessive force to operate them, resu lting
in slipping or even materials being ejected from a machine. (There is more information
on safe maintenance and use of tools throughout this book.)
Poor access equipment can be another major cause of accidents. Scaffolding must be
installed in line with the manufacturer's instructions by competent people and include all
the necessary safety fea tures such as handrails, toe boards and safe means of access
(a well-maintained ladder at a 75 degree or 1 in 4 angle). Ladders must be inspected for
damage such as cracked stiles and loose or missing rungs. Steps and ladders must be
used on a level surface.
_ Why should a painted ladder never be used? Discuss with a partner.
1.5 Personal protective
equipment
"=
Personal protective equipment (PPE) is a very
important par t of staying safe. PPE must be
worn wh ile work ing.
Figure 1.10 Protective clothing
In a group, identify each of the items of protective clothing in the photo and what
it is used for.
Find out what a risk assessment is and how it is used. Make a simple risk
assessment for an activity in the workshop.
2. Health and safety: welfare and
emergency procedures
2.1 Welfare
Good sanitary arrangements are important for staying healthy. Welfare facilities need to
be considered at an early stage of project planning.
• While working, hands and clothes could become contaminated. Therefore it is very
important to have a place to store clothes, get changed and be able to wash your
hands and arms before eating and before you go home at the end of the day.
• Workers need access to toilets; these should be kept in a clean and orderly
condition with washing fac ilities so that workers can use them immediately after
using the toilet.
• Clean drinking water must be provided or made available, as well as a safe place
to eat.
• Workers will need access to appropriate PPE, and this needs to be stored in such a
way that it does not get lost or damaged.
A
Keeping yourself healthy. Personal hygiene is very important. Some
substances you will use in industry can cause irritation, some are poisonous,
and some can burn. Some can cause serious illnesses, including cancer. It is
important that these substances are washed away, and contaminated clothes
are removed before retu rning home.
A
Drugs and alcohol. Taking drugs or drinking alcohol before or during work could
resu lt in a very serious accident and must be avoided. Even some prescription
medication may make it dangerous to be working on site.
2.2 Emergency procedures
There are many poten tial causes of an emergency on site or in a workshop. There may
be a fire , a bomb or gas alert, for example. Although these occurrences are rare , it is
good practice to plan for them.
It is very important that there is a procedure in place in case of emergency. This means
everyone knows what to do - it is too late to decide what needs to be done when an
emergency has already started. An emergency procedure will include how an alert
is detected, how an alarm is sounded and who will sound it, escape routes and an
assembly point. All workers should know the procedure.
Find the fire evacuation procedure for your school. Where is the assembly
point? How cou ld this procedure be applied to a building site or workshop?
What checks wou ld be carried out at the assembly point?
Street Name
Primary
a1-1
You are
m
here
t
i
Secondary
N
Street Name
Figure 2.1 Example of an emergency evacuation diagram
3.1 The natural environment
The natural environment can be defined generally as all living and non-living things that
occur naturally on Earth; in other words, the environment that has not been influenced by
people. The natural environment may at t imes be quite inhospitable to humans.
In groups, discuss places on Earth where humans do not live because it is
too dangerous or inhospitable. What hazards can you identify that make these
places unsuitable for human habitation?
3.2 The built environment
The built environment is one that has been influenced by humans. In contrast to the
natural environment, it is whe re man has fundamental ly transformed the landscape by
building towns, cities, roads and bridges. By altering the environment, humans have been
able to colonise large areas of the Earth, but in doing this we have caused damage to
the natural environment, sometimes to a serious degree.
Research some of the effects that human activity (especially in the context of
the built environment) is having on the world. Include climate change, pollution,
soil erosion and other changes that affect the land, atmosphere and the sea.
Produce a poster outlining some of these issues and possible solutions.
Define the following terms:
a) ecosystem
b) atmosphere
c) geosphere.
You can use diagrams if you want to.
3.3 Environmental considerations
Human act ivity should not be in constant conflict with the natural environ ment. It is
important to respect the world's natural systems and learn from them, creating a better
balance between human need and the wider environment.
Prese rva tion of the environment has become a much.<Jiscussed topic over recent years,
and governments around the world have established treaties and agreements to try to
reduce the negative impact the human race is having on the Earth.
3.4 Building in environmentally friendly ways
A large part of building sustainably is concerned with addressing global warm ing by
reducing energy use. It is also about creating spaces that are sensitive to social needs,
healthy to live in, afford able and that enhance biodive rs ity. Well designed and carefully
constructed buildings wi ll reduce the impact they have on th e environment. However,
poorly designed or poorly constructed buildings may have an adverse effect on the local
area and on the wider environment.
One good example of thoughtful design in building is the use of insulation. In hot
countries it reduces the requirement for air conditioning; in colder climates it reduces
the requirement for heating, thus saving energy. Energy needs to be generated, and this
generation often produces pollution. Therefore, the init ial cost of installing insulation is
more than covered in the long run because the cost of energy is reduced and the effect
of pollution on the wider environment is minimised.
0
Treaty: a forma l agreement between countries to work together to achieve a
common goal.
In groups, resea rch international agreements aiming to reduce darnage to the
environment.
•
Can you give named examples of some of these agreements?
•
What areas of environmental damage do they focus on?
•
What impact have they had?
•
Have all countries s igned these agreements?
3.5 Deforestation
Many areas of the world are suffering from over-logging. This means that too many trees are
being cut down without young trees being planted to replace them. Rainforests are being
irreparably damaged along with the flora and fauna that are also part of the ecosystem.
0
Flora : the plants growing in a par ticular area.
Fauna: the animals that live in a particular area.
There are areas in wh ich th e forest is we ll managed, with more trees being planted than
are being cut down. Timber f rom these areas is actually ve ry environmenta lly friendly, as
timber absorbs ca rbon dioxide as the young trees grow.
Why is it important that the young trees absorb carbon dioxide? What role does
ca rbon dioxide play in global warm ing?
Buildings need to be aesthetically pleasant - this is more the case with res idential or
public buildings, and less so with industria l buildings where the focus is often more on
efficient function, speed of erection and cost of building.
The internal layout must be pleasant and convenient to use. Also, many people in the
community (such as the elderly or those with physical disabilities) have special needs
that must be considered.
What needs to be considered when planning a building to be used by the local
community? What human needs must be met, and how can these be balanced
with each other and with the environment?
Construction requires money to pay for legal costs, labour, taxes, materials and
so on. Different types of building are paid for in different ways. Research how
the erection of the following would probably be paid for:
a) a private res idence
b) a shopping centre
c) a school.
Buildings also need to be designed and constructed in such a way th at they can
withstand the climate of the area in which they are built. For instance, some areas are
prone to hurricanes or seismic activity. The safety of the occupants depends on the
quality and design of the building. There are even geographical areas where it may be
considered inadvisable to build at all.
•
What is the climate like where you live? Are there any special considerations
that must be taken into account when designing a dwelling in your area? With
the aid of sketches, describe design features of a building that resist these
risks.
4.1 Types of building
You will see around you a wide variety of building types with lots of differing uses.
A building's end use will affect its design considerably. Buildings can be residential,
commercial, civic or industrial.
•
Residential buildings include accommodation such as houses and flats.
• Commercial buildings include shops and offices.
• Civic buildings include schools and hospitals.
•
Industrial buildings include factories.
Buildings can also be of different heights, ranging from single-floor up to high-rise blocks
of flats or skyscrapers with many floors requiring lifts to access the upper floors. Single•
floor developments tend to use more land per unit, while high-rise buildings will use less
land per unit.
High rise
(over seven storeys)
Medium rise
(four to seven storeys)
Low rise
(one to three storeys)
Figure 4.1 Height of buildings
Compare one residential, one commercial, one civic and one industrial building.
Outline the differences in:
a) design
b) materials used
c) construction methods.
The rich history of the Caribbean has resu lted in a great va riety of building styles as
visitors and immigrants from all over the world have brought their own building design
fea tures with them.
What countries have had an influence on the design of the buildings in your
area? Research three different cultural architectural influences. Find an example
of a Caribbean building that reflects each influence.
Substructure refers to all parts of a building that are below ground and up to the level of
the damp proof course (DPC).
The part of a building that is hidden below ground is in some ways more important than
the building above ground. If the foundations are poorly designed or constructed, then
the building is in danger of subsidence or even collapsing.
0
Damp proof course (DPC): a waterproof layer placed into the base of a wall to
prevent damp from the ground being sucl<ed up into the wa ll, causing damage.
5.1 Foundations
There are several types of foundation - the type chosen depends on ground conditions.
Ground can be really hard or very soft and like ly to move under a load. Most ground is
somewhere between these two extremes. The design of a foundat ion should be left to a
qualified engineer.
Strip foundations
Pile foundation
Concret e
Hardoore
Fine
concre te
Binding
Plies o t
I .S m to
Strip
2.4 m
centres
If pre-cost. Jo·nts to be
Pod foundation
eve· peas
Steel reinforcement
Cor>cre te nng beoms
spans belween pods
Column
Raft foundation
- Pod
Isolated pods
lnsulo tton
-'
1
,,
Rot
Deep edge beam In ....----;
poor son
t . . _.,. ,,
Figure 5.1 Foundat ion types
',
Sloplng g round
0
Subsidence: the sinking of a building into the ground due to settlement.
The simplest foundation type is a strip foundation. A trench is dug to a depth where the
ground is solid. The trench is filled with concrete to a depth of about 225 rnm and then a
wa ll is built on it up to DPC level. A strip of foundation can be stepped if used on sloping
ground. This forms the substructure. Sometimes the trench is completely fi lled Instead
of building a wall up to ground level. This costs more in concrete but saves on the labour
and materials used to bring the building up to ground level using brick or blockwork.
A raft foundation is used in places where the ground is rather unstable and the load
needs to be spread over the whole area of the building. The concrete is reinforced with
steel bars to resist cracking.
Piles are columns of concrete or steel that are sunk into the ground. The load is carried
either by friction between the sides of the piles and the ground, or the piles are drilled
right down into bedrock or hard ground. Very tall, narrow bu ildings experience large
lateral forces due to the wind, but pile foundations res ist these side fo rces well. Piles
can be a rat her expensive type of foundat ion.
Pad foundations are used at the base of stanchions in steel-framed buildings. They often
have bolts set into the concrete to allow steel to be fixed easily to the pad.
Research the two terms 'dead load' and 'imposed load' . How do these have a
bearing on foundations?
Describe how each of the following factors would affect the design of the
foundations of a building:
a) soil condition (clay or sand)
b) depth of soil
c) water table
d) possible contaminants.
A
In locations prone to earth movements, reinforcement would be required in
both the footing and foundation walls.
6. Building elements: superstructure
6.1 Floors
Floors must be designed to be load-bearing; the we ight the floor has to carry will affect
its design. Ground floors can be solid or suspended. A solid floor rests on the ground
below with no voids. A suspended floor is hollow underneath so the load is transferred to
the wa lls.
Solid floor
Internal blockwork
Sand and
_ _____;;;,<;
cemen t screed
Insulation
Over-site
concrete
DPM
Sand blinding
- - Cavity Insulation
-
- External brickwork
Ground level
__;_~~~g~
Hardcore
Fine concrete c avity fill
Figure 6.1 Solid ground floor
Hardcore is packed down using a roller or 'whacker' plate (compactor}. The vibrations
compact the hardcore so that it provides a really solid base for the concrete. Blinding
is placed on top. This sandy layer prevents the next layer - the damp proof membrane
(DPM) - being punctured. Concrete is poured on top of this, often with reinforcement.
Finally, a screed (a dry cement/sand mix that provides a flat fin ish) or other finish is
applied.
0
Damp proof membrane (DPM): this is laid below the concrete in ground floors
to waterproof them against ground moisture.
6.2 Walls
Walls can be external or internal, solid masonry or timber framed. Load-bearing wa lls
ca rry the weight of the roof and any floors above. Any alterations to load-bearing wa lls
need to be carried out carefully, usually under the advice of a structural engineer.
Open ings (doors and windows) in load-bearing walls requ ire lintels above the opening to
ca rry the weight above. Add itionally, t here may well be extra loads that will be imposed
during storms, and this means the structure must be t ied into the wa lls wh ich in turn are
t ied into the foundation.
Non-load-bearing wa lls or partitions are used to divide up the interior space. Because
they carry no load they can be altered or removed without compromising the overall
structure. They are constru cted of masonry, wood or metal. Wood and metal studwork is
then clad in plasterboard or a similar sheet material.
lnsula~on
Sru d
Cavity h'e
Sheathng
Plaster
board
-11-- Blockwo1k
or
b rick
Vapour
barcler
Weep holes
Brlckwoi k
Brick h'e
Sole
p la te
Framed
Cavity
Solid
External
b ric k skin
Figure 6.2 External wa lls
How are the wa lls in your classroom constructed? Draw a detailed, labelled
vertical section of an internal wa ll and an external wa ll in your building.
6.3 Roofs
A roof is designed to keep the elements out of the building, and as such needs to be
we ll constructed. Special attention must be given to the design in terms of resistance
to high winds. Roofs can be built in a wide va riety of shapes.
Ridge
Eaves
Verge
Rein woter pipe
Flat
(up to 1o• pitch)
Srepped
fleshing
Ridge H,p
Eaves
Hipped
end
Verge
Lean-to
Mono
Eaves
Gable
Eaves
Hipped
Figure 6.3 Common roof shapes and elemen ts
A va riety of materials can be used to cover the roof, and the condit ions of the local area
will dictate the most appropriate. The roof will need to look attractive, be robust enough
to withstand extremes of weather and, in areas where volcanic activity is possible, be
made from a non-brittle substance (not clay t iles).
What is the roof like on your building? How is it constructed? Sketch a crosssection of the like ly roof construction.
7. Building elements: joinery, kitchens
and bathrooms
0
Joinery: the wooden components of a building, for example: doors, wihdows
and staircases.
7.1 Doors
Doors provide access into and out of a building and between rooms. Some doors need
to be secure, keeping unwanted visitors out. Many doors have glass in them in order
to a llow light into the building as we ll as allowing people inside the building to see out.
Doors also provide protection against the spread of fire.
Additionally, external doors must be able to exclude the elements, that is, ra in, wind,
heat and the cold. Thus, external doors need to be well fitted.
External doors are set into frames, which in turn are set into an opening in the wall. The
door frame needs to be fixed securely, and is often rendered in to provide extra security
and weatherproofing. The frame can be fixed using screws, frame fixings or straps.
Internal doors are often set into a lining which is a lighter-duty frame with loose door
stops which are nailed in instead of a machined rebate.
•
Look at one interna I
and one external
door at your college
or school. Can you
explain what the main
differences are?
Figure 7 .1 External door
7.2 Windows
Windows allow light into a build ing and, like doors, they must be secure and weather
proof. Windows also provide ventilation for the building.
In a group, research three diffe rent types of windows you find in buildings.
What are the differences between them? What function does each serve?
7 .3 Kitchens and bathrooms
Kitchens and bathrooms are essential parts of a building. They are not just an
afterthought; the posit ion and layout of these rooms must be planned before floors and
walls are completed so that services such as drainage and water supply can be provided.
Drains need to be planned and run below the building, under the floors and out through
the substructure.
Kitchens need to be designed for ease of use. Placing the cooker, sink and refrigerator in
a triangle if possible will make the kitchen easier to use. Safety is the other major factor.
A kitchen layout must minimise the ris k of children accessing cooking areas.
Sink
Dishwasher
/
/
/
/
/
0 0
0 0
Cooker
/
/
0
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
/
\
/
/
/
/
o/__
\
Kitchen work
triangle
--- -- --
\
\
\
\
\
-- ---- ---
\
\
\
-- --o'
\
\
Refrigerator
Figure 7.2 An efficient kitchen floor plan
Bathrooms, especially in public buildings, need to be suitable for wheelchair users.
Kitchen units are made from wood and can be bought as flat pack units or be custom
made. Worktops can be made from solid timber, veneered or laminate-covered manmade
board , natura l stone or composite. Fin ishes to kitchens must be hygienic and easy to
clean. Likewise, bathrooms and toilets need to be hygienic, with easy-to-clean surfaces.
Design a kitchen incorporating a cooker, refrigerator and sink. Sketch a plan
and four elevations of the kitchen.
8. Building elements: staircases,
services and finishings
8.1 Staircases
Staircases are used to provide access from one level to another. By their very nature
they can be hazardous, so they need to be we ll designed, well made and we ll lit, with
appropriate guarding to prevent fa lls. Guarding of a staircase and stairwell usually
consists of a handrail and balusters. There should not be any gap wider than 100 mm
in the guarding; th is prevents a baby fa lling through. Horizontal members to the guarding
should also be avoided as it is easy for a child to climb up and fa ll over the top.
The location and height of a staircase will affect its design. Stairs in public buildings
will be wider and less steep than those used in a private dwelling. Stairs can be
manufactured from timber, steel or concrete.
Stairs come in a variety of styles.
V ;I
I
Straighl
\Vinder
Dog-leg/Half land ing
Spiral/Geometric
Figure 8.1 Types of staircase
Stairs have to be measured carefully and then manufactured correctly so that the treads
are level when the staircase is fitted. There are more details on the correct design and
manufacture of a staircase on pages 112-115.
Where staircases cut through a ceiling, the joist timbers need to be trimmed to form a
neat hole that does not compromise the structural integrity of the floor. More details of
the trimming process can be found on page 106.
8.2 Services
Services (also known as utilit ies) such as electricity, gas, drainage and water supply are
brought into a build ing and then distributed to where they are needed. Gas is usually
used fo r cooking; electricity for lighting and air conditioning; and water and drainage
services for washing and sanitation. These essential services can be dangerous if not
installed correctly so it is important that only properly trained, competent professionals
carry out the work.
What regu lations apply in your country regarding gas fitters? Why is it impor tant
to use someone who is properly tra ined and certified?
8.3 Finishings
There are a lot of other finishings that must be fitted in a building before the construction
is complete. Skirt ing and architraves around the edges of the floor and around the door
frames hide any gaps or movement. Internal window boards give a clean finish below
windows. Fascia boards, bargeboards and soffits fin ish off the edge of the roof (eaves).
Plastering, tiling and painting are other operations that must be carried out before the
building is complete.
o
Architrave: moulded timber fixed to each side of a door lining to hide any gaps.
Skirting: moulded t imber fixed to the wall where it joins the floor. This hides
any gaps and protects the wall from damage by chair legs.
Fascia board: a vertical board that fixes to the end of the edge of the roof
(eaves). A gutter is fixed to it.
Bargeboard: a board fixed to the gable end of a roof following the pitch of the
roof.
Soffit: a horizontal board that covers the underside of the eaves.
9.1 The building team
The process of building requi res the building team. Each part of the team is interdependent
of the others. The smooth running of the build and timely completion within budget are
greatly dependent on good communication between all members of the building team.
The client is the person who begins the building process. The client provides the money
for the build and wi ll approach an architect and a contractor to get the project started.
9.2 Roles in the construction industry
Roles in the construction industry come under three main headings: professional,
technician and building crafts.
Professional roles include:
• Architect: the architect supervises the overall design of the building project. The
arch itect often supervises the work.
•
Engineers: there are a variety of specialist engineers who design specific aspects of
buildings.
• Surveyors: these people carry out surveys that give essential information.
Technicians provide the link between the professionals and the building crafts.
Technician roles include structural technician, building technician and quantity surveying
technician.
The building cra fts are the skilled people who carry out the work. These include builders,
carpenters, plumbers and bricklayers.
These operatives are supervised (depending on the size of the project) by supervisors
and managers.
Research what work would be carried out by each of the fol lowing:
a) a structural engineer
d) a building surveyor
b) a service engineer
e) a quantity surveyor
c) a civil engineer
f) a land surveyor.
Make a chart outlining the tasks t hat each would carry out.
9.3 The building process
The architect will take the requirements from the client and design the project to meet
the client's needs and to comply with local planning regu lations. A planning application is
submitted and some changes may be required to meet the planning requirements. Also,
the building may have to comply with local building regulations.
Engllshoo, s
6mngh
4.5 m spreed
•
37.5 m
Gorden
RWP
36 m
Plol 2
44 m
Plot 3- - =· '"71
---=--....f?\+Vf>
,, '
7.5 m
Plol 4
R\11/P
11.5 m
12m
Drive
Footpath
G,oss verge
-'-----------t--t--+--t--------- - CL97:00TBM
1-99'--_J1so mm sws
-----------+HI ltop Rood
I ;90
200mm FS
Figure 9 .1 Site plan
From the architect's drawings and specifications quantities of materials can be
calculated. Together with labour and other costs, a price can be prepared for the client.
Often several contractors are invited to tender for the work, that is, they will give a
price for carrying out the work, and they will use the bill of quantities to prepare quotes
or estim ates. Quotes are a fixed price that will not increase unless this is agreed in
writ ing. This might happen if the client alters the plans or specifications - for example, by
choosing to use better materials. Estimates are a guide price and can change.
Once a contractor is approved, the building process itself is planned out. This can be
done using a bar chart. It is important to plan the process so that labour and materials
can be available on site at appropriate times. As th e building progresses, the contractor
supervises the craft workers and ensures the building is carried out to specification.
A clerk of the works (often known as the CoW) sometimes supervises th e project as
representative of the client to make sure all work and materials are up to standard.
This role can also be carried out by the architect.
Typical contract plan tor the refurbishment
ol hotel bedrooms (over 4 weeks)
Ta sk:
Remove existing furniture a nd c a rpets
Remove oil existing electrlcol f\tt,ngs
Remove oil borhroo m fittings and tiles
S1rlp off all existing \VOii covering s
Rewire to new electric p ositio ns
Red ec orate oll wo l s ond c e :i:ngs
Re-p lumb boihroo ms
Re-tile bofnrooms
Lay new carpets
Figure 9.2 Example of a bar chart
1
2
3
I
II
II
II
11111
11111
11111
11111
4
There is a lot of work to be carried out before building begins.
The first thing to organise is a safe means of access to the site. Temporary site
buildings, hoardings and, later, building materials will have to be brought into the site.
These are heavy and will like ly be brought via lorry, therefore the ground will have to be
prepared to take vehicular traffic. The access point must also be safe for people to use;
a mix of traffic and people should be avoided.
Figure 10.1 Plan of site layout
Depending on the size of the site, space will be requ ired for welfare facilit ies such
as toilets, a washing area, first aid area and a canteen. Drainage and services will
need to be connected. A site office is usually positioned in such a way that there is an
unobstructed view of the site, so the site manager can easily see vvhat is happening.
This sometimes doubles as a fi rst aid room.
A ve ry important aspect of setting up a site is security. Security serves several purposes.
It prevents building materials (which are expensive and easy for thieves to sell on) being
stolen. It also stops children entering the site to play. This must be prevented at all
costs because building sites are dangerous and children could easily hurt themselves.
What measures can be taken to keep a site secure?
Another considerat ion is storage of materials. Many materials need to be protected from
the elements, whether that is from the sun or the rain. These must be stored under cover.
Aggregates must be kept separate (for example: if mixed, gravel and sand would make
the sand unusable for mortar or render) and this can be achieved by using block wa lls
on larger worksites, or plywood dividers on small sites. Small valuable items such as
ironmongery are often stored inside the site office for additional security.
0
Aggregates: aggregates are sand, gravel and crushed rock. They have many
uses in construction: to provide drainage, to make concrete, to provide
insulation and to act as a filler material.
Also, it is important to store heavy materials close to where they would be used. For
example, it would be unwise to situate the sand in one corner of the site and the mortar
mixing area in the opposite corner.
Potentially flammable materials such as paint or fue l must be stored in a locked,
we ll-ventilated metal cupboard.
Each boy marked
with aggregate size
Fine
aggregate
. ..
Hord base slopes
for d ra inage
Figure 10.2 Proper storage of aggregates
If there is a construction site near your school, find out if you can visit it .
Is the security good there? Sketch the layou t of the site, and label the
areas and buildings.
A vast range of ground conditions can be encountered when selecting a building site.
Some sites offer ideal conditions where a building can be erected without a lot of
t rouble, while others are completely unsuitable for building. These condit ions will dictate
to a large degree the design of the building. Good ground conditions will requ ire only
standard stri p foundations, whereas poor soil conditions prone to movement will require
more costly foundation types such as a raft or piles.
Level ground can mean an easier build (with better access, and a simple building design)
but level areas at the bottom of valleys can be prone to flooding.
Hilly areas can be more difficult to build on as it can be difficult to access the area with
materials such as concrete. Plant such as diggers and dumpers cannot easily get near
the excavations, and a crane may be requ ired. Also the foundations need to be carefully
designed to res ist sliding down the slope.
0
Plant: heavy machinery used to carry out certain operations on site.
Other things to consider include:
•
previous use of land (is there any possible contamination?)
•
location of services and how far away these ser vices are (gas, water, electricity)
• boundaries (the actual edge of the site and any potential issues over ownership of the
adjacent land)
• surface drainage {this is especially important in areas of high rainfall).
Research different types of ground and how these affect the foundations used
in the building of a house. What are the ground condit ions like at your school or
college? What type of foundations does the building have?
11.1 Site clearance
Before building can commence, the site will have to be cleared. The topsoil and any
vegetation is removed. Topsoil is far too soft to support a foundation, and cannot be
used fo r a solid floor sub-base.
There may be existing buildings that require demolition. It is very important that prior to
any demolition the site is checked for:
•
hazardous materials (such as asbestos which can be extremely hazardous and must
be removed and disposed of very carefully)
• services (such as gas, electricity and water); these must be turned off and
disconnected before any demolition begins, and care must be taken to ensure this
includes any underground pipes or wires
• any drains that may be running across the site; these are often shown by the
presence of man-holes, although not always.
Research the hazard s of asbestos. What health problems can it cause?
How is it best removed and disposed of?
0
Brownfield sites: these are sites that have already been used either for
residentia l or industrial use. These tend to be more expensive to build on.
Greenfield sites: these are sites where no previous building has taken place,
and therefore it costs less to build on them.
Imagine that your school or college is to be demolished. What considerat ions
would you take to ensure the safe removal of t he building(s)? Are there any
mains drains running over the land? Is there electricity or gas? Where do these
enter the building and where would they be turned off to make t he site safe?
Are there any hazardous materials in t he building?
Some building sites requ ire a lot of effort to clear. Site buildings such as toilets and
offices are prefabricated and will be delivered to the site by lorry. There are also other
heavy operations that are like ly to be carried out, therefore there might be heavy
machinery operating on site. This is known as plant.
Having such plant operating on site can be very hazardous if correct precautions are not
taken. Operatives and plant should be kept separate whenever possible. High visibility
(hi-viz) vests or jackets make operatives easier to see. Plant must be we ll maintained,
and operated only by trained, competent operators.
12.1 Trenches
Trenches must always be dug safely, and if they are deep then they need to be shored.
It cannot be assumed that the sides of a trench will remain in place, and there could
be fatal consequences if it were to collapse with someone inside. A safety barrier will
prevent people fa lling Into a trench .
•
•
.....
'
...' .. ..·•
,,
Figure 12.1 Simple trench, shored trench and battered trench
You have been asked to dig a deep trench for an electrical cable. How can the
trench be dug safely? Think about nearby buildings, plant (machinery) and what
effect heavy ra in may have on the work being carried out.
12.2 Waste
There will likely be lots of waste to dispose of, especially if there is an existing building
to be demolished. This should be carried out in an environmentally friendly manner.
Anything recyc lable should be reused, or taken to a fac ility where is can be recycled.
For instance, timber can very often be reused, especially larger sections, rather than just
being burned.
Think about the sort of materials in an existing building that can be reused and
recycled. Make a list.
How can the amount of waste on a construction site be reduced? Consider
issues such as the quantities of materials ordered, safe storage and accurate
stock taking.
12.3 Site hoarding
Temporary hoarding and fencing makes the site secure, but to do this it needs to be we ll
constructed. It is often constructed from plywood or metal sheets fixed to posts driven
into the ground with diagonal rakers that stiffen the structure.
The hoarding is often painted and well maintained to give a professional image to the
building company carrying out the work. Sometimes 'peep holes' are incorporated to
allow members of the public to see what work is going on inside.
Proprietary fenc ing is also often used, with large heavy blocks that are placed on the
floor into which the fencing sits.
As discussed earlier, site security is of utmost importance to prevent theft of materials
and it keeps unwanted members of the public accessing the site during or after
working hours.
Figure 12.2 Site hoarding
Drawings are a very important method of communication in the construction industry.
They convey highly deta iled information about the location, the construction methods to
be used and the appearance of a building. Location plans are drawn up by an architect
or architectural technician to show the posit ion of the building as we ll as the posit ions
of walls and other structural features within the building. In order for the building to be in
proportion, the drawings must be drawn to scale.
0
Scale: a drawing that represents a real-life object with accurate sizes, but
reduced by a certain amount so it can fit onto whatever it is drawn on. A scale
of "1:10" would mean something measuring 10 mm on a drawing is 100 mm
in real-I ife.
Research types of location plan and the sort of information carried on each.
What scales are used for each type and why?
13.1 Floor plans
The first drawings needed are the floor plans. These must be drawn to scale with all
room dimensions accurately indicated. The lower right-hand corner of the drawing will
incorporate the title block giving informat ion such as the title, author and drawing date.
Start by drawing the exterior wa lls. Before starting to draw you will need to calculate
where the drawings will sit on your page so that they fit neatly on the page without big
gaps and without running off the edge.
Start from the upper left-hand corner of your floor plan design. Using a pencil , rule and
scale ru le, draw the inside length of the first wall until it meets where the next wa ll will
be drawn. Use your T-square, set square or a protractor (if the angle is not 90°, 45°,
30° or 60°), ru le and scale ru le to draw the next wa ll , stopping at the next intersection.
Continue clockwise around the drawing until the inside faces of the wa lls are completed.
Finally, draw a second line parallel to the first to show the thickness of t he wa lls.
Next add the interior wa lls and stairs. Add door s and windows, label rooms and add
other details such as bathrooms and kitchens.
Ensure everything is to scale. It is important to pick up any potential problems with the
layout at this point (where any changes can easily be made with an eraser) rather than
with a sledgehammer later!
13.2 Orthographic projection
Orthographic projection is a commonly used method of producing working drawings.
This incorporates a plan view, each of the elevations and sections, all on the same
sheet of paper.
Elevations show the faces of the object being drawn, that is, views from the different sides.
In a building these drawings would show the walls, doors and windows, as well as the roof.
Sectional views show a cross-section, as if the object being drawn has been cut and
opened up. A line is shown on the elevation to indicate where the imaginary cut is, with
arrows showing the view that will be seen in the section.
End elevation
Side elevation
Section
Plan
Figure 13.1 Plans, elevations and sections
Detail, assembly and exploded view drawings are close-up drawings of building
components and how they fit into the building.
13.3 Basic drawing symbols
Symbols are used to give as much information as possible on a drawing without using
too much space; labelling everything would make the drawing crowded. The symbols and
hatchings represent different materials and components.
Blockv✓ork
>(X)<
G L Ground level
50000
Meto1R [
V
FFL Finished floor level
BM Bench mark
level on section North point Ct Centre line
0
Figure 13.2 Some symbols and abbreviations used on drawings
Research these and other drawing symbols.
This is a method of drawing obj ects so they appear to have three-dimensional form.
These are useful because they give people a better idea of what the object drawn will
look like in rea l life. There are a variety of types. One of the most commonly used is
isometric.
Figure 14.1 Isometric projection
With isometric drawings, all horizontal lines are drawn at 30°. Dimensions are all drawn
at the same scale. The resu lting drawing gives a fair representation of the original with
little distortion.
-
Research these terms in relation to pictorial drawings: planometric,
axonometric, oblique, cavalier, cabinet. Draw an example of each. Discuss the
strengths and weaknesses of each type of drawing.
Pictorial drawings can be made more life-like by adding perspective. In real life things
appear smaller the further away t hey are from the viewer, and by adding vanishing points
(VPs) this can be represented on the drawing.
VP
VP
-- -- -
Figure 14.2 Vanishing points used to give perspective
14.1 Sketches
Sketches are hand drawn and are often used in situations where information is passed
quickly or informally from one person to another. An example of this may be where
a cabinet maker is trying to convey to a customer
how a certain piece of furniture will look when
completed. The sketch gives a first draft of an idea.
Any alterations can be made, and when the details are
con firmed more formal drawings can be prepared.
Sketches can be drawn freehand, using drawing
equipment or even on grid paper specia lly designed for
the purpose. Certain computer programs are available
to enable sketches to be made that can be displayed
on the screen in 3D.
Figure 14.3 Pictorial sketch
14.2 Title panel
Drawings will often have a title panel that carries
important information. Details such as the job number,
site address and architect will appear in this box.
Drawings (whether drawn by computer-aided design or by
hand) are often subject to revision. This could be due to
changes made by the client or maybe a mistake that has
been discovered. Therefore any earlier drawings will not
be accurate and must not be used. The title panel will
carry revision information so it can be easily seen if the
drawing is up to date.
NO?es
panel
Drowtng a rea
Title
panel
Figure 14.4 Title panel
0
Computer-aided design: CAD (computer-aided design) means using a computer
program to create or modify a design. The advantage to using CAD is that
designs can be changed quickly and easily, and they can be shared online.
What is Building Information Modelling? Conduct resea rch and report your
find ings to a partner.
Once site clearance has taken place and top soil has been removed, the building must
be set out. This job must be very accurately carried out.
It is likely that the build ing will have to be in a set position. For instance, the building will
probably have to be a certain distance from the road or situated precisely in re lation to
other buildings. The plans may have accurate measurements from the boundary, or it
may be necessary to scale the distances to locate the building correctly.
Once the position is determined then the centre of one wa ll is set out (usually the
longest wa ll) and the other wa lls are set out in relation to this first wa ll.
The other wa lls are set square in relation to the first wa ll either using a theodolite or
the traditional "3:4:5" method, otherwise known as the Pythagoras' theorem method.
Acco rding to Pythagoras' theorem, any triangle with sides that measure 3 units by
4 units by 5 units will have one internal angle that is a perfect right angle. Therefore, if
you were to measure 3 m along one wa ll and 4 m along a wa ll at right angles to the first
wa ll then the two end points will be 5 m apart. This method is very accurate.
3
•
9 + 16 = 25
Figure 15.1 Pythagoras· theorem
A builder's square can be used on sma ller proj ects, but these tend to be inaccurate for
larger buildings.
After setting out, the building can be checked for square by checking opposite diagonals.
If the two measurement s are equal (and the wa lls are parallel) then the building is square.
Checking squareness a fter setting out
Main setting outlines
Profile
1 - - boards
Dia gonal
checks
Figure 15.2 Checking building for square
•
Set out a square 4 m by 4 m in an open area. Set out one line. Use the 3:4:5
method to set the remaining lines. After setting out the building, check it is
square by rn easuring the diagonals.
Before excavation all the setting out details are recorded onto profiles using nails wh ich
are fixed to pegs driven into the ground. These have to be firm ly fixed so there is no
movement. Pegs are placed far enough away from the building so as not to be disturbed by
the digger. The nails enable lines to be stretched between the profiles so the trenches can
be determined, and then wa lls can be marked out onto the concrete after it has cured.
Setting out line
Figure 15.3 Transferring setting out lines to profile boards
One of the first t hings that needs to be done when setting out a site is to set a
temporary bench mark (TBM) somewhere on site. This is set at a fixed point above sea
level. All other site levels and datums will be set in re lat ion to this, for example, from the
foundations up to the roof height.
The TBM can be recorded on a peg placed somewhere on t he site where it will not
be disturbed (usually a corner). When the peg is set correctly it is fixed in place with
concrete. Alternat ively it can be marked on a road using a paint mark or masonry nail.
All levels are now taken from this point, so the site has a standard datum, reducing the
chance of errors.
Levels can be transferred by water level, laser level, opt ica l level or spirit level. A laser or
optical level is used with a staff.
0
Temporary bench mark (TBM): a fixed point on site from which all other on-site
levels are taken.
Level: a horizontal line.
Datum: a given point to work with.
Figure 16.1 Laser level
Set a datum peg in the corner of a field. Transfer the level from one corner to
the other using a long spirit level, a straight edge and datum pegs. How can
you use the level to increase accuracy? Now, transfer the level back using a
water level. If you have done it correctly the two lines will meet. Are there any
advantages with using a water level over longer distances?
16.1 Foundations
When foundations have been dug it is important to mark the height to which the concrete
will be poured. This will mean there is sufficient depth of concrete and the top surface
of the set concrete will provide a level base on which to build. This can be accomplished
by driving short lengths of iron bar into the bottom of the trench to the correct level and
fi lling the concrete to the top of the bar.
16.2 Boning rods
Boning rods are T-shaped and made of wood. They are used to find the level between two
points, even on a slope.
Two rods are set up on the two established levels. A third is then lined up with the other
two using " line of sight". This method is commonly used to establish the location of the
bottom of trenches, paths, drives and landscaping.
Backsight
Traveller
Foresig ht
Figure 16.2 Boning rods
Set up a backsight and foresight about 10 m apart. Set up a pile of books or
stones to the correct level.
Wood comes from trees as everyone knows, but there are a staggering number of
different species of tree that we use in construction, with each type of timber having
different properties.
If we understand the structure of timber, we can better understand why it moves
(expands and contracts) the way it does and what species is best suited for each
situation.
The inside of a tree consists of many layers which transport water and nutrients up and
down the tree. The roots pull water up from the ground and the leaves produce food
using light from the sun. The tree uses the food to grow. The trunk of the tree is the part
we use in construction, although in some trees the roots can also be used.
Trees can be divided into two main types: hardwood and softwood. These terms do not
re late to whether wood is hard or soft to touch. Some hardwoods are very soft, and
some softwoods are qu ite hard. The division is a botanical one: hardwood trees have
broad leaves whereas softwood trees have needles for leaves. Hardwoods produce
seeds that are covered in some way (for example, acorns) and softwood trees produce
cones with seeds inside that have no shell.
Research a hardwood and softwood commonly used in your area. Where do the
timbers come from? What are the microscopic differences between hardwoods
and softwoods?
Rings
V•/ood
rays
Heartwood
Vascular cambium
...,____'\
Secondary phloem - -~
Bark
Cork cambium ------.;;:
Cork _ _ __.,
Figure 17.1 Cross-section of a tree
The outer bark layer is not of much use to the carpenter. It is soft and not durable,
that is, it rots easily.
The inner part of the tree is divided into two types of t imber. The inner part is called
heartwood. This part is long dead and has hardened somewhat. The outer layer,
sapwood, is newer growth. The heartwood is stronger and more durable than the
sapwood, and is usually darker in colour.
0
Growth rings: a tree adds a ri ng each year as it grows, therefore the diameter
of th e tree increases. The tree does not grow at an equal rate throughout the
year. The darker part of t he ring shows slower winter growth while the lighter
part shows faster summer growth. Softwoods are stronger if they grow more
slowly as t here will be more dark ri ngs which are stronger than the lighter part.
Find a tree stump. Count the rings. How old was the tree when it was cut down?
17 .1 Conversion
Conversion refers to the way logs are turned into planks of wood.
Some timbers have a ver y pronounced figure, that is, the grain or the medullary rays
are attractive if the timber is cut in a certain way. Oak is at its most beautifu l when cut
quarter sawn; some softwoods such as the Douglas fir are at their most attractive when
tangentially sawn. (You will learn more about conversion methods later in this book.)
0
Conversion: t his refers to the action of converting a log into sawn planks.
The way a log is sawn has a great effect on the resulting t imber.
Medullary ray: radial rays of cells runn ing vertically through the tree which are
perpendicular to the growth rings.
Quarter sawn: sawn into quarters lengthwise before being cut into planks.
Tangentially sawn: cut perpendicular to the growth ri ngs.
When selecting a timber for a particular job, there are many considerations.
• Cost: the cost of a timber usually depends upon availability and demand. A timber in
high demand but short supply will greatly increase in price. When selecting a timber
there is a balance between the ideal t imber for the j ob and the cost of that timber.
• Workability: considerations include if the timber cuts easily and without splitting, if it
is abrasive on tools, if it has interlocking grain, how well it will machine and how well it
will fin ish.
• Appearance: the visual appeal of the timber can be very important if it will be on show
(for example, figu red oak used for furn iture) but not of any importance if it
will be located somewhere hidden (for example, studwork).
• Strength: structural t imber must be strong enough to carry the load that will be
imposed upon it .
• Stability: it is important to consider if the timber will remain straight, flat and
dimensionally stable or if it will move.
• Weight: timber that is strong but light is good for structural purposes.
•
Durability: how resistant the t imber is to rot or insect attack.
•
Environmental considerations: check if the t imber is an endangered species. Where
has it come from? Has it been responsibly sourced?
•
Health & Safety: some timber can be harmful (especially the dust created when
working with it).
Find three examples of timber in your school. Can you tell if these examples are
hardwood or softwood? Look online and try to guess what species each is. Look
at the map on the page opposite. Where do your example t imbers come f rom?
•
You have been asked to make a front door for a customer. What considerations
are there in selecting a t imber species? Write a letter to the customer
suggesting two alternatives and give the reasons for your recommendations.
Russia
Canada
Codar
Central Euro""
Groot Brit ain ----.
Willow
Alder.Ash
Dougbs Fir
Fir
Ash
Norway and Swed en
Spruce
Silver Fir
llooch
Birch
Bccch
larch
Lime
Maple
Ook
Larch
Hemlock
Pine
llooch. Birch
Chestnut. Douglas Fir
Wolnul
Bm
Spruce
Hornbeam, Lorch
Pine
Ook
Lorch
Scots Pine
Ook
Ook. Scots Pine
Poplar. Spruoo
WKtomUSA
Redwood
Codar
Fir
Ash
Siberia
Walnut
Bitch
Larch
Poplar
Seals Pinc
Spruce
Walnut. Sycamore
Pine
Spruce
China
Hemlock
Larch
Pine
Sp,ucc. Walnut
Birch. Camphc,wood
Laurel. Magnolia
Sequoia
ti
Eastern Canada And USA ~
Walnut
Ash
Basswood
Booch
Birch
Chostnut
liickO<Y
Oak
Poplar
Elm
Maple
Sycomom
Wosf tndl es
Balsa
-{ 1
Mexico
Balso__,,,-
.!_;,....
Japan
Oak
Bccch
ComphOIWOod
J.'".
Cocuswood
Lanccwood
Rosewood
!,,_
Mahogany
Douglas Fir
f
\\!ff' --J
lignum V~ac
Lignum Vitae
~ Guiana
Crabwood
Pine
I
Gn,enhootl
Purplehootl
Snakewood
Honduras - Ook
Mahogany
Balsa
Pine
Columbla
lignum Viteo
Balsa
Laurel
Willow
Lorch. Maple
Ook.Pioo
Poplar,F~
Indi a and Burma
Took
Ebony
Gurjun
Ook
Chilo
f?aufi
Laurel
I
Brazll
Willow
Lawel
UgnumVrtae
PoranaPioo
Figure 18.1 Map of t he world with t ree species
t\,\Qnsonio
Obechc
Zobraoo
East Africa
Podo
Ebony
J,oko
Mahogany
' - Zimbabwe
Ebony
Mahogany
Took
Blaadwood
Ebony
North Wost Australia
Blacl< Boon
Satinwood
Silver f"tr
Spruce
Walnut
Rosewood
Olivo
Rosow-ood
·\
AuslTalla
Western Australia
Jarrah
Cedar
Blackbutl
Kotri
Kouri Pine
Ook
Blacl< Wolnul
Podouk
Wost Africa
Sopclo
Abura
Walnul
Agbo
Avodire
Ebony
Gaboan
IIOkO
Mahogany
V1ctnam and Cambodia
r
~ New Zealand
South East Auslralla
Ook
Ash. Blaclcbutl
GroyGum
Spatted Gum
lronbolk
Rosewood
Whito Mahogany
Blackbcan
TurJ:X)nfine
Ash
Rimu
Kouri Pino
Tree logs need to be cut up into smaller, square-edged sections before they can be used.
The sections are generally quite large so these planks are cut into even smaller pieces
before use.
When converting a log into planks several things need to be borne in mind.
•
Economics: any useable timber lost in plank production could equate to money lost.
Therefore most logs are cut using the through and through method.
• Strength: structural t imber is stronger if cut tangentially.
•
Figure: timber can be more attractive if cut tangentially or ra dially (quarter sawn).
•
Defects: some trees have a defective heart, that is, rot has set in through the middle of
the t ree. This means the conversion of the tree will need to leave this part out.
Quartered conversion, showing
two different ways ( rodial boards)
Tangential c uts
Figure 19.1 Timber conversion
Through and through conversion
(tangential and some radial boards)
Boxed heart
(usually old oak)
Find an object made from solid wood. Can you tell what type of timber it is?
Which conversion method was used in preparing the timber?
19.1 Effect of conversion on movement
As a natural product, timber is affected by the surrounding environment. Changes in
heat and humidity will make it move. The part of the tree the timber comes from and the
direction of the grain will affect the way it moves, and whether it changes shape or size.
The most stable timber comes from quarter sawn boards and the least dimensionally
stable is tangentially cut.
19.2 Seasoning
When a tree is cut down, it is still ·'green". This term does not refer to the colour of
the timber but to the fact that the cells inside the timber are still fi lled with sap.
In this state, timber is generally not useable. It is prone to insect attack, decay and
movement. The timber needs to be seasoned before it can be used. Seasoning is the
process of drying the t imber to a point where its moisture content is suitable for its
end use.
This can be carried out in one of two ways:
Air seasoning
The traditional method is air seasoning. This is where the planks are stacked off the
ground with battens between each layer. The stack is then covered to protect it from the
elements. Over time, the timber gradually dries out. The weight of the pile keeps the
t imber flat. As it dries slowly, it tends to be more stable.
Kiln seasoning
With this method the t imber is placed into an kiln or oven. The temperature and humidity
in the ki ln are carefully controlled and the timber is dried out an accelerated rate. If the
conditions within the ki ln are not controlled closely enough, the resulting timber can be
defective.
Timber is a natural product , therefore all t imber can have defects. Some minor defects
will have little or no effect on the use of the t imber, while some defects render t he timber
useless.
20.1 Shakes
Heart shakes and star shakes can occur in the cent re of th e tree. If severe, these will be
taken into consideration when converting th e log. Rot can also occur at the cen tre.
Figure 20.1 Heart shake
Figure 20.2 Star shake
Thunder shake (also known as upset) refers to a crack
across the grain that can cause t he timber to snap easily.
Wh at causes thunder shakes?
Figure 20.3 Thunder shake
20.2 Cup shake
Sometimes due to poor soil the rings within
the tree start to come apart. This is a lso
known as a ri ng shake.
Figure 20.4 Cup shake
20.3 Knots
The branches on trees cause knots where these grow out
through the trunk. Live knots still form part of the structure
of the wood and do not fall out, while dead knots have a
ring of bark forming around them and can easily fall out.
Knots can seriously affect the strength of timber, and large
knots are avoided when selecting structural timbers to be
used for joists or rafters that need to be very strong.
Knots can also cause problems for workability as they are
hard. It is best practice to cut knots out where possible,
whether this is done while cutting materials to length or
in rebates. Knots in softwood carry a lot of sap, and it is
important to seal them before painting as the sap will ru in
the fin ish.
0
Face knot
Dead knol
(often loose)
Arris knot
Figure 20.5 Knots
Rebate: a square cut out along t he length of
the timber.
20.4 Resin pocket
A res in pocket is a pocket in the t imber containing sticky
resin that flows out when cut. Large resin pockets can
also affect the structural properties of the t imber.
20.5 Blue stain
This is a fungus that grows inside the t imber leaving a
distinctive blue or green stain. Fungus can also cause
Figure 20.6 Resin pocket
other defects known as spalting. At t imes the visual
effect of spalting on the timber is appealing and spalted
timber is often used for wood turning. Some t imber can be
rotten in the centre, however, making the material weak and
unsuitable for use.
20.6 Insect infestation
Insects such as beetles and termites can attack t imber.
This can have a significant effect on its strength. Also,
insect attack is often a precursor to funga l attack.
Blue stain
Figure 20. 7 Blue stain
Figure 20.8 Insect infestation
Some defects are caused by the seasoning process. The process can cause the timber
to distort in shape or cause other problems which can be difficult to rectify. Sometimes
the distortion is so great that the timber cannot be used.
Twisting: this makes the timber look like a
propeller. Timber that is twisted is said to be
" in wind" .
Figure 21.1 Twisting
Bowing: this is a distortion along t he
board's face from end to end.
Figure 21.2 Bowing
Springing: this is a distortion along the
boa rd 's edge.
Figure 21.3 Springing
Cupping: this is distortion over the
board's face from edge to edge. If the
t imber has been cut tangen tially from the
tree then this is quite difficult to prevent.
Figure 21.4 Cupping
Collapse: this is where kiln drying has not been
carried out correctly. The lack of humidity in the kiln
damages the timber's structure.
Figure 21.5 Collapse
Case hardening: this is where the t imber has
been dried too quickly. The resu lt is uneven
drying with a higher moisture content at the
centre. When a plank with case harden ing is
cut the timber will bend, often pinching on the
back of the blade.
Wet inside
Figure 21.6 Case hardening
Honeycombing: the inside of the plank is fi lled with
voids. These voids generally cannot be seen from
the outside and are only discovered when cutting.
Figure 21.7 Honeycombing
End spllts: if the end of the plank has dried out
faster than the rest it can result in splits on the
end. Planks are often sprayed with wax on the
ends to prevent this happening.
Figure 21.8 End splits
If your school has a wood store, go and look at th e planks there. Do any of
these have defects? Can you identify the type of defect and explain what
caused it?
22.1 Stone
Stone is probably mankind's earliest building material. It is strong and can be very
attractive if used well. Crushed stone is one of the main ingredients of concrete, while
sand is used to make mortar.
There is a wide variety of types of stone available, each with its own properties.
Here are two examples:
Granite
This is an igneous rock, formed deep below ground. It is a crystalline material and very
hard. It has a granular texture. Granite is predominantly white, pink or grey in colour. It is
commonly used for building walls and paths, and is very hardwearing.
What minerals is granite made up of?
Limestone
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of calcium carbonate. Most limestone
is composed of skeletal fragments of marine organisms which died a very long t ime
ago, built up in layers. Limestone can contain sand and other sediments. It is a very
useful material and is used in the production of lime, Portland cement, and as a building
material. It is strong and res istant to weathering.
Research lime and Portland cement. How are these building materials made?
Which one has a lower impact on the environment?
What are the most common types of stone used for building where you live?
Where is it quarried?
22.2 Blocks
Concrete blocks are in common use. They can be made of standard concrete at different
densities or aerated concrete. Aerated concrete contains lots of t iny bubbles that make
the blocks lightweight and easy to handle. They also improve thermal efficiency, reducing
the need for air conditioning in warmer climates and heating in colder climates.
Blocks come in a variety of sizes and are often hollow to allow reinforcement to pass
through verti cally. The re inforcement is tied into the foundation. These wa lls are then
fi lled with concrete forming a very strong wa ll. Larger solid blocks can be very heavy, and
it is recommended that two people are used to lay them.
What unit is used to measure the strength of a concrete block?
Concrete blocks are not considered very attractive, so they are usually plastered or
rendered if used in residential units.
22.3 Bricks
Bricks have been used for building for thousands
of years. They are usually made from fired clay
but are sometimes made from concrete or
calcium silicate.
Pressed
Bricks are attractive, hard and resistant to
weathering, making them an ideal building
material. A standard brick size va ries
considerably depending on where in the world
you are. In the USA the standard size is 194 mm
x 92 mm x 57 mm. In the UK bricks usually
measure 215 mm x 102.5 mm x 65 mm.
Cut
Bricks and blocks are laid in layers or courses in
an interlocking pattern called bonding. Mortar is
used to join the bricks or blocks together.
(Regular in shape
with sharp edg es)
(No frog, sharp
edges, wire c ut
marks on bed)
Hand moulde d
(Irregular in shape)
Perforated
(Regular In shape)
Figure 22,1 Types of brick
0
Bonding: overlapping the vertical joints in layers of bricks or blocks.
23.1 Mortar
Mortar is used to bond bricks together. It is made from sand, cemen t and lime.
By varying the ratios of these ingredients the mortar can be made stronger or weake r.
A basic ru le of thumb is that mortar should be mixed to the same strength as the bricks
being laid or be weaker than them. This means that if there is movement in the wa ll the
mortar beds will cracl< rather than the bricks.
There are also mortar additives such as plasticiser that makes the mix "fatty" (easier
to work with) or dye t hat colours the mortar. It is very importan t to use the proper ratios
when mixing the mortar rat her than j ust guessing how much of each ingredient to add.
Too little cement will weaken the mix, as will adding too much plast iciser. When colouring
mortar, if you do not measure the dye carefully the wa ll could look patchy as the colour
will be uneven.
0
Ratio: the relationship that exists between two numbers or amounts of two
things.
Add it ive: something that is added to something else. With regard to mortar
or concrete, an additive (or admix) can change the properties of t hat mix,
whether it be setting time, colour or workabil ity.
A
You do not want lumps of gravel in the mortar you are using. To avoid t his,
keep sand away from other aggregates and cover it up if possible to prevent
contaminants fa lling into it. A sieve can be used to remove gravel, leaves or
other contaminents. Always clean out the mixer after use.
Research the most commonly used mortar ratios. What does each of the
ingredients do for the mix? How wi ll adding too much or too little affect the
fin ished mortar?
Mixing cement
If mixing cement by hand, it is useful to put the dry ingredients into a clean wheelbarrow
or onto a clean sheet of plywood. Mix the sand and cement before adding the water.
Make a hole in the top of the pile and add water gradually while mixing it in with a shovel.
A
Cement is caustic and can cause chemical burns to skin. Always wear gloves
when handling cement-containing products such as mortar.
23.2 Concrete
Concrete is a very useful building material and is used extensively throughout the world.
Concrete is made from aggregate (this can be coarse, medium or fine), sand, cement
and water. Water reacts with the cement to make it harden in a process called hydration.
The cement locks the ingredients together to form a strong solid.
Concrete is very strong when under
compression (squeezed), but relatively
weak when under tension (stretched).
Steel is strong under tension, so it
is added to concrete to improve its
strength.
If concrete needs to be cast into a
particular shape, moulds known as
formwork or shuttering can be made
for the concrete to be poured into. The
moulds need to be made from a material
that will not stick to the cured concrete.
Wet concrete is very heavy indeed, and
the formwork needs to be very strong
to hold t he weight of the concrete, steel
and any people working on it while it
cures. It is common for a structural
engineer to design formwork for larger
projects.
Figure 23 .1 Concrete being reinforced by steel
Concrete can be made in a variety of
mixes. A standard unreinforced mix, like
that used, for example, in a standard
strip foundation would be 1:3:6. This
stands for one part cement, three parts
sand and six parts coarse aggregate.
Out of the ten parts, one part is cement
so that is one tenth.
A stronger mix like that used, for
example, in reinforced concrete would be
1:2:4, where the cement forms a higher
proportion of the concrete. Out of the
Figure 23.2 Pouring concrete
seven parts, one is cement so that is
one seventh.
Research the different grades of concrete and the purposes these are used for.
Make a table of your findings.
Sheet materials are used for floors, walls and roofs. They can cover large areas quickly,
speeding up the construction process. Sheet materials can be made of wood, gypsum,
cement, metal or plastic.
24.1 Wood-based sheet materials
A wide variety of timber-based boards is available.
MDF (medium density fibreboard)
MDF is made from dried wood fibres that are mixed with glue and compressed.
The resulting board has two smooth sides. It is a useful material as it is easy to
work with and takes paint easily. Different types are available:
• fire-reta rdant (red core)
•
moisture resistant (green core)
• exterior grade (blue core)
It is available in a variety of thicknesses.
Hardboard
Hardboard is similar to MDF but of a lower grade. Water is used in the pressing process,
therefore only one face is smooth. Hardboard is susceptible to damp and expands easily.
To help prevent this, it can be tempered with oil.
0
Tempered: both surfaces of the hardboard are treated with oil. The board is
then baked to set the oil.
Plywood
Plywood is made from many thin layers (laminates) of timber. The layers are laid in
a lternating directions and glued together. An odd number of layers will be used, meaning
the two outside laminates will be pointing in the same direction.
Research the different grades
of plywood available. What
uses is each grade most
suitable for?
Research particle boards.
How are these produced?
What uses do they have?
Figure 24.1 Thin layers of wood are laid in
alternating directions to make plywood
Laminated board
There are several types of laminated board Including
blockboard and laminboard. These consist of blocks
of wood glued together and covered with a th in layer
of plywood.
A
Working with sheet materials, especially
MDF, can create a lot of dust. It is very
important to wear appropriate PPE.
Figure 24.2 Laminboard
24.2 Gypsum and cement-based boards
Gypsum
Gypsum is used to make plasterboard, a material widely used for internal work. It is
not good with moisture and therefore unsuitable for exterior work. However, it is ve ry
good at resisting fire.
A layer of gypsum is covered with paper on each s ide. It is easily cut to size using a kn ife:
one side is scored to cut the paper and it is then snapped. The board is fixed to the wall
(whether that be studwork or directly to a solid wa ll) using screws or adhesive. The finished
wall is plastered with a fine layer of gypsum plaster
or the joints are taped and finished with filler which
is then sanded. This process is known as dry lining.
Cement-based boards
Cement-based boards consist of cement material
re inforced with fibre. These boards are res istant
to fire and to the elements. Corrugated sheets
of cement-based board are common ly used for
roofing purposes.
Figure 24.3 Corrugated roofing
A
In the past, asbestos was used in roofing sheets. Asbestos is very harmful,
and remova l and disposal of these sheets must be ca rried out very carefully
with fu ll PPE protection such as respirators and overalls.
24.3 Metal and plastic
Sheet metal and plastics are common ly used for cladding and roofing. Transparent or
translucent roofing sheets are used to bring natural light into a building. Steel is very durable
if coated in a rust-proof coating such as zinc. This process is known as galvan izing.
Many building materials are made from plastic, such as the fittings used in plumbing,
ra inwater goods like gutters and drainpipes, windows and doors. Although a useful
material, plastic can be affected by the sun, eventually becoming bleached and brittle.
0
Cladding: boards or sheets of a material used to cover a surface.
It is very important that materials are stored correctly as damaged materials cost money.
25.1 Timber
Timber must be kept dry, away from sunlight and on bearers to ensure it is kept off the
ground and prevented from twisting. Sheets of plywood must al so be stored flat and off
the ground, or in ve rtica l racks and covered. It cou ld easily go out of shape if not stored
correctly. Roof trusses must be stored upright or dead flat. Trusses are easy to damage
as they are designed to take weight vertica lly - if pressure is applied in the wrong
direction they will break. Small t imber sections can be stored in a rack.
External
joinery
Carcassing
timber
-Trim and p laned
sections
Cross bearers
Figure 25.1 How to store timber and t imber-based sheet materials
Crossbearers
25.2 Plasterboard
Plasterboard bends ve ry easily indeed. If it is
rested against a wa ll it will take on a box shape
within hours. It has to be handled ca refully to
avoid damage.
Figure 25.2 How to
store plasterboard
25.3 Bricks and blocks
Bricks often arrive on
pallets, bound together
with plastic straps. They
are best left on the pallet,
covered with a tarpaulin
or similar covering until
requ ired. It is a good idea
to store them close to
where they will be needed
to reduce the amount of
handling required. They
Blocks
stocked
on edge
Tarpoulin
or plostlc
cover
Six to
eig ht
courses
high
Figure 25.3 How to store bricks and blocks
must be handled carefully
as the edges chip easily, and damaged bricks ruin the overall finish of a wa ll.
Concrete blocks similarly need to be stored safely and securely. Piles must not be too
high, no more than 1.8 m. Stone also requires very careful handling, especially if made
of a softer stone, as the edges can damage very easily and be ver y cost ly to replace.
25.4 Bagged cement and plaster
Damp condit ions will ru in cemen t and plaster as they will set in the bags making them
useless. They will also be ruined if allowed to get too old. Cement and plaster need to
be rotated - old stock must be used before the new. This means that it cannot just be
placed in a shed, because over t ime, as new deliveries are made, the oldest cement or
plaster may remain at the bottom of the pile and ultimately be wasted .
••
••
•
••
•.
••
••
••
•
'
••
Figure 25.4 How to store cement and plaster
25.5 Security
The elements are not the only danger to materials. Theft is another major consideration
on a site so it is very important that all materials are locked away. Many larger sites have
sheds and compounds for this purpose. Small items such as locks and hinges are kept
under lock and key.
What are the most valuable items on a building site? How can these be kept
secure? How will using a planning document such as a Gantt chart reduce the
risk of theft or other damage?
As already discussed in this book, drawings are essential for the smooth runn ing of a
building proj ect.
Drawings can be prepared using computer-aided design, otherwise known as CAD. Using
a computer program, drawings can be created and printed easily. They can be emailed
around the world, and several people can work on them at the same time.
In an earlier activity you resea rched Building Information Modelling (BIM). Now
cons ider the advantages of using BIM. Are there any disadvantages?
There are free programs available that can be used to produce drawings and even
virtua l 3D models of these drawings. Nevertheless, despite the increase in the use of
CAD, drawing by hand is still very popular. Drawing is a skill, and requ ires practice and
attention to detail.
Try out a CAD program. Draw a small building with two rooms, four windows and
a door.
26.1 Scales and dimensions
As already described in th is book, the use of scale is ver y important with drawings.
If objects are not drawn to scale they can appear distorted and not be of much use
to a builder.
0 0
©
2
3
½¼¾½¾¾¼ ½¼¾½¾¾
4
1-- - - - - - - - - - ---i Represents 500 mm ot o scale of 1:10
50x 10 =500
I~•- - - - - - - - - - --•I Represents 1000mm at a scale o f 1:20
50 x 20= 1000
Figure 26.1 Actua l scaled dimensions
Dimensions on drawings need to be clear. It is better to read dimensions off a drawing
rather than use scale as the drawing paper can distort and become inaccurate.
3/750
-8
2/650
0/000 running
Sepc,ate
Seporo1o ~~1
1200
l-2fil...j~1~001 1200 ~
Figure 26.2 Separate and running dimensions
26.2 Lines used in drawing
Not all lines on a drawing are the same thickness. They are different •·weights" and are
used for different purposes.
• A solid line is used to draw the object being shown.
• A light line is used as a construction line. This is a guide onto which heavier lines are
drawn. They are easily rubbed out upon completion of the drawing.
•
Medium lines are used for general details.
•
Darker lines are used for outlines.
Construction line (thin)
Research broken lines, section lines and
chain lines. What are these used for on a
drawing?
26.3 Symbols
Symbols are used on drawings to simply show a
lot of informat ion without using too much space.
Look back at Figure 13.2 on page 31 to remind
yourself of symbols used in building drawings.
Main
outline (thick)
General
outline (med ium)
Figure 26.3 Use of line weights
Drawing is a practical skill just like any other, and therefore good tools are needed to be
able to perform the task we ll. Drawing equipment should be looked after and stored in
such a way that it does not become damaged or lost.
27 .1 Pencils
The pencil (or pen) is arguably the most important tool for drawing. It is very important to
select the correct grade of "lead", although the lead in a pencil is not lead but actually
graphite, a form of carbon. If it is too soft the drawing will become smudged very quickly;
if it is too hard the pencil will not make enough of a line, it will be very faint. Standard
pencils are graded from 48 (very soft}
to 4H (very hard). An ideal pencil for
drawing is 2H. Standard pencils are HB,
but this is rea lly a bit too soft.
On top of this the pencil needs to be
very sharp, therefore you will also need a
good sharpener.
A pen is also used in drawing. However,
it is difficu lt to correct an error if a pen
has been used; it is common, therefore,
for students to use a pencil and then
later use a pen to trace over the finished
lines.
27.2 Rule
A ru le is a straight edge with
measurements marked on it. It is used
to draw straight lines. Be carefu l not to
damage the edge as this will result in a
nick that will ruin your stra ight line.
Figure 27.1 Scale rule
A scale ru le is marked in increments that are already pre-scaled, making drawing
to scale easier.
If a smooth curved line is requ ired then a French curve or flexicurve can be used.
Figure 27.2 Flexicurve
27 .3 Squares
A T-square is used with a drawing board. It rests
on the square edge of the drawing board and gives
you a parallel line either vertically or horizontally.
As with a ru le, it needs to be used carefully; a nick
along the drawing edge will make it useless.
. .
•
• •
•
I
Figure 2 7 .3 T-square
Set squares are used to draw angles and vertical
lines, and can be placed onto a T-square while drawing. There are two standard set
squares: 45° and 30°/ 60°; both have one angle that is 90°. There are also adjustable
set squares available that can be set to any angle.
Set squares are very useful in the production of pictorial projection drawings
(for example, isometric or cabinet oblique projections).
27 .4 Compass
A compass is a very useful tool. Not only
can it be used to draw perfect circles, it can
also be used to divide or even find angles. A
compass holds a pencil or pencil lead. A set
of dividers has two metal point s.
[7
The better quality ones have an adj ustment
bar across the middle to prevent the radius
being altered under pressure.
Figure 2 7 .4 Set squares and a compass
27 .5 Other equipment
Other useful equipment includes purpose-made drawing boards with a sliding ru le, metal
clips to hold paper to the board, an eraser (it is important to keep these clean or they
will smudge) and a protractor (for finding angles).
Draw a circ le and divide it into six equal t riangles using nothing but a ru le and a
compass.
Using a set square, draw an angle of 150°. Using a compass, bisect this angle.
28. Sketching and pictorial drawings
28.1 Sketching
This is an informal way of drawing, useful for quick diagrams as we ll as larger, more
detailed drawings. For instance, an architect might sketch an image while on site to
illustrate a detail to a supervisor, or a joiner may sketch some designs to show a client a
few kitchen designs. An architect may well sketch
a who le building to settle the final design with the
client before going on to draw the fina l plans.
Sketches can be freehand or a rule r can be
used. When sketches are drawn freehand, it is
important they are drawn to scale otherwise the
drawing may look distorted, and if the sketch is
being used for layouts, the layout will not work.
Drawing on grid paper helps with this.
Figure 28.1 Example of sketch
Sketches can be of plans, elevations or sections. They are particularly useful for the
drawing of isometric or perspective views. They can also be shaded or coloured if
requ ired to make the sketch more three-dimensional.
A client requ ires a chair for rec lining comfortably in the evenings. As we ll as
being comfortable, it must also be a "statement" piece. The chair is to be
made in wood with fabric cushions. Sketch two different designs for the client
to choose from. Your sketches must include elevations, an isometric view and a
view in two-point perspective.
28.2 Pictorial drawings
Pictorial drawings are produced on a drawing board using a T-square and set squares.
A 45° or 30° set square will be required depending on what style of pictorial drawing is
being drawn.
Be aware that graphite from the pencil can build up on the back of squares, causing a
drawing to be smudged. Be sure to keep set squares clean.
•
Draw a brick, frog upmost, in
cavalier and cabinet proj ection.
Next, draw a cross-section of a
brick full scale.
0
Frog: the indentation in the
top of a brick.
Drawing a simple cube in two-point perspective:
Step 1 : Select two vanish ing points (VPs) on the horizon. Draw the closest vertical s ide
of the cube in the centre.
VP
VP
Step 2: Draw in construction lines as shown. These need to be drawn in very lightly.
VP
VP
Step 3: Draw in the other two edges of the cube.
VP
VP
Step 4 : Now you can draw the other construction lines.
VP
VP
Step 5: Now you can complete the cube.
VP
VP
This section deals with the work of a
bricklayer but the skills are very similar
to b locklaying.
Unbondod
wall
29.1 Bonds
As you have already seen, the
overlapping pattern used to lay bricks
is ca lled bonding. This forms a strong
wa ll with mortar holding the structure
together. Stretcher bond is known as a
half-brick thick wall, wh ile English and
Flemish bond are a one-brick th ick wa ll.
0
Closer: a brick cut in half
down its length.
Vl/ollmoy
move m e~her
direction
Bonded
wall
Lood d istribution
throughout wall
Figure 29.1 Reason fo r bonding
Bat: a brick cut in half
across its width.
l't,. Bricks and blocks are heavy. Cement
•
Stack bricks without using
mortar (dry) in the th ree
bonds detailed in th is chapter.
Lay up to four courses.
Queen closer
Quoin
Header
Stretcher
. . and lime are hazardous. Take care
when handling these materials.
0
Course: one horizontal layer of bricks
or blocks is known as a course.
Queen c loser
Quoin
____ Raking
Bock
Flemish bond
English bond
Hea der
l=_71 Blockwork
i=a!=.=&,,=s;dbr;,df:f/,~ --b- Toothlng out
Stretcher bond
Stretcher
Figure 29.2 Types of bond
Stretcher
As already described in this
book, bricks and blocks can
be made from a variety of
materials. The exact size
of a brick or block wi ll vary
depending on where you are
in the world, bu t one thing to
remember is that anything
made from clay can shrink
during the firing process. This
means clay bricks in the same
pack can vary in size.
Head
Figure 29.3 Brick showing frog, arris, header and
stretcher face
A
Always wear safety glasses when cutting bricks or blocks! Wear safety
footwear to protect your feet.
Build three wa lls as in the previous activity but build the corner (quoin) as we ll.
29.2 Lintels
Lintels can be made from wood, metal or pre-stressed concrete. Pre-stressed concrete
has lengths of re inforcing steel under strain stretched t hroughout its length. Lintels
bridge openings in wa lls such
2 x 8 mm reinforcing
as windows and doors. Bricks or
blocks are then laid on top of them.
Lintel b lock
They are usually of a thickness to fit
in with the bond of the surrounding
masonry.
I.
Lintel blocks can also be used, with
concrete poured into the lintel using
steel as re inforcement.
0
Wall ties: these are used
for tying two walls together.
Shoring
Figure 29.4 Lintel
A variety of tools are used by the bricklayer.
30.1 Trowels
•
Figure 30.1 Types of trowel
Brick trowel: Sometimes called a laying trowel, th is is a large diamond-shaped tool about
260 mm long (but much bigger trowels are available). This is one of the most important
tools to a bricklayer, so it is worth buying a good quality one that is comfortable to hold.
Gauging trowel: Useful for measuring out small amounts of cement or sand, this has a
rounded end so it is useful for smaller j obs and patching in.
Pointing trowel: This is a small t rowel used for filling joints between bricks.
Jointer: Somet imes called a "bucket handle'', this is used for giving joints a fi nish.
30.2 Hammers
Figure 30.2 Types of hammer
Club hammer: This is a heavy hammer used to hit a bolster or cold chisel. Always check
for damage before use (for example, make sure the handle is not loose).
Brick hammer: This hammer is used for the rough cutting of bricks.
Comb hammer: This has hardened blades set into the cutting edges. It is used for
cleaning up cuts and shaping bricks.
30.3 Bolster and cold chisel
Bolst er: This is used for cutting bricks
and blocks, and is used along with a lurn p
hammer. If used properly, a bolster will
give a very clean cut. The cutting edge
is hardened, whereas the striking end is
softer so it does not shatter. However, this
can resu lt in a "mushroom" forming over
t ime. This must be removed regu larly as
bits can split off when striking.
Cold chlsel: A smaller tool than the
bolster but hardened in a similar way, it is
used for smaller cutting jobs.
Figure 30.3 Bolster and cold chisel
30.4 Measuring and setting out equipment
Spirit level: This is used to make sure work is level, plumb and in range (flat across its
surface}. A longer level allows a more accurate level to be taken. A short "pocket" or
boat level is used for smaller levelling jobs.
Plumb bob: This is used to check a line is plumb.
Setting out square and steel square: These are used to check that quoins are square.
Tape measure: This is used to measure length. Sand will wear tape measures quite
easily, so clean the tape before allowing it to retract.
0
Quoin: a comer of a wall. It can also refer to a stone block used to form a comer.
Level: a perfectly horizontal line, that is, in line with the horizon. This is
measured using a spirit level.
Plumb: a perfectly vertical line. This can be determined using a plumb bob or
a spirit level.
30.5 Other equipment
Float : A float is used to finish render. It can be
made of wood or lightweight foam plastic.
Hawk: A hawk is a handheld spot board. It is useful
for working plaster and mortar before applying it to
the wa ll.
Figure 30.4 Float
Figure 30 .5 Hawk
As previously discussed in this book,
setting out accurately is very important.
It is vital to chec k the dimensions and
use the diagonal method to check that
the building is square.
31.1 Laying out walls
A line with either pins or corner blocks
is used to make sure bricks are laid in
a straight line. It is usual practice when
building a vvall to form the corners (quoins)
first and then infill with bricks. The line can
then be stretched between the quoins.
Figure 31 .1 Line in use
The line must be stretched tight otherwise it will not be accurate. If the line droops then
so will you r wall!
A gauge rod is used to maintain the gauge or thickness of the wa ll. It has lines marked
on it representing each cou rse, including the thickness of the mortar bed. This ensures
even and level courses.
0
Gauge: this refers to the thickness of each course or layer of bricks or blocks.
31.2 Cutting bricks and blocks
Place the brick or block on a hard
surface. Measure and mark where the
cut needs to be. Place the bolster on
the brick where you made the mark,
taking care to place the bolster square
to the brick. Hit the bolster cleanly with
controlled force. Take care not to hit you r
hand - some bolsters have a plastic
shield around the top to help prevent this.
Turn the brick to the next face and carry
out the same operation. Repeat this
process until the brick cracks a long
the cut.
A
Figure 31.2 Cutting bricks
Cutting bricks and blocks can cause small particles of masonry or even metal
to fly through the air, so remember to protect your eyes with safety glasses.
31.3 Mixing mortar and concrete by machine
Mixing mortar and concrete has already been mentioned in this book, but here are a few
re minders.
•
Ensure the mixer is clean. Mortar is not pleasant to use if it has bits in it.
•
Make sure t hat you know where the off switch is; if you are using an electric mixer,
make sure it is connected through a residual current device (RCD).
•
Make sure t hat the mixer is on level ground.
•
Keep the cement, ballast and sand near the mixing area or you will be doing a lot of
extra work going back and forth!
• A bucket is the most accurate method for measuring ingredients.
• Too large a mix could spill out or overload the machine.
•
If using plasticiser, you will need less water.
• When the mixing is complete, place a wheelbarrow under the drum and empty it.
The whee lbarrow can t ip ove r, so it helps to have someone else hold the whee lbarrow
steady while you t ip t he mixer.
• Always wash out the mixer thoroughly after use and remember not to put your hands
or any tool into a rotating mixer!
A
Remember to wear a face mask to protect yourself f rom cement dust.
Design a poster about the safe and efficient use of a cement mixer. Think about
setting the machine up, and potential hazard s such as cement dust.
We have already looked at how to bond and cut bricks and blocks so now we will look at
how to lay them. Each brick and block will be la id on a bed of mortar, and it takes some
skill to get them level, straight, neat and even. When building a wa ll it is best to build up
the ends first and fill in the middle. The steps below show how to lay bricks, but laying
blocks is very similar.
Step 1 : Be sure to set up your spot board
close to the work area and place your mortar
on the board. With a brick trowel, cut off some
of the pile and form a roll of mortar.
•
Step 2 : Put down your first layer (course) of
bricks. Place the end bricks first. These need
to be level and straight across the face with
each other.
•
Step 3 : The mortar bed for the first course on
the floor is laid out. The mortar bed is spread
out with the t ip of the trowel.
Step 4 : Pick up a brick. Apply mortar to the
end of the brick. Th is is known as '' perping"
the brick. The vertical mortar joints in a wall
are known as perpends.
Step 5 : The bed for a brick laid on top of other
bricks (the second course and upwards) is laid
as shown on the right. Notice how it is spread
with the t ip of the trowel.
Step 6 : Lay the brick and tap with the handle
of the trowel. It is important that the brick has
the correct thickness of mortar bed or gauge.
The brick must be level, plumb and laid to the
line.
Step 7 : Remove excess mortar with the trowel.
Step 8 : Range can be checked with a straight
edge placed along the front of the wall. It is
important to check the brick is laid square and
the wa ll is level.
0
Range: a straight point between two lines. You need to make sure your work is
ranged so that the face of the finished wa ll is flat.
33.1 Pointing
It is important that bed and perpend j oints are fu ll and well
fin ished. This ensures that the bricks and blocks are all
well supported and bonded to each other, making the wall
stronger. It also stops water getting into the wall and causing
damp problems. If the joints are not full, they will need
pointing. A point ing trowel and jointer are used for this.
33.2 Rendering
Render is made from sand and cement and applied to a wa ll
using a trowel. It is important that the area to be rendered
is clear of dust and damped down. If it is dry and dusty, t he
render will not stick and is like ly to fa ll off.
I
Render must be applied in several coats instead of j ust one
thick coat. A coat of render th at is too thick is likely to slump
under its own weight.
0
Slump: when the weight of the plaster or render
starts to pu 11 the coat down the wall and it bellies
out at the bottom.
Step 1: Dust down the wall with a brush.
Figure 33.1 Joint
finishes: flush and half
round
Step 2 : Wet the wall.
Step 3: Apply the first coat using a hawk and trowel. Be sure to have your spot board nearby.
Step 4: Use a feathe r edge board to
remove excess render.
Step 5 : The first coat needs to be
Ste p 6: Float fin ish the second coat.
"scratched ". This provides a good key for
the next coat.
Step 7: If a fi nishing plaster is to be applied, then the fin ished
render is given a scratched fin ish using a special float.
34.1 Plastering
Plaster is a much finer material than render and provides a smooth finish. There are
different types of plaster: one-coat is used for general work where a lot of thickness is
requ ired; board fin ish is used for finishing plasterboard.
Plaster is applied using a skimming trowel. To provide a very smoot h finish, plaster must
be trowelled again once the plaster has begun to go off.
0
Go off: to set, go hard.
Step 1: After preparing the wall, mix the
Step 2 : Using a gauging trowel, check the
plaster in a bucket with an auger.
consistency of the plaster. It should stick
to the trowel as shown and be lump free.
Step 3 : Apply plaster to the wall in two
Step 4 : As the plaster begins to set , trowel
coats.
off t he wa ll to a very smooth finish.
A brush is used to apply water during this
process.
34.2 Tiling
Tiles are used around sinks, baths and basins to provide a water-resistant surface.
They are stuck to the wa ll or floor using grout.
•
Step 1 : Marking out the wa ll to be tiled.
Step 2: Marking out the floor to be tiled.
Use a level and plumb bob to make sure
the tiles will be fixed level and plumb.
Fix battens to fix th e tiles to.
Notice how t he cut tiles are placed at t he
edges of the room and how the cut tiles
are equal at each wa ll.
Step 3: Scoring th e tile. Remember
Step 4 : Make cuts for things like switches
to score j ust once.
and pipes with a tile-cutting coping saw.
Step 5 : Snap the tile.
Step 6: Apply adhesive and fix tile.
Remember to use spacers.
Step 7: Grout on complet ion.
Step 8: Remove excess grout and
Push grout into joints.
then finish with sponge.
35. Concrete: formwork and steel fixing
Basic concrete foundations are relatively easy to pour, however, on most j obs there is a
lot of work to be carried out before that can be done. Although formwork and steel fixing
are invisible in the fin ished product they are very important operations and must be
carried out carefully.
35.1 Formwork
Formwork provides a mould to hold the weight of the steel and concrete before it sets.
It is commonly made from timber, plastic or steel. Timber is generally used for smaller
jobs, plastic for repetit ive work and steel "pans" for larger jobs such as floors or wa lls.
Formwork needs to be strong because concrete is heavy and there will be the added
weight of the steel and the people standing on it who are pouring the concrete. If it is
not strong enough to resist these forces it can distort, result ing in concrete that is out
of shape, or can even collapse.
35.2 Steel fixing
As already discussed in this book, steel is
incorporated into concrete to improve its strength
when placed under tension.
Code 77
Steel reinforcing bars are also knows as " rebars".
Each of the different available shapes has its own code.
Code 41
Figure 35.1 Rebars with codes
Research rebar types and sizes. Make a poster identifying the main rebar
shapes.
The steel must be placed carefully into the fo rmwork. The bars and links (bars bent into
rings) are t ied togeth er using wire.
A
Do not wear shorts when steel fixing because th e cut ends of the steel and
wire can be sharp. Wear protective boots and gloves.
35.3 Pouring and finishing concrete
For small jobs the concrete will be mixed by hand or with a mixer and brought to the
work area by whee lbarrow. For larger jobs the concrete will arrive by lorry. Sometimes the
concrete will be pumped to the work area.
The process of mixing, transporting and pouring concrete will incorporate air into the mix.
This will weaken the fin ished concrete, and the fin ished faces will be unsightly. Therefore
concrete will have to be consolidated, that is, have the air removed. This can be done by
tamping, that is, dropping a board onto the surface repeatedly, or by tapping the sides.
The most effective way of doing this is using a concrete vibrator.
A
Otherwise known as a poker, a concrete vibrator is used to expel air from the
poured concrete. It will also make the concrete flow into corners. Care must
be taken when vibrating deep concrete, especially columns, as if these are
over-vibrated the shuttering/formwork can split.
The concrete can be left with a "tamped" fin ish, that is, rough after t he tamping process,
or finished flat using a float. Concrete can be polished if repeated ly floated or trowe lled.
It is important to ensure concrete is allowed to set properly. This means allowing the
cement to set in the presence of water. If the concrete dries too quickly in hot weather
it will not set correctly. Therefore the concrete will need to be covered or drenched with
water while it cures.
How is concrete tested during and after pouring to ensure a good quality job
has been carried out?
36.1 Brushes
There are many types of brush that can be used, each with its own purpose.
Flat paint brushes: These brushes are available in many sizes: 12, 25, 37, 50 , 62, 75
and 100 mm. They are used to apply most types of paint, stain and varnish to wa lls,
ceilings, doors, frames and sashes.
Flat wall brushes: These brushes are available in 100, 125, 150 and 175 mm. They are
used to apply emulsion to large wall areas and adhesive onto wa llpaper.
Dusting brushes: These brushes are approximately 100 mm wide. They are used to
remove dirt and dust before applying paint.
Fitch brushes: These can be round or flat and come in a variety of sizes from 3 mm to
28 mm. They are used for fine detailed work.
36.2 Types of paint
Paints are made up of va rious chemicals suspended or dissolved in water or oil. If t he
paint is water-based, you can easily wash the brushes and equipment in soap and water.
Water-based paints are generally low odour. Oil-based paints and finishes tend to smell
stronger and you will need white spirit or a similar solvent to clean equipment.
Knotting solution: This is used on bare wood to seal knots. It is a liquid made from
shellac dissolved in alcohol. Knots may contain resin that will bleed through painted
fi nish. Knotting solut ion can be water- or oil-based.
Primer: This is used on bare wood to provide a good hold for the undercoat . It is th in
and soaks into the wood. Primer can be water- or oil-based.
Undercoat: This is a very importan t layer of paint that is sometimes left out to save
time. Undercoat should be applied in several layers with a light sanding between each
coat. This helps to make the finished product wa terproof and gives a smooth fin ish.
Top coat: Top coat or fin ishing coat comes in a va riety of fin ishes, such as gloss and
eggshell. This provides the decorative finish, but it will not be a good fi nish if the coat s
underneath are poor. Top coat can be water- or oil-based.
36.3 Surface preparation
It is very important that the surface is properly prepared and cleaned before any work
is started. Flaky old paint needs to be removed, holes and cracks need to be filled, and
imperfections need to be sanded flat. A sanded surface wi ll also provide a good key for a
new coat of paint.
36.4 Applying paint to walls
Walls are usually painted with emulsion. Large areas are covered with a roller, then fine
work (such as cutting in) is carried out with a brush. The wall may need several coats to
cover a contrasting colour.
Step 1 : Apply a watered-down coat of
Step 3 : Load roller using a roller bucket.
emulsion paint to new plaster. Th is
provides a good key.
Step 4 : Apply emulsion paint to the large
areas with a roller.
Step 2 : Cut into corners and mouldings
with a brush.
0
Key: paints will not stick to a surface that is too shiny. A slight sanding will
provide a suitable 'key' and prevent futu re flaking of the paint.
In the next few pages we will discuss tools used in the three main wood occupations:
carpentry (woodwork mainly concerned with the erection of buildings), joinery (the
manufacture of •'joinery" such as stairs, windows and doors), and fu rniture/cabinet work.
There are a large variety of tools available to the woodworker: marking-out tools, chisels,
planes, saws and striking tools.
0
Rod: a full-sca le workshop drawing showing all t he required details.
37 .1 Marking-out tools
Marking out involves transferring the dimensions from the rod or drawing to the work
piece. It is important that this is done accurately. If it is not done correctly then the job
will be wrong, no matter how good your cutting is. Therefore it is important to use the
proper marking-out tools and to maintain them well.
Pencil: The pencil needs to be sharp and not too soft for joiner y. A carpenter's pencil is
for drawing on damp or rough wood so it is softer.
Marking knife: This is used to mark very fine lines, especially for fine work such as
dovetails.
Try.square: This tool is used to square around timber. The stock (the thick wooden bit of
the square) is kept on the face without extending past the edge of the wood.
Combination square: This can be used to mark 90° or 45° angles. It can also be used
as a gauge by adj usting the blade and runn ing it along the edge of the timber.
Folding rule and tape measure: A folding ru le is used to take measurements. It can be
made of steel, plastic or wood. Retractable tape measures can also be used.
Gauge: Th is is used to mark parallel lines down the length of t imber. There are several
types of gauge - the marking gauge (has one pin, for marking housings), the mortice
gauge (for marking out mortices) and the cutting gauge (for marking out hinges).
Sliding bevel: This is used to mark angles such as dovetails. A chalk line can be
stretched between two points and then flicked to produce a straight line.
37.2 Chisels
A chisel is a very important tool for work ing with wood, for chopping mor tices, cutting out
housings and for cleaning up joints before assembly. It has a long blade and a wooden or
plastic handle.
Ferrule
Tong
.
I
Shoulder
Socket
Blad e
Cuttlng -+edge
I
Ha ndle
Metal ferrule
)
Figure 3 7.1 Parts of a ch isel
Bevel-edged chisel
Firmer chisel
Mortic e chisel
Figure 3 7.2 Cross-sections of chisel types
Bevel-edged chisel: A bevel-edged chisel is the normal chisel in common use. The long
edges are bevelled, making it easier to get into tight corners.
Firmer chisel: This is square in section rather than bevelled, so it cannot be used in tight
corners like the bevel-edged chisel. However, it is stronger because there is more metal
in the blade.
Mortice chisel: This is very thick and strong, able to withstand a lot of hitting and
sideways force. It is used to make mortices in timber and to form mortice and tenon
joints. The sides of the blade are deep, so it follows the side of the mortice and this
stops t he chisel twisting in use.
0
Mortice and tenon j oints: a mortice is a hole cut into timber. This allows a
tenon formed on a second piece of t imber to fit into it.
37.3 Planes
A plane is used to smooth and shape
t imber to leave a flat surface. There
are many types of plane, each with a
different function, but most have the
same parts. Some planes are better
suited to producing flat surfaces while
others can be used for cutting rebates,
grooves and bevels.
Bac~lng Iran
Cutting Iron
Lever c op
Coo fron screw
AOJusting lever
Smoothing plane: This is a short plane
used for cleaning up work, not very good
at planing straight faces or edges as it
will fol low an uneven shape.
Mouth
Frog
Adjusting nut
Sole
Jack plane: This is a longer plane, good
for planing straight but not good for
cleaning up work as the long bed will ride
on the high spots.
Try plane: This is very long and good for
making t imber straight. It is not seen
often as it is very expensive and hard to
carry around.
Block plane: This is very short, used for
cutting end grain. It has a different angle
of cut and no backing iron so It can rip
the grain if used for cleaning up work.
Shoving cut by Iron.
passes through
mouth and Is broken
by bO~klng lion
Shaving
Bocking Iron
Sole
Timber
Figure 37 .3 A plane with the parts labelled
Rebate plane: Used to produce rebates. Some planes have two fences (guides) that can
be set to the requ ired sizes of the rebates.
Spokeshave: Used to plane curves. There are two types - one for internal (concave)
curves and one for external (convex) curves.
Hand router : Used to produce housings, this should not be confused with an electric
router.
Plough plane: A plough plane is used to cut grooves. It is fragile and quite expensive
so you need to take great care when using one. Combination planes are very similar.
Grooving is now often done with an electric router.
37.4 Saws
Saws are used to cut wood.
Handle
Back
Blade
Toe
Heel
Tooth
Figure 37.4 Parts of a saw
Hand saw: A hand saw is a general purpose
saw with 5-8 teeth per 25 mm of blade.
Panel saw: This is very similar to a hand saw
but has smaller teeth. It has 7-12 teeth per
25 mm of blade.
Tenon saw: This has a back attached to the
blade to make it stiffer. It is used to cut joints
and is good at cutting across the grain of the
wood. It is used with a bench hook and has
12-14 teeth per 25 mm of blade. A dovetail
saw is a type of tenon saw with smaller teeth
(18-24 teeth per 25 mm).
Figure 3 7 .5 Tenon saw
Coping saw: This is used for cutting curves.
It is important to keep the blade tensioned
correctly and to cut carefully as the blade can
snap easily.
0
Bench hook: this is used to hold
timber on top of the bench while
cutting shoulders.
Tensioned: when a blade is kept
tight. With a coping saw this is
done by turning the handle.
Figure 37.6 Bench hook
37.5 Striking tools
Hammers and mallets are commonly used by the woodworker. Hammers are used to
drive fixings while mallets are used for assembly and with chisels.
Hammer: This is used to drive nails, pins and wedges. It is not used for driving screws.
Some hammers have a claw that can be used to pull out nails.
Mallet: This is made of hardwood and is used to strike chisels when housing or morticing.
A mallet is also useful for the assembly of joints as it does not damage the wood.
A
Before using power tools there are some
safety checks that must be carried out.
• Is there any damage to the cord? Check for
cuts to the outer insulation (or tape repa irs
which could be hidihg problems}.
• Check the plug for damage. Is it wired correctly?
• Check the body of the tool. Is the casing
cracked?
•
Check for damage to wiring
Is the tool the correct voltage for the supply?
Use power tools with an RCD (residual current device).
38.1 Drill (pillar and battery)
There are two main types of powered drill: pillar drill and power drill.
A pillar drill is excellent for accurate repetitive work, especially when working with metal.
Power drills are useful for general drilling operations into masonry, metal, plastics or
t imber. Battery drills are very commonly used for driving screws. A power drill can be
powered by mains electricity or by battery.
Research the different drill bits available and the purposes of each. Include
screwdriver bits. Produce a booklet explaining each type.
38.2 Circular saw
This is a very useful tool, mainly used for ripping (cutting down the grain) timber and
sheet materials. Before use, check the riving kn ife is in place (if the machine is designed
to have one) and that the guard works properly, springing back into position readily.
38.3 Chop saw
Chop saws are used for cross-cutting, for both straight or angled cuts. A chop saw that
can be adjusted for angle and canted (leaned) over can produce compound cuts (cuts
that are angled in both dimensions). Chop saws must not be used for cutting along the
grain (for example, wedges).
38.4 Planer
A planer is used to plane timber, reducing it in thickness. It is important to ensure that
the dust bag is emptied regularly as they become blocked very quickly and this severely
affects the finish.
38.5 Belt sander
This is a heavy-duty sander, designed for stock remova l on large jobs. It must be kept
moving while in use, otherwise it may cause a "we lt " or "dwell mark" (a gouge in the
surface of the finished product).
A
Belt sanders are well known for catching loose clothing or hair, so make sure
clothing is kept we ll out of the way and hair is tied back.
38.6 Orbital sander
This is a finishing sander. A standard orbital sander will leave little rings on the finished
product and is not suitable for anything that will be stained or polished. A random orbital
sander will not leave any marks.
38.7 Jigsaw
This is a small saw used to cut curves, for example, a cut-out in a worktop for a sink or
hob. Jigsaws tend not to be very accurate, and the cut is often out of square.
38.8 Pinner and nail gun
These tools use compressed air, fuel cells (gas) or electricity to fire fixings into timber
for a variety of purposes. These range from fixing upholstery and glazing beads to fixing
large nails to attach rafters or t imber f rame components together.
Research the use of nail guns and pinners. Make a safety poster regard ing the
use of these tools.
38.9 Router
The router is one of the most useful power tools available to the woodworker. Among
the wide range of j obs a router can be used for are profi ling t imber (producing rebates
and mouldings), cutting recesses for hinges and cutting cut-outs in worktops. One of the
main advantages of a router is that it can be used with a jig. This is a template which
ensures the router cuts accurately, even for repetit ive work.
A
All tools, especially power tools and woodworking machines, need regular
maintenance to ensure they are safe and efficient. Regular inspection of
tooling (replacing the tooling if defective), of guards and for other fau lts is
essential. Any fau lts must be immediately reported and the tool not used until
the fau lt is rectified.
Woodworking machinery is extremely dangerous if not used by trained,
competent people. It is important that you are properly trained before using
any machine.
A
39.1 Fixed circular saw
There are several table saws available.
Rip saw: Generally used for ripping planks into smaller
sections, these are fitted with a rip blade and must not be
used for cross cutting (cutting at right angles to t he grain).
The riving knife and guard are vital to the
safe use of a rip or dimensioning saw. The
riving kn ife helps to prevent timber being cut
from pinching the back of the blade, and the
guard preven ts serious injury to finge rs, but
only if it is set correctly (that is, as close to
the workpiece as possible).
A
Figure 39.1 Rip saw
Crown
guord:::_,....-.:::~!r....._
Fence
Doeping
Flatting
Push stick
Figure 39.2 Using a circular saw
Find out what purpose a wedge serves in re lation to rip saws.
A
Not all blades are the same - they are designed for different purposes. It is
importa nt to know this and to select the correct type. Not doing so can be
exceedingly dangerous. A positive hook blade is made for ripping and must not
be used for cross cutting because it will 'scratch' the t imber being cut.
Top
Point
Gullet
Bock
Front
;;~
.' /
·:- -
Positive hook
Teeth for ripping softwood
'
' ''
' '
~4+<'-I
Line of cen!re saw
Teeth for ripping hardwood
- -
1
•
Negative hook
Teeth for softwood crosscutting
Teeth for hardwood crosscutting
Chisel-edge
teeth for ripping
Needle-point teeth
for crosscutting
Rake of
tooth positive
for ripping
Rake of
tooth negative
for crosscutting
Crosscutting
teeth
Ripping
tooth
Combination teeth for dimension saw
Figure 39.3 Circular saw teeth
Cross cut saw: This is used for cutting planks to length. The saw bench must be marked
300 mm from each side of the blade. Hands must be kept away from this area for safety
reasons. This saw has a tendency to draw itself across the timber (snatch) and therefore
great care must be taken when pulling the saw over the timber being cut.
Find out what purpose a return spring serves in relation to crosscut saws.
Dimensioning saw: This is an accurate machine designed for cutting sheet material and
finer work. It has a sliding bed and a fence to place sheet materials on.
39.2 Narrow band saw
A narrow band saw is used for smaller cross cutting and ripping purposes and for cutting
curves.
-
Using manufacturers' information, research the safe and efficient set-up of a
band saw. Produce a booklet with illustrations including topics such as safety,
changing blades, tensioning, setting the thrust wheel and guarding assembly.
Power feed
recommended
for safer straight
Nt-.,.-;, cutting
Hands p laced on either
side o f cutting line
Guard adjusted
close to workpiece
Fence
Freehand
curved cutting
~
All moving ~ -tports totally
~
enclosed
Relax blade
tension at end
o f work shift
Material being cut
Adjustable guard
with front and
side flanges
- -
--. Only cutting
-,,·.J - J_
section exempt
• j• __ •
from complete
Gap --.•. guarding
between
thrust wheel
and table
OS close OS
possible
Fence Material
being cut
Push stick for
final feeding
Guard adjusted as
close as possible
to workpiece
Safer curved cutting
Gulde pin fitted
to odjustoble
Guide pin
guard
runs on
Templa te fixed
template
to workpiece
Guide block to keep
Straight cutting workpiece against fence
against a fence
Figure 39.4 Band saw
"'""',._
Direction of feed
39.3 Planer
There are two main types of planer as well as combination machines.
Surface planer: This is used to produce a straight and square face and edge.
Thlcknesser: This is used to bring t imber to width and thickness.
Adjustable
bod
ra
At least
diameter P\Jsh blcck to be
afblock used fer machlnln
short pieces
.:::I>.;::i,.:.:"":M nlmum
Material being
planed
tab'egap
~~i
Circular
Minimum gop
between toble
I ps and cutting
circ le
blocl<
Bridge
guard
Rear cutter
bockguord
Bndgeguarcl
must be
adjusted
to suit
operation
Bevel p'onlng us ng
Show guards
Drive mechanism
and planing block
fully covered below table
Surfacing
Fence
Bndgeguo,o
lvllnlmu~\goo \
•
Edging
Bridge guard
Min.mum gap
\
Minimum
gap
Material being planed
Mcnerlal being planed
lvlaterlal being planeo
Figure 39.5 Hand-fed planing machine
Research types of planer cutter blocks. Which type is safest and why should it
be used?
39.4 Morticer
A morticer is used to produce quick and accurate mortices in timber. They use a hollow
square chisel with a rotating auger in the middle that removes the waste t imber. The
best machines are purpose-made morticers, but drill presses can be adapted to be used
as morticers.
40.1 Types of joint
There are a wide variety of joints used by the carpente r, joiner and cabinet maker.
Some joints are simple and easy to produce, others take considerable skill.
Butt Joint: This is one of the most basic of
wood joints, often used in stud work , but it is
not strong. One piece of wood is simply fixed
to another with nails or screws.
Figure 40.1 Butt joint
Halving Joint: This is a fa irly simple joint
to produce, formed by joining two pieces of
wood along the length or at corners.
Figure 40.2 Halving joint
Mortice and tenon Joint: This strong joint
is used for frames, doors and windows. The
wedges need to fit well , with the grain going
in the correct direction or they cou ld snap.
Figure 40.3 Mortice and tenon j oint
Housing joint: This is often used in door
Dovetail joint: Commonly used in fu rniture
linings or for shelving.
manufacture fo r items like boxes and
drawers, this is decorative and strong but
takes t ime to produce.
L
~
.
.,
I/-
~
Figure 40.4 Housing j oint
Through
lopped
Scribe Joint: A scribe is used for internal
joints on skirting. They are resistant to
shrinkage so there are fewer gaps.
Figure 40.5 Dovetail joint showing
tails and pins
Figure 40.6 Scribe j oint
Mitre joint: This is used for external joints
on skirting and other mouldings. A similar
joint can be used to join length s of skirting
known as a header joint.
mitre header Joint
Figure 40. 7 Mitre and header joint
40.2 Marking out joinery
Before marking out and making an item of joinery, it is best practice to draw a rod.
Mark out all the j oints before cutting, with the exception of dovetails as it is usual to
cut the tails first and mark the pins from the tails.
0
Face and edge: th e two best sides of the timbe r. Square and gauge lines are
taken from these.
Step 1: When selecting your timber, make
sure any defects such as knots are not on
joints as these could make it hard to cut or
make the j oint weak. Shakes (splits in the
wood) can be placed away from the face
and edge.
Step 2: Mark the face and edges first.
When producing a frame , the face edges
will a ll point inwards and the faces will
poin t to the front. This will ensure that you
produce stiles (the upright parts) and rai ls
(the horizontal parts) of the correct hand.
Figure 40.8 Partially assembled frame
showing face and edge marks
Step 3: Now mark the joint posit ions
including waste to be cut off later. Stiles
or ra ils that are the same length can be
marked at the same time, saving t ime and
ensuring they are the same length.
Step 4 : Use a gauge to mark the depth or
position of the joints from the face.
Step 5: Hatch waste with a pencil to ensure
you cut the right side of the line.
Figure 40.9 Gauging the joint
40.3 Marking out carpentry
As with joinery, sometimes it is a good idea to draw out your markings first. This can be
done to scale if your marki ngs are too large to fit on paper.
When marking out studwork or joists, the measurements are usually given as centres.
0
Centre: j oists and rafters are spaced from centre to centre.
Cutting
Prepare square timber with a jack plane and cut it to length using a tenon saw, taking
care to move your thumb out of the way. Follow the line you have squared all around the
timber, taking care when finishing the cut as it might split.
A
As soon as you begin to cut, take your hand away from the cutting edge of the
saw.
Tee halving joint
This technique can be used for making a housing joint.
Step 1: Cut down the sides of the
Step 3: Remove the centre, taking care
housing.
not to go right through the material as
this will cause it to split. Use your gauge
line to put your chisel in to finish the
housing.
Step 2: Using a sharp chisel, remove
the middle of the joint. Notice the " roof"
shape.
Step 4: This is what the oth er half of the
joint should look like. It is cut using a
similar technique as for a tenon.
It does not matter if the joint is a little hollow, but if there is a high point inside the joint
will not fit. A long narrow housing can be fin ished with a router.
Morticing
There are several methods of morticing. One is shown below.
Step 1 : Use a bench cramp to hold down the material with a scrap piece of wood to
prevent damage to the t imber. Start in the centre, leaving about 5 mm at each end.
Step 2: Work your way down, making sure that the waste Is pulled out of the joint
each time.
Step 3: When you get halfway through, turn the wood around. Do not go all the way
through as you do not want to split the wood.
Step 4 : When the two mortices meet, clean out any remaining waste with a blunt
instrument such as a rule.
Step 5 : Clean out the ends of the mortice.
A
Do not cut toward your hands or body and keep your fingers out of the way .
. . If you slip, the chisel is likely to go into you.
Cutting tenons
On smaller tenons or halving joints this will be done with
a tenon saw. For a larger tenon you can use a hand saw.
If your joinery product has a rebate, you should run the
cheeks first, run the mould and then shoulder the tenon
after rebating.
0
Cheek: t he parts of the timber at the sides
of th e tenon that get cut off.
The cut follows the hatched side of the line; this is the
waste. The saw has a kerf, that is, the thickness of the
cut removed by the saw, so if you cut down the middle of
the line, then the tenon or ha lving j oint will be the wrong
size. If you leave too much waste after the saw cut you
will need to spend t ime cleaning up the j oint with a chisel.
Figure 40.10 Cutting a
cheek. Lean the timber away
from you and cut from corner
to corner.
Mitres and scribes
As you have seen, mitres are used for external joints
on mouldings while scribes are used for internal joints.
The steps for cutting a scribe are described below.
Figure 40.11 Cut follows the
hatched side of the line.
Step 1 : Mitre the mou lded part.
Step 2 : Cut t he flat par t of the scribe first, with a tenon saw, from the bottom. Then cut
the curved part with a coping saw. The scribe is slightly undercut , meaning the face of
the joint fits t ightly.
Step 3: Assemble the scribe.
Chamfers, rebates and grooves
The parts of a joinery item are often shaped to
improve its appearance or to allow panels or glass
to be fitted to it. This is known as moulding.
A chamfer is made using a jack plane. Mark the
depth of the chamfer and plane down to the line.
When marking a chamfer do not use a gauge as it
will leave a line which you can 't plane out .
A rebate is made using a rebate plane. Set the
fence and stop at the required size. When setting,
remember to measure to the blade, not to the bed
of the tool.
Figure 40.12 Chamfer, rebate and
groove
A groove can be made using a plough plane.
Cutting curves
Curves are cut with a coping saw. As the curve will need cleaning up, cut about 1 mm
past the line on the waste side. When cutting, look at where the blade is going rather
than the frame of th e saw as sometimes th e blade will twist. Keep the blade under
tension so that it does not snap.
The curve will need to be cleaned up using a spokeshave. Make sure you use the right
type of spokeshave and that it is ve ry sharp.
Figure 40.13 Cutting with a coping saw
Figure 40.14 Finishing with a spokeshave
Dovetails
When making dovetails it is best to cut the tails first. You can then remove the waste
with a coping saw and clean it up with a sharp chisel. Then mark the pins (or housings)
from the dovetail.
Figure 40.15 Remove waste
with a coping saw
Figure 40.16 Use the tails to
mark the pins
40.4 Assembly
Before you assemble a j ob make sure you have everything you will need: cramps,
wedges, fixings, glue and tools.
Cramping: Cramping is very important. It ensures joints come up tight and it holds the
joints together while you fix them. The outside wedges are put in first as th is pushes
the ra ils tight into the mortices and ensures there are no gaps around the inside
of the frame.
Screws: These are commonly used for fixing, however, it is important to pre-drill them
before driving them in so that the wood does not split.
Nalls: If you are not careful nails can split the wood, particularly near the edges.
Pre-drill ing or blunting nails first can prevent this. Use a hammer to drive in the nail.
A nail punch can be used to drive the nail below the surface.
A
Once the nail has started to go in, keep your hand out of the way in case the
nail punch slips off and hits your fingers.
Wedges: These must be cut accurately and the grain must go the correct way. When
assembled, check the frame for square and twist. A square frame will measure the
same across each corner. Look down the side of the frame from one side to the other.
If the two pieces are not in line the frame is twisted. A frame that is out of square can
be squared by applying pressure to the long diagonal before the glue dries. A slight twist
can be put right by gently twist ing the frame the other way until it springs back flat.
Finishing: When the frame is assembled a joiner will fin ish it with a smoothing plane.
The plane needs to be set fine and be very sharp. After this the j ob can be lightly sanded.
Carpen try jobs do not need sanding but screws and nails need to sit below the surface.
41.1 Elements of a roof
Roofs provide much more than shelter to a building. They form part of the structure,
providing stability to the wa lls by binding everything togethe r. In areas prone to hurricanes,
it is particularly important to use robust methods to tie the roof to the walls and the
walls to the floor and foundations.
Ceiling joist
Ceiling lining
Gutter /
Soffit bearer
Fascia
~-H-- Woll framing
Soffit
Na il fixings
Interior lining
Timber moulding
Exterior clodding
Figure 41.1 Structure of a roof
Abutment: where a roof meets a wall.
Eaves: the overhanging bottom part of the roof. The overhang and attached gutter
protect the wa ll below from ra in damage.
Flashing: waterproof seals (usually metal or plastic) that prevent water ingress around
joints in a roof, for example, around a chimney where it cornes through the roof covering.
Valley: where two sloped parts of a roof meet.
Verge: the angled edge of a roof, often overhanging to provide protection to the wa ll below.
Research local methods used to strengthen buildings to protect them against
the effects of hurricanes. Draw sketches of these methods.
41.2 Components of a cut roof
The traditional method of building a roof is known as a
cut roof. This is where all the components are calculated
(angles and length) and then cut by hand. The roof is then
assembled on site.
Plumb,;.c:..:utc..:s=------r--
--1
Find out the purpose of each of these
component parts to a roof:
common rafter, ridge board, wall plates,
hip rafters, jack rafters, crown rafters,
cripple rafte rs, valley rafters, purlin,
ladder frames, ceiling joists, blinders
and hangars.
::::::::='.'.__ Overhang
Figure 41.2 Rafter cuts
41.3 Rafter cuts
The plumb cut is the vertical cut; seat cuts are the horizontal cuts. The angles of
these cuts remain constant throughout the roof (except for cuts on any hip rafters).
A birdsmouth cut is a combination of these two basic cuts.
There are other cuts involved in a roof. Research the make-up of a cut roof.
The cuts and lengths of rafters can be
calcu lated by several means.
Scale drawing: The roof can be drawn
out on a sheet of plywood or MDF. You
will need to mark the measurements
given and join up the points. This will
give you the angles of the plumb and
birdsmouth cuts. These angles can be
transferred to the timber using a sliding
bevel. The length will be marked on a line
that is two-thirds of the depth of
thera~~
Fi~reU.3 Markingout
Research the geometry of a roof. How would you determine the cuts and
lengths for hips, jack rafters and purlins?
Roofing square : There are several roofing squares available using different methods to
produce the details required to cut a roof. The square is used for determin ing angles in
conjunction with a "fence" - a batten th at is fixed to th e square at predetermine d points
on the square.
Find a photo of a roofing square and research its use.
Ready-reckoner: This is a book tha t gives all required details in table form or an app
on a phone that gives you the details you need when information is entered. This
information is directly tran sferred onto th e rafters.
Calculate the length of the common ra fter and hip rafter for a roof that has a
span of 4 m and a rise of 1.6 m. Calculate the plumb and seat cuts for both
rafters. Use two methods and see if the results match. What pitch (angle) is
this roof?
41.4 Trussed rafter roof
Many roofs are now constructed using roof trusses. These are pre-fabrica ted in a factory
under controlled conditions. The timber is stress graded (tested for strength) and fixed
together using metal plates. These trusses are strong when placed upright, but weak
when laid down on their side so care must be taken when carrying them.
Trusses are designed carefully to ensure they can carry the loads imposed upon them.
Therefore trusses come with detailed instructions, and they must be fixed and braced as
instructed.
•
41.5 Working at height
Sometimes you need to stand on something
to reach the work to be done. This is known as
a working platform or access equipment. It is
important to use safe, we ll-maint ained equipment
designed for the job. It must be assembled and
used according to the manufacturer's instru ction s.
Figure 41.4 A working platform
A
Ladders should be free from damage, with no missing rungs or splits in the
sides. Steps should always be on a level surface. Do not use painted ladders.
Paint could be hiding dangerous defects or repairs.
Ladder: Ladders are not suitable for prolonged work operations, but can be used for
access to working platforms.
Stepladder: Used for brief jobs. There is a risk of fa lling from the ladder, especially if
overreaching. They can also be accidentally knocked over by other people.
Trestles: These are metal stands onto wh ich boards are laid, form ing a platform.
A handrail must be fitted to prevent fa lling.
Scaffold: This is a working platform made from tubu lar metal. It should be erected and
altered only by trained scaffolders. Scaffolds can be putlog, independent or tower.
Gua rd ra il
Gua rd rail
Intermediate
rail o r mesh
g ua rd
Intermed iate
ra il or mesh
guord
Platform four
or five boards
wide
Standards
Transom
dlogonol
b race
Ledgers
Reveal -...
tie
Brid le tube
Throug h tie
Standard-.,
Base plate
Sole pla te
\
Base plates
/
Sole plates
Putlog
Independent
Figure 41.5 Types of scaffolds
Research the safe use of work ing platforms including scaffold, tower scaffold
and trestle platforms. Produce a safety poster on the safe use of these
platforms. Include details on handrails, toe boards and trip hazards.
42.1 Doors
Doors have several functions beyond giving access to a room or building.
Security: Externa l doors need to be secure, and therefore must be strong enough
to resist the force of an intruder without the j oints breaking or the lock breaking
out of the stile.
Protection against the weather: Doors also keep out the wind and ra in. An external door
should be made of a material that is resistant to rain and heat.
Privacy: Doors are produced with varying amounts of glazing. More glazing lets in more
light, but this also means less privacy. If light is a priority, privacy can still be achieved by
using obscure glass, that is, glass that is t ranslucent and lets light through but cannot
be looked through. Glass that is in a door and surround ing a door must be safety glass
(either toughened or laminated).
Ventilation: Where security or privacy is essential but ventilation is also required, louvers
can be included in the door design. Louvers are horizontal slats of timber set into the
stiles of the door at 45° with the lower edge fac ing out. This allows a ir to pass through
the door, bu t prevents rain from getting in. It also provides privacy and security: Louvers
can also be made from metal or glass, and can be adjustable to allow more or less air to
pass through.
Sound insulation: Doors are at times required to deaden sound. Doors can be
constructed with solid materials that inhibit the passage of sound. Hollow doors have
poor sound insulation properties.
Fire resistance: Some doors are requ ired to be fire res istant. These doors have dense
solid cores, and are used in conjunction with fire-res istant ironmonge ry and frames.
Research fire resistance in doors. What fire rated doors are available?
How are they labelled?
A
It is important th at FLB (framed, !edged and braced) and LB (!edged and
braced) doors are braced, especially LB doors as they have no frame (that is,
no stiles or ra ils). They are liable to drop over time if not braced. The braces
must be well fixed, go upwards from the hinge side, and not be at an angle of
less than 45° in relation to the braces.
Doors come in a variety of styles.
Pa ttern 10
2XG (half g lazed)
Six panel doo r
Portcullis door
LB (ledged and braced)
matc hb oarded door
FLB (framed ledged
a nd braced)
matc hboarded d oor
French door
..
Flush d oor
Figure 42.1 Type s of door
42.2 Door construction
r=;::==========:;::i--Head
-+-- Jomb
l;=;;=======:;::::::;n----f -+-- Transom
l--------==t-n-t- - --r1- Top rail
Mullion
.......,__ __,__,__ Stiles
-+-- --1--1--
-+----11-.+----1-t-- Middle ra il
+ - - - 1 - + 1 - 1 - - - - H - - Muntin
-+--<+-+-----+-+- Panel
i--~~----=:::1.-U----1--1- Bottom ro ll
c:=========~-
Figure 42.2 Door and frame components
Cill
42.3 Hanging a door
The process of hanging a door is made much easier if the frame (or the lining to which
it will be fitted ) has been carefully installed with the jambs of the frame straight, plumb
and out of twist. The head must be level. Check the door lining before fitting the door.
Also check that it is t he correct door for the opening, and on which side of the door lining
it will be hung.
The door is then planed to the size of the open ing, allowing a 2 mm gap all around the
door (commonly known as a '·penny gap"), and a 5 mm gap at t he bottom. This will
need to be increased if there is a thick carpet for the door to open over. Externa l doors
sometimes a lso require a rebate to be taken from the bottom ra il. This can easily be
done using a router.
You should always use a jack plane to fit a door. As the plane is longer th an a smoothing
plane, it will produce a straighter edge to the door and therefore a more even gap.
Door hanging tips
Always apply a leading edge to a door. This involves making a slight bevel to the closing
side of the door, giving clearance as the door shuts.
Frame
I
Leading edge
to door
~~
Hinge
Figure 42.3 Apply a leading edge to a door
The bottom hinge is always fu rther in from the end of the door than t he top hinge. This is
more pleasing to the eye. Common measurements for this are 225 mm from t he bottom
and 150 mm from t he top, with any middle hinge being at the centre of these. Use a
sharp pencil or marking knife to mark out the hinge leaves. A marking gauge is also
useful for marking an accurate parallel line to cut to.
Be sure to mark the door and frame at the same time, and indicate on wh ich side of the
mark the hinge will be put, as it is easy to chop the hinge out from the wrong side of the line.
150mm
-
r·
-
-0
:::,
rr
UJ
- - .-
•
-0
:::,
rr
UJ
--' 225mm
-
-1,
Figure 42.4 Position of hinges
The hinges can be cut ou t either by hand using a wide ch isel or with a router in
conjunction with a jig. This must be carried out accurately or t he door may bind
when shut.
First position
Last position
Figure 42.5 Cutting out hinges
When t he door is hung, the door latch and handle can be fitted along with the door stops
and any other ironmongery.
Working in pairs, have a go at hanging a door.
Research the process of fitting a tubu lar latch and handles. Produce a
step-by-step guide to carrying out this process with safety tips.
42.4 Windows
Windows serve similar functions to external doors, and can be used for escape in case
of emergency. There are a large va riety of window designs.
Research traditional and modern windows. Sketch an elevation and sections of:
•
a traditional casement
•
a hopper window
•
an awning window
•
a sliding sash window (vertica l and horizontal)
•
a pivot.
42.5 Ironmongery
Iron mongery is a term that applies to metal items such as hinges, locks and letter
plates, whether or not t hey are made from iron.
Hinges
There are a number of types of hinge.
Butt hinge: The most simple hinge, this consists of two plates of metal (leaves) with a
l<nuckle formed down one side and j oined together with a pin. The two halves are joined,
but can pivot free ly. The knuckles sometimes incorporate washers or bearings which
make the hinge harder wearing.
Double action hinge: Used for ··two-way" doors, these hinges incorporate springs that
have to be tensioned after fitting them.
Concealed hinge: Used for lighter duty work such as cabinet work, this hinge is invisible
when the door is shut.
Tee hinge: A face fixed hinge, this is most commonly used on ledged and braced doors.
Research the following hinges and their uses: parliament hinge, rising butt
hinge and flush hinge.
Locks and latches
A latch holds a door closed and will allow it to open when a handle or knob is turned.
The latch mechanism is activated by a square spindle that passes through the door and
loca tes into th e handles. Most latches and locl<s available today are easily adaptable for
right-hand hung or left-hand hung doors.
A deadlock will secure a door with the turn of a key; the door cannot be reopened without
the key. Latches and deadlocks are often combined into one lock.
Rim locks are face mounted and generally considered low security. Cylinder night latches
are a type of rim lock. More secure versions of these are now available.
A hasp and staple are used on low security doors. A padlock can be used to secure this
type of door.
Bolts come in a variety of types, and are used to lock doors from the inside, or to hold
one of a pair of doors.
Using tra de literat ure, produce a poster of commonly available ironmongery for
doors, windows and furniture.
Timber floors are made from joists, that is, horizontal beams that are built into the
wa ll or are supported at the ends. These are covered with a decking material and
the underside of an upper floor will carry a ceiling on its lower side, usually made of
plasterboard.
Complications ari se vvhen openings have to be made in a floor because j oists have to be
cut, and the ends of the cut joists need to be supported. Examples of openings in floors
include around stairs or chimneys.
43.1 Types of joist
A bridging joist is a j oist that spans
the whole width of the floor, usually
from wa ll to wa ll.
A trimming joist is the same as
a bridging j oist, but will carry the
weight of a trimmer j oist. These
joists are often doubled up fo r
strength.
A trimmer joist is placed at right
angles to the rest of the j oists.
It carries the weight of the cut ends
of the trimmed joists.
Trimmed j oists are cut shorter than
the rest to provide the opening in
the floor. The ends of these are
supported by the trimmer joist.
200 x 50 mm bndg ng
joists ot 400 mm centres
Stoirwall
200 x 75mm
trimming joist
200x50 mm
•nmmed jo sls
200 x 75mm
!rimming jo:sl
Timber to l imber ( TT)
joist h ongar
Figure 43.1 Floor joist
Research the joist and rafter table provided by the timber research and
development association (TRADA). This table specifies maximum spans for
given joist and rafte r section sizes.
A quick and easy way to work out the maximum span of a given joist section is
to divide the span of the joist (in mm) by 20, then add 20. This works on 50 mm
thick joists spaced at 400 mm centres. For example, a span of 3200 mm would
give a joist size of 180 mm (3200 divided by 20 = 160, 160 + 20 =180). Try one
for yourself: calculate the minimum depth of a joist with a span of 3.8 m.
Generally speaking, j oists will run the shortest span of the room. This means that the
joists can be smaller in sect ion.
A single floor is the simplest form of t imber floor. The bridging joists span between wa lls
with no fu rther support required. If t he span Is more than 4.8 m, then single joists will
not be practical, th erefore a double floor will be required. These have additional beams
ru nning at right angles to the bridging j oists (usually made from steel. but sometimes
timber in older buildings}.
A triple floor has addit ional beams but t hese are not commonly used.
2.1 m x 200 mm
bridging joist
Steel universa l
beom (UB)
Joists bearing
on wall
Figure 43.2 Joists in a double floor
Joists can be supported at the ends by building them into a wall, using a j oi st hanger
or on wa ll plates.
Figure 43.3 Built-in jo ist in a
cavity wa ll
Figure 43.4 Joist supported by
a timber-to-wall j oist hanger in a
cavity wall
Figure 43.5 Honeycombed sleeper wall
Hollow and suspended timber floors
Joist
Covlly
Inner
Insulation blockwork
Over-site
concrete
DPC
vVollplote
Hard core
External
bric kwork
Fine concrete
c a vity ftll
Figure 43.6 Suspended ground fl oor
Trimmed
joists
Trimmer
joists
Joist ends
supported
on wall
Bridging
Joists
Trimming Joist
C himney breast
Cavity wall
Figure 43. 7 Upper fl oor
Ground and upper floors can be made of th is construction. Ground floors consist of
bridging joists supported on the ends by wa lls, and sometimes th roughout their length
by sleeper wa lls if required. Underfloor ventilation is very important because trapped
dampness can cause rot. Upper floors are of a similar construction. The floor covering
can be floorboards, plywood or ch ipboard. Strutting is used to stiffen the joists.
Suspended concrete floor (block and beam)
Inner
blockwork
Cavi1y
Insulation
External
b rickwork
DPC
Blockwork
infill slabs
Fine concrete Pre-cast concrete
cavity fill
beams
Figure 43.8 Suspended concrete floor
These floors consist of concrete beams with block infill. Concrete is poured over the top.
Sometimes the floor is cast "in-situ '' meaning the floor is solid re inforced concrete that
is poured onto formwork.
What type of floor are you like ly to be on now? What is it made from? Draw a
like ly cross-section of the floor with labels and appropriate hatching symbols.
43.2 Installing floor joists
First the height of the floor needs to be determined. This will be a given height from the
fi nished height of the floor below. Joists must be laid with any camber uppermost, so the
weight of the floor is pushing against it.
0
Camber: this refers to the s light curve in the depth of a joist.
Joists are made of t imber so they tend to warp over time, seriously affecting the strength
of the floor, the refore strutting is used.
Solid strutting is common ly used. Solid pieces of joist are cu t in between the joists and
nailed in , usually from offcuts. This prevents the joists from moving, stiffen ing the floor
structure. However, if the joists shrink too much in thickness, then the strutting can
loosen over time.
Herringbone strutting is a better but more time-consuming method. Because of its
scissor-like shape, it actua lly t ightens as the j oists shrink, making a ve ry strong
structure. There are proprietary metal versions available.
Section
Figure 4 3.9 Herringbone strutting
43.3 Joist coverings
The floor surface (the decking or covering) can be made from
floorboards (softwood or hardwood), chipboard or plywood.
Flooring material generally is jointed using a tongue and
groove. If a sheet material is being used, the joints can be
glued to increase strength and reduce squeaking.
Hardwood floorboards can be ··secret nailed" , that is, the
fixings are driven th rough the tongue so the fixings cannot be
seen in the finished floor. However, this method is not suitable
for wider boards as they are more likely to cup over time.
Figure 4 3.10 Skew nailed
' ..J
Wide boards are much more firmly held down if the nails
are skewed, that is, put in at an angle.
Joints (known as header joints) along the length of boards
should be finished on a joist. This improves strength and
provides some timber to wh ich the j oint can be firmly nailed.
-
Figure 4 3.11 Secret nailing
Services (electrical cable and pipes) run through a floor, therefore the joists
must be notched or drilled. If cut in the wrong places, the joist can be
weakened. Research the proper places in a joist to cut holes or notches and
produce a drawing of the safest zones to cut.
43.4 Specialist wood finishes
Hardwood fin ishes are used for fu rniture and joinery such as windows and doors.
These are applied with brushes, rags and pads, or spray buttons.
Varnish and stain
Varnish can be clear or coloured, as well as satin or gloss. It allows the grain of the wood
to show through and is usually used indoors on joinery or fu rniture. Varnish can be waterbased or oil-based.
French polish
French polish is a high-quality fin ish made from shellac d issolved in alcohol. It is applied
using a rubber and can achieve a very high gloss fin ish. It can only be used indoors as it
is easily damaged by water.
Step 1 : Rub down the hardwood surface first, taking care to sand along the grai n.
Step 2 : Apply oil with a rag or brush, working with the grain. Each coat will build the fin ish.
Ste p 3: Varnish and stain can be applied with a brush, but be careful not to put too
much on at once. Aga in, work with the grain.
Ste p 4 : Apply French polish to the prepared surface using a rubber in a "figure of eight"
pattern. Keep building up the layers until the required finish is achieved.
It takes a bit of work to get French polish to look right, but it slowly builds up to a
glossy finish.
A
Oil and French polishes are flammable. A bin fil led with rags that have been
used with either substance is a fire hazard. Make sure you dispose of rags
very carefully.
Stairs provide access between floors. They are made from a series of steps, each
consisting of a tread (the horizontal part that is stepped upon) and a riser, (the vertica l
part between t reads}.
Stairs can be straight or have tu rns. The turns can be in the form of a landing or be
made of ,;winders" wh ich are tapered treads, that is, they are narrower at one end.
A
Winders or tapered treads can be dangerous if they are too narrow on the
inside end of the stair, as it is easy to trip and fall. It is essential therefore
that the treads have a minimum width of 63 mm nearest the newel.
Straight flight
Quarter turn
Landing
Balustrade
Winders
Tread
(horizonta l)
Riser
(vertical)
Half turn
Half space
landing
Figure 44.1 Classification of stairs by plan shape
44.1 Components of a staircase
String: the sides of the stair to which the steps are jointed.
Step: each step is made up of a tread and riser. The bottom step is often shaped.
Rise: the vertical measurement of a step, measured from the top of one tread to the top
of the next tread. The rise of the whole stair, from fin ished floor level (FFL) to the next FFL
is known as the total rise.
Going: the horizontal measurement of a step, from the face of one riser to the face
of the next riser (or from nosing to nosing, it doesn't matter which because the
measurement is the same). The going of the whole stair is known as the total going.
Newel: sometimes known as the newel post, this is the upright post that the strings,
and normally the handrail, join into. The newel post often has a moulded top or a cap to
fin ish it off.
Balustrade: the guarding to the side of a stair that prevents fa lls. It consists of the
handrail, balusters (or spindles) and string capping which sits on top of the string to
rece ive the balusters.
Nosing: the very top of the stair where it joins the upper floor has a nosing instead of a
tread. Additionally, each tread overhangs the riser below it. This is usually by a minimum
of 16 mm.
Spandrel: the triangular area beneath the string.
Ho'1Clroll
Spinole/boluster
Nosing
Riser
Londng
Pnch line
String c opping
Ouler slnng
Snoped (bullnose)
bottomslep
Figure 44.2 Components of a staircase
Spondrel
framing
A
There are guidelines for the size and shape of staircases in private dwellings .
. . A staircase needs to be convenient and, more importantly, safe to use. It must
not be too shallow or too steep, and the guarding (balustrade and handrails}
needs to be safe and prevent falls.
Rise, going and pitch (angle): there should be a maximum rise of 220 mm and
a minimum going of 220 mm. The maximum pitch should be 42°. Twice the
rise plus the going (2R + G) should be between 550 mm and 700 mm.
Height of handrails: flights should have a handrail on at least one side if
they are less than one metre wide and on both sides if they are wider than
one metre. There is no need for handrails beside the bottom two steps of a
stairway. Domestic handrails should have a height of 900 mm for both stairs
and landings; public handrail heights should be a minimum of 900 mm on
stairs and 1100 mm on landings. You should not be able to get a 100 mm
sphere through any openings in the balustrade (for example, through the
spaces between spindles}.
What other regu lations apply to sta ircases? Are there different regu lations for
public buildings?
44.2 Setting out a stair
,,. ,,.
The first things that are measured
when setting out a staircase are the
rise and the going. The rise between
floors is commonly recorded on a
storey rod - a long batten that is
marked off on site.
A standard stair has 12 treads,
but this will increase or decrease
depending on the rise. As a stair does
not have a top tread (it has a nosing
instead) a stair will always have
more risers than treads, therefore, a
12-tread stair will have 13 risers.
Assume you are setting out a stair
with 12 treads. It has a total rise of
2.6 m and a going of 3 m.
,,.
,,.
,,.
Attecst
2m
,,.
,,.
,,.
Gong of fl·gh1
At leost
2m
Risa of
Right
Figure 44.3 Rise and going of a flight of stairs
Step 1 : Divide the total going by 12 (12 treads) and the total rise by 13 (13 risers).
This gives a going for each step of 250 mm and a rise of each step of 200 mm.
Step 2: Check these two measurements against the 2R + G formula: 2 x 200 (rise}= 400;
400 + 250 (going)= 650. This value lies between 550 and 700, therefore, the stair
meets the requ irements.
Step 3 : A roofing square can now be set up
as shown in the diagram. Another method
is to use a template of a step known as a
pitchboard. Mark the margin. This is usually
about 32 mm in from the top edge.
Ste p 4 : Mark the strings in pairs to ensure
they are a mirror of each other - if they
are not, the stair cou Id end up twisted.
Dividers can be used to ensure each step
is t he same. When these markings have
been made, the t hickness of the treads,
risers and wedges can be added. If using
a sta ir j ig (for use with a router) these
details are not re quired. The tenons are
marked on the string top and bottom (to fit
into the newels).
-
S..,el squo re set up for s'eo set out
J
L!::;:;::=
Morg ln line
Figure 44.4 Setting out the strings
Calculate the rise and going of a stair with a total rise of 2.4 m and a total
going of 2.9 m. Check your calculations against the formu la 2R + G.
After setting out t he stair, the strings are housed using an electric router or, if done by
hand, using a tenon saw and hand router, sometimes known as a "granny tooth". The
tenons and mortices are cut using techniques similar to those described previously in
this book. The wedges must be cut accurately.
The assembly process requires good cramping procedures, as the stair must be well
cramped while the wedging process is being carried out.
Beere(
'
... ...'........
,
,
.
''
Bearer
Figure 44.5 Marking out the second
string
Figure 44.6 Stair assembly using threaded bars
Plumbing with lead and copper goes back thousa nds of years. Lead pipes are no longer
in use, but it is still traditionally a plumber's job to work with lead in other applications,
for example, with flashings. Nowadays copper is still very much in use as wel l as plastic,
steel and clay.
A plumber's job is to fit pipes for hot and cold water supplies as we ll as fixing internal
items such as water closets (W.C.), sinks, baths, showers and basins, and connecting
these items to waste services. A plumber will also fit gutter and rainwater systems.
45.1 Basic plumbing materials
Modern plumbing uses a variety of materials made from metals and plastics.
Plastic pipe or tube is very common ly used for hot and cold water supplies, as we ll as
central heating. Plastic pipe is easy to cut, bend and install. However, plastic is less
attractive to look at than copper so it tends to be used only for work that is hidden.
Plastic tu be is common ly available in 15 and 22 mm.
Copper pipe or tube is a lot stiffer than plastic and you need to use too ls to bend it.
Copper tube is available in 15, 22 and 28 mm.
Plastic waste pipe is used to carry waste water away from th ings like sinks, basins and
baths. Waste pipe is available in 32 and 40 mm.
Push-fit fittings are used to j oin pipes together. A wide range of these is available. They
are simple to use and make excellent watertight j oints; however, they are rathe r bulky
compared to other types of fitting so they tend to be used for plumbing that is hidden.
Retaining cap
Spacer
'O' ring
Spacer
Stainless steel
backing washer
(22mm & 28mm)
Figure 45.1 An exploded view of a push-fit j oint
Grab ring
Figure 45.2 A selection of push-fit fittings: straight connector; reducing coupler; equal
tee; elbow, reducing tee
Compression fittings are also used to join pipes.
The watertight join is made by inserting the
pipe with an olive and t ightening the nuts with
a spanner. These joints should be used with a
jointing compound containing a fibre called hemp or
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) tape on the threads to
ensure the joint it watertight.
0
Olive: a copper or brass washer used
with a compression fitting. It is
important that is it not damaged.
Figure 45.3 Close-up view of a
compression fitting
Capillary fittings are used to join pipes using
solder and a blow torch. Yorkshire fittings are more
convenient than standard capillary fittings as they
already have solder in them.
Taps should be fitted to a sink or a basin before
the sink is fixed into posit ion. A common method of
connecting taps is to use flexible tap connectors.
Solder is made from metal that has a low melting
point and melting it joins the tubes together. The
process is called soldering. Flux is used to prevent
the metal combining with oxygen as this causes
corrosion. It also helps the solder flow and stick
together.
A
Figure 45.4 Flexible tap connector
Solder should be lead free because lead is harmful to health.
A soil pipe is used to take solids and waste water away from the building. It can be made
from plastic, clay or cast-iron.
A pan connector is used to connect a toilet pan, also referred to as a water closet (W.C.),
to the soil pipe. It has a rubber gasket and fins that adapt to the pan.
Waste pipe push-fit fittings are very simple to use but can be quite a t ight fit, so it is
recommended that you use a lubricant to help push the joint together.
Identify these three fittings.
Flush and filling mechanisms in toilets
can be separate or combined. These
control the flush and how the cistern
fi lls. There is an overflow to protect
against the cistern overfilling if the filling
mechanism malfunctions.
A trap is fitted to sinks, basins and baths
to block any smells coming up from the
sewer system by trapping some water at
the bottom, preventing the passage of
fou l air.
Figure 45.5 Flush and fi ll mechanisms
\
Figure 45.6 Selection of traps: bottle trap; "P'' trap; "S" trap; straight through
(pedestal) trap
45.2 Basic plumbing tools
Plumbers need many tools, some of which are rather heavy.
Hacksaw: used for general cutting.
Pipe cutter: there are many types available, some designed to cut plastic, others for
cutting copper.
Burr removi ng tool: any burr on the cut end of a tube is removed using a tool designed
specifically for the purpose.
0
Burr: a sharp piece of metal remaining after a pipe has been cut. It must be
removed so that it does not damage the fitting.
Adjust able spanner: used to tighten compression fittings.
Pipe bender: used to form neat corners without having to use fittings.
Wrenches: used to hold pipes and tighten j oints.
File: used to remove sharp edges from cut pipes.
Blow torch: used to solder capillary joints.
Fireproof solder pad or tile: this should be used when soldering to protect the
surrounding area from scorching.
A
The end of a blow torch will remain hot for some time after you have finished
using it.
45.3 Plumbing techniques
Plumbers install sanitary ware (such as sinks and toilets) and connect them to waste
and water supply services. To do this they need to cut, bend and join pipes, and fix these
pipes to the wall neatly.
Installing sanitary ware
Sinks and toilets need to be fitted to the wa ll and floor before they can be plumbed in,
and it is easier to fit taps and mechanisms before fixing sanitary ware and sinks.
Figure 45. 7 Installing flush and
fi lling mechanism
Figure 45.8 Installing W.C. pan
Figure 45.9 Assembly of W.C. pan
and cistern
Figure 45.10 Fitting taps before
fixing wash hand basin
Cutting
Copper and plastic tube can be cut using a hacksaw or a pipe cutter. A hacksaw is used
to cut waste pipe. If necessary, clean the pipe and remove any burrs.
Figure 45.11 Cutting
copper pipe with a pipe
cutter
Figure 45.12 Cutting
waste pipe with a hacksaw
Figure 45.13 Removing burrs
Bending
A pipe bender is used to bend pipes accurately. Measurements need to be accurate.
Step 1 : Measure the bends.
Step 2: Make sure the bender is correctly adjusted, otherwise the pipe can be crushed
(known as "throating") or there can be a rippled effect instead of a smooth bend.
Step 3: Make the bend. Remember to overbend slightly as the pipe will spring back a little.
Jointing using compression
Compression joints are not as simple to use as push-fit joints, and for a watertight joint
you may need to use hemp with j ointing compound or PFTE tape.
Step 1: Slide nut down pipe.
Step 2 : Fit olive and check it is not damaged.
Step 3: Apply hemp or PFTE tape to threads as requ ired.
Step 4: Assemble joint and t ighten.
Make this practice j oint. It uses both push-fit and compression joints.
p ulled
bend
sold ered compression
elbow
elbow
Jointing using capillary solder fittings
This process gives a very neat and watertight j oint and is often used for work that is
visible.
Step 1: Prepare the tube. It must be clean, otherwise you will not get a good joint.
Step 2: Apply flux.
Step 3: Push fitting onto tube.
Step 4: Solder joint with a blow torch, remembering to use a fireproof mat. When the
solder runs all around the j oint it will be watertight. Take care not to overheat the joint
as the copper will blacken and might resu lt in a poor joint.
Step 5 : Wipe away excess solder.
45.4 Domestic water systems
The diagrams below show examples of a typical stored water system and of a direct
water system.
(a)
Ball float
valve
Cold
water
storage
cistern
Cold water stop valves
Cold feed pipes to bathroom
and hot water cylinder
Vent p ipe to ollow for
expansion
Hot water feed
from top of cylinder
Hot water cylinder
(heats ond
stores water)
- l - - - -Cold water
rising main
=-Overflow/warning
pipe from storage
c istern
~
Drinking
OverflovJ/wornlng
water to
Garden
pipe from WC c istern
kitchen
tap
tap
- Drainoff point
Household stopcock/valve
Service pipe
lf..---- Woter supplier
stopcock/valve
(b)
Water
heater
Coldwater
Water supplier
stopcock/valve
Service pipe
Household
stopcock/valve
Overflow/warning
pipe from WC c istern
Drain down
valve
Figure 45.14 Domestic water systems: (a) stored water system; (b) direct water system
45.5 Drainage systems
The diagrams below show examples of typical drainage systems.
A gutter catches ra inwater as it comes off the roof and carries it to an outlet.
The fall will ideally be around 10-17 mm for every 6 metre length of gutter, so a ratio
of 600:1 to 350:1.
Lengths of gutter are joined by a union; a downpipe takes the ra inwater down the wall.
A swan neck is needed to get from the fasc ia to the wa ll. It is made up of two bends and
sometimes a short straight piece.
A shoe fits on the bottom of the downpipe where the water comes out into the drain.
Brackets are used to hold the gutter and clips hold the downpipe to the wall.
The gutter is connected to the downpipe by a running outlet and a stop end stops the
water runn ing off the wrong end of the gutter.
Internal
stock pipe
Waste p ipes
~:?---connect to stock
'-~ P trap
Inspection
chamber
\ \-Strop
'-R"
11\bter seal
---.._ To fo ulwoter
sewer
Figure 45.15 One pipe system
External
stock pip e --..::::LI
Hopper
hea d
Cleaning eye
Gully
Insp ection
c hamber
"'- To foulwoter
sewer
Figure 45.16 Traditional two pipe system
Replaced soil
--□ Garage
Surface"
wa~ cr---1
Soakaway
Ash or concrete
blinding
Back Inlet g ulley
Rainwater pipe
Coarse
Foulwater
hardcore
Inspection
c hamber
'
Soaka way
,
House
I
/
C
Surface water ·
Inspection chamber
1
'
?
h50 mm surface wa r sewer (SWS) 1:60
-•--:=___ --
_±~
Road gulley
200mm Foulwater sewer (FWS) 1:60
Figure 45.17 Below-ground drainage system
Wherever possible, sewerage should be discharged into a public sewer whe re
it can be dealt with effectively. However, if a building is not connected to mains
drainage, the waste must go into either a septic tank or biodigester. Research
both methods of waste disposal and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of
each system. Draw a diagram of each system.
Gutter
1--Swan neck
....-c----- Rainwater p ipe (RWP)
Shoe
Back into
gulley
Open grated
gulley
To surface
water sewer
Figure 45.18 Roof drainage
A
If a gutter has too much fall the
water will run away quickly without
carrying away any debris. Over time
grass and plants can grow in this
debris.
A
abut ment 96
aggregates storage 25, 50
air seasoning 43
architraves 21
asbestos removal 53
B
band saws 86
bargeboards 21
bathrooms 19
battery dril Is 82
belt sanders 83
bench hooks 8 1
bevel-edged chisels 79
block and beam floors 109
block planes 80
blow torches 120
blue stain in timber 45
bolsters 65
bonding 49, 62
boning rods 37
brick hammers 64
brick trowels 64
bricklaying tools 64-5
bricks 49
bats 62
closers 62
cut 49
cutting 66
faces 63
frog 60
hand moulded 49
laying bricks 68-9
perforated 49
pressed 49
storage 55
brickwork 62- 3, 70- 1
brownfield sites 27
brushes 76
building design 12- 3
building materials 48-9
building process 22-3
building team 22
burrs 120
butt hinges 105
butt j oints 88
C
camber 110
carpentry 7 8
carpentry power tools 82- 3
marking out carpentry
90- 5
cement 50
cement-based boa rds 53
cement mixers 67
storage 55
chisels 79
chop saws 82
circular saws 82, 84-5
cladding 53
cl ub hammers 64
cold chisels 65
comb hammers 64
combination sq uares 78
computer-sided design (CAD)
33
concealed hinges 105
concrete 51
concrete vibrators 75
formwork 74
concrete (continued)
mixing by machine 67
pouri ng and finishing
concrete 75
steel fixing 74
suspended concrete floors
109
concrete blocks 49
cutting 66
laying blocks 68-9
storage 55
coping saws 81
cramping 95
cross cut saws 85
cup shake 44
cutting pipes and tubes 121
cutting wood 90- 5
D
damp proof course ( DPC) 14
damp proof membrane (DPM)
16
datums 36
decorating 76-7
deforestation 11
dimensioning saws 85
doors 18, 100
door construction 101
hanging a door 102-4
types 101
double action hinges 105
dovetail joints 89, 95
drainage systems 125-6
drawing equipment 58-9
drawings 30-1, 56- 7
pictoria I projection 32,
60- 1
scales and dimensions
56- 7,97
sketches 33, 60
symbols 31, 57
drills 82
dusting brushes 76
E
eaves 96
emergency procedures 8 -9
environment 10-11
F
fascia boards 21
files 120
finishing woodwork 95
finish ings 21
fire resistan t doors 100
firmer chisels 79
fitch brushes 76
flashing 96
flat paint brushes 76
flat wall brushes 76
floats 65
floors 16
concrete floors 109
floor plans 30
timber floors 106- 11
formwork 74
foundations 14-15, 37
French polish 111
G
gauge 66
gauges 78
gauging trowels 64
granite 48
greenfield sites 27
grooves 94
gutters 119, 126
gypsum boards 53
H
hacksaws 120
halving joints 88, 91
hammers 64, 81
hand routers 80
hand saws 81
hardboard 52
hawks 65
hazardous substances 5
health and safety 4-7
belt sanders 83
brickwork 62, 63
machinery 84-7
wel fare and emergency
proced ures 8- 9
working with sheet
mat erials 53
hinges 105
housing joints 89
I
insect infestat ion in timber 45
ironmongery 105
J
jack planes 80
j igsaws 83
joinery 18, 20- 1, 78
marking out joinery 89
jointers 64
Joints 79, 88- 9
joists 106-7, 110
K
kiln seasoning 43
kitchens 19
knots in timber 45
knotting sol ution 76
L
ladders 98, 99
laminated board 53
latches 105
levels 36, 65
lifting 6-7
limestone 48
lintels 63
locks 105
M
mallets 81
marking knives 78
marking-out tools 78
MDF (medium density
fibreboa rd) 52
mitre joints 89, 93
mort ar 50, 67
mort ice and tenon joints 79,
88,92,93
mortice chisels 79
morticers 87
N
nail guns 83
nail s 95
narrow band saws 86
natural environment 10
0
ol ives 117
orbital sanders 83
orthographic projection 30-1
p
pa inting 77
paints 76
panel saws 8 1
pencils 58, 78
personal hygiene 8
personal protective
equipment (PPE) 7
pictorial projection 32,
60- 1
pillar drills 82
pinners 83
pipe cutters 120
planers 83, 86- 7
planes 80
planks 39, 42- 3
plans 30- 1
plant 26, 28
plastering 55, 72
plough planes 80
plumb bobs 65
plumbing 116-20
pl umbing techniques
120- 3
plywood 52
pointing 70
point ing trowels 64
pokers 75
primer 76
Q
quarter sawn planks 39
quoins 65
R
rafter cuts 97- 8
ranges 69
rebars 74
rebate planes 80
rebates 45, 94
rendering 7 0- 1
resin pocket s 45
rip saws 84- 5
roof construction 17, 96
components of a cut roof
97
elements of a roof 96
gutters 119, 126
rafter cuts 97- 8
t russed rafter roof 98
working at height 98-9
roofing squares 98
rulers 58, 78
s
safety 4- 9
belt sanders 83
brickwork 62, 63
staircases 112, 1 14
working with sheet
materials 53
saws 81, 82, 83, 84-5,
120
scaffolds 99
scale drawings 30, 56-7,
97
screws 95
scribe joints 89, 93
seasoning 43-47
security 55
services 21
set squares 59
setting out 66
cutting bricks and blocks
66
laying out wa lls 66
setting out a site 34- 5
setting out a stair 114-15
setting out levels 36
setting out equipment 65
shakes 44
sheet materials 52- 3
sheet met als 53
sheet plastics 53
site layout 24-5
skirting 21
slid Ing bevels 78
slump 70
smoothing planes 80
soffits 21
solder 117, 120
spanners 120
spirit levels 65
spokeshaves 80
staircases 20- 1, 112- 15
steel fixing 7 4
stepladders 99
stone 48
striking tools 81
subsidence 15
substructures 14-15
s uperstructures 16-17
s urface planers 86-7
suspended floors 108-9
T
T-squares 59
tape measures 65
tee hinges 105
tempered ha rd boa rd 52
temporary bench mark (TBM)
36
tenon saws 8 1
tensioning 81
thicknessers 86- 7
t iling 73
timber 38- 9
cheek 93
conversion 39, 42- 3
face and edge 89
properties of t imber 40
seasoning 43
seasoning defects 46-7
storage 54
timber defects 44-5
timber floors 106- 1 1
top coat 76
trees 38-9
trenches 28
trestles 99
trowels 64
trussed rafter roofs 98
try planes 80
try-squares 78
u
undercoat 76
utilities 21
V
valleys 96
varnishes 111
verges 96
w
walls 16 - 17
laying out wa lls 66
wall ties 63
waste 29
wedges 95
windows 18, 104
wood-based sheet materials
52-3
storage 54
woodstains 111
woodwork assembly 95
woodworking equipment
78-81
machinery 84-7
woodworking joints 88- 9
working at height 98-9
wrenches 120
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PR ESS
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 GDP, United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a departJnent of the University of Oxford.
It fi.u-thers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and
education by publishing world,vide. Oxford is a registe red trade n1ark of Oxford
University Press in the UK and in certain other countries.
© Oxford University Press 2017
The 1noral rights of the authors have been asserted.
First published in 2017
CVQ is the Registered Trade1nark of the Caribbean Association of National
Training Authorities (CANTA).
¢
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval systen1, or transn1ined, in a ny form o r by any means, ,.vithout the prior
permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly pennitted
by la,v, by licence or under tern1s agreed ,vith the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outs ide the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rig hts Departrnent, Oxford Univers ity Press, at the
address above.
You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must in1pose this
san1e condition o n any acquirer.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
978·0·19-839546·1
13 5791086 42
Paper used in the productio n of this book is a natl.U"al, recyclable product 1nade
fron1 ,vood grown in sustainable forests. The n1anufacturing process confonns
to the environ1nental regulations of the country of origin.
Printed in Great Britain by Ashford Print and Publishing Services, Gosport
Admowledge1nents
The publishers ,vould like to thank the follo,ving for pern1 issions to use the ir
photographs:
Cover i.111age: Caribbean Exa111inations Council (CXC); p4: instant art;
p6: Peter Gardiner/Scie nce Photo Library; p5: Powerfi.il Design / Shutterstock;
udaix / Shutterstock; p7: Igor Sokolov (breeze)/ Shutterstod<;
p18: David Papazian/ ShuLterstod<; p29: Barry Barnes/ Shutterstock;
p36: David J. Green / Ala111y Stock Photo; p51: Alison Hancock/ Shutterstock;
p64-p66: Heather Gunn Photography; p68-p73: Heather Gunn Photog raphy;
p77: Heather Gunn Photography; p81: Heather Gwin Photography; p81: Helene
Rogers; p82: Dorling Kindersley / Getty Images; p84: \,Var,vickshire College;
p90-p95: Heather Gunn Photography; p97: Heather Gw1n Photography;
p98: Construction Photography (buildpix); pl 17: v.•1.vv>/.artdirectors.co.uk;
pl 18: Heather Gunn Photography; p120-p122: Heather Gwin Photography.
Although we have n1ade every effo1t to a-ace and con tact all copyright holders
before publication this has not been possible in all cases. [f notified, the
publisher ,..viii rectify any errors or omissio ns at the earliest opportwiity.
Study Guide
•
•
•
•
Le ss Stress, More Success
Written by experienced teachers and experts, t his study guide focuses
on the development of skills, critical thinking and teamwork - a great
foundation for your SBA, furth er study and entry in to the world of work.
Features include:
•
Why don't you: an opportun ity to apply the skills yo u have studied by
way of an activity
•
Key terms: defi nitions of key words and terms highlight ed for easy
reference
•
Detailed diagrams and step by step instructions aid in understanding
concepts
Candidates who successfully complete the CSEC examinations in
the Industri al Technology programmes will be awarded two sets of
certificates: the CSEC Techn ical Proficiency and a CVQ* (Carib bean
Vocational Qualification) St atement of Competence.
The Caribbean Examinations Council (CXCl!J) has worked exclusively
w ith Oxford University Press to produce a series of CSEC® and CAPE3>
Study Guides.
• CVQ Is the Registered Trademark of the Caribbean Association or National Training Authorities (CANTA).
~
eBook
Available
OXFORD
UNIVEllSITY PllESS
ISBN 9784 HNl39546-1
How to get in touch:
web ,vww.oup.com/ca,ibbean
email schools.enquiries.uk@oup.com
tel
fax
+44 (0)1536 452620
+44 (0)1865 313472
9
llaJ,JJ 3lll61