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Cold War & Post-War Europe History Revision Guide | Maoism & Germany
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Key areas for revision (S7 2 period) until page 7 most important How did Europe become divided between 1945 and 1949? wartime conferences differing ideologies Sovietisation Marshall Plan How did the western allies and the USSR have different visions for future Germany? Wartime conferences Berlin Blockade Berlin Airlift Containment and Berlin How did the Cuban Missile crisis escalate and relax the Cold War? 13 days of the Cuban Missile Crisis Mutually assured destruction Brinkmanship Relaxation (improved relations between superpowers) / detente How was the Cold War fought? Containment policy Domino Theory Vietnam Why was the Berlin Wall built? US’ perspective USSR’s perspective What were the successes and failures of the Schuman Plan and the European Coal and Steel Community? Schuman Plan (aims and objectives) Arguments for or against The European Coal and Steel Community Success or failure? What were the opportunities and challenges of European defence? Plevin’s Plan European Defence Community Arguments for and against Success or failure? What is Maoism? Great Leap Forward 100 Flowers Campaign Cultural Revolution Propaganda and terror Cult of leader Mao as a totalitarian leader History B-Test December Yalta Conference (February 4–11, 1945): - US, USSR, UK (not very involved because in debt). France and Germany not invited They wanted to maintain peace, and punish Germany, denazification, creation on the UN Europe weaker than the US (not physically affected) Division of Germany into four zones Eastern Europe remained in a Soviet sphere of influence. Potsdam Conference (July 17 – August 2): - Roosevelt replaced by Truman (more anticommunist) Did not go as smoothly as Yalta Confirm the division of Germany Decide on the western border of Poland USSR declares war to Japan. Tribunal to judge war criminals Problems in post-war Europe: - Refugees Shortages of food and clothing Shortage of fuel Infrastructure damages Capitalism / Communism: Capitalism Several political parties Democratic elections Private businesses Individual rights, freedom of speech and press Communism One-party state No elections All public, state-owned businesses Obedience to the state Censorship and control of the medias Cold war: - At some point, trade in the west becomes more important than denazification. Term of “Iron curtain” first used (Churchill) Salami Tactics: Gradually getting rid of opposition by spreading communism. Used by Stalin. Buffer zone of friendly states (satellite states) around Russia to make sure Russia is not invaded COMECON: The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance was an economic organization from 1949 to 1991 under the leadership of the Soviet Union. Truman Doctrine: 12th March 1947, US policy of containment Marshall Aid: 1948, financial aid to rebuild Europe -> separation of east and west Europe Cominform: An alliance of Communist countries designed to make sure they obeyed Soviet rule US and USSR are now the major powers in the world Berlin Blockade: - - 1946: Capitalists zones combined 1948: Truman introduces the Deutsche Mark Stalin cuts all land access to Berlin to force western allies out of Berlin. Truman sends aircraft to send food to the Berliners Stalin forced to back to not cause a war Creation of NATO (US + Western Europe) North Atlantic Treaty Organization: Intergovernmental military alliance for collective defense (24. October 1945) Creation of GDR (German Democratic Republic, East Germany) and FRG (Federal Republic of Germany, West Germany) Korean War: - China becomes communist in 1949. North Korea: Communist, supported by China South Korea: Capitalist, supported by the US 38th Parallel divided the two sides War begins on June 25th, 1950, containment policy Stalemate around the 38th parallel, sets todays borders Armistice 1953 Domino theory: Truman believed that if one country fell to communism other countries would follow like dominos. Proxy wars: Countries fighting on behalf of a larger nation, without that nation actively participating in the conflict Arms and Space race: - Starts in 1945 with the atomic bombs tested on Nagasaki and Hiroshima MAD: mutually assured destruction (prevented war?) USSR: sputnik, first satellite, hydrogen bombs US: McCarthy led a witch-hunt for communists, U2 planes to spy on Russia - Rivalries played during sports competition Berlin Wall - Peaceful coexistence: Period of thaw that lasted between Stalin’s death in 1953 and the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. Warsaw Pact: Collective defense treaty between the USSR and its satellite states (1955) Capitalist prosperity within communist territory Gap in the Iron Curtain Base of espionage Anti-Fascist Protection Rampart (for soviets) Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): - Bay of Pigs: CIA attempted to invade Cuba and overthrow the communist government. Khrushchev secretly sends missiles to Cuba Kennedy is angry Negotiations prevent war USSR publicly remove Cuba missiles US: secretly removes missiles from Turkey Public opinion: US won the negotiations Détente: - Hotline between Soviets and US Nuclear Test ban treaty in atmosphere, under water and in outer space, signed in Moscow 1963 USSR did not respect that treaty Both countries could not protect their countries anymore SALT: Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (November 1969) History B-Test May I. Eastern Europe / Western Europe Eastern Europe: - Infrastructure destroyed, no Marshall aid Daily life: Indoctrination of communist ideas, low wages, rationing, corruption, illiberal regimes, state education, universal healthcare, full employment, security? 1953: Death of Stalin Khrushchev takes his place (1955-1964) He is more open to discussion with the West He promotes a peaceful co-existence and de-Stalinize Russia Warsaw Pact: Military pact between communist countries Hopes for opposition - - Poland, 1956: Workers protest, Wladyslaw Gomulka took the power, Khrushchev allowed it, but Poland had to stay communist and in the Warsaw Pact. Hungary Uprising, 1956: Nagy, current leader of Hungary wanted to leave the WP, Khrushchev sent troops and tanks, arrested Nagy, shot him (1958) and replaced him with a communist leader, Kadar. The West did not react and decided to focus on containment. 1961: Berlin Wall built Western Europe: - - 50's: 1957: EEC Promoting investment, funding public sector, social welfare services. Immigration from rural areas to cities (-> decline in agriculture), from Southern Europe to richer Northern Europe, from (ex-) colonies to Europe. Economic growth gave work to most people, very low unemployment, and rapid social climb. Consumerism: Secure jobs, paid holidays, desires for comfort and better standard of living, large supermarkets, private cars, civilian use of planes, TVs, advertising businesses targeting women only seen as mothers and housekeepers, teenage culture, American Coca-Colonization. 1968 in Europe: - - Students' revolts, end of the Vietnam war, democratic reforms, radical change in society, Daniel Cohn-Bendit (France) and Rudi Dutschke (W.G.), against imperialism and dictatorial regimes supported by the West, democratization of universities. Prague Spring: Czechoslovakia was led by Dubcek who wanted to leave the W.P., was introducing liberal laws and more freedom, encouraged opposition Socialism with a Human Face: political freedom, multi-party state, more power to trade unions and less to secret police, free speech, no censorship. Soviet Union (Brezhnev) invaded Cz. Brezhnev Doctrine (effective until 1989): Communist countries cannot leave W.P., or USSR will intervene More tensions among Communist countries II. China 1949-1953: - China became a communist country led by Mao. Separation between Republic of China (Taiwan) and PRC (mainland China). Free healthcare and prevention Universal education to learn how to read and write and spread communist ideas. Women's power, nurseries, and divorce Power of the masses - Economy: Nationalization of businesses and banks, fixed prices, cooperative farms, stable currency, rebuild infrastructure, five-year reforms, high employment Politics: Opposition sent to labor camps, propaganda, censorship, USSR-China alliance, anti-American propaganda. Maoism: Communist ideology of Mao applied to Communist China. Revolution led by the peasantry rather than the workers like in the USSR. The Great Leap Forward 1958: - Causes: New revolution to inspire people, industrialize China, power of the masses Poor attempt of recreating Stalin's Five Year Plan Forced agricultural methods that could not work everywhere led to famine. Poor quality of steel made in people's backyards. Led to disagreements with USSR and end of alliance Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) - “10 years of Chaos" Red Guards: Group of wannabe revolutionaries Smash the Four Olds: old customs, old culture, old habits, old ideas Fight against Bourgeoisie (here, everything that is against communism and Mao) and “bad people” which did not have a proper definition Torture and murder were common Red Guard groups attacked each other to be the most loyal to Mao Zedong Violent attempt to restore order by Mao in 1967. He sent many people to the countryside to learn from peasants Traumatizing phase in their life Mao died in 1976 China after Mao: - Deng Xiaoping seized power in 1976 Called for Four Modernizations: industry, agriculture, technology, and national defense Free markets, incentivized agriculture, family run businesses all increased crop production Decentralized command economy, encourage profits More open to the world and encouraged foreign investments One Child Policy: forced to use form of birth control, harsh penalties, forced late abortions, abandonment of baby girls, population growth fell to 1.1 Minorities started to show discontent through demonstrations, especially Uyghurs. More westernized culture, more demand for entertainment Movement for Democracy: demonstration in Tiananmen Square in Beijing violently repressed by the state III. Dictatorship to Democracy Spain: - Franco's Dictatorship 1939-1975, ends at his death Long and peaceful transition Before dying, Franco assigned Juan Carlos, successor of the Royal Family to be his successor He was supposed to continue ruling like Franco but instead worked with the opposition He had been working with the opposition long before Franco's death Credited for overseeing the successful transition to democracy by negotiations The Cortes, group of loyal Francoists that violently demonstrated against the new King Adolfo Suarez was appointed Prime Minister and diffused violence (Atocha Massacre) Became a Parliamentary Monarchy Portugal - Estado Novo: 1933-1974 (longest dictatorship in Europe led by Salazar) Carnation Revolution: two-years transition, people protesting bad living conditions, high inflation, unemployment and money wasted on war in colonies. Carnation: symbol for freedom and peace Major political instability Military coup by Armed Forces Movement (MFA) which was made of young men with Marxist ideas Antonio de Spinola, liberal general sacked for spreading liberal ideas which sparked the revolution (popular revolution) Spinola became the first interim president Communism (MFA) against Catholics conservatives UN feared Communist takeover and sent financial aid to democrats Mario Soares (left socialist) won the elections Independence was negotiated for colonies (Guinea, Mozambique, Angola) Greece - Greek Junta (1967-1974) also known as Regime of the Colonels led by George Papadopoulos 142 days transition: rapid 1973 Oil Crisis caused high inflation, beginning of protests November 1973: Students revolts by the Athens Polytechnic Violent repression which led to Papadopoulos being overthrown by Ioannides. Ioannides ordered the army to invade Cyprus which made Turkey react He then ordered to Fight against the Turks, which the army refused to do Karamanlis was assigned as Prime Minister by the Junta, he diffused the violence and restored unity Karamanlis’ party was elected during the multi-party elections Abolition of the Greek Monarchy was voted on December 1974 HISTORY PREBAC JANUARY Cold War Origins: - The conferences Truman Doctrine Marshall Plan Soviet response Berlin Blockade Hungary Czechoslovakia Cold War: - Fear of Communism Korean War Peaceful coexistence Arms race Cuban Missile Crisis Vietnam War Paris 68’ Prague 68’ Civil Rights Movement Détente: - US and USSR Achievement of Détente Ostpolitik Nixon Panda Policy Ping-Pong Diplomacy End of Détente: - US recession Iran Islam Afghanistan SALT I Unraveling Downfall of the USSR: - Gorbachev Housing crisis Overall system failure Chernobyl effect Reunification of Germany - Collapse of the USSR HISTORY BAC JUNE: Decolonization: - Factors leading to decolonization Asia Africa The “Third World” China post 1949: - Mao Zedong Between modernism and dictatorship Eastern and Western Europe (1949-1973): - East vs. West Unification and Division of Europe Political Ideologies Dictatorship to democracy: - End of dictatorships in Southern Europe End of the people’s democracies in Eastern Europe Challenges of new democracies Europe post 1957: - Enlarging and strengthening the European community Contemporary perspectives and challenges PREBAC: 1. COLD WAR ORIGINS: CONTEXT: After the USA entered WW2 against Germany and Japan, an unlikely alliance was created between then, the UK and the USSR. This brought together two different ideological perspectives as the US and UK operated under capitalism and the USSR operated under communism TEHRAN CONFERENCE (NOV. 1943): Objective: - Plan the liberation of Nazi occupied France Outcomes: - US and Britain invaded France in May 1944 USSR joined the US and Britain in the war against Japan once Germany had been defeated YALTA CONFERENCE (FEB. 1945): This conference is said to have set the scene for the rest of the Cold War in Europe. US stance: At the time of the conference, American president Roosevelt was very ill, yet he was insistent on democracy being introduced into Eastern Europe. Despite this, he has faith in Stalin’s ability to maintain good relations with the US after the war. UK stance: UK prime minister Churchill on the other hand did not trust Stalin and was concerned about the future of Eastern Europe. He wanted to stop Stalin from imposing communism on Polish territory taken by the Soviet army. USSR stance: Stalin was focused on the USSR having stability and therefore wanted to retain the Polish territory he had taken previously. He wanted to ensure friendly relations between Poland and the USSR as they were neighbor countries. He did not allow for any non-communists to serve in the Polish government Objective: - Agree on post-war settlements and decide what is to be done with Germany, once defeated Outcomes: - Germany was to be divided into four zones with France, the UK, the US, and USSR each getting one. Berlin was to be divided into four zones as well: it became a perpetual source of tension throughout the Cold War All countries free from Nazi rule were to hold democratic elections to choose their own governments Commitment to pursue and try suspected Nazi war criminals Setting up the UN – international cooperation with war prevention as a purpose POTSDAM CONFERENCE (JUL. 1954): Conditions: Roosevelt had passed away and was replaced by his VP, Truman, who was far less keen on trusting the USSR. Churchill had been defeated by Attlee in the UK elections and was therefore replaced by him in Potsdam. In comparison to Yalta, the Potsdam conference was far less smooth sailing, and many disagreements arose Objective: - Finalize post-war settlements and put into action the ideas discussed at Yalta Outcome: - - Little progress was made In terms of reparations from Germany, each country was to take reparations from their zone of occupation. However, the USSR was to receive additional industrial equipment from the western zones Agreement that the Nazi party should be eliminated entirely Stalin didn’t allow free democratic elections in his sphere of influence (Eastern Europe) Disagreements: - Details of the German-Polish borders were agreed on. The UK and US did not like the way it was executed; however they had no other option than to accept it USSR wanted to be part of running the rich German industrial area which the US rejected USSR wanted to take part in the occupation of Japan, the US rejected this idea US and Britain asked for a greater say in what went down in Eastern Europe, Stalin rejected this OUTCOME OF THE CONFERENCES: Balance of forces: - Europe was virtually powerless and had no influence as of yet, despite this, it was still the staging ground for the US/USSR conflict USSR: gained influence by setting up communist parties throughout Eastern Europe USA: situation of force, responsible for setting up free elections in their sphere of influence. Possession of the atomic bomb UK: no influence, devastated by war, overseeing of reconstruction of Europe Wants/needs of the participants: - Europe: money, resources, stability USSR: buffer zone, antiimperialist defense wall, assert influence, spread communism to become more influential and powerful US: impose agenda and way of life, capitalism, and democracy, block the spread of communism and USSR influence, quest to become world leaders Trade-off: - Europe: new markets for US and USSR USSR: efforts against Japan, providing security and stability in their sphere of influence. Help create a running government, reconstruct their zone of control. USA: unlimited resources, protecting their interest, influence zone in Europe, defeating the Japanese TRUMAN DOCTRINE: Conditions: - The Truman doctrine was a pledge made which entailed the US supporting European countries in resisting a communist takeover. Outcomes: - Western European governments dismissed their communist ministers (Belgium, Italy, France) CIA was created to support anti-communist efforts MARSHALL PLAN: The plan: - US sponsored program designed to rehabilitate the economies of 17 European countries to create stable conditions in which democratic institutions could survive. Originally, aid was offered to most European countries, however, the USSR withdrew from participation in the plan along with the countries under their influence. Outcome: - Great success Countries involved experienced a rise in GNP Contributed greatly to the rapid renewal of West European industries US benefits: - New market opportunities Policy of containment Consolidation of liberal democracies Expand sphere of influence Acquire dominance over Europe SOVIET RESPONSE Zhdanov Doctrine: - Banned Eastern European countries from joining the Marshall Plan Need for security Importance on an international level Composed their own economic plan Comintern (1919): - Aim to fight and overthrow the international bourgeoisie Creation of Soviet republic as a transition stage to abolition of state WW2 was viewed as an imperialist war Disbanded in 1943 Cominform (1947): - Network of numerous communist parties throughout Eastern Europe Dissolved following Stalin’s death in 1956 Comecon (1949): - Established in order to coordinate the economic development of countries belonging to the Soviet bloc. Originally composed of Eastern European countries, however Cuba and Vietnam joined later on BERLIN BLOCKADE: Causes: - Western zones ran by the US, Britain and France were all benefitting from the Marshall Plan while the Eastern zone ran by the USSR was plundered for resources Difference in living standard between East and West Germany Introduction of the German Mark without the USSR’s consent Conditions: - All road, rail and naval links with West Germany were severed This was seen as a first stage attack on West Germany by the US Results: - Berlin airlift: the West responded to the blockade by airlifting supplies into Berlin Creation of NATO: defensive organization to protect the West and its interests End to any hope of agreement between the East and West Creation of the FDR and GDR: three western zones (FDR) and the eastern zone (GDR) created their respective states following the blockade HUNGARY: Conditions: - Hungary was bitter towards communism as their country was led by a devoted communist who reprimanded their freedom of speech (Rakosi). Poor standard of living: people were experiencing food shortages, had no freedom of speech and expression Quality of education: erasure of Hungarian history in the communist curriculum, those already educated on it opposed this Presence of Soviet troops: constant reminder of Soviet control without providing any benefits Rakosi retired due to “health reasons” New president was appointed, wasn’t met with satisfaction Outcome: - Mass-demonstrations led the USSR to accept the formation of a new government Nagy, who was well-respected was appointed He wanted to truly democratize Hungary, withdrawing from the Warsaw Pact, and remaining neutral in the Cold War Khrushchev couldn’t accept this and ordered Soviet troops to Budapest After two weeks and thousands of deaths, the Hungarian resistance was crushed CZECHOSLOVAKIA: Conditions: Czechoslovakia was the only Eastern European country with a socialist-communist coalition government. However, they were divided over the Marshall Plan which they were pressured into refusing by Moscow Outcome: mass demonstrations were organized following the Czechoslovak CP breaking its alliance with the “bourgeoisie parties”, forcing moderate ministers to resign. The president of the republic ended up appointing a ministry almost entirely made up of communists. The non-communist minister of foreign affairs was found dead shortly after. In May 1948, new elections were held in which a great majority of votes were in favor of the CP. In June, the former president resigned, and a communist president was appointed in his place. This affair was denounced as a coup d’état by the west, allowing the USSR to complete its Eastern bloc. 2. COLD WAR: CONTEXT: By 1946, it was clear that the “Big Three” alliance had been broken, the friendship that brought them together during the times of war was replaced by perpetual tensions that would continue for a significant amount of time. Each side was very publicly denouncing the other which led to a Cold War which lasted 30 years. FEAR OF COMMUNISM: The Red Scare is the name given to the hysterical fear of communism that took over the US starting in WW1. The US believed that the USSR communists posed a threat to democracy in the US. The conflict intensified in the late 40s and early 50s. Conditions: - First Red Scare occurred in the wake of the Russian Revolution of 1917, inspired by the fear of international Bolsheviks and anarchists Federal employees were thoroughly searched and analyzed in order to determine their loyalty to the country. The US was concerned that communists and leftist sympathizers in America might be actively forking for the USSR as spies, posing a threat to US security McCarthy increased people’s anxiety by affirming that the USSR was behind a conspiracy to infiltrate the US government by using leftist radicals in the US to pose a threat to the American way of life. THE KOREAN WAR: Background: - Korea had been a Japanese colony until the end of WW2 Northern part was liberated by the USSR and the southern part was liberated by the US – north: communist control, south: capitalist control Hostility between two opposing leaders led to an open war By late 1950, all but a small portion of Korea was under communist rule Conditions: - Communism was taking off around the world After the USSR takeover of Eastern Europe, China converted to communism. The US feared the USSR would acquire rule throughout Asia, so when South Korea was invaded, they reacted Conflict: - Truman put enormous pressure on the UN to condemn the actions of the North and call on them to withdraw their troops The USSR was boycotting the UN at the time, and did not call veto The UN committed to using force to drive the North Koreans out of the south. - - China got involved when the UN troops invaded NK and advanced quickly towards the Chinese border. China warned the US about this and said they would not allow them to get too close, however they persisted. China sent 300,000 soldiers to push the UN troops back, however, their advance was halted by a UN counterattack. Outcome: - - Both sides found it difficult to advance In 1951, peace talks began and dragged on for two years, the reason for this was Stalin’s attitude, as he believed the war to be a good thing as it was draining the US’s manpower and resources When Stalin died, the USSR agreed to a ceasefire This led to a demilitarized zone being created To this day, an official peace treaty was never signed Effects on relations: - The Korean War was a victory for the US policy of containment The US and USSR did not go to war: Truman didn’t allow for China to be attacked directly and the USSR, despite offering help, did not directly attack US forces The Cold War was no longer confined to Europe but had extended worldwide This meant that the US felt as if they had to protect the whole world from communism PEACEFUL COEXISTENCE: Destalinization: - When Stalin died, he was replaced by Khrushchev who seemed keen on the idea of releasing international tensions He met with western leaders, which didn’t achieve much, however it established communication which was an inherent improvement His approach was drastically different to Stalin’s, which was very important for the USSR Conditions: - Khrushchev advocated for a change in foreign policy, he was in favor of peaceful coexistence Each superpower was to have their territory and not move out of it, each was entitled to do with is as they pleased This was in order for the USSR to catch up economically in order to eventually overtake the US Outcome: - New style of international relations was introduced Peaceful grounds as opposed to hostility and conflict Scientific competition: Space Race (Star Wars) – USSR first satellite and first man in space Other competitions such as sport etc. - USSR engaging with Yugoslavia again and establishing links with the West Khrushchev travelled to the west and met with western leaders Change accelerated with Kennedy, who was willing to reconsider the US military strategy “Flexible response”: matching the response to the threat level to avoid nuclear war ARMS RACE Conditions: - Both the USSR and US had enveloped atomic bombs which were known to be “weapons of the future” U2 spy place: an American fighter jet that flew at twice the altitude of regular fighter jets which allowed it to go undetected. It was equipped with an array of powerful cameras Soviet missiles improved greatly, even shot down a U2 plane This incident caused a downturn in US-USSR relations Outcome: - - By the early 60s, both sides had enough arms to destroy each other multiple times over. Both sides believed this made them secure, however none of them dared to attack first as they knew the counterattack would come before the attack could even have its full effect Hence, destruction of one side entailed destruction of the other Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD): deterring from attack due to possession of nuclear weapons CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS: Conditions: - Cuba is an island very close to the US border Once an American ally, it was overtaken by Fidel Castro who insisted on remaining ideologically neutral as he wasn’t yet sure which side would benefit him the most - The USSR felt as if linking with Cuba would ensure their safety - NASA’s base was very close to Cuba Outcome: - The only way for Khrushchev to remove his missiles from Cuba was under the condition the US removed theirs from Turkey. VIETNAM WAR: Historical context: - Firstly, Vietnam was a French colony known as Indochina When France was invaded by Germany, Japan took control - A resistance group called The Viet Minh fought the Japanese out of Vietnam and created a communist Vietnam They declared war on France and emerged victorious The Geneva Accord implied that Vietnam was to be split into two states: “The State of Vietnam” and “The Democratic Republic of Vietnam” Conditions: - The US was afraid communism would spread throughout Asia They fought Vietnam “in the name of defense of freedom in Asia” US previously had advisors in Vietnam, however, did not start fighting until 1963 After the JFK assassination, Johnson escalated the US’s role in the Vietnam war in 1964 The North Vietnamese (Viet Cong) never acknowledged Johnson’s numerous attempts at a negotiation of a settlement In the Paris Peace talks, Vietnam agreed to set two parts: communist north and noncommunist south. In 75’ the communists took over the whole country Outcome: - The Vietnam War ended up being more costly for the US than the Korean War due to its landscape and geography The USA ended up losing to Viet Cong, fighters who were not trained nearly as well as the American army The costly failure led to the Détente. External factors: - Besides the war in Vietnam, the US had countrywide protests to deal with The protests were in protest of the Vietnam War and communist aggression Massive discredit to US policy of containment PARIS 68’: “All power to the imagination” Conditions: - The event that started it all was a protest by leftist French students of La Sorbonne who sought to emancipate themselves from traditional and oppressive French values The demonstrations were primarily against capitalism, consumerism, and American imperialism What was first a student protest turned into a series of demonstrations, everyone included Workers joined the students as they believed de Gaulle to be inactive Outcome: - - In the Grennelle Accords, the government chose to raise the minimum wage, decrease work hours, and lower retirement age. Still, civilians did not find this satisfactory and continued to strike After 10 years of leadership at the hands of General de Gaulle, economic growth was stagnating, and unemployment was peaking He resigned a year later PRAGUE 68’: At the time, Brezhnev was the leader of the USSR. Conditions: - “Socialism with a human face” Alexander Dubcek In the spring of 68’, Dubcek attempted to allow more freedom and rights for the people of Czechoslovakia and tried to democratize it. He was convinced he’d be able to liberate his country from communism and the USSR His attempts to do so were met with aggression from Soviet troops who upon entering Czechoslovakia, were faced with no soldiers, but rather civilians holding banners and placards Outcome: - Dubcek and his partisans were under immense pressure and were facing threats from Moscow. The revolution failed because of this, and a new leader was appointed (Husak) He was far more loyal to communism and the USSR USA CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT Conditions: - Anti-Vietnam War and anti-imperialists were protesting Black people were obligated to fight for a country that did not respect them Often said to be started by Rosa Parks when she refused to give up her seat on the bus Race-related riots as a result of mistreatment of the population of color by the police Outcome: - Creation of groups helping protect the black population Hippie movement: “Make love not war” Students dropped out of school and opted for a more free and prosperous way of life Use of hard drugs – emancipation of the youth Rejecting the army and Vietnam War Children of middle-class families 3. DÉTENTE: Causes: - Cuban Missile Crisis Political developments (Czechoslovakia, Vietnam) weakening the superpowers. General insecurity USSR AND US: USSR: - Hoped for trade opportunities with the west Greater access to western technology Sino-Soviet split due to worsening relations - Vietnam War weakened the US financially AND psychologically Jonson’s “New Society” attempting to expand the government welfare state US: ACHIEVEMENT OF DÉTENTE: The most obvious manifestation of Détente was a series of summits held between the leaders of the superpowers and the treaties that came as a result. China was given a chair in the UN – significant development OSTPOLITIK: 2 Germanies: - Acknowledging each other Engaging in political activities Independent political body NIXON - Nixon will acknowledge mainland China as a representative of China Sino-Soviet breakup, USA will side with China USA supports Taiwan by having military presence there PANDA POLICY: - China was the only country with Pandas in the world They would loan them to other countries as a sign of friendship Breeding was not allowed and made impossible PING-PONG POLICY: - Exchange between US and PRC ping-pong players in the 70s Sign of “friendship” and agreement 4. END OF DÉTENTE: US RECESSION: Causes: - Outsourcing First beneficiaries of outsourcing were European countries Fear: - Lack of stability Crumbling of the American Dream Rage: - Confrontational approach against the Soviets IRAN: Conditions: - Theocratic regime Successful, open-minded, democratic country Issues arose with Shah of Persia, who was an anti-communist dictator backed by the US Khomeini – conservative revolutionary beloved by US leftists Encouraged protestors to storm the American embassy in Tehran in 1979 Many Americans were held hostage Khomeini didn’t want amicable relations with the West Reagan had to restore the US image after expats were held hostage for two years with a failed rescue operation in 1980 ISLAM: At the time, Islam stood for liberation, social justice, equality, love, and respect Prominent figures: - Muhammad Ali – boxer Jabbar – basketball player Malcolm X – political rights activist Black Panthers (Angela Davis) – network helping the black community MLK – pastor AFGHANISTAN: Conditions: - Pro-Soviet regime under threat from the Mujahideen Soviet forces entered Afghanistan in order to protect the regime Western powers alarmed about them getting close to their Middle Eastern oil supply USA secretly started sending large shipments of supplies (money, arms etc.) to Pakistan to supply the Mujahideen Outcome: - Soviet equivalent of the Vietnam war Unwinnable for the Soviets Waste of money and supplies They remained in Afghanistan until the 90s SALT I: Agreement signed by the US and USSR with the intention to restrain the arms race in strategic ballistic missiles armed with nuclear weapons. SALT II was foreseen, however was abandoned. DÉTENTE UNRAVELLING: Conditions: - Iranian Revolution and hostage crisis Soviet expansion in Afghanistan Reagan was elected, opposed concessions of détente SALT II negotiations abandoned 5. DOWNFALL OF THE USSR: GORBACHEV Gorbachev became the Soviet leader in a time of crisis and economic fragility Conditions: - USSR had spent too much money on the arms race and Afghanistan Period of extreme loyalty to communism was over – citizens lost faith in the government Alcoholism was rampant – social catastrophe Gorbachev knew the USSR would never outdo the US in terms of nuclear weapons Essential points: - Medical improvements Increase in productivity Increasing life expectancy Decreasing violence against women Ideas for reform: - GLASNOST: openness – policy of freedom of expression and publication of widespread information PERESTROIKA: reconstruction – allowed for more independent actions from various ministries and introduced market reforms, development of democracy, autonomy, encouragement of creative attitude Reform: - Perestroika program: allowed foreign markets to be introduced into the Soviet economy, legalization of buying and selling for profit Drastic cuts in defense spending Signed a treaty with the US to remove a majority of their missiles from Europe Withdrawal of Soviet troops in Afghanistan Sought international trust and cooperation Despite good policies being put into place, they were not effective enough. Perestroika was not enough to rebuild the economy as quickly as it was desired. Glasnost created anti-Russian resentment throughout Eastern European countries Gorbachev encouraged the Soviet sphere of influence to reform and take independence HOUSING CRISIS: The Soviet government provided education, work, safety, and benefits 40s-60s: - Period of excellence – Stalin Good life quality No freedom of speech 60s-70s: - Block apartments Beginning of shortages due to population increase Stability = natality boom 70s-91’: - Bad housing – disrepair Free housing to be given to newlyweds Large amount of time taken to build said housing This brought about loss of faith in the USSR OVERALL SYSTEM FAILURE: Chernobyl: - Nuclear disaster of huge proportions Human neglect – fault in the reactor Core Soviet values broken – “society which makes no mistakes” Met with denial, disregard for the population Liquidators: volunteers to clean the aftermath Economic stagnation: - Investments in nuclear parity with the US, technology, and military Neglect of social systems Afghanistan: - Intervention affected food supplies and created an overall shortage of goods Blow for the Soviet army Defeat at the hands of the Taliban Severe PTSD in soldiers CHERNOBYL EFFECT: Domino effect that led to the downfall of the USSR Inside the USSR: - Chernobyl Failure of economic reform Afghanistan Economic stagnation Lack of trust in the system Outside the USSR: - Solidarnost (anti-bureaucratic social movement in Poland: advance causes of worker’s rights and social change) East Germany needed a solution for the Berlin Wall Pressure from Reagan REUNIFICATION OF GERMANY: Conditions: - In 1989, the Berlin Wall was dismantled West German chancellor proposed a speedy reunification which everyone was in favor of Outcome: - Following negotiations, Gorbachev accepted this and accepted Germany as a member of NATO In 1990, Germany was reunified COLLAPSE OF THE USSR: Conditions: - Lithuania made it clear to the USSR they wanted independence in early 1990 Despite Gorbachev’s opposition to the idea, they still took independence After this, Azerbaijan sought its independence Gorbachev sent troops to both countries to avoid riots Reformers in the USSR demanded an end to the CP’s domination government Hard line CP members attempted a coup d’état They held Gorbachev prisoner and sent troops out into Moscow - Huge crowds strongly opposed the coup Coup d’état failed as all faith was lost This was the last attempt to save the USSR Outcome: - Russian republic elected their president Ukraine declared independence Georgia took its independence In a televised speech in December of 1991, Gorbachev announced the end of the USSR BAC: 1. DECOLONIZATION: CONTEXT: Following WWII and a great shift in the international context, European colonial powers broke up. The desire for emancipation was expressed by progressive indigenous leaders everywhere in both peaceful and violent ways. The Allies had appealed for military help from the colonial populations: daily life on the frontlines with Europeans allowed colonial soldiers to discover a social reality that was drastically different from the ones they knew. The French, Dutch and English had failed to resist the Japanese advance in Asia, moreover, the Japanese encouraged anti-colonial movements with anti-European propaganda. Europe had lost its seeming invincibility and no longer had the means to achieve its overseas ambitions. FACTORS LEADING TO DECOLONIZATION: Major powers opposing colonialism: - The USSR: they considered colonialism to be one of the pillars of capitalism, another form of human exploitation. Accepting this concept encouraged communist resistance movements. The USA: they defended the idea of the right of people to self-determination, with themselves being the first colony emancipated from British rule in the 18th century. The UN: they also opposed colonization. In 1941, the Atlantic Charter (Statement published of American and British plans for the world post-WWII) defended the people’s rights to selfdetermination. In 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights reiterated this same principle. The UN thus became a forum for new states, offering support to the oppressed and condemning the European powers. Anticolonialist movements – European response: European countries were becoming increasingly aware of the weakening of their international political influence and their financial incapacity to maintain the colonial system. Certain leaders admitted that there must be a change in the legal status of the dominated territories. - France: one such leader being France’s Charles De Gaulle during his 1944 speech at the Conference of Brazzaville. The country’s mission was to allow the development of its colonies so that, once the conditions were met, France could concede a certain autonomy in internal affairs. - The Netherlands: promised Indonesia autonomous management of internal affairs. - England: Churchill had promised to negotiate with India following WWII Defense of freedom and inequality: - - African intellectuals L. S. Senghor (founder of the Republic of Senegal) and F. H. Boigny (First president of the Ivory Coast) were not deceived with this outcome and demanded practical decisions. Certain politicians combined nationalism and Marxism, obtaining the support of the USSR (Ho Chi Minh and the Viet Minh) and other communis countries. Other pro-independence leaders based their claims on the rejection of Western values and affirmation of their own cultural identity. For instance, the Muslim Brotherhood (Islamic transnational organization) ASIA: Independence of British India: - - - - - - The Indian National Congress: India’s oldest surviving political party founded in 1885. The party’s original goal was to enable educated Indians to participate in the Indian government without challenging British presence. Due to dissatisfaction with the British reaction, the party advocated for more radical demands in the 1920s. As the Indian National Congress was founded in 1885, it was the first modern nationalist movement to emerge in the British Empire in Asia and Africa. At the end of WWII, Gandhi (anti-colonial nationalist) became the undisputed leader of the movement. He advocated for both nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience. He organized boycotts of English products and encouraged the refusal to pay taxes to the English. The INC party called for India’s immediate independence in the 1942 Quit India resolution. This was done in order for it to be able to participate in full sovereignty in the Allied struggle against totalitarian powers. Churchill refused this and had the nationalist leaders arrested, and their attempts to protest were harshly repressed. He did however promise independence in the post-war period. Independence negotiations began as early as 1945, unfortunately, during this period, relations deteriorated between Muslims and Hindus. Muslim leader Jinnah demanded the creation of two respective states. A civil war broke out between 1946-47 and the British played the role of the arbitrator. Nehru (former Indian PM) gave in and accepted the partition. In January 1947, two separate states proclaimed their independence: East and West Pakistan, and India. Population displacements (15m displaced) that came as a result provoked massacres (500k dead). Gandhi, now elderly, appealed for peace amongst his countrymen by fasting, spinning cotton yarn, and visiting the displaced persons camps. He was assassinated in New Delhi by a Hindu nationalist in January of 1948. In the same year, Ceylon and Burma obtained their independence. Indonesian national revolution: - - - During WWII, in 1942, the Japanese occupied Indonesia, expelling the Dutch. They carried out anti-European propaganda and promoted the independence proclaimed by Sukarno (nationalist leader) shortly before they were capitulated in 1945. The Dutch did not support this affair, accusing the supporters of the new republic of being Japanese collaborators. They attempted to reconquer the country in 1947 on the grounds of public disorder, however, the nationalists held firm, and the colonial troops only controlled the cities. Under pressure from the UN, and being threatened by the suspension of economic aid from the Marshall Plan, the Dutch yielded in 1947, leading to Indonesian independence being definitively recognized. The first war in Indochina: - - - - The decolonization process in Indochina was far more violent than previous ones. In order to promote independence in 1945, the Japanese removed the French Vichy authorities in a military operation. However, the Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh, a communist inspired independence movement defended the Allied cause and waited for Japanese capitulation to declare independence. General de Gaulle intended to restore French authority, he sent Admiral d’Argenlieu and General Leclerc to French Indochina in 1945. The latter swiftly became aware of the strength of the Vietnamese national sentiment and negotiated the Ho-Sainteny agreement (recognizing Vietnam as a “free state” within the French union, permitting France to keep stationing troops in North Vietnam) in 1946. Vietnam then became a free state, while d’Argenlieu pushed for the creation of a pro-French state in the south, leading to bloody civil unrest. The admiral bombed the port of Haiphong in response, triggering the Indochina war. France then took control of the cities. The communist Chinese supported Ho Chi Minh, making the Indochina war a Cold War conflict. The USA aided the French in preventing the spread of communism. France tried to set up a trap for the Viet Minh in 1954, however they were crushed by General Giap. Later the same year, Pierre Mendès France (president of the French council and supporter of independence) signed the Geneva Accords, putting an end to the conflict. Laos and Cambodia gained their independence and Vietnam was divided in two, putting in place the conditions for the Vietnam War. AFRICA; Peaceful decolonization: - The UK and France had two different approaches to administering their colonies: France favored assimilation: they believed this promoted “civilization” UK favored association: which they believed to support the low cost commercial activities. Both these terms are used to mark the reality of colonization processes which were based on economic exploitation and dismantling of traditional social structures. - The two powers offered a process of peaceful emancipation in Africa in order to avoid wars. Self-Government allowed for a smooth transition while simultaneously safeguarding common interests. - Anglophone Africa: The first to enter the process was the Gold Coast, with Ghana gaining independence in 1951, followed by Nigeria and other Anglophone African states. Despite this, ethnic conflicts arose, such as the case of the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya. - Francophone Africa: two men played important roles: Léopold S Senghor in Senegal and F. H. Boigny in Ivory Coast. France conceded the beginnings of autonomy with the creation of the French Union, allowing the colonies to elect their own deputies. However, numerous riots ensued. For instance: France violently repressed a Madagascar uprising in 1947. - In 1958, De Gaulle offered internal autonomy before definitively recognizing independence of said countries un 1960. Decolonization of the Maghreb under pressure: - - - Nasser (Egyptian leader) encouraged the independence of the Maghreb. He came to power in Egypt in 1952 and overthrew King Farouk, who was accused of corruption and being a puppet for the British. His ambition was to become the leader of the Arab world, which he aimed to unite in the name of Pan-Arabism (ideology that aims to unite the Arab world). He drove the French and British out of the Suez Canal in 1956 and supported independence movements in Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria. Independence in Tunisia and Morocco came as a result of strong militant pressure and negotiations with France. Mendès France played a stabilizing role in the ordeal. Istiqlal was Morocco’s pro-independence party, supporting the creation of a monarchy under Sultan Mohammed V’s leadership. In Tunisia, it was the Neo-Destour that demanded independence. Habib Bourguiba, its leader, advocated a secular and modern vision of Tunisia. During the 50s, France tried in both cases to repress the desire for emancipation by exiling the Sultan of Morocco and arresting Bourguiba. Despite this, the increasing breakouts of violent riots forced the opening of negotiations. Both states gained independence in 1956. The Algerian War (1954-1962) - - - The process of decolonization in Algeria was violent. Algerians of European origin, also known as “The Pieds Noirs” blocked the entire peaceful emancipation process as France still in 1954 considered Algeria to be French. They believed they could oppose decolonization by military means. In the 60s, 10% of Algeria’s population was of European origin. In 1945, the Sétif riots were violently repressed by the French, leading to 20k deaths. Despite calm seemingly being restored, however, a series of attacks orchestrated by the FLN (nationalist movement) took place, marking the beginning of the Algerian War. The French resorted to torture and armed Algerian militants were expelled from the countryside. France’s image was deteriorating internationally and the war, as well as its cost, were very unpopular in metropolitan France. De Gaulle eventually came to the realization that France would not be able to hold on to Algeria forcefully forever, leaving to the Evian Accords negotiating a ceasefire and independence in 1962. Violent decolonization in Sub-Saharan Africa: - - - In the Belgian Congo, decolonization was violent and destabilizing. Belgian paternalism refused any changes, characterized by the expression: “no elites, no trouble”. The country was very rich in natural resource (copper, diamonds…) which Western companies exploited. Riots broke out in 1959 and the Belgians hastily abandoned the country the following year, leaving it with severe inter-ethnic unrest leading to the breakout of a civil war. The province of Katanga withdrew in opposition to Lumumba’s (anti-colonialist PM of the Congo who was later overthrown and executed) central government and in 1965, General Mobutu seized power and imposed a bloody and corrupt dictatorship By 1960, a large portion of Africa had gained its independence, only a few areas remained in conflict, particularly the Portuguese colonies. Salazar’s (Portuguese dictator) dictatorship was overstretched in maintaining the Portuguese colonial empire, leading to a long struggle facing the pro-independence guerrillas. The Western powers as well as the USSR, China and Cuba involved themselves in the conflict by exploiting ethnic divisions. The Portuguese dictatorship was overthrown in 1974, allowing their colonies (Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Angola, and Cape Verde) to become independent. As for Southern Rhodesia, a white-dominated government proclaimed its independence in 1965. Their regime was identical to the South African apartheid: subjugation of the blacks to the whites. In reaction to this independence proclamation denying the rights to the black majority, a liberation war led by Mugabe (Zimbabwean revolutionary) broke out and ended in 1980 with the independence of the new nation of Zimbabwe. Apartheid definition: Coming from Afrikaans word meaning “separateness”, apartheid is a policy of separate development imposing strict racial segregation. It was originally introduced in South Africa in 1948 and continued until 1990 when the ban on the African National Congress was lifted and 1992 when a referendum officially ended the system. THE “THIRD WORLD”: The Bandung Conference (1955): - - - The term “Third World” was coined by Alfred Sauvy (French demographer) in 1952. It is a term used to refer to formerly colonized countries that aspired to freedom beyond the control of the two Cold War blocs. It is at this conference that the Non-Alignment Movement (forum of countries that are not formally aligned for or against any major power bloc) took shape. Newly independent countries such as India, Indonesia, and to some extent, China, came together against Cold War politics. 29 countries met in Indonesia, hosted by Sukarno, the president. All the participants unanimously condemned colonialism and apartheid, asserted their neutralism from the two blocs of the CW and affirmed the need for economic and social development based on international cooperation. Challenges of independence: - - - - - - - Many challenges were faced by the newly independent countries: issues such as food selfsufficiency (primitive methods of food producing agriculture failed to feed the booming populations), the failure of the West to help, and the lack of industry due to the colonizers not rarely developing processing industries. Additionally, Western markets controlled prices. Social problems such as malnutrition, illiteracy, unemployment, and lack of infrastructure were rampant and made the standard of living remain very low. Only a small and corrupt elite prospered. Neo-colonialism: the newly independent colonies, regardless of emancipation, were subjected to this new form of imperialism. Dominance was now no longer military, but rather economic. Trade agreements allowed Western companies and countries to control the production of raw materials, leading to the debt owed by the “Third World” countries to grow, increasing their dependence on their Western creditors. Economic difficulties went hand-in-hand with political difficulties: the territory of ethnic groups was not respected by historical colonial borders, leading to the spread of conflicts. Governments turned to exercising their power through military, favoring corrupt and violent dictatorships. Said countries experienced a very high growth in population while not completing the demographic transition. Children being the first victims of this, and the infant mortality rate still being very high. Population equally suffered from under and malnutrition. Lack of medical infrastructure also poses a very large problem: the countries are highly affected by epidemic diseases (AIDS, Ebola, Smallpox…) and populations are concentrated in urban slums near major metropoles. Other forms of infrastructure such as sewage and electricity are also neglected. The “Third World’s” population still has a high rate of illiteracy due to disparities in quality of education and the divide between the classes is increasingly widening. Failure of the Third Way: - - - Following the Bandung Conference came the Belgrade Conference involving Nasser, Nehru (principal leader of Indian nationalist movement) and Tito (leader of Yugoslavia) at which the Non-Alignment Movement officially came into place. The Non-Aligned countries’ desire for independence was a failure however, as most of the participating countries fell under the influence of one side or the other. Pan-Arabism and Pan-Africanism didn’t see much success either. Developing countries made attempts to assert themselves: in 1956, Nasser denounced the international division of labor in which “Third World” countries were mere suppliers of raw materials before nationalizing the Suez Canal. 77 states succeeded in creating the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) in 1964, focusing international attention on the issue of development. At the Algiers Summit in 1973, the NA countries demanded the creation of a new economic order. A practical consequence of the trade rebrand was the creation of the OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) in 1960, which increased the price of oil fourth fold during the Yom Kippur War as it was the only commodity for which producers had control over production. This is the only respect in which the NA movement was economically successful, in all other aspects, it had failed. Differences in the “Third World”: CONTEXT: in the modern day, the concept of the “Third World Model” no longer makes much sense, and referring to it as the “Global South” is considered more correct. The futures of the concerned countries vary on the label given to them and their functioning. - - - The LDCs: Least Developed Countries, mainly located in Central Africa, are countries in which the level of poverty remains high and have a high annual natural growth rate. The less developed emerging markets: including countries in the Maghreb, South and Central America or South-East Asia. There is economic development taking place, however, the countries have not as of yet succeeded to overcome the challenge of poverty. These societies remain unequal, and in some cases, dictatorial. The more developed emerging markets: often large countries with rapid economic growth. They are increasingly asserting their position among the Western economic powers. Such countries include China, India, Brazil, Mexico, as well as the NICS (Newly Industrialized Countries) of Asia. Oil-producing states: the prosperity of said countries can be explained by the exploitation of a non-renewable natural resource bringing in revenue. Certain countries, anticipating the post-oil era, have reinvested their income in sovereign wealth funds (tourism for instance) or higher quality tertiary activities. Such countries are Qatar and the UAE, for example. 2. CHINA POST 1949 MAO ZEDONG: CONTEXT: During the 19th century, significant agrarian and social reforms allowed China to undergo remarkable demographic expansion. Despite this, the country was greatly weakened by the inefficient Qing imperial dynasty and economic disorganization caused by European opium imports. The social system in place contributed to the poverty of the country. A minority of rural landowners collected high land rents which prevented them from investing in improving techniques. Moreover natural disasters (droughts and floods) impoverished the peasant classes further as they had no reserves to deal with such catastrophes. In 1911, the imperial regime was overthrown and replaced by a Republic. Despite this, the new leaders were unable to rebuild a country divided amongst what they called “warlords”, people committed to the traditional values of Chinese society. They were also unable to prevent the Japanese annexation of Manchuria in 1931, as well as their 1937 invasion (second Sino-Japanese war) Communist rise to power in China: - - In this historical context, the communists offered a new hope to China. The CCP (Chinese Communist Party) was founded in 1921, with Mao Zedong emerging as its leader. The party combined the social struggle for land reform with the patriotic struggle against the Japanese. Opposing the communists was nationalist party named Kuomintang (KMT for short) led by Kai-shek. Said party benefited from American aid and refused land reform. The two parties were originally allies; however, a rivalry arose from 1927 onwards. The communists successfully took control over the south of the country. - - - After a bloody campaign, Kai-shek regained control of the south in 1934. Following his defeat, Mao Zedong undertook the Long March (a military retreat). This lasted for a year, and Mao led the communists 12k km to the north of the country. Nearly 75% of troops died on the way. Regardless of this, Mao was seen was a hero and had established himself as the undisputed leader of the Chinese communists. Following a pause for the duration of WWII, the hostilities between the KMT and CCP resumed after the Japanese had surrendered. The CCP was greatly strengthened by its alliance with the USSR, and Kai-Shek’s political mistakes added to the economic ruin of the country. Communist troops did not engage in looting and performed a redistribution of the land, and thus, triumphed. In 1949, Mao proclaimed the birth of the PRC (People’s Republic of China) in Beijing. The last of the KMT troops took refuge in Taiwan. Soviet Model: - - - - - - - As soon as the CCP gained power, they embarked on a vast land reform. At first, the wealthier peasants were spared, however the reform became increasingly radical in a short period of time. Last traces of the feudalist system were eliminated, and forced marriages, as well as polygamy, were banned countrywide. Initially, “national” capitalism was maintained in cities, however in 1952, with the creation of the Five-anti Campaign (no bribery, theft of state property, tax evasion…) private companies fell under control of the CCP. China established very close ties with the USSR, allowing them to speed up economic development. Investments in the secondary sector were generous and the steel production quadrupled in three years. Land collectivization accelerated and the government fought against land fragmentation in order to generate agricultural surpluses and finance industrialization. China’s relations with the West did not break immediately, they only ceased once China became directly involved in the Korean War. They radicalized their position and played an essential role at the Bandung Conference in the affirmation of the political identity of “Third World” countries. Unfortunately, the attempt at agricultural collectivization was a failure. The increase in agricultural production remained lower than population growth leading to widespread discontent in the 1950s with strikes breaking out in factories. Mao Zedong found himself opposed by Enlai and Xiaoping who were in favor of realistic solutions and aimed to reduce the gap between the socialist system and underdeveloped productive structures. The CCP in 1956 was unpleasantly surprised by Khrushchev’s criticism of Stalin, however as a result of this, Mao launched the Hundred Flowers Campaign, encouraging the Chinese people, notably scholars and intellectuals to criticize the political regime. Being challenged perhaps too strongly for their liking, the government reversed this, and repression began in 1957. The Great Leap Forward (1958-1961): - Due to the countries difficulties and break with the Soviet Model, Mao chose to launch a new strategy of decentralized development named The Great Leap Forward. The main idea was to at the same time develop agriculture and small-scale industry in the countryside as well as modern heavy industry units near the cities. Mao’s goal with this was to weaken the central government planners who he condemned as bourgeois. - - - - - In 1958, the policy took form of the People’s Communes. These were artificial units regrouping peasants in communes and integrated all activities (agriculture, industry, education, healthcare…). The large population had to compensate for the lack of investment. Small blast furnaces were built in backyards to provide iron and steel required for everyday use and the way of life was communalized through public day-care centers, meals, dorms, and collective retirement homes. WAGES WERE ABOLISHED, PAY WAS PROVIDED ACCORDING TO NEED This experiment was a tragic failure for China, and was worsened greatly by the occurrence of natural disasters. Agricultural production significantly decreased and by 1960, famine had made a return creating a demographic deficit ranging from 10m – 20m Chinese. The economic system was disorganized by unnecessary work, steel produced was of poor quality and factories were short on raw materials. The situation was worsened further by the lack of transparency coming from officials. Simultaneously, tensions with former ally, The USSR, were increasing. In 1960, they recalled their experts and suspended cooperation aid. This eventually led to the Sino-Soviet Split of 1961 as differences in ideology were becoming increasingly apparent, these disagreements resulting in border clashes. China tested its first atomic bomb in 1964. Due to marginalization, they started a global policy of fighting imperialism and revisionism. This regime appealed to the poor peasantry who stood against the imperialist West. The economic situation continued to degrade and in 1961, the party adopted a policy of “readjustment and consolidation”. Mao was forced to apply self-criticism, however remained chairman of the CCP. Agriculture then regained priority over industry and peasants were attributed private plots of land. Managers were returned control of businesses, and agricultural and industrial production began to rise anew. Recovery and cultural revolution: - - - - - In these changes, Mao saw the risk of the development of a bourgeois class, he was given the opportunity to denounce the bureaucratization of the party by the reappearance of inequalities, which he believed was following a capitalist path. Thanks to the “socialist education movement”, in 1963, he was able to call on the “committees of poor peasants” to undertake a critique of the party’s leadership and rectify its managerial orientation. The movement had very little success outside of the army, however, Mao’s cult personality was revived with the publication of the “Little Red Book”. The initiative quickly ran out of steam, and in order to compensate, the Cultural Revolution was proclaimed in 1966 with the goal of attacking counter-revolutionary revisionists. These student paramilitary groups called themselves the “Red Guards” and anger was both encouraged and unleashed at the universities. In 1966, a million students attacked numerous leaders in increasingly violent actions, justifying them with the slogan: “All rebellion is just!” Self-criticism sessions punctuated the demonstrations, and big-character posters were posted, on which the demands of students were written. All this was done in the name of Mao, however, by that point, he had lost all control over the movement. China found itself in a civil-war-like situation. As a response, Mao asked the army to bring order, leading to 20 million young rebels being sent off to the countryside for reeducation. Mao then regained control of the party with the aid of the military. The number of victims is widely considered to be nothing short of catastrophic, experts estimate as many as 4m deaths and 100m violent persecutions. The number of prisoners is estimated to have been roughly 11m. This led to China becoming entirely internationally isolated. - Despite some recovery, the regime remained unstable. The far-left fringe was eliminated in favor of former right-wing leaders (Xiaoping and Enlai). The struggle between radicals and reformers continued until Mao’s death in 1976. BETWEEN MODERNISM AND DICTATORSHIP: Xiaoping and economic liberalization: - - - Following Mao’s death, the struggle between opposing factions was intensified. Xiaoping, the leader of the reformists, imposed himself in 1978 with his policy of Four Modernizations: army, agriculture, industry, science and technology. He cautiously isolated the radical elements and questioned Maoist heritage. His goal was to reform the country by opening it up to a marker economy while maintaining socialist and authoritarian framework. Most importantly, he decollectivized the land, renting plots out to peasants and allowing surpluses to be sold on the free market. After 1982, prices in the city were liberalized. Special Economic Zones (SEZs) were established in which foreign investors were allowed to set up mixed capital companies. They were granted tax benefits aligning with Chinese economic interests and in return, in case of relocation, their technologies would remain in China. Between economic miracle and repression: - - - Effects of the previously mentioned factors were felt rapidly: for instance, cereal production increased, and industry had grown by 24% in 1985. Despite this, socialist inequalities increased again, reinforcing tensions. Small industrial and private units were profitable, while large conglomerates remained in deficit. The corruption of the regime was heavily criticized, and young people demanded more freedom. After Gorbachev launched Perestroika in the USSR, the situation in China degenerated further. Large demonstrations were organized in Tiananmen Square as well as other major cities. Numerous students went on hunger strike with the goal of denouncing corruption and demanding the democratization of the Party. Liberal forces demanded the Fifth Modernization: democracy. For a short amount of time, the regime seemed to have doubts and opened negotiations, however, repression began again in June of 1989. 200k soldiers were deployed and the number of victims has been difficult to estimate. Economic and political affirmation: - - - Between 1990 and 2000, the Chinese economy experienced growth of over 9%. It became known as the “workshop of the world” thanks to low-cost labor and acquisition of foreign technology. Additionally to economic success, there was also political success. Hong Kong and Macao were recovered by the People’s Republic in 1997 and 1999 respectively and in 2001, China joined the WTO (World Trade Organization) In 2008, China became the world’s 3rd largest economy and wanted to assert its “soft power”, notably through the 2008 Olympics and 2010 Shanghai Expo. However, neighboring states have expressed concern over their expansionist policy as well as the “New Silk Road” The Chinese regime remains authoritarian, the CCP remains in control of the country with a strong repression policy. Journalists are prosecuted and internet usage is closely monitored. Minorities such as Uyghurs are dominated and oppressed by the Han Chinese. 3. EASTERN AND WESTERN EUROPE (1949-1973) EAST VS. WEST: Economic liberalism in the West: - - - - - - Under American influence, Western Europe has been characterized by its liberal and capitalist economic system since 1949. With the Marshall Plan, W. Europe entered its era of mass consumption. Comfort and possession of associated material objects (amenities, appliances…) became an existential goal for W. European society. As a result of mass production, an economic boom of 5% production increase per year from 1945 to 1973 came to be. Energy was cheap, demographics were dynamic, and productivity grew due to major investments in industrial facilities. Assembly line work became widespread. Prices of consumer goods decreased; this “virtuous” circle functioned particularly as production had a huge consumer market. There was a need for the whole of Western society to be equipped. The State played its role: financing and helping research and development. Keynesian economics advocated for state intervention in the economy. It encouraged the growth of demand, helped sectors experiencing difficulties, monitored prices and wages, and developed land-use planning. This was the creation of the welfare state and social market economy. The State protected the individual and transferred wealth to the poorest through health insurance, pensions, and unemployment benefits. Despite managing to achieve civil equality under the law and political equality through universal suffrage, it has had difficulties in ensuring equal opportunities through the education system and has failed in social equality. Unemployment and poverty persist, and economic and social gender-based inequalities remain rampant. Communist model in the East: - - - In Eastern Europe, the totalitarian model in force in the USSR was applied to its “sister countries” Collectivization: was imposed and within a few years, large aristocratic properties formerly common throughout the GDR and Hungary disappeared. In Czechoslovakia, the business bourgeoisie paid the price for the nationalization of the industrial apparatus. In Romania and Bulgaria however, the Soviet-style industrialization allowed the affirmation of a strong working class. Heavy industry was able to flourish under these reforms, however, the transition to consumer industry was limited. Food shortages persisted un spite of reforms and the lack of products and comfort led to demotivation of workers. This was especially true as it was coupled with national resistance to an externally-imposed regime. Consumerism and fascination with the West made its way throughout E. Europe in the 60s and 70s, spreading into homes gradually. Despite the insistence on equality, a privileged class (the nomenklatura) still existed. It was composed of political and administrative staff, who benefited from privileges. However, the ideal of equality was indisputably better respected than in the West. The standard of living was much lower, the population had free access to healthcare, education, and leisure activities. Gender equality was also legally enforced through early abortion laws, workplace equality and ability to divorce. Daycare centers were also very common, despite declining birth rate. New Europe in the West: - - - - - The idea of rebuilding devastated, and ruined Europe based on solidarity and cooperation had been appearing among internal and external resistance movements since even before the end of WWII. Importance was placed on overcoming national egoism and building political unity based on universal support, in the name of freedom and progress. Unfortunately, once WWII was over, Europe was forced to move realistically, becoming occupied by the two CW superpowers, and becoming an important territorial issue in a bipolarized world. In 1946, Churchill gave a speech in favor of European Unity in Zurich, and by 1947, many movements had formed to advocate for it (Pan-European movement for instance). Two trends emerged, showing two visions of Europe: federalism and unionism. Federalism: proposed the creation of decentralized states with limited sovereignty, part of their power being delegated to a federal authority. Unionism: envisaged cooperation or association between states, which would retain their sovereignty in its entirety and form a confederation. Both the movements popularized the idea of a united Europe. A first meeting was organized in The Hague in 1948 in hopes of bringing this idea into a reality. The impact on public opinion was overwhelmingly positive, all the more as the Congress had set out general objectives along with means of achieving them: an Assembly, Charter of Human Rights, and a Supreme Court of Justice. Decentralization definition: process by which the activities of an organization are distributed or delegated away from a central, authoritative location or group. Sovereignty definition: exclusive right to exercise political authority over a geographical area and/or group of people. It is the highest power in a society Cold War division: - - - - Pro-Europeans seemed to be running into the issue of turning their ideas into a reality, paradoxically, the CW favored this political project. The US pushed W. Europe’s unity in the face of danger, while Stalin’s policies in the East aroused fears. Many believed peace with the USSR to be unachievable, therefore they considered strength and security a necessity. Beyond the Marshall Plan, and by extension, the policy of containment, the unification of Europe was an American desire to avoid a permanent military and economic commitment. The first European Conference since the war took place in Paris in 1947 to manage aid from the European Recovery Program. This led to the creation of the OEEC (Organization for European Economic Cooperation) in 1948 including 16 member countries. The OEEC was a part of a liberal economic approach, its aim was to reduce restrictions on trade and monetary exchange through the promotion of a free trade area. However, the organization remained an intergovernmental cooperation body and failed to achieve its goal of a large European market. In order to ward off Soviet danger, the French and British requested American military support in 1947 and were in return asked to make a cooperative effort. Negotiations sped - up with the 1948 Czechoslovak coup d’état and in 1948, the Brussels Treaty was signed for immediate military assistance in the event of foreign aggression. Thus, the cold war accelerated divisions in Europe, while simultaneously facilitating a process of W. European political integration. Sovietization of E. Europe: - - - - - In 1945, the USSR foreign policy towards Europe was poorly defined. At Yalta, the decision to continue the policy of national political fronts after the war was taken and in E. European countries, the policy of unified resistance to fascist forces was to be continued. Despite Bolshevism not being on the agenda, the USSR insisted on the local CP gaining maximal influence. Sovietization accelerated with the CW. Communists exploited the social and economic discontent of the urban and rural proletariat, thus, with the CW, the USSR turned to a form of unification of E. Europe, imposed from above to the detriment of the people. E. European economies trailed behind W. European ones in the post-war period, few industrial regions succeeded. The authorities were confronted with two main issues: land reform and industrialization. Initially, the collectivization of aristocratic estates satisfied peasant farmers, however they resisted when it came to grouping them into production cooperatives. The leaders made the decision to allow bulk-type of agricultural production to be carried out by family-type enterprises, while cooperatives played a secondary role. Almost everything in terms of industry had to be constructed and developed. The People’s Democracies borrowed planning techniques from the Soviets and prioritized heavy industry and manufacture of production goods. Economic organization of E. Europe was limited to COMECON, meaning it was restricted to organizing trade and promoting technical collaboration for the USSR’s benefit. UNIFICATION AND DIVISION OF EUROPE: W. European mass culture: - - - In the West, the post-war period saw a major cultural upheaval. Forms of expression were revitalized, and a succession of avant-garde movements took place. W. Europe entered into a culture of communication, inspired by the USA. Book publishing advanced greatly, however, the most progress was made in the field of sound and image. Pop culture gained prominence and took off with its own idols and heroes. The Americanization of culture became prominent after the CW continued in the 50s. This influence was felt in language, cinema, music, literature, and comics. W. Europeans DID resist this trend, as European productions remained substantial. Civilization of leisure became more widespread at the time, and the increase in educational attainment, living standards and paid holidays supported this process. E. European mass culture: - In the USSR, culture was considered a power issue. The socialist revolution had for a goal to create the “New Soviet Person” with a brand new sense of morality and culture. E. European society did change greatly, not only due to forced ideological indoctrination, but also due to industrialization and urbanization. - - Following 1945, culture was labeled “Zhdanovism” as he had applied Stalinist ideas into the art world and created the “socialist realism” movement. The masses had to be mobilized, and therefore art needed to be accessible, comprehensible, and describing the ideal reality. Western influences were combated through censorship. Following Stalin’s death, more free-spirited works were allowed, however the policies remained ambiguous as censorship still ruled with force. Under Brezhnev, conformism was reinstated. Stalinization of E. Europe: - - Following the Czechoslovak coup d’état, the Soviet mission to control E. European satellite states accelerated. Pro-Stalinist regimes were strengthened with widespread purges modelled on the 30s Moscow trials. In 1949, Hungarian Foreign Minister, Rajk, was arrested and executed, and Polish minister Gomulka was dismissed. In 1951, Czechoslovakian Foreign Minister, Clementis, was arrested and Slansky was instigated in his place, however, was himself arrested the same year. Within three years, nearly 25% of the communist elite was replaced under the accusation of “Titoism” E. European leaders following the Stalinist model were instated, Christian churches were persecuted, and the doctrinal alignment of the E. European countries with the USSR was complete. Drug Tito <3: - - - Not all E. European countries were willing to comply with the Stalinist model: following WWII, Tito (leader of the Yugoslavian resistance to Nazism) established his dictatorship on the USSR model, obtaining their help. He however wanted to keep control over the Yugoslavian economy, and took initiatives that displeased Soviet leaders. (Supporting Greek communists and advocating the Balkan federation project) In 1948, Tito and his followers prevented Stalinists from snatching power in Yugoslavia and retained control of the party. Stalin attempted to economically suffocate Yugoslavia, which forced Tito to increase his trade with the Western bloc. He received aid from the Marshall Plan and signed a military treaty with the USA allowing him to obtain supplies while remaining faithful to his ideology. Reconciliation with the USSR only took place in 1955, under Khrushchev. First steps towards union: - - Following the Congress of Europe in The Hague, public opinion was in favor of a united Europe. Regardless of British hostility, France and Belgium proposed the creation of a European Assembly and formation of an Economic and Customs union, leading to the creation of the Council of Europe in 1949. One of its first achievements being the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, which itself led to the establishment of the European Court of Human Rights. Robert Schuman, French Foreign Minister believed that organizing the sector for basic industries (coal, ores, energy…) would be a good way of creating concrete solidarity before moving on to political construction, uniting Europe by what he called “small steps” - - Despite some concerns, reactions to the project were generally favorable, the only country exhibiting signs of hostility was the UK (Europe’s leading producer of coal and steel) In 1951, France, Germany, The Netherlands, Italy, Belgium, and Luxemburg signed the treaty establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in Paris. Supranational institutions were created with High Authority, composed of 9 members recruited by governments however independent in their decision-making. Following the success of the ECSC many projects were initiated, then abandoned. This was at the time of the Korean War, and fear of eastern aggression was growing. Churchill proceeded to give a speech in favor of a “unified European army” which led to Jean Monnet proposing a European Defense Community based on the institutional lines of the ECSC. The treaty was signed in 1952 in Paris, also. The EDC was eventually abandoned at the opening of the debates at the Assembly. Creation of the CCE: - - After the EDC’s failure, the question of relaunching European union construction was raised. The project needed to be less ambitious and limited to economic areas. After lengthy negotiations, the European Economic Community (EEC) and European Atomic Energy Committee (EAEC) were signed in Rome in 1957. The Parliamentary Assembly of the EEC was enlarged, the treaties provided for a possible election by universal suffrage. It acquired powers of deliberation and control: the Court of Justice continued to exercise its functions, an Economic and Social Committee was set up, and decisions were taken by the Council of Ministers, with the Commissions having only an executive role and a right of proposal. However, the former could only take decisions on the latter’s proposals, and decision had to be taken unanimously. Creation of the institutional triangle: The Commission, Parliament and Council. The Commission: represented general interest The Council of Ministers: represented national interest The Parliament: represented the citizens. Community law prevailed over national law; the economic merger came with the intention of allowing for political unification. POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES: Destalinization and intervention: - - E. Germany: The liberalization process following Stalin’s death had rapid repercussions in Eastern Germany, making the people in power (Ulbricht) increasingly unpopular. Following an increase in workload with no wage increase, strikes broke out in 1953 and the movement grew in strength, hundreds of thousands took to the streets in all the country’s major cities. Ulbricht viewed this as a counter-revolution and appealed to the Soviets, who in turn, crushed the protestors, leading to a large number of victims. Poland: following an increase in working time standards and a decrease in wages, riots broke out in 1956. Soviet authorities authorized the return of Gomulka, who was considered more liberal. He called for reforms such as the abandonment of collectivization, an agreement with the Catholic episcopate, and economic reforms such as wage increases and an Economic Council. This showed Poland on a path to socialism diverging from the Soviet model, however, economic difficulties led to hardening of the regime. Social transformation in W. Europe: - - - - - Post-war European society was in a state of complete change. The US and W. Europe saw an increase in the proportion of workers, managers, and service jobs. After 1960, services continued to grow while labor force declined. The increase in wages and social laws under the welfare state allowed the rise of the middle class. One of the main features of this era was the generalization of household appliances. This growth was less beneficial to people in rural areas and others who were restricted to least qualified jobs. Leisure activities became more widespread. Despite social progress, societal values had not evolved. It retained a mentality of survival based on obedience and respect of hierarchies (power structures such as patriarchy still very much in place). New generations, unfamiliar with the hardships of war became increasingly less tolerant of such hypocritical values and denounced the dichotomy between declared values and reality. During student movements in May 68’, these demands became crystallized and social consequences became visible (sexual liberation, shift in women’s societal status, anti-war sentiments…) This hedonistic and consumerist outlook was undermined by the 1973 economic crisis, leading to social difficulties which in turn led to increase in social tensions. 4. DICTATORSHIP TO DEMOCRACY THE END OF DICTATORSHIP IN SOUTHERN EUROPE: CONTEXT: Following WWII, Southern Europe was characterized by the importance of rural activities. Land was dominated by large landed estates, where poor peasants, often in debt, worked. The aristocracy and large landowners controlled the political system and blocked progressive social transformations that would allow the modernization of extensive agriculture. There were variations from country to country. SPAIN: until the end of the 50s, Spain chose an inward-looking development model: autarky. It was marked by a lack of economic freedom and a corporatist economy. Due to Franco’s dictatorship, the country was isolated and did not benefit from the Marshall Plan. In order to protect local industry, Franco prevented imports, leading to widespread rationing. The social situation became explosive with high inflation and poor quality production. This is why, under US pressure, the regime opted for economic liberalism at the end of the 50s when foreign capital was finally accepted. Spain joined the IMF (International Monetary Fund), technocrats replaced the old administrative managers, and the country became urbanized. This led to the Spanish economy taking off, along with tourism. End of Francoism in Spain: - In 1969, Franco appointed Juan Carlos as his successor as King of Spain. Spanish society had been profoundly transformed since the civil war: a new modern generation yearned for change and was making concrete demands. - - - Despite his illness, Franco remained in power until his death in 1975. Carlos was proclaimed king the same day and assumed all his power: the army and a single political party, the Cortes. Demonstrations increased leading the new king to appoint a reformist PM: Suarez. In 1976, other political parties were legalized, political prisoners were granted amnesty and some regions were granted autonomy (Catalonia for instance) In 1977, democratic elections were held for the first time in over three decades. Suarez’s party won. Despite an economic crisis and attacks by neo-fascists, a new constitution was passed in 1978. Suarez, weakened by divisions in his own camp, resigned in 1981. During the new presidential elections, Tejero along with 200 civil guards took over the parliament forcefully, however, the attempt at a coup failed due to the division regarding the new government constitution and the king’s swift actions, that is verbally resolving the conflict with the generals, persuading them to remain loyal and underlining his trust in the government PORTUGAL: Led by dictator Salazar, the Estado Novo was still in full power. This regime protected and defended the church, army, and corporations. Salazar prioritized a balanced budget and the colonies, which were their sources of raw materials, were to be preserved at all costs. These are the main factors preventing Portugal from being modernized. Victory of democracy in Portugal: - - - - - Portugal’s authoritarian regime was based on traditional values. It was the army, when faced with failure of the regime, that entered the resistance and initiated democratic transition. Salazar, founder of the Estado Novo, was removed from power in 1968 due to health reasons and in his place, Caetano was designed. The regime continued throughout the 70s, greatly burdening the country as it was very blatantly outdated while the West underwent great transformation. The end of the regime was greatly precipitated by the colonial wars as their cost became prohibitive and those who had to fight them were failing to see the point of fighting a useless war for a country that had already lost. General Spinola attempted to convince Caetano to find a political solution to the war, and the increasingly hostile military organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA). They made several attempts at action, inspiring thousands of Portuguese to protest along with them. The revolution was nicknamed the “Carnation Revolution” as the military put carnation flowers in their rifles as a symbolic measure. Caetano ceded the power to Spinola, who installed a military junta in power with a program based on three Ds: democracy, decolonization, and development. A new constitution was drafted, freedom of expression was guaranteed, political prisoners were freed, and political life was democratized. In 1976, Soares took over as head of the first constitutional government, instability persisted for some time, however the country did not fall back into dictatorship. GREECE: Being a beneficiary of the Marshall Plan, the Greek situation was mixed. The bulk of the aid was spent on defense against communist aggression. However, with political stabilization, and regardless of the lack of freedom, Greece still experienced economic development. Tourism and the merchant navy grew rapidly, and the country urbanized despite its industrial sector lagging behind. End of the Greek Junta: - - - - - Following the Greek Civil War, the political landscape remained troubled. A right imposed authoritarian regime that was notably radically conservative with little regard for civil liberties came into place in the early 50s. When left-wing democratic MP Lambrakis was assassinated, Papandreou won the 1964 elections. It was with him that the country started to democratize once again. This development antagonized both the king and the army, who in the name of an alleged communist plot, carried out a CIA supported coup d’état in 1967. This put in place what we call the Junta. Constantine II, the king, refused to associate with the previously mentioned coup and attempted a counter-coup later the same year to no avail. The Colonels had no real or concrete political program aside from the establishment of a Christian “moral order”, and in order to consolidate power, sought to eliminate all forms of opposition. Papadopoulos (co-organizer of the Junta) played a key role in this. Despite persecuting any opposition by any means they deemed fit, the Junta still failed to prevent protests. The monarchy was abolished in 1973, making Papadopoulos president. The Cypriot crisis was the fatal blow to the regime: they were experiencing a period of great unrest as a paramilitary organization had taken power, hoping to impose a regime inspired by Junta ideology. This coup broke the already fragile balance between the Greeks and the Turks, leading them to invade the north of the country and Cyprus being parted into two respective states. Students revolted at the Polytechnic School of Athens in 1973 and got dislodged with tanks. The Junta was removed in favor of a civilian regime, elections were held in 1974. During this period of regime change, the communist party was legalized, monarchy again abolished, and the Republic was proclaimed. THE END OF PEOPLE’S DEMOCRACIES IN EUROPE: CONTEXT: In the 80s, the illusion of Western consumerist society started to appear, where the differences between the East and West had been reduced a decade prior, the gap once again started widening. Food shortages resurfaced, the housing crisis worsened, and a vicious cycle of lack of products, demotivation of producers, and economic deterioration developed. National resistance came in the form of lack of industriousness, however Civil Society in E. Europe continued to exist despite the purges and repressive actions of the authorities. Creators of all kinds spoke out and published works denouncing the regime and demanding its democratization. CZECHOSLOVAKIA: despite the repression of the Prague Spring 68’, intellectuals and opponents to the regime remained active. The Charter 77 called for a renewal of political practices and fundamental reforms to the country. POLAND: at the time, the country was still deeply rooted in Catholicism. Despite this, a strong political trade union resistance emerged, embodied by Solidarity. Authorized in 1980 and banned a year later, the union called for a self-managing, social, and democratic system. Walesa (leader of Solidarnost) wanted to restore autonomy in Polish society while posing no threat to the role of the communist party or its military alliances. The experiment was stopped dead in its tracks by Jarzulenski. 1989 revolutions: - - - E. European CPSs were destabilized in the mid 80s with Gorbachev’s implementation of Perestroika and the USSR’s retreat into its own issues. Deprived of Soviet support and faced with dissidence reinforced by the liberalization emerging in the USSR, the People’s Democracies gradually gave in to the change. Poland and Hungary both opened a way out of communism: in 1989, the Solidarity party was elected in Poland, Hungary opened its border with the West, and the Berlin wall fell, reunifying Germany. This era marked the beginning of the dismantling of the Eastern bloc. The communist regime in Czechoslovakia fell the same year, however Romania suffered from a process far more violent, their government officials were executed by communist officials in an attempt to preserve the power. The Warsaw Pact was dissolved in 1991. Baltic independence: - - - - The USSR was met with backlash after the People’s Democracies in E. Europe were dissolved, additionally, the Soviet annexation of the Baltics was never internationally recognized and Baltic opposition demanded independence the moment Glasnost was introduced. In 1989, the Baltic population formed the “Baltic Way”, a human chain 560km long passing through the Baltic capitals as a way of denouncing the German-Soviet pact which led to their annexation. Moscow would not allow a movement like this to develop on their territory and reacted with an economic embargo. However, the regime refused a military solution and massive demonstrations took place. Following the 1991 attempt at a coup d’état, the Baltic states were able to declare independence and three months later, the USSR dissolved. CHALLENGES TO NEW DEMOCRACIES: CONTEXT: the demise of the People’s Democracies implied the introduction of multi-party systems and the organization of free elections, Europe appeared to be entering a new era of prosperity and peace. While the political breakthrough was easy, the transition to a market economy was not: the rapid conversion led to the failure of numerous conglomerates, as well as a fall in GDP. Inflation put pressure on wages and unemployment was increasing at an alarming rate. Regardless of this, following 1993, growth started once again as foreign investment flooded in attracted by a welltrained and low-cost workforce. The democracies were however faced with the danger of nationalism as social frustrations had led some to take refuge in traditionalism and glorification of a fantasy of the past. The European map was once again reshaped, Germany reunified, and Slovakia and the Czech Republic separated without violent confrontation. The Yugoslavs however, with a strong sense of nationalism, led themselves into a bloody and violent war. YUGOSLAVIA: following Tito’s death in 1980, Yugoslavia experienced a violent economic crisis which gradually became political. Croatia and Slovenia demanded more autonomy, and old rivalries between communities reappeared, exploited by people like Serbia’s Milošević who called for a more centralized federation favoring Serbia. When Croatia and Slovenia declared independence in 1991, unrest broke out. While Slovenia only experienced marginal incidents, Croatia wasn’t as fortunate. CROATIA: a violent war broke out during which land and air bombings devastated cities such as Vukovar and Dubrovnik and civilian massacres also occurred. The UN’s 1992 intervention defined controlled zones and topped major military aggression. BOSNIA: the republic was divided between Serbs, Croats, and Muslim Bosnians. The Serbian militia laid siege to Sarajevo, the capital and proceeded to commit war crime upon war crime, pursuing a program of ethnic cleansing. America intervening through NATO led to the Dayton Agreement being signed in 1995. KOSOVO: the Serbs then moved on to Kosovo, subjecting the territory to violent political unrest in defense of Albanian freedom. In 1990, Milošević took away the country’s autonomy, causing the exclusion of Albanians from most jobs. In response, the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) increased attacks on Serbian authorities, leading to open warfare. NATO intervened again in 1999, heavily bombing Serbia. The Un then proceeded to take control of Kosovo. Outcome: this series of violent conflicts, driven primarily by nationalist hatred, led to the breakup of Yugoslavia. The number of victims is hard to estimate or establish, it is possible that as many as 140k died and 2.5m took refuge abroad. Reconciliation and accountability: - - - The former Yugoslavia had no choice than to reestablish international rapport of a friendly nature with their neighbors by dealing with the memories of the tragedies behind them. For the Balkans, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY, my dad worked for these people hehe so cool) was set up in The Hague. It was established in order to prosecute the war crimes that took place during the conflict to ensure reconciliation. Many Serbs were prosecuted, however those belonging to the other member countries were brought to trial. Spain had to confront the memory of the civil war and dictatorship without the ability to prosecute those responsible, since the return of democracy, the country had taken action to pay reparation to families of victims, however Spanish society remains divided on the issue. The Portuguese population too, is divided on the subject of Estado Novo and Salazar, some considering him a hero, some a dictator. The Greek have seen a resurface in political debate due to the current economic situation, the right wing’s stance on leftism denounces an authoritarian and representative right. 5. EUROPE POST 1957 ENLARGING AND STRENGTHENING THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY: Progressive enlargement: - - - - - The Europe Communities suffered a setback as soon as Rome Treaty was signed, The UK refused to join the EEC and created a competing organization: The European Free Trade Association (EFTA). In France, De Gaulle opposed The UK entering the EEC as he considered it to be the “Trojan Horse” of the USA In 1969, Pompidou, the new French president lifted the obstacles and proposed to pursue European construction under a threefold motto: completion, strengthening, and enlargement. In 1973, The UK, Ireland, and Denmark joined the EEC. Then, the European Communities expanded to the south, as the dictatorships in the area were lifted, the respective countries were able to join. After the 1989 revolutions and the collapse of the Communist bloc, a political agenda dictated the new additions. In 1995, the EU accepted certain EFTA members: Austria, Sweden, and Finland, democratic and liberal nations once part of the Soviet buffer zone. Norway refused to join in a referendum. It was a decade before candidates from E. Europe were able to join the EU: Slovenia, the Baltics, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Malta, Cyprus, and Hungary in 2004, Bulgaria and Romania in 2007, and finally, Croatia in 2013. As of 2020 though, the UK has left the union, reducing the number of members back to 27. Difficult strengthening process: - - - The strengthening of the EU consisted of reinforcing the common institutions and policies in order to increase solidarity and European integration. As early as 1957, the Treaty of Rome set out the main EEC objectives. The “Franco-German partnership” played a key role in the institutional advances. For General De Gaulle, the pillar of Europe consisted of this alliance. Despite this, he was suspicious of the European project and hostile to the idea that had marked the first stages of its construction. He was in favor of a Europe of States which cooperated according to their common interests without giving their power up to superficial authority, in other words, he wanted European countries to retain their sovereignty. He rejected majority voting in the council and employed the empty chair method of boycott, blocking the proper functioning of the institutions. This was only resolved in 1967 with the Luxemburg compromise, stipulating that the unanimous vote remined the method of decision making. The Common Market was set up in 1968, founding a unique example of regional economic integration. Governing of Europe: EU institutions reflect the history of the EU; their goal is to reconcile various partners and interests: - The Eu Council: convenes the heads of state and government bi-yearly. It decides on major objectives to be achieved The EU Commission: proposes policies and regulations, also implements them The Council of Ministers: adopts texts proposed by the Commission and shares decision making with the Parliament. - The Parliament: exercises legislative power, votes on budgets and controls the executive branches of power - The Court of Justice: ensures EU law is applied - Unanimity: the most important decisions are made by this group; they are a European Union of Nation. - Qualified majority: day-to-day management. This is the Supranational European Union. Due to the complexity of it, the EU government requires simplification and transparency in order for its citizens to have an informed understanding of it. Single European Act: - - Following the 70s economic crisis, the EU states took different paths. In 79’ British PM Margaret Thatcher advanced strict economic liberalism and wanted as little to do with the EU as possible. In France, Mitterrand nationalized large companies and introduced generous social legislation in 1981, however returned to economic austerity two years later. In Germany, Kohl supported a mixed economic model for the German Christian Democrats. The Franco-German partnership remained strong as the two heads remained in support of each other and their policies. In 1984, Delors proposed the White Paper to complete the Internal Market. This led to the Single European Act being signed in 1986. Maastricht Treaty: - In 1992, the act’s requirements were defined. The member states lost some of their sovereignty in the economic field. They were now required to inform the Commission of economic policies and decisions were to be taken by a qualified majority and under the Council’s control. The treaty also allowed: - The beginning of EU citizenship Creation of the EEA (European Economic Area): the basis of the single market being the free movement of people, goods, services, and capital. These are known as the four freedoms. - The Schengen Convention authorizing the free movement of people and established joint surveillance of the Union’s borders, as well as the cooperative fight against major trafficking. - The introduction of a single currency: the Euro with the Central Bank directing monetary policy. - Organization of a Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) New enlargements forced a rethinking of Europe, in 1993, the accession criteria were defined in Copenhagen: - Obligation to have stable democratic institutions, must be governed by a rule of law that respects human rights and minorities, fights against corruption and organized crime. - The market economy must be viable and adaptable to the common market - Must have a government capable of applying EU regulations - Application must be accepted unanimously; the new applicant undertakes to incorporate into its national law all directives adopted by the Union. CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES AND CHALLENGES: Rejection of the EU constitution: - - The EU constitution was meant to complete and simplify the strengthening process. Following The Netherlands and France’s refusal to ratify the text, the EU included the main provisions in the 2009 Treaty or Lisbon The Parliament’s role was strengthened. It has co-decision powers with the Commission, particularly in the areas of immigration Participatory democracy was strengthened by the Citizen’s Initiative: the EU has exclusive competences (customs union) and shared competences (consumer protection) The EU’s future: - - - The EU’s E. European enlargement raised the question of future strengthening. From the 1990s onwards, a customized EU model was emerging in which member states adhered to EU policies according to their own interest. The eurozone, Schengen area and single market did not correspond to the reality of the EU’s borders. The EU is currently questioning the necessity for enlargement, the candidates seem to not be sufficiently rich or “European” enough to join (example of conflicting views on Turkey due to it not entirely meeting the Copenhagen criteria) It is, however, subject to spin-off forces, as demonstrated by the case of Brexit. The crisis raises questions about the meaning of Europe and whether a state has more sovereignty inside or outside of Europe. Challenges: - - - - - The EU, the largest demographic, economic and commercial pole of the Global Triad, struggles to establish a common foreign policy. Members are divided over their involvement with foreign powers (America and the Iraq War for instance) Lack of trust in the population by the institutions: they are considered complex and far removed from the general population and everyone’s concerns. Some denounce a lack of “social Europe” in the face of a growing economic crisis. Lack of solidarity between member states in the face of an economic crisis (Greece for instance) as Germany and France refused to waive their debts. This series of events showed the shortcomings of EU construction in the field of finance. The migrant crisis: immigrants driven out of their countries by wars raising questions on asylum seeking laws. The migrant “crisis” also deteriorates the EU’s reputation, as it is seemingly abandoning its values. Populists and nationalists’ increasing influence. THE END!!!! IF UR STILL HERE READING I LOVE YOU I POURED MY HEART AND SOUL INTO THIS. HOPE IT HELPED YOU WITH WHATEVER YOU NEED IT FOR <3 LOVE, NINA
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