Globalisation, Comparative Education and Policy Research 51
Joseph Zajda
Yvonne Vissing Editors
Globalisation,
Human Rights
and Education
Globalisation, Comparative Education and
Policy Research
Volume 51
Series Editor
Joseph Zajda, Faculty of Education and Arts, Australian Catholic University, East Melbourne,
Australia
Editorial Board
Robert Arnove, Indiana University, Bloomington, USA
Birgit Brock-Utne, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
Martin Carnoy, Stanford University, Stanford, USA
Holger Daun, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
Lyn Davies, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Fred Dervin, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
Karen Evans, University of London, London, UK
Kassie Freeman, Alcorn State University, Lorman, USA
MacLeans Geo-JaJa, Brigham Young University, Provo, USA
Andreas Kazamias, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA
Leslie Limage, UNESCO, Paris, France
Suzanne Majhanovich, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
Marcella Mollis, University of Buenos Aires, CABA, Argentina
Val Rust, UCLA, Los Angeles, USA
Yvonne Vissing, Salem State University, Salem, USA
Advisory Editors
Abdeljalil Akkari, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
Beatrice Avalos, National Ministry of Education, Santiago, Chile
Karen Biraimah, University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA
David Chapman, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA
Sheng Yao Cheng, Chung Chen University, Chia-yi, Taiwan
Pamela Hallam, McKay School of Education, Brigham Young University, Provo, USA
Deborah Henderson, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
Yaacov Iram, Bar Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
Henry Levin, Teachers College Columbia University, New York, USA
Noel McGinn, Harvard University, Cambridge, USA
David Phillips, Oxford University, Oxford, UK
Gerald Postglione, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Heidi Ross, Indiana University, Bloomington, USA
M’hammed Sabour, University of Joensuu, Joensuu, Finland
Jurgen Schriewer, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany
Sandra Stacki, Hofstra University, Hempstead, USA
Nelly Stromquist, University of Maryland, College Park, USA
Carlos Torres, UCLA, Los Angeles, USA
John Whitehouse , Melbourne Graduate School of Education, University of Melbourne,
Parkville, Australia
David Willis, Soai University, Osaka, Japan
The Globalisation, Comparative Education and Policy Research book series aims to
meet the research needs of all those interested in in-depth developments in comparative
education research. The series provides a global overview of developments and changes in
policy and comparative education research during the last decade. Presenting up-to-date
scholarly research on global trends, it is an easily accessible, practical yet scholarly source
of information for researchers, policy makers and practitioners. It seeks to address the
nexus between comparative education, policy, and forces of globalisation, and provides
perspectives from all the major disciplines and all the world regions. The series offers
possible strategies for the effective and pragmatic policy planning and implementation
at local, regional and national levels.
The book series complements the International Handbook of Globalisation and
Education Policy Research. The volumes focus on comparative education themes and
case studies in much greater scope and depth than is possible in the Handbook.
The series includes volumes on both empirical and qualitative studies of policy initiatives and developments in comparative education research in elementary, secondary and
post-compulsory sectors. Case studies may include changes and education reforms around
the world, curriculum reforms, trends in evaluation and assessment, decentralisation and
privatisation in education, technical and vocational education, early childhood education, excellence and quality in education. Above all, the series offers the latest findings
on critical issues in comparative education and policy directions, such as:
• developing new internal strategies (more comprehensive, flexible and innovative
modes of learning) that take into account the changing and expanding learner needs;
• overcoming ‘unacceptable’ socio-economic educational disparities and inequalities;
• improving educational quality;
• harmonizing education and culture;
• international co-operation in education and policy directions in each country.
Joseph Zajda · Yvonne Vissing
Editors
Globalisation, Human Rights
and Education
Editors
Joseph Zajda
Faculty of Education and the Arts
Australian Catholic University
East Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Yvonne Vissing
Salem State University
Chester, NH, USA
ISSN 2543-0564
ISSN 2543-0572 (electronic)
Globalisation, Comparative Education and Policy Research
ISBN 978-3-031-80303-1
ISBN 978-3-031-80304-8 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-80304-8
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2025
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To Rea, Nikolai, Belinda, Sophie, Imogen,
Paulina, Jan, Dorothy and Jim
Foreword
Globalisation, Human Rights and Education analyses major discourses of human
rights and education. The chapters contained in this book illuminate the struggles
that different societies confront. The book contains chapters that document human
rights challenges that result from the increased cultural diversity that occurs in a more
mobile and globalized world. These challenges stem in part due to technological
and cultural factors. Technology allows us to physically travel by plane, train, boat,
and automobile to locations that would have been unimaginable a century ago. In
supporting human rights, we create a self-fulfilling prophecy towards the creation of
a more rights-respecting society.
The book contributes in a very scholarly way, to a more holistic understanding of
the nexus between globalisation, human rights and education. The chapters offer
a timely analysis of current education and policy issues affecting human rights
and education globally. The book provides innovative ideas concerning the future
directions for authentic models of globalisation, human rights and education.
Joseph Zajda, Ph.D, FACE
Faculty of Education and Arts
Australian Catholic University
East Melbourne, VIC, Australia
vii
Preface
Series title: Globalisation, Comparative Education and Policy Research (61volume series)
Globalisation, Human Rights and Education is 51st volume in the 61-volume book
series Globalisation, Comparative Education and Policy Research, and analyses
major discourses of human rights and education globally.
One of the major effects of cultural and economic forces of globalisation is that
schools and school leaders, like other educational organisations, having modelled
its goals and strategies on the entrepreneurial business model, are compelled to
embrace the corporate ethos of the efficiency, accountability, performance, and profitdriven managerialism. This corporate ethos reflects a dominant neo-liberal ideology,
which exerts a powerful influence on major discourses of equality, human rights, and
education, both locally and globally.
The book provides a better and deeper knowledge and understanding of globalisation, human rights and education, to promote democracy and equality for all.
By examining some of the recent education policy shifts in the use of the major
discourses of human rights and education, the book offers a comprehensive synthesis
of the intersecting and diverse discourses of globalisation, cultural diversity, human
rights, and education. As a sourcebook of ideas for researchers, educators, practitioners and policy makers specializing in the areas of globalization, human rights, and
education, the book provides a timely overview of current education policy reforms
and strategies for enhancing human rights, and education, designed to provide the
equality, quality of life, and well-being for all.
Joseph Zajda, FACE
Faculty of Education and the Arts
Australian Catholic University
(Melbourne Campus)
Melbourne, VIC, Australia
ix
Editorial by the Series Editor
Globalisation, Human Rights and Education is book 51 in the 61-volume book
series Globalisation, Comparative Education and Policy Research.
At the level of critical discourse analysis, we need to consider dominant ideologies and practices defining power, domination, and their overall impact on human
rights education. As such, the book offers a synthesis of current research findings
on globalisation and human rights for social justice. It is suggested that there is an
urgent need to continue to analyse critically the new challenges confronting the nexus
between human rights for equality, social justice and schooling.
The book analyses major discourses of the use of human rights in schools globally.
This book critiques dominant discourses and debates pertaining to globalisation, and
human rights in schools. Drawing on diverse paradigms, ranging from critical theory
to globalisation, the book, by focusing on globalisation, and human rights for social
justice, critically examines recent research dealing with this topic.
The book contributes in a very scholarly way, to a more holistic understanding of
the nexus between globalisation, human rights, and democracy. The chapters offer a
timely analysis of current education and policy reforms affecting major discourses of
human rights in schools. The book provides innovative ideas concerning the future
directions of the use of human rights in schools globally.
We thank the anonymous international reviewers who have reviewed and assessed
the proposal for the continuation of the series (volumes 50-61), and other anonymous
reviewers, who reviewed the chapters in the final manuscript.
I want to express my deep gratitude to Suzanne Majhanovich (Western University, Ontario), Pamela Hallam (Brigham Young University), Yvonne Vissing (Salem
State University), John Whitehouse (The University of Melbourne), Sev Ozdowski
(University of Western Sydney), and Vince Wright (Education consultant, Taupo,
New Zealand) for their insightful and constructive comments. I am also grateful
to the anonymous international reviewers who reviewed the chapters in the final
manuscript.
xi
Contents
1
Globalisation, Human Rights and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Joseph Zajda and Yvonne Vissing
2
Building HRE into the World as It Could Be in Higher
and Secondary Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sandy Sohcot, Jazzmin Chizu Gota, and Yvonne Vissing
3
4
5
Human Rights Education NOW! Podcast Case Study:
Illuminating HRE Through the Lived Experiences of Scholar
Practitioners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
William R. Fernekes, Jazzmin Chizu Gota,
Kristi Rudelius-Palmer, Sabrina Sanchez, Elizabeth Schwab,
and Jessica Terbrueggen
1
13
21
The Attack of Diversity, Equity and Inclusion (DEI)
as an Attack on Human Rights Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Yvonne Vissing
57
Human Rights and Sport Participation: The Swimming
Programs in New York City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gonzalo Bravo, Peter Smolianov, and Yvonne Vissing
87
6
The Right to Education in South Africa: A Critical Decolonial
Reading in Place-Space–time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Anne Becker
7
Education for Development and Human Rights: The
Contribution of Educational Projects in Portuguese Schools . . . . . . . 129
Graça Santos, Maria da Conceição Martins, Sofia Bergano,
and Cristina Martins
8
Human Rights Education and Popular Democracy: Meeting
the Challenge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
William R. Fernekes
xiii
xiv
Contents
9
Beyond Borders: Navigating Social Integration
and Community Support for Refugees in Australia and Italy . . . . . . 161
Nina Maadad
10 The Protection of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
in Armed Conflicts: The Right to Education Between Myths
and Realities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
José Noronha Rodrigues, Janny Carrasco Medina,
and Dora Cristina Ribeiro Cabete
11 Research Trends in Globalisation, Human Rights
and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Joseph Zajda and Yvonne Vissing
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
About the Series Editor
Joseph Zajda, B.A. (Hons), M.A., M.Ed., Ph.D., FACE, co-ordinates and teaches
in graduate courses: M.Tech courses: (EDES591, EDHI299&599, and EDSS600) in
the Faculty of Education and Arts, at the Australian Catholic University (Melbourne
Campus). He specializes in globalisation and education policy reforms, social justice,
history education, human rights education, and values education. He has written and
edited 52 books and over 150 book chapters and articles in the areas of globalisation and education policy, higher education, history textbooks and curriculum
reforms. Recent publications include: Zajda, J. (2023). Globalisation and inclusive schooling: Engaging motivational environments. Springer; Zajda, J. (2023).
Discourses of globalisation, cultural diversity and values education. Springer;
Zajda, J. (2022). Discourses of globalisation, and the politics of history school textbooks. Springer; Zajda, J. (2022). Globalisation and education reforms: Overcoming
discrimination. Springer; Zajda, J. (2021). Globalisation and education reforms:
Creating effective learning environments. Springer; Zajda, J. & Majhanovich, S.
(2022). Race, ethnicity and gender in education: Emerging paradigms. Springer;
Zajda, J. & Vissing, Y. (2022). Discourses of globalisation, ideology, and human
rights. Springer; Zajda, J. (Ed). (2021) 3rd International handbook of globalisation, education and policy research. Springer; Zajda, J. (2021). Globalisation
and education reforms: Creating effective learning. Dordrecht: Springer; Zajda,
J. & Majhanovich, S. (Eds.) (2021). Globalisation, cultural identity and nationbuilding: The changing paradigms. Springer Zajda, J. (Ed). (2020). Globalisation, Ideology and Education Reforms: Emerging paradigms. Springer; Zajda, J.
(Ed). (2020). Human Rights Education Globally. Dordrecht: Springer; Zajda, J
(Ed.). (2020). Globalisation, Ideology and Neo-Liberal Higher Education Reform.
Dordrecht: Springer; Zajda, J. & Rust, V. (2020). Globalisation and comparative
education. Dordrecht: Springer; Zajda, J. & Majhanovich, S. (Eds.) (2020). Globalisation, cultural identity and nation-building: The changing paradigms. Dordrecht:
Springer; Zajda, J. (2019) (Ed.). Globalisation, ideology and politics of education
reforms. Dordrecht: Springer; Zajda, J. (2018). Globalisation and education reforms:
Paradigms and ideologies. Dordrecht: Springer; Zajda, J. (2017). Globalisation and
National Identity in History Textbooks: The Russian Federation. Dordrecht: Springer;
xv
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About the Series Editor
Zajda, Tsyrlina-Spady & Lovorn (2017) (Eds.).Globalisation and Historiography
of National Leaders: Symbolic Representations in School Textbooks. Dordrecht:
Springer; Zajda & Ozdowski (2017). (Eds.), Globalisation and Human Rights Education Dordrecht: Springer; Zajda & Rust (Eds.) (2016). Globalisation and Higher
Education Reforms. Dordrecht: Springer; Editor and author of the Second International Handbook on Globalisation, Education and Policy Research. Springer, 2015;
Zajda, J. (2014). The Russian Revolution. In G. Ritzer & J. M. Ryan (Eds.), The WileyBlackwell Encyclopedia of Globalization Online; Zajda, J. (2014); Zajda, J. (2014).
Ideology. In D. Phillips (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Theory and Philosophy.
Thousand Oaks: Sage; Zajda, J. (2014). Values Education. In D. Phillips (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Theory and Philosophy. Thousand Oaks: Sage; Zajda, J.
(2014); Values Education. In D. Phillips (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Theory
and Philosophy. Thousand Oaks: Sage; Zajda, J (2008). Schooling the New Russians.
Melbourne: James Nicholas Publishers.
He is the Editor of the sixty one book series Globalisation and Comparative
Education (Springer, 2013&2025). He edits the following journals below:
http://www.jamesnicholaspublishers.com.au/journals/ct/; Editor, Curriculum and
Teaching, volume 39, 2024. http://www.jamesnicholaspublishers.com.au/journa
ls/es/; Editor, Education and Society, volume 42, 2024 http://www.jamesnicholaspu
blishers.com.au/journals/wse/ Editor, World Studies in Education, volume 24, 2024.
His works are found in 605 publications in 4 languages and some 12,103 university
library holdings globally.
He is the recipient of the 2012 Excellence in Research Award, the Faculty of
Education, the Australian Catholic University. The award recognises the high quality
of research activities and particularly celebrates sustained research that has had a
substantive impact nationally and internationally. He was also a recipient of the
Australian Awards for University Teaching in 2011 (Citation for Outstanding Contributions to Student Learning, for an innovative, influential and sustained contribution
to teacher education through scholarship and publication). He received the Vice
Chancellor’s Excellence in Teaching Award, at the Australian Catholic University
(Melbourne Campus). He was awarded an ARC Discovery Grant (with Monash
University) for 2011–2015 for a comparative analysis of history national curriculum
implementation in Russia and Australia ($315,000). He was elected as Fellow of the
Australian College of Educators (June 2013).
Completed (with Professor Fred Dervin, University of Helsinki) the UNESCO
report: Governance in education: Diversity and effectiveness. BRICS countries. Paris:
UNESCO (2024).
Editors and Contributors
About the Editors
Joseph Zajda, Ph.D. FACE co-ordinates and teaches in the Faculty of Arts and
Education, the Australian Catholic University (Melbourne Campus), and is a worldrenowned scholar in the area of globalisation and education policy reforms. He has
published 60 books (including 11 monographs and 40 edited books with Springer)
and hundreds of book chapters and articles in refereed journals internationally. He
was awarded the 2012 Peter Sheehan Excellence in Research Award. The award
recognizes the high quality of research activities and particularly celebrates sustained
research that has had a substantive impact nationally and internationally (Faculty of
Education, Australian Catholic University). He received an Australian Award for
University Teaching, July 2011, for Outstanding Contributions to Student Learning
for his innovative, influential and sustained contribution to teacher education through
scholarship and publication. Synopsis: The applicant has pioneered an innovative
approach in teacher education, where he uses global pedagogy and ‘teacher as a
researcher’ model. He also received Vice-Chancellor’s Award for Excellence in
Teaching, Australian Catholic University. The award was presented at the April
2005 Graduation Ceremony, the Melbourne Town Hall. It was the sole award for
the whole 6-campus university. He has made an outstanding contribution to research
in education globally, with emphasis on globalisation, education reforms, human
rights, social justice, gender and equity and the enhancement of quality in teacher
education. Scientific index 2024 lists him 581st out of 1,345, 218 researchers in the
world (or top 0.5%). His published research includes 119 works in 665 publications
in 4 languages and 12,524 library holdings (WorldCat catalogue), adding immense
research expertise to his work globally in teacher education and pedagogy. He has
provided outstanding service to teacher education through his research globally,
graduate teaching, doctoral supervision, and his editorial work.
Yvonne Vissing is a Professor of Healthcare Studies, focusing on health policy
and public health, and the Founding Director of the Center for Childhood & Youth
xvii
xviii
Editors and Contributors
Studies at Salem State University. She is the US policy chair for the Hope for Children
Convention on the Child Policy Center in Cyprus, on the Steering Committee for
Human Rights Educators, USA, and is on the AAAS Human Rights Council. Vissing
is author of 17 books, including Children’s Human Rights in the USA: Challenge &
Opportunities (Springer 2023), Changing the Paradigm of Homelessness (Routledge
2020), and The Rights of Unaccompanied Minors (Springer 2021). A clinical sociologist, National Institute of Mental Health Post-Doctoral Research Fellow on child
abuse and Whiting Foundation fellow studying child rights, she was also a Dialogue
and Democracy fellow at UCONN’s Dodd Center for Human Rights. She is a graduate of Equitas International Human Rights Training Program in Montreal. She is
CEO of Training for Excellence.
Contributors
Anne Becker Department of Curriculum Studies, Stellenbosch University,
Stellenbosch, South Africa
Sofia Bergano Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
Gonzalo Bravo West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
Dora Cristina Ribeiro Cabete University of the Azores, Azores, Portugal
Maria da Conceição Martins Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Bragança,
Portugal
William R. Fernekes Rutgers University Graduate School of Education, New
Jersey, NB, USA;
Rutgers University Graduate School of Education, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
Jazzmin Chizu Gota International and Multicultural Education, University of
San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Nina Maadad School of Education, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA,
Australia
Cristina Martins Research Center in Basic Education, Polytechnic Institute of
Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
Janny Carrasco Medina University of Brasilia, Brasilia, Brazil
José Noronha Rodrigues University of the Azores, Azores, Portugal
Kristi Rudelius-Palmer Human Rights Educators USA (HRE USA), St. Louis
Park, MN, USA
Sabrina Sanchez University of California–San Francisco, San Francisco, CA,
USA
Editors and Contributors
xix
Graça Santos Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
Elizabeth Schwab Boston College, Morrissey College of Arts and Sciences,
Boston, MA, USA
Peter Smolianov Salem State University, Salem, MA, USA
Sandy Sohcot The World As It Could Be Human Rights Education Program
(TWAICB), San Francisco, CA, USA
Jessica Terbrueggen District of Columbia International School, Washington, DC,
USA
Yvonne Vissing Department of Healthcare Studies, Salem State University,
Salem, MA, USA;
Salem State University, Salem, MA, USA
Joseph Zajda Faculty of Education & Arts, School of Education, Australian
Catholic University, East Melbourne, VIC, Australia;
Australian Catholic University, VIC, Australia
Chapter 1
Globalisation, Human Rights
and Education
Joseph Zajda and Yvonne Vissing
Abstract This book chapter discusses dominant discourses of globalisation, and
human rights education for democracy, and the relevance of cultural identities to
democracy, human rights and social justice globally. The book chapter concludes
that the growth of global education policy hegemony, based on neo-liberal ideology,
defining accountability, standards, quality assurance, and assessment, fails to respond
to the changing and problematic relationships between the state, education, human
rights and social justice in the global economy.
Keywords Cultural identities · Democracy · Equality · Globalisation · Human
rights · Human rights education · Neo-liberal ideology · Social justice
I want to begin dominant discourses of globalisation, and human rights education
(HRE), as I mentioned in our previous book, Globalisation, and human rights for
democracy and social justice (Zajda & Vissing, 2024b), by discussing the relevance
of cultural identities to democracy, and human rights globally.
One of the most problematic terms in researching cultural diversity is ‘national
identity’. Defining the term, in terms of its epistemology, ideology and culture,
presents several challenges. ‘National identity’, according to Anthony Smith (1991),
‘involves some sense of political community, history, territory, patria, citizenship,
common values and traditions’. He argued, using a structuralist perspective, that
‘nations must have a measure of common culture and a civic ideology, a set of
J. Zajda (B)
Faculty of Education & Arts, School of Education, Australian Catholic University, East
Melbourne, VIC, Australia
e-mail: joseph.zajda@acu.edu.au
Y. Vissing
Department of Healthcare Studies, Salem State University, Salem, MA, USA
e-mail: yvissing@salemstate.edu
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025
J. Zajda and Y. Vissing (eds.), Globalisation, Human Rights and Education,
Globalisation, Comparative Education and Policy Research 51,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-80304-8_1
1
2
J. Zajda and Y. Vissing
common understandings and aspirations, sentiments and ideas that bind the population together in their homeland’. Accordingly, national identity is a type of ‘collective identity grounded in past symbols, memories, and values linked to a specific
territory that distinguishes itself from other nations and also projects into the future’
(Guibernau, 2001). Guibernau (2001) argued that national identity referred to ‘the set
of attributes and beliefs shared by those who belong to the same nation’. Accordingly,
the political aspect of national identity, when applied to the nation-state, focused
upon those state’s strategies—often referred to as ‘nation building’—destined to
foster a cohesive, loyal and, up to a point, homogeneous citizenry (Guibernau, 2001,
pp. 242–68).
In addition to understanding the nature of cultural identity, Smith (1991) offered a
structural analysis of the cultural components of national identity. It included values,
beliefs, customs, conventions, habits, languages and practices transmitted to the new
members, who receive the culture of a particular nation. The process of identification
with a specific culture implies a strong emotional quality among the members of a
given community. Furthermore, they imagine and feel their community as separate
and distinct from others (Anderson, 1983). Smith (1995) argued that national identity
was affected by globalisation:
it would be folly to predict an early supersession of nationalism and an imminent transcendence of the nation. … For a global culture seems unable to offer the qualities of collective
faith, dignity and hope that only a ‘religious surrogate’ with its promise of a territorial cultural
community across the generations can provide.
1.1 Evolving National Identity
The evolving and constantly changing notions of national identity, language, border
politics and citizenship, which are relevant to education policy, need to be critiqued
within the local-regional-national arena, which is also contested by globalisation.
Current education policy research reflects a rapidly changing world, where citizens and consumers are experiencing a growing sense of uncertainty and alienation.
Jarvis (2002) commented on the need to ‘rediscover’ one’s social identity in active
citizenship:
…we can see that citizenship is a problematic concept in a rapidly globalising world…the
democratic processes are being overturned and there is an increasing need to rediscover active
citizenship in which men and women can work together for the common good, especially
for those who are excluded as a result of the mechanisms of the global culture. (Jarvis, 2002,
p. 295)
The above reflects both growing alienations, and a Durkheimian sense of anomie
in the world ‘invaded’ by forces of globalisation, cultural imperialism, and global
hegemonies that dictate the new economic, political and social regimes of truth. These
newly constructed imperatives in educational policy could well operate as global
master narratives, playing a hegemonic role within the framework of economic,
political and cultural hybrids of globalisation.
1 Globalisation, Human Rights and Education
3
Huntington’s hypothesis of the clash of cultures, while provocative, was flawed
due to his definition of culture and his conceptual model. He argued that the clash
of civilizations was primarily cultural, rather than ideological or economic, which
is a contradiction. Culture, by definition, includes such three core dimensions of
society as ideology, organization (economic systems) and technology. Thus, culture
wars have to be inherently hegemonic and politico-economic. Huntington’s modeling
appears to be linear, as it does not appear to reflect the complexity of multidimensional
typology of globalization.
If post-industrial and post-modern societies are to move towards a more serious
discussion of identity crisis in a global culture, they will need to uncover those
positive virtues that define what it means to be a member of the wider society. If they
do not, they may be overwhelmed by people who are more sure about who they are
(Fukuyama, 2007).
The emergence of cultural synthesis is provided the idea of Leitkultur—the notion
that German citizenship entails certain obligations to observe standards of tolerance and equal respect. The term Leitkultur—which means a ‘guiding’ or ‘reference
culture’, can be employed in intercultural dialogue for living together. Europe has
created national identities defined by citizenship, rather than ethnicity and religion.
France used its power to homogenize French society. The role of the state in identity
politics debate, particularly in the climate of current conflict and terrorism, continues
to gain the momentum. Britain, seeking to raise the visibility of national citizenship,
has been forced to borrow from both French and American cultural traditions.
1.2 Multicultural Education Globally for Democracy,
Equality, and Human Rights: Introduction
I want to argue that multicultural education is very relevant to major discourses of
the nexus of democracy and human rights. My interest in multicultural education
and culturally diverse environments was immensely influenced by my upbringing,
my memories, my background, and experiences, as a child and pupil in the USSR,
Poland and Australia. In the USSR, we lived in a very multicultural community in
Stanisławów, now Ivano-Frankivsk (Western Ukraine). Stanisławów was already a
fortress built in the thirteenth century, to defend the settlement against the Mongols,
who invaded the place in 1240. Stanisławów became a city in 1662, under a Polish
nobleman Andrzej Potocki, who was a count and a powerful military leader. The city
ratusz (town hall) was completed later in 1666. As it was within walking distance,
from where we lived, I used to see it daily, as well the ruins of the fortress on
the hill, as I walked to the school. I had no idea that these historic sites dated to
1240 and 1666 respectively. I suspect my teachers themselves were unaware of the
historical significance of the place. Languages spoken included Ukrainian, Russian,
and Yiddish. In our block of flats, where we lived, there were Russian, Ukrainian
and Jewish families.
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Overall, multicultural education is a field of study, reflects cultural diversity in
societies and schools, and aims to promote and create equal educational opportunities for all students from culturally diverse backgrounds. Above all, multicultural
education is built on the ideals of democracy, social justice, equality, peace, human
rights, and freedom. Multiculturalism is a term which recognizes and celebrates the
cultural diversity of a population. Banks (1984) defined multicultural education, as
‘an inclusive concept used to describe a wide variety of school practices, programs,
and material designed to help children from diverse groups to experience educational
equality’ (Banks, 1984, p. 182). Multicultural education involves learning about the
distinctive characteristics that are representative of and are common within a particular group of people. Global education, on the other hand, is about teaching students
the values, skills, attitudes and knowledge which will enable them to be aware and
empowered global citizens of the future.
1.3 Multicultural Education Globally
Multiculturalism is a social, cultural and educational program/policy recognizing the
past and present cultural diversity in a given society and promoting the equality of all
cultural traditions (Zajda, 2022). Multicultural education is a progressive approach
for transforming education that holistically critiques and responds to discriminatory
policies and practices in education. It is grounded in ideals of social justice, education
equity, and critical pedagogy. Multicultural education acknowledges that schools
are essential to building the foundation for the transformation of society and the
elimination of injustice.
The underlying goal of multicultural education is to affect a real social change.
The pathway toward this goal incorporates three strands of transformation:
• the transformation of self;
• the transformation of schools and schooling; and
• the transformation of society
Multicultural education is a philosophical concept built on the ideals of freedom,
justice, equality, equity, and human dignity. It affirms our need to prepare students
for their responsibilities in an interdependent world. It recognizes the significant role
schools can perform in teaching cultural diversity, and in developing the attitudes
and values necessary for a democratic society. Multicultural education, as a policy,
promotes cultural diversity and affirms the pluralism that students, their communities,
and teachers’ knowledge and attitudes reflect. It challenges all forms of discrimination in schools and society through the promotion of democratic principles of social
justice.
Multicultural education is an on-going cultural diversity process that permeates all
aspects of school practices, policies and organization, to ensure inclusive schooling,
and the highest levels of academic achievement for all students. It helps students
develop a positive self-concept, by providing knowledge, and critical thinking skills,
1 Globalisation, Human Rights and Education
5
about the histories, cultures, and contributions of diverse groups. Multicultural education also prepares students to work actively and collectively toward attaining justice,
and structural equality in organizations and institutions, by providing the relevant
knowledge, dispositions, and skills for the necessary redistribution of power and
income inequality among diverse groups.
Multicultural education advocates the belief that students and their life histories and experiences should be placed at the centre of the teaching and learning
process, and that classroom pedagogy should occur in a context that is familiar to
students, and which addresses multiple ways of thinking. For this reason, school
curriculum must directly address inequalities and discriminations, characterised by
racism, sexism, classism, linguicism, ageism, heterosexism, religious intolerance,
and xenophobia. In addition, teachers and students are encouraged to analyse critically the existing and on-going social inequality, oppression and power relations in
their communities, society and the world. Multicultural education will always reflect
the existing cultural diversity, characterised by the existence of many cultural identities, located in stratified societies, divided by power, wealth, occupation, income,
SES, and education.
As such, multicultural education demands teachers who are culturally competent.
Teachers need to possess relevant knowledge and skills; they need to be multiculturally literate, and capable of including and accepting families and communities,
in order to create an inclusive environment that is supportive of different cultural
identities and offering empowering experiences of genuine pluralist democracy.
The reality and relevance of cultural diversity and multiculturalism in the USA
was already addressed by Banks (2019), who analyzed the existence of a growing
ethnic, cultural, social-class, and linguistic gap between many of the teachers and
their students in the USA. Banks, who is a leading multicultural educator and writer
in the world, has been writing on multicultural education in the USA for many
decades (see Zajda, 2022). The goal of Banks’ (2019) multicultural education model
is to enable students from diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds to fully engage with
and access the curriculum, and acquire designated knowledge, skills and values. To
advance multicultural education in schools, Banks (1995) developed his timely and
relevant model of multicultural education strategy, based on his five dimensions:
content integration, the knowledge construction process, prejudice reduction, equity
pedagogy, and an empowering school culture and social structure (Banks, 1995). His
model was designed to help teachers in promoting the philosophy of multicultural
curriculum:
• Content Integration: Teaching diversity
• Knowledge Construction: Teaching how knowledge is created
• Prejudice Reduction: Developing positive relationships among students from
culturally diverse backgrounds
• Equity Pedagogy: Promoting high academic achievement for all students
• Empowering School Culture: Inclusive classroom environment that is conducive
to the academic and emotional needs and growth of all students (Banks, 1995,
2019).
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J. Zajda and Y. Vissing
Content integration refers to the ways teachers employ multiculturalism, to inform
their content in their multicultural classroom pedagogy. Teachers discuss various
culturally diverse narratives, focusing on dominant values and identities and provide
relevant examples drawn from culturally diverse environments.
Knowledge construction, probably the most important stage in constructivist pedagogy, where students working in small collaborative groups, have the autonomy and
power to construct new knowledge, as a result of interacting with each other, while
discussing the text, and sharing their findings with their teacher.
Prejudice Reduction focuses on reducing racism, bias and prejudice towards individuals from culturally diverse backgrounds. The major goal is to develop accepting
and positive attitudes towards individuals from culturally diverse environments.
Some students come to school with biased and prejudiced attitudes and values toward
students from culturally diverse environments.
Equity Pedagogy in schools concentrates on promoting equity defined school
policies, to motivate all students to be engaged and attain high academic standards.
This is also reflected in the UNECO’s policy documents on quality education.
Empowering School Culture, on the other hand is created ‘when the culture and
organization of the school are transformed in ways that enable students from diverse
racial, ethnic, and gender groups to experience equality and equal status’ (https://
education.uw.edu/cme/view).
As I have argued in my books Globalisation and education reforms: Creating
effective learning (2021b), and Globalisation and education reforms: Overcoming
discrimination (2022a), the student’s ‘self-concept, together with self-esteem and
self-efficacy’ will invariably play a major role in the overall learning process,
academic achievement and motivation to learn and do better in culturally diverse
classrooms. In Globalisation and education reforms: Overcoming discrimination
(2022a), in Chapter 2, dealing with dominant discourses of race and ethnicity discrimination in education, I examined racial stratification and inequality and argued that
it is one of the ‘most serious inequality issues confronting societies and schooling
globally’:
Racial prejudice is one of the greatest obstacles for achieving authentic pluralist democracy,
equality, human rights and social justice. Race, as a construct, continues to be a significant dimension of social inequality, and discrimination, contributing to entrenched racial
stratification in society, and education, and affecting academic achievement in the USA and
elsewhere. (Zajda, 2022, pp. 17, 24)
On the other hand, Bronfenbrenner (1970) in his influential bioecological model
argued that individuals are shaped by major agencies of socialization: the family, the
peers, the neighbourhood, the school, the media, etc. This particular model, together
with Bandura’s social learning theory, helps us to understand better how we are
socialized by major agencies of socialization, and how we acquire our attitudes,
values and behaviour. Both Bronfenbrenner’s and Bandura’s models explain also the
origins of bias and prejudice, exhibited by some individuals towards people from
culturally diverse environments.
1 Globalisation, Human Rights and Education
7
1.4 Multicultural Education for Equality, Democracy
and Social Justice
What we need to remind ourselves is that the major goal of multicultural education
in schools is to promote a better and informed knowledge equality, democracy and
social justice for all. We begin our informed critical thinking with a better knowledge
and understanding of cultural diversity, which is all around us. Cultural diversity will
continue to grow in its complexity, and we need to accept it. We are surrounded by
individuals from culturally diverse backgrounds, who speak many languages and
who display different values and lifestyles. This represents the on-going reality of
growing multiculturalism and cultural diversity, both locally and globally.
One of the goals of effective multicultural education is to help transform and
reconstruct society and schools globally, providing equality for all. One could practice culturally responsive teaching. This is one of the strategies which can foster
the growth and acceptance of cultural diversity in multicultural classrooms. The
approaches could include inquiry learning, critical thinking, role play, cooperative learning, literature-based activities, and story-writing. Effective multicultural
pedagogies can help reduce significantly an on-going racism and discrimination in
schools and societies (Zajda, 2022). Human rights are violated by all forms of racism,
as discussed in my books Globalisation and education reforms: Creating effective
learning (2021), and Globalisation and education reforms: Overcoming discrimination (2022). Multicultural education tends to focus on reducing prejudice and
discrimination among groups, and works on developing equality, opportunity, and
access to quality education for all. The pedagogue’s key role is to provide engaging
activities that promote authentic cultural diversity, where all students feel that they
belong. The school curriculum for inclusive pedagogy should provide opportunities
for students to learn another language, so that some students become bilingual. The
school and the inclusive pedagogy should provide equal attention to all students
from diverse cultural backgrounds. In addition, inclusive classrooms tend to create
a classroom climate that encourages trust, tolerance, respect, harmony and peace.
As a social reconstructionist pedagogy, multicultural education deals more
directly with such topics as oppression and social equality, based on race, ethnicity,
social class, religion, and gender. One of the major goals of a social reconstructionist
pedagogy is one of preparing students to acquire the ability to reconstruct and change
the future society, so that it better serves the interests of all groups of people. How
can this occur in the classroom? We could encourage students to develop a sense
of responsibility and critical thinking for desirable social actions, and ask them to
analyse, for instance, discrimination, conflict, and inequality affecting their own
lives.
Within the discourses of multicultural education, we need to incorporate effective
learning environment to promote a deeper understanding and knowledge of today’s
cultural diversity affecting us all. To me, the most significant key ideas and concepts
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J. Zajda and Y. Vissing
affecting all aspects of multicultural education and quality learning in schools globally begin necessarily with the student’s cultural identity, self-concept, values education, and active engagement. In addition to the student’s identity, and self-concept,
we also need to think of time, place, school’s location, and country. Culturally diverse
students globally, depending on where they are located and how they are shaped by
major agencies of socialisation, are likely to display different attitudes, values, and
behaviour patterns towards schooling (Zajda, 2021).
1.5 Social and Economic Inequality and Implications
for Human Rights
Having briefly examined the relevance of cultural identities and cultural diversity
to democracy, human rights and social justice globally, I want to discuss the ongoing social and problematic economic inequality, as a barrier preventing achieving
genuine human rights for democracy, and equality for all. Inequality comes in many
forms, including economic, social, cultural, and regional (see also Milanovic, 2018).
Since the 1980s income inequality has been growing, at a steady rate, in most OECD
countries and is currently at its highest level in 40 years. As inequality both impacts
education and is impacted by it, it is important to better understand how best to help
ensure that all students, irrespective of social background, succeed in school and
beyond.
The ‘stubborn issue of inequality’ first examined in comparative education
research in 1957 by (Kandel, 1957, p. 2), and later by Coombs (1982) continues
to be on education agenda, and the prospect of widening inequalities in education,
in part due to market-oriented schooling), and ‘substantial tolerance on inequalities and exclusion’ are more than real now (see OECD, 2017; World Bank, 2019;
OECD, 2021). According to Martin North (2015), the OECD report on inequality,
stated that the ‘richest 10% of the population now earn 9.6 times the income of
the poorest 10%; this ratio is up from 7:1 in the 1980s, 8:1 in the 1990s and 9:1
in the 2000s’ and that the ‘bottom 40% owned only 3% of total household wealth
in the 18 OECD countries which have comparable data. By contrast, the top 10%
controlled half of all total household wealth and the wealthiest 1% held 18%! Wealth
is considerably more concentrated than income, exacerbating the overall disadvantage of low-income households’ (OECD, 2015). Similarly, the OECD (2017) report
on inequality in education and society demonstrated the rising levels of inequality in
income and education:
Inequality comes in many forms, including economic, social, cultural, and regional. Since
the 1980s income inequality has been growing in most OECD countries and is currently at
its highest level in 30 years. As inequality both impacts education and is impacted by it, it
is important to better understand how best to help ensure that all students, irrespective of
social background, succeed in school and beyond. (OECD, 2017)
1 Globalisation, Human Rights and Education
9
Global inequalities in income and living standards have reached ‘grotesque
proportions’ according to the 1999 annual United Nations Human Development
Report (UNHDR). The report noted that economic inequality had been rising in
many countries since the early 1980s:
The countries of Eastern Europe and the CIS have registered some of the largest increases
ever in the Gini coefficient, a measure of income inequality. OECD countries also registered
big increases in inequality after the 1980s—especially Sweden, the United Kingdom and the
United States. Inequality between countries has also increased. The income gap between the
fifth of the world’s people living in the richest countries and the fifth in the poorest was 74
to 1 in 1997, up from 60 to 1 in 1990 and 30 to 1 in 1960. By the late 1990s the fifth of the
world’s people living in the highest-income countries had 86% of world GDP—the bottom
fifth just 1%.
While 1.3 billion people struggled to live on less than $US1 a day, the world’s
richest 200 people doubled their net worth between 1994 and 1998 to more than
$1 trillion. The world’s top three billionaires alone possess more assets than the
combined Gross National Product of all the least developed countries and their
combined population of 600 million people. Furthermore, more recently, Hasell,
Arriagada (2023), write that economic inequality in many countries is ‘very high
and, in many cases, has been on the rise’:
Global economic inequality is vast and compounded by overlapping inequalities in health,
education, and many other dimensions. But economic inequality is not rising everywhere.
Within many countries, it has fallen or remained stable. And global inequality – after two
centuries of increase – is now falling too. The large differences we see across countries and
over time are crucial. They show us that high and rising inequality is not inevitable, and that
the extent of inequality today is something that we can change.
According to International Monetary Fund (2022) Global inequalities, it is
reported that global inequalities are rising, and demonstrate a huge gap between
the poor and the rich, where the ‘top 10 percent owns roughly 190 times as much’,
as the ‘poorest half of the global population’:
…in bad shape and mostly do not appear to be getting better. Disparities today are about
the same as they were in the early 20th century, and the pandemic continues to make things
worse….. The poorest half of the global population owns just e2,900 (in purchasing power
parity) per adult, while the top 10 percent owns roughly 190 times as much. Income inequalities are not much better. The richest 10 percent today snap up 52 percent of all income. The
poorest half get just 8.5 percent. (Andrew Stanley)
As demonstrated above, there is no doubt that existing social and economic
inequalities have a powerful influence on discourses of human rights for democracy and social justice. Globalisation, in most developing countries (most of the
humanity) is articulated in the form of neo-liberal finance-driven policy reforms,
concerning accountability, efficiency and effectiveness. Their effect on education
systems is likely to increase’ educational inequalities and access to quality education for all. Furthermore, a lack of emphasis on the relationship between policy,
poverty and schooling, and the withdrawal of the state as a major provider in the
field of education in many parts of the world raise serious human rights and ethical
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J. Zajda and Y. Vissing
questions (Zajda, 2024; Zajda & Vissing, 2024a). The growth of global education
policy hegemony, based on neo-liberal ideology, defining accountability, standards,
quality assurance, and assessment, fails to respond to the changing and problematic
relationships between the state, education and human rights in the global economy.
1.6 Conclusion
The above evaluation of recent research in HRE demonstrates that HRE can be an
effective tool in creating a sense of intercultural respect and understanding. According
to Yamniuk (2016), HRE can also build self-esteem, empower students and promote
democracy and equality:
By pointing out the important part that schools play to empower students to become active
participants in the school and in their community, HRE can empower children to see themselves as change-makers, and as being responsible for each other, in school and in the
community.
Finally, there is a need to situate major critical discourses of HRE research and
various discourses surrounding HRE policy documents and pedagogy, within the
context of dominant ideologies, and against the background of the role of the state,
identity politics, and nation-building. In addition, new dimensions of global neoliberal economic capitalism, together with a rise in inter/intra state conflict and mass
global migration have affected the nature and directions of the discourses surrounding
human rights education.
References
Anderson, B. (1983). Imagined communities. Verso.
Banks, J.A. (1984). Multicultural education and its critics: Britain and the United States. In J. A.
Banks (Ed.), Race, culture, and education: The selected works of James A. Banks (pp. 181–190).
Routledge.
Banks, J. A. (1995). Multicultural education: Historical development, dimensions, and practice.
In J. A. Banks & C. A. M. Banks (Eds.), Handbook of research on multicultural education
(pp. 3–24). Macmillan.
Banks, J. (2019). Cultural diversity and education foundations, curriculum, and teaching (10th
ed.). Wiley.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1970). Two worlds of childhood: US and USSR. Russell Sage Foundation.
Coombs, P. (1982). Critical world educational issues of the next two decades. International Review
of Education, 28(1), 143–158.
Fukuyama, F. (2007). Identity and migration. Retrieved from https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/
essays/57672/identity-and-migration
Guibernau, M. (2001). Globalization and the nation-state. In M. Guibernau, & J. Hutchinson (Eds.),
Understanding nationalism (pp. 242–268). Polity.
Hasell, J., Arriagada, P. Ortiz-Ospina, E., & Roser, M. (2023). Economic inequality. Published online
at OurWorldInData.org. Retrieved from: https://ourworldindata.org/economic-inequality
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International Monetary Fund. (2022). Global inequalities. IMF.
Jarvis, P. (2002). Globalisation, citizenship and the education of adults in contemporary society.
In M. Schweisfurth, L. Davies, & C. Harber (Eds.), Learning democracy and citizenship:
International experiences (pp. 273–289). Symposium Books.
Kandel, I. (1957). The new era in education: A comparative study. George G. Harrap and Co.
Milanovic, B. (2018). Global inequality: A new approach for the age of globalization. Harvard
University Press.
OECD. (2015). In it together: Why less inequality benefits. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/
social/in-it-together-why-less-inequality-benefits-all-9789264235120-en.htm
OECD. (2017). Trends shaping education. Mind the gap: Inequity in education. Retrieved from
http://www.oecd.org/education/ceri/spotlight8-Inequality.pdf
OECD. (2021). Does inequality matter? How people perceive economic disparities and social
mobility. OECD.
World Bank. (2019). Poverty. The World Bank. Retrieved from https://www.worldbank.org/en/
topic/poverty/overview
Zajda, J. (2021). Globalisation and education reforms: Creating effective learning. Springer Nature
Switzerland.
Zajda, J. (2022). Globalisation and education reforms: Overcoming discrimination. Springer Nature
Switzerland.
Zajda, J. (Ed). (2024). Fourth International handbook of globalisation, education and policy
research. Springer [in press].
Zajda, J., & Vissing, Y. (2023). Globalisation, human rights, sports, and culture. Springer Nature
Switzerland. Book 37, May.
Zajda, J., & Vissing, Y. (2024a). Globalisation, cultural diversity, and human rights. Springer Nature
Switzerland.
Zajda, J., & Vissing, Y. (2024b). Globalisation, and human rights for democracy and social justice.
Springer Nature Switzerland.
Joseph Zajda Ph.D. FACE, and teaches in the Faculty of Arts and Education, the Australian
Catholic University (Melbourne Campus), is a world-renowned scholar in the area of globalisation and education policy reforms. He has published 60 books (including 11 monographs and 40
edited books with Springer) and hundreds of book chapters and articles in refereed journals internationally. He was awarded the 2012 Peter Sheehan Excellence in Research Award. The award
recognizes the high quality of research activities, and particularly celebrates sustained research
that has had a substantive impact nationally and internationally (Faculty of Education, Australian
Catholic University). He received an Australian Award for University Teaching, July 2011, for
Outstanding Contributions to Student Learning for his innovative, influential and sustained contribution to teacher education through scholarship and publication. Synopsis: The applicant has
pioneered an innovative approach in teacher education, where he uses global pedagogy and
‘teacher as a researcher’ model. He also received Vice-Chancellor’s Award for Excellence in
Teaching, Australian Catholic University. The award was presented at the April 2005 Graduation
Ceremony, the Melbourne Town Hall. It was the sole award for the whole 6-campus university. He
has made an outstanding contribution to research in education globally, with emphasis on globalisation, education reforms, human rights, social justice, gender and equity and the enhancement of
quality in teacher education. Scientific index 2024, lists him 581st out of 1,345, 218 researchers
in the world (or top 0.5%). His published research includes 119 works in 665 publications in 4
languages and 12,524 library holdings (WorldCat catalogue), adding immense research expertise
to his work globally in teacher education and pedagogy. He has provided outstanding service to
teacher education through his research globally, graduate teaching, doctoral supervision, and his
editorial work.
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J. Zajda and Y. Vissing
Yvonne Vissing is a Professor of Healthcare Studies, focusing on health policy and public health,
and the Founding Director of the Center for Childhood & Youth Studies at Salem State University. She is the US policy chair for the Hope for Children Convention on the Child Policy Center
in Cyprus, on the Steering Committee for Human Rights Educators USA, and is on the AAAS
Human Rights Council. Vissing is author of 17 books, including Children’s Human Rights in
the USA: Challenge & Opportunities (Springer 2023), Changing the Paradigm of Homelessness
(Routledge 2020), and The Rights of Unaccompanied Minors (Springer 2021). A clinical sociologist, National Institute of Mental Health Post-Doctoral Research Fellow on child abuse and
Whiting Foundation fellow studying child rights, she was also a Dialogue and Democracy fellow
at UCONN’s Dodd Center for Human Rights. She is a graduate of Equitas International Human
Rights Training Program in Montreal. She is CEO of Training for Excellence.
Chapter 2
Building HRE into the World as It Could
Be in Higher and Secondary Education
Sandy Sohcot, Jazzmin Chizu Gota, and Yvonne Vissing
Abstract This chapter reviews how institutions of secondary and higher education
could better incorporate human rights education into their curriculum and frameworks. It underscores many of the challenges that HRE educators face and the opportunities that HRE can provide students, schools, and communities, particularly in the
United States context The World as It Could Be Human Rights Education Program
(TWAICB) and other HRE programs are spotlighted in this chapter.
Keywords Democracy · Equality · Human rights education · Higher education ·
K-12 education · Social justice
2.1 The Challenge
Human rights scholar William Fernekes (Alter & Fernekes, 2019) has pointed out
that students can’t be expected to do what they’ve never been taught, and teachers
can’t teach what they’ve never learned. This sums up the nature of human rights
education in many parts of the world and applies directly to the current educational
context in the United States. To view human rights education (HRE) as a social
change agent, this requires that teachers teach students about human rights. The
problem is that if teachers haven’t been taught HRE, then how are they supposed to
teach it to their students? The challenges of implementing HRE in the US have been
explored by educators and scholars in the field (Flowers, 2017; Katz & Spero, 2015;
Tibbitts, 2015). Some primary reasons why teachers have not learned how to teach
S. Sohcot (B)
The World As It Could Be Human Rights Education Program (TWAICB), San Francisco, CA,
USA
e-mail: sandy@theworldasitcouldbe.org
J. C. Gota
International and Multicultural Education, University of San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Y. Vissing
Department of Healthcare Studies, Salem State University, Salem, MA, USA
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025
J. Zajda and Y. Vissing (eds.), Globalisation, Human Rights and Education,
Globalisation, Comparative Education and Policy Research 51,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-80304-8_2
13
14
S. Sohcot et al.
HRE are as follows. One, as of 2024, the United States is the only member of the
United Nations countries not to ratify the Convention on the Rights of the Child. As a
result, educators may be unfamiliar with the requirement in human rights treaties like
the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) to ensure that everyone
learns about what human rights are and how to use them. Two, students in K–12
and in higher education may never have had a course or unit on human rights. They
may be unfamiliar with the existence of the various human rights treaties, where
and why there are human rights violations, and they may not have been taught
about why human rights are important. Three, students graduate without a baseline
understanding of what HRE are. They then go forward into work environments or
perhaps graduate school without a keen knowledge of how to use human rights in their
work. Four, employees or graduate students may accidentally violate other people’s
rights, or have their own rights violated, because of their lack of knowledge. This can
lead to embarrassment, interaction problems, poor quality work, or even lawsuits or
loss of employment.
As this lack of HRE training impacts teachers, HRE scholars such as Willilam
Fernekes, Sarita Cargas (2020) and Vissing (2023) have found that many students
in teacher training programs have never been taught about human rights treaties or
their benefit. Moreover, they have not been educated about how to embed human
rights education into every course, every pedagogical approach, into their research
projects, or even in routine conversations with their students. The importance of
HRE training is directly outlined in the 2011 United Nations Declaration on Human
Rights Education and Training:
Human rights education and training concerns all parts of society, at all levels, including
preschool, primary, secondary and higher education, taking into account academic freedom
where applicable, and all forms of education, training and learning, whether in a public or
private, formal, informal or non-formal setting. (UN General Assembly, 2011, Article 3).
The American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) Human
Rights Council (2024) acknowledges that human rights could be a part of any
academic discipline or course. Both Cargas and Vissing have pointed out in their
respective books that human rights could be taught as theory, service learning, in
materials students are required to read, in curriculum development, or in examples
used. HRE scholar Monisha Bajaj (2017, p. 1) describes this thorough the Freirean
concept of praxis, an active, reflective practice of engagement between the dynamics
of laws, norms, and values, and Rosemary Blanchard & Sandy Sohcot (2022) explains
the connection between Social Emotional Learning (SEL) and HRE.
Some erroneously assume that HRE is only found in and applicable to the social
sciences. This is not true. It can be found in and integrated through every discipline, whether it is mathematics, biology, or economics, human rights related examples can be used. Math examples focusing on distribution of money or demographic
disparity can be incorporated; seeing how various diseases or toxins are not randomly
distributed in a population can lead students towards human rights insights. Literature classes can expose students to various authors, and writing assignments can
2 Building HRE into the World as It Could Be in Higher and Secondary …
15
encourage students to examine the plethora of rights-related issues that confront
people in their everyday lives.
While there is extensive literature on human rights education, most teachers don’t
access the resources because they don’t even know they exist. There are many
human rights related materials, readings, websites, videos, music, and information
guides that have ready-to-use materials available. Teachers may not be given summer
courses, in-service training, stipends to buy materials, or release time to learn about
human rights. Feeling burdened with many required things to do in their everyday
jobs, adding human rights set of materials or knowledge may feel overwhelming.
What teachers don’t realize is that it doesn’t have to be.
There are many ready to use materials and guides that support HRE. For instance,
the AAAS website is rich with syllabi and materials, as is Human Rights Educators
USA (HRE USA). UNICEF has a HRE library, as does the University of Minnesota’s
Human Rights Library, and Amnesty International has a Human Rights Academy.
There are universities around the world, such as U.S.-based Columbia, Harvard, and
the University of Connecticut, that specialize in human rights materials. There is
even a Universities and College Consortium fr Human Rights Education (https://
ucchre.org/). There are websites such as the Salem State University’s Children’s
Human Rights Learning Library (https://canvas.instructure.com/enroll/GLKDXX)
that provide hundreds of materials that people can access for free merely by creating
a log-in and password. This chapter describes one HRE resource in detail that teachers
can creatively use to inspire their students to learn about and appreciate, human rights.
2.2 Building HRE Networks, Organizations, and Programs
Every human rights program, initiative, or organization has a history that involves
people, places, and events that drive them forward. A few of them are described
below to illustrate that all human rights education efforts are created by individuals
and to address social challenges of the day. For example, the UDHR (Universal
Declaration of Human Rights) is typically credited to Eleanor Roosevelt’s actions
as chairperson of the 1947 Commission on Human Rights post-World War II to
create an international set of standards that would hopefully prevent the creation
of another war that killed, maimed, and destroyed millions of people, homes, and
communities. The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) is often traced back
to the work of Eglantyne Jebb, founder of Save the Children who drafted the Geneva
Declaration on the Rights of the Child. In 2011 the nonprofit organization Human
Rights Educators USA (HRE USA) was created when seventy-five educators and
interest groups participated in a Harvard University sponsored “Building a human
rights education strategy for US schools” event. The International Association for
Human Rights Education (IAHRE) was established in 2023 at the 15th International
Conference for Education and Democratic Citizenship (ICEDC) held at University
College Dublin, with HRE scholars Hugh Starkey and Audrey Osler guiding the
organization and its journal forward.
16
S. Sohcot et al.
Yvonne Vissing, as a policy chair for the Hope for Children CRC Policy Center
in Cyprus, had been charged with developing greater awareness and support for children’s human rights in the United States. She developed the Center for Childhood &
Youth Studies (CCYS) at Salem State University and has brought together thousands of students and adults in organizational leadership positions to learn about the
importance of human rights. In her pursuit to make HRE materials more available and
accessible to others, Human Rights Educators (HRE) USA signed a Memorandum
of Understanding to partner with the CCYS. Recently the creator of the program,
The World as it Could be Human Rights Education Program (TWAICB) has been
added to the resources provided by the CCYS. The university is incorporating it into
their resources. It is their hope that these free and accessible human rights education
materials can be more broadly distributed to the public.
The common theme among all of these programs is that they are created by
humans to meet an unaddressed human need. This need is to create greater respect
for the dignity of one another and to do so through a human rights lens. The intent
of these programs are to provide positive benefits to society and individuals. As a
human body, the UDHR, CCYS, and human rights framework provide a skeleton
designed that we can all build upon to keep us strong. They have different parts that
all work to strengthen and influence other parts of society. They all have undergone
transformation and development, and will continue to do so, as they strive forward
to make the world a better place.
2.2.1 The World as It Could Be Human Rights Education
Program (TWAICB)
The TWAICB program was created in 2006 with support from the Rex Foundation,
which was a charitable organization founded by the rock-n-roll band, the Grateful
Dead. The foundation supported different types of endeavors that all directly or indirectly supported the advancement of human rights. Sandy Sohcot was the Executive
Director of the Rex Foundation, and she approached the San Francisco Mime Troupe
Youth Theater Project, a Rex grantee with a youth drama program, to explore how
the troupe may want to relay their ideas about the UDHR and human rights. They,
in collaboration with two other arts-based organizations, used the venue of drama,
dance, song, and spoken word to develop and express their human rights perspectives
to an audience of 1200 students and adults at Balboa High School in San Francisco.
None of the students knew anything about the UDHR before this opportunity, and
many of the adults in the audience did not either.
The positive responses of all the youth and adults to learning and communicating
about the UDHR led to the building of a curriculum and resources that teachers
could incorporate into their classrooms. It was identified that the TWAICB curriculum
demonstrated the vital role the arts can play in effectively teaching academic subjects
like human rights. Youth involved benefited from not just the knowledge about human
2 Building HRE into the World as It Could Be in Higher and Secondary …
17
rights but also from the opportunity to present what they learned to their community
of peers and adults, and to be celebrated for their accomplishments.
TWAICB’s program offers a range of warm-up, movement, and theater exercises, along with lesson plans that implicitly foster mindfulness and socio-emotional
learning while manifesting the principles of the UDHR and HRE. The program
allows students and their teachers to engage in exercises and discussions, such as
sharing their own experiences of being respected and disrespected, which can stir up
emotional reactions. A safe environment is essential for these exercises so students
and teachers can exchange their experiences, opinions, and feelings in ways that
build empathy and understanding and support deep learning (Spero, 2012).
The creative arts focus is somewhat unique to the promotion of human rights
education. Yet it provides an excellent opportunity for students to have the freedom
to explore rights-related issues from multiple perspectives. Just as human rights are
“inalienable, universal, and indivisible”, the arts and humanities empower students
with the chance to integrate different parts of human rights along with the different
parts of themselves. Integrating various forms of creative arts, including writing of
prose and poetry, performance, dance and movement, visual art, and spoken word,
contributes to the learning experience of students in many ways: Students are able to
invest emotionally and viscerally with academic content as they reflect on concepts
through diverse forms of expression, such as creating a body sculpture of what
“respect” looks like. Expressive performance also engages various parts of the brain
(Bowen & Kisida, 2019; Miendlarzewska & Trost, 2014).
As students build empathy, they are more able to connect with various perspectives
while retaining their own agency (Edutopia, 2020). A human rights perspective facilitates access to the human element in oneself and others, encouraging both autonomy
and collaboration through the bond of humanity (Blanchard &. Sohcot, 2022; Smith,
2009). It also helps to make abstract terms like universality, community, equality,
dignity, and self-awareness more relatable to students and their audience, bringing
experiential reality to otherwise abstract human rights issues, UDHR terminology,
and other socio-emotional competencies (Hart, 2013; Street Roots, 2012). The full
Curriculum and Resource Guide is available under the Instructional Materials tab on
the TWAICB website, www.theworldasitcouldbe.org. The materials include:
• Part 1: Background Information on the UDHR and Human Rights Education
(HRE)
• Part 2: Introduction to Creative Arts Teaching Methodology
• Part 3: Exercises to encourage creative energy, mindful attention, and bonding
• Part 4: Overview of Social Emotional Learning and its connection to HRE
• Part 5: Lesson Plans, including learning objectives, associated curriculum standards, skills, activities and suggested questions to guide reflection and critical
thinking
• Part 6: Resources to support teachers in creating a unique experience for their
students
The TWAICB was expanded as it became a program of the Alameda County
Deputy Sheriffs’ Activities League (DSAL) in 2014. New program components
18
S. Sohcot et al.
included an after-school Rite of Passage enrichment program for the youth of a
Youth Center in a nearby, unincorporated area. The program’s location provided a
pathway for public safety officials to learn from youth themselves about the human
rights framework, an important opening. It continued to offer programs at area high
schools. The program also has lesson plans that can be used in history classes,
language classes, and some that refer to the Holocaust and World War II. Each
lesson plan incorporates creative arts and activities to nurture crucial thinking skills.
Sohcot and human rights education doctoral student Jazzmin Chizu Gota developed a state-of-the-art website to showcase the accomplishments of the program, as
well as providing human rights resources and curriculum. Their website contains
teaching and learning guides, YouTube videos of student performances and interviews with HRE practitioners„ as well as a variety of resources. Gota and Sohcot
produced weekly posts on variety of social media outlets (Instagram, Facebook,
LinkedIn, etc.) to send forward historical, factual, and current event information to
showcase the continuing relevance of human rights in contemporary society. While
the curriculum is designed for high school students, it can be modified for both higher
education students as well as those in elementary school. The concepts of rights and
responsibilities can be differentiated so as to be appropriate to each grade level,
offering developmentally appropriate exercises that help children understand how
their actions affect other people, raising their levels of self-awareness and empathy,
key aspects of mindfulness. Students can use creative expressions to reflect what
they learn about terms such as fairness and respect. Examples of how the curriculum
has been utilized in other class settings are provided on TWAICB’s website under
the topic “Our Work in Use.” In 2024 the TWAICB was transferred to the Center for
Childhood & Youth Studies (CCYS) at Salem State University in Massachusetts. The
goal is to continue to promote HRE through making resources like those contained
in the website and program to a broader national and international community. The
CCYS has an extensive network of human rights partners who may be interested
in designing new programs based on the existing ones. Programs like TWAICB and
HRE in general provide a strong skeleton on which bodies of human rights education
can be built.
2.3 Conclusion
This chapter has introduced some of the resources that are available and ready to
use so that human rights education can be easily taught to others. It also identifies
challenges that often confront educating others about human rights. It asserts that
these obstacles can be overcome. There are many existing resources, curriculum
guides, and materials that are ready to be used now. Many other materials exist
that can be easily modified to meet the needs of unique student groups and locales.
TWAICB is but one of many successful programs that can be adopted and adapted
to make student learning of human rights both successful and enjoyable. In fact,
one of the beauties of TWAICB is how contagious positive learning experiences can
2 Building HRE into the World as It Could Be in Higher and Secondary …
19
be when important information can be conveyed in an enjoyable format. Students
who have participated in the TWAICB program are preparing themselves, with the
guidance and support of their teachers, program facilitators, and communities, to
confront a world that too often presents itself as a barrier to their self-actualization.
They are learning to engage with that world in previously unanticipated ways, not
from the margins, but from their own deep centers of self-worth, understanding,
and capacity. They are answering John Lewis’s (2021, p. 27) challenge “to redeem
the soul of the nation, to create a society at peace with ourselves”, envisioning and
preparing to build The World as it Could Be.
References
Alter, G., & Fernekes, W. (2022). The human rights imperative in teacher education. Rowman and
Littlefield.
Bajaj, M. (Ed.). (2017). Human rights education: Theory, research, and praxis. University of
Pennsylvania Press.
Blanchard, R., & Sohcot, S. (2022). The human rights portal to teaching mindfulness and civic
engagement. In N. Keefer & T. K. Flint (Eds.), Mindful social studies: Frameworks for social
emotional learning and critically engaged citizens. Rowman & Littlefield.
Bowen, D. H., & Kisida, B. (2019). Investigating causal effects of arts education experiences:
Experimental evidence from Houston’s Arts Access Initiative. Houston Education Research
Consortium.
Cargas, S. (2019). Human rights education. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Edutopia. (2020, February 7). New studies link the arts to crucial cognitive skills. https://www.edu
topia.org/video/new-studies-link-arts-crucial-cognitive-skills
Flowers, N. (2017). Afterforward. In M. Bajaj (Ed.), Human rights education: Theory, research,
praxis. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Hart, M. (2013, May). Life without art: It’s not possible. An interview with Mickey Hart. The
Rex Foundation Newsletter, 8. https://www.theworldasitcouldbe.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/
12/RexNewslette8-Answer-of-Art.pdf
Katz, S. R., & Spero, A. M. (Eds.). (2015). Bringing human rights education to US classrooms:
Exemplary models from elementary grades to university. Palgrave Macmillan.
Lewis, J. (2021). Carry on: Reflections for a new generation. Grand Central Publishing.
Miendlarzewska, E. A., & Trost, W. J. (2014). How musical training affects cognitive development:
Rhythm, reward and other modulating variables. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 7, 279. https://doi.
org/10.3389/fnins.2013.00279
Smith, F. (2009). Why arts education is crucial and who’s doing it. Edutopia. https://www.edutopia.
org/arts-music-curriculum-child-development
Spero, A. M. (2012). ‘This is a public record’: Teaching human rights through the performing arts
(Doctoral dissertation). University of San Francisco. https://repository.usfca.edu/diss/41
Street Roots. (2012, May 10). Beat of a gypsy Hart: Drummer Mickey Hart and the universe. https://
www.streetroots.org/news/2012/05/10/beat-gypsy-hart-drummer-mickey-hart-and-universe
Tibbitts, F. (2015). Building a human rights education movement in the United States. In S. R.
Katz & A. M. Spero (Eds.), Bringing human rights education to US classrooms: Exemplary
models from elementary grades to university. Palgrave Macmillan.
United Nations. (2011). Declaration on human rights education and training. https://undocs.org/
en/A/RES/66/137
United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. (n.d.). What are human
rights? https://www.ohchr.org/en/issues/pages/whatarehumanrights.aspx
20
S. Sohcot et al.
Vissing, Y. (2023). Children’s Human Rights in the USA: Challenges and Opportunities. Springer.
Sandra Sohcot is the Director of The World as It Could Be Human Rights Education Program
(TWAICB) since January 2014, which is now a program of the Alameda County Deputy Sheriffs’ Activities League. In July 2001, Sohcot became Executive Director of the Rex Foundation
and served as ED through 2013. With an MBA in finance, she has worked on a managerial level
since 1976, founding Sohcot Consulting in 1984. As Principal of Sohcot Consulting, she provided
planning, control, and project management expertise to businesses and not-for-profit organizations
across a wide range of industries and service sectors. Sohcot has been an active participant in
the small business and women’s communities of San Francisco. She is past president of the San
Francisco Small Business Network, Co-Founder of the Women’s Leadership Alliance, and past
president of the San Francisco Bay Area Chapter of the National Association of Women Business
Owners. In July 1999, the San Francisco Commission on the Status of Women honored her with
their Women Who Make a Difference Award. Sohcot has served as a Commissioner on the San
Francisco Human Rights Commission, appointed by Mayor Gavin Newsom in March 2004, and
completed her term in September 2008. Sohcot holds a California Lifetime Teaching Credential
for Grades K-6.
Jazzmin Chizu Gota is a doctoral student in International and Multicultural Education with a
concentration in Human Rights Education (HRE) at University of San Francisco. Her research
focuses on creative and informal HRE and intergenerational knowledges. She is a researcher and
consultant in interdisciplinary visual arts and human rights working with nonprofit and educational
programs to develop communications and outreach projects. Jazzmin is a co-managing editor of
the International Journal of Human Rights Education (IJHRE) and serves as a co-regional representative for Northern California for Human Rights Educators USA (HRE, USA), as well as a
member of the podcast team for Human Rights Education Now!
Yvonne Vissing is a Professor of Healthcare Studies, focusing on health policy and public health,
and the Founding Director of the Center for Childhood & Youth Studies at Salem State University. She is the US policy chair for the Hope for Children Convention on the Child Policy Center
in Cyprus, on the Steering Committee for Human Rights Educators USA, and is on the AAAS
Human Rights Council. Vissing is author of 17 books, including Children’s Human Rights in
the USA: Challenge & Opportunities (Springer 2023), Changing the Paradigm of Homelessness
(Routledge 2020), and The Rights of Unaccompanied Minors (Springer 2021). A clinical sociologist, National Institute of Mental Health Post-Doctoral Research Fellow on child abuse and
Whiting Foundation fellow studying child rights, she was also a Dialogue and Democracy fellow
at UCONN’s Dodd Center for Human Rights. She is a graduate of Equitas International Human
Rights Training Program in Montreal. She is CEO of Training for Excellence.
Chapter 3
Human Rights Education NOW! Podcast
Case Study: Illuminating HRE Through
the Lived Experiences of Scholar
Practitioners
William R. Fernekes, Jazzmin Chizu Gota, Kristi Rudelius-Palmer,
Sabrina Sanchez , Elizabeth Schwab, and Jessica Terbrueggen
Abstract In 2022 and 2023, Human Rights Educators USA (HRE USA) developed a
podcast by and for human rights educators, activists, and scholars to share and extend
knowledge of the field through an asynchronous, accessible, open access space.
Human Rights Education NOW! developed a framework utilizing the podcasting
medium, transcripts and keywords, and the digital space to document collective
work, expand on critical discussions about the field, and forge vital connections with
and between US human rights educators with colleagues nationally and globally.
This article details the project’s first year of development and production, February
16, 2023 to February 16, 2024, including 24 published and distributed episodes
with 18 human rights education (HRE) practitioners, and analyzes both content and
qualitative data from listeners and interviewees to explore how podcasting can be
applied as a community building and sustaining HRE tool.
Keywords Community education · Democracy · Human rights education ·
Teacher education · Podcast
W. R. Fernekes
Rutgers University Graduate School of Education, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
J. C. Gota
International and Multicultural Education, University of San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
K. Rudelius-Palmer
Human Rights Educators USA (HRE USA), St. Louis Park, MN, USA
S. Sanchez
University of California–San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
E. Schwab
Boston College, Morrissey College of Arts and Sciences, Boston, MA, USA
J. Terbrueggen (B)
District of Columbia International School, Washington, DC, USA
e-mail: terbrueggenj@gmail.com
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025
J. Zajda and Y. Vissing (eds.), Globalisation, Human Rights and Education,
Globalisation, Comparative Education and Policy Research 51,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-80304-8_3
21
22
W. R. Fernekes et al.
3.1 Introduction
In March 2022, Human Rights Educators USA (HRE USA) Steering Committee
member William “Bill” Fernekes proposed the creation and production of a human
rights education (HRE) podcast. The podcast sought to inform a broader audience
in the United States and internationally about HRE stories, practices, related issues,
and theories; expand awareness and knowledge about HRE USA and its programs
to a broader audience; and engage partner individuals, groups, and organisations
in changing the conversation about rights in the United States to one employing
a human rights education lens. From this seedling idea, the HRE USA podcast
Human Rights Education NOW! was born. The current team includes Bill Fernekes,
Host and Producer; Kristi Rudelius-Palmer, Executive Producer; Sabrina Sanchez,
Sound Design and Project Manager; Elizabeth Schwab, Editor; Jazzmin Chizu
Gota, Production Coordinator; and Jessica Terbrueggen, Communications & Public
Outreach Coordinator.
As of June 1, 2024, 32 episodes have been published focusing on the individual
narratives of experienced HRE practitioners, theorists, scholars, and NGO advocates.
Going forward, the project aims to include content from practitioners from partner
organisations and conversations with a broad range of HRE institutional actors. In
year one, 18 human rights education practitioners were interviewed (Appendix A),
addressing various HRE topics (Appendix B). The episodes reached a total of 62
countries/territories and 262 cities worldwide (Appendix C) with 891 downloads
between February 13, 2023 to March 11, 2024 (Appendix D), (Also see Fig. 3.1).
Episode 1 received the most downloads (Appendix E). Initially, the podcast audience
draws on existing members of the HRE USA community, its partner organisations,
and individuals practicing HRE in classrooms and other educational settings. A key
project goal is to expand listeners so that public discourse about rights in the United
States becomes commonplace.
The project so far has expanded HRE USA’s organisational profile and global
reach of its programs and resources via digital media. Listeners have indicated an
increased awareness about HRE in the educational community in the United States
and abroad. Furthermore, the podcast provides insight on how HRE can be applied
in various contexts beyond the human rights field. Lastly, Human Rights Education
NOW! has preserved and archived valuable resources for human rights defenders and
practitioners worldwide. It has taken time to work through the different challenges of
the production process. In addition to the normal learning curve and growing pains
of a new podcast team, the process has been labour intensive, with the six-person
volunteer team handling research, hosting, communications, website posting, blog
and e-newsletter updates, data analytics, sound design, project management, editing,
public outreach, and production coordination. Funding and the quest for a permanent
podcast host remain challenges concerning the long-term growth and sustainability
of the program.
3 Human Rights Education NOW! Podcast Case Study: Illuminating HRE …
23
Fig. 3.1 Human Rights Education NOW! Podcast data overview
This book chapter outlines the origin and evolution of the podcast, while
presenting indicators and metrics highlighting the first year’s successes and challenges. The essay also examines the first year as a case study, outlining various themes
and common threads from the data collection: (1) interviewees’ origin stories (2)
challenges and obstacles for advancing human rights in the U.S., (3) youth engagement and empowerment, and (4) the need for integration and implementation of
human rights education. Lastly, the paper examines data around student voice and
participation alongside teachers (Appendix H), concluding with lessons learned, key
takeaways, and future directions.
24
W. R. Fernekes et al.
3.2 Origins of the Podcast
Podcasting is an electronic medium with a substantial global audience. According to
Mixdown Magazine, “It is estimated there are now more than 5 million podcasts available worldwide, with more than 70 million episodes delivered in over 100 different
languages and all at little to no cost to the producer or the listener” (Mixdown Magazine, 2023). Its origins are often traced to the development of RSS feeds between
2001 and 2010, with its rapid growth as a content delivery system accelerated by
Apple’s creation of the iPod portable listening device and its creation of a podcast
category in its iTunes release 4.9 in 2005. This was followed by the development
of a podcast app and promotion of podcast development using Apple’s GarageBand
software (Mixdown Magazine, 2023). Founded in 2011 at Harvard University, HRE
USA is the U. S.’s largest network of primary to university human rights educators and education practitioners. Since its founding, HRE USA has endeavored to
expand its outreach beyond existing networks of human rights activists and scholars
by developing a comprehensive website and use of social media (Sirota, 2017). An
initial goal of the podcast was to document and bring awareness to the work of
human rights educators across the USA. However, it is pleasantly surprising to find
that conversations with and about each other’s work had appeal in the global HRE
community (see Appendix C).
3.2.1 Project Development
The podcast’s aims as previously stated support the organisation’s strategic priorities,
since it advances development of original source materials by HRE USA regarding
human rights education (Priority 5) and facilitates collaboration with organisational
members and other organisations that share the values, vision, and priority of HRE
USA (Priority 6) (HRE USA, 2021).
Following review and approval of the proposal by the HRE USA Steering
Committee, a team of volunteers assembled to turn the proposal into an electronic
program available on the HRE USA website (www.hreusa.org). From August through
December 2022, decisions were made by the team which permitted the first podcast’s
publication in February 2023: two episodes featuring an interview with longtime HRE
leader Nancy Flowers of Palo Alto, CA. The team encountered and surmounted these
challenges: (1) locating a reliable hosting platform where episodes could be shared
on multiple podcast directories (Buzzsprout), (2) developing a workflow permitting
monthly publication of new episodes, (3) soliciting and approving a podcast logo
design, entitled Human Rights Education NOW!, (4) identifying prospective interviewees and completing recorded interviews using Zoom, (5) creating an editing
3 Human Rights Education NOW! Podcast Case Study: Illuminating HRE …
25
process for audio files combining interview content with recorded background music
and introductory/concluding remarks and credits, (6) developing an archiving process
for all episode audio and text content, (7) holding monthly meetings to coordinate
podcast work, (8) preparing text content describing each episode, supplemented
by topical content listings and tags, and (9) gathering and analyzing data from the
Buzzsprout platform about the podcast’s audience, performance. (See Appendix F
for the Podcast App Usage by Percentage).
3.2.2 Evolution of the Project
Much time was spent strategically researching funding and prioritizing outward
facing goals such as branding, audio quality and locating royalty-free music to add to
the intro and outro of each episode. Branding was another priority, with an external
graphic designer hired to create the logo for a one-time flat rate of $500. Utilizing
Zoom and related mobile devices the interviews were recorded and later edited using
GarageBand. From the start, the podcast featured individual interviews with human
rights leaders discussing critical topics such as the development and evolution of
HRE; challenges facing mainstream narratives around HRE; embedding HRE into
local and state curriculum standards; the importance of art, creativity, and justice;
HRE and its connections to social justice movements; the importance of building
transnational solidarity networks; the link between compassion and human rights;
the importance of humanizing rights issues by sharing personal experiences; the role
of the internet and social media; and HRE in the United States and globally.
In the first year, podcast host Bill Fernekes interviewed 18 human rights education
leaders. Two interviews were with four-person groups, both consisting of two adult
and two student HRE leaders: one with members of the Human Rights Watch Student
Task Force in Southern California and the other with members of the University of
Connecticut Human Rights Close to Home Youth Advisory Team. From February
16, 2023 through February 16, 2024, the response has been overwhelmingly positive
with 891 episodes downloaded and 62 countries/territories, and 262 cities represented
(Appendix C and D). This demonstrates the substantial reach of disseminating HRE to
a global audience. 24 episodes were published, with the highest performing episode
receiving 131 downloads. Overall, the feedback from listeners was positive and
satisfactory with a request to continue publishing episodes.
3.2.3 Indicators and Metrics
Research was done to identify key performance indicators (KPIs) and metrics to
measure results and help evaluate progress. These KPIs are used as a guidance to help
offer an informed approach to identifying trend analysis, areas of improvement, and
successes: (1) Subscriptions, (2) Listeners per episode, (3) Downloads per episode,
26
W. R. Fernekes et al.
(4) Downloads by time of day, (5) Listeners location, (6) Top episodes, (7) Audience demographics, (8) Listens by source. These metrics provide concrete data to
help quantify the progress of the podcast and were chosen based on evidence-based
research indicating which are the topmost useful metrics for first-time podcasters
(Podcastle Team, 2023).
Polling of listeners provided evidence of effectiveness. A total of 14 surveys
were completed, with most listeners experiencing an “increased general knowledge
and understanding of human rights education” (71%) and “enhancement in interest,
awareness, and/or connection to HRE (86%). Listener survey feedback indicated they
like the podcast because it “provided insight into the work of young people actively
engaged in human rights advocacy and education efforts” and “captured real journeys
of people” which prove the lived stories are essential and contribute to the success
of this podcast. Overall, 100% of listeners reported being “extremely satisfied and
satisfied based on a scale of 1 as unsatisfied and 5 as extremely satisfied.” Listeners
were also asked to share their engagement, experiences and recommendations about
the podcast. They suggested incorporating more multimedia, group-based guests/
interviewees, a multilingual option and new topics at the intersection of human rights
and education (i.e., public health, sport, business, governance).
3.3 Methodology: Selection Process of Podcast Interviewees
Regarding guests for the first 24 episodes, the podcast team discussed and agreed
upon these interviewee selection criteria.
1. Demonstrated a strong understanding of HRE, either through prior scholarship,
leadership work and/or activism in the field.
2. Worked to advance social justice through individual and/or organizational
activities in the USA and/or globally.
3. Represented one or more subgroups engaged in HRE (youth, communities of
color, higher education, K-12 education, or others) in the USA or globally.
An additional imperative involved interviewing those who had worked in the field
for many years and who were of advanced age. It was deemed important to document
their ideas and activities to ensure their archival preservation.
Question design was largely left in the hands of the podcast host, Bill Fernekes,
who had many years of interviewing experience for scholarly publications and in
the field of radio.. He designed the questions with two overriding emphases: (1)
documenting the interviewee’s personal history in the HRE field and (2) inviting
the interviewee to share views on contemporary human rights issues, while offering
insights about guiding principles and role models which had inspired their HRE
3 Human Rights Education NOW! Podcast Case Study: Illuminating HRE …
27
work. (See Appendix G for a sample set of questions). Interviewees received questions in advance, with the caveat they were only a starting point for the recorded
conversations, which typically lasted about 60 minutes. A number of the questions
were common for each interview, while others were catered to the interviewee’s
personal history and HRE work (See Appendix G).
The selection of interviewees and the design of questions were directly related to
HRE USA strategic priorities (SP). SP 5 concerns development of original source
materials by HRE USA regarding human rights education. The podcast episodes
achieve that goal by preserving the ideas and insights of HRE leaders and activists
for future reference and use by others. SP 6 deals with facilitating collaboration
with organisational members and other organisations sharing the values, vision and
priorities of HRE USA. The podcast episodes raise awareness of not only the work of
individuals, but in a number of cases, the organisations with which they are affiliated)
and in doing so strengthen ties between HRE USA and other HRE groups.
3.4 One Year in Production: A Case Study
Episode content analysis reveals four prominent themes: (1) interviewees’ origin
stories (2) challenges and obstacles for advancing human rights in the U.S., (3) youth
engagement and empowerment, and (4) the need to integrate and implement human
rights education. Lastly, data was explored around student voice and participation
alongside teachers (Appendix H).
3.4.1 Analysis of Podcast Interviewees’ HRE Origin Stories
Analysis revealed distinct contexts and pathways through which individuals discovered human rights education. Three primary contexts were identified: Youth, Graduate School, and Family and Community. Each context corresponds with different
age groups and exposure methods (Fig. 3.2).
There was a clear distinction between individual and group-based discovery of
human rights through education and learning. Younger individuals often encountered
human rights collectively through social media, while older generations typically
learned about human rights principles individually, often influenced by family or
personal interests. In the Human Rights Watch Student Task Force episode, one high
school student claimed, “I was actually exposed to human rights issues a lot when
I was younger, and that, unfortunately, wasn’t because of our education system but
because I had access to the internet, and I had access to social media platforms when
activism and more equality focused ideology was on the rise… When I was nine or
10 I was exposed a lot to the newer waves of feminism and racial equality movements
that were going on at the time… it’s what inspired me initially to take action" (Episode
11). Likewise, being exposed to human rights in social group settings or organizations
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Podcast Interviewees’ Human Rights Education Origin Stories
Youth Context:
Age Group: Younger individuals between 16-19 years old
(Interviews 9, 10, 14, 15)
Exposure: Predominantly through formal classroom settings or social media in
informal settings. This group has benefited from the integration of human
rights education into school curriculums over time. For instance, one
interviewee mentioned learning about climate change via social media,
suggesting a broadening of human rights topics to include contemporary issues
such as climate change, gender rights, child rights, racial equality, and current
events.
Graduate School Context:
Age Group: Middle group between 20-50 years old (Interviews
Fig. 3.2 Podcast interviewees’ human rights education origin stories
was another avenue of discovery for youth. In Episode 11 another high school student
stated, "At home, we didn’t talk about social issues very much and I would say during
COVID, I just became very interested in the women’s rights movement and the BLM
[Black Lives Matter] movement and the March for our Lives and what they were
doing with gun control and after COVID… I mean it started mostly with climate
activism because I was pretty passionate about that before joining STF, and then
when I joined, it was in the middle of their climate campaign, and so that kind of
continued further” (Episode 11).
This differs from the graduate school group, who was influenced by family
members followed by individual exploration. In Episode 17 sociologist Yvonne
Vissing claimed, “I think experiences that we have in childhood shaped us and how
we think and how we act. So, during the 1960s, I grew up in the Midwest, and I
witnessed racial and gender discrimination. I lived through a period when people
were fighting for equity, for inclusion, for acceptance and justice. My dad became
the mayor of a city in Indiana, and he was confronted by people in the community
during the Civil Rights Act movement… so I grew up with that kind of view. Now,
I knew nothing about human rights education or human rights” (Episode 17). Afterward, she explored the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Likewise, another
graduate school group member stated, “I started my work on human rights education
3 Human Rights Education NOW! Podcast Case Study: Illuminating HRE …
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because I read through children’s rights. That was the beginning” (Episode 19) and
then further explored the subject through graduate study.
For older generations, inspiration and exposure to human rights came from family
influence in the informal setting followed by individual exploration. Nancy Flowers
stated, “I think all of us, you know, have a foundation or instinct that comes from our
family, and I’ll say that although I’m a practicing Buddhist, my parents were very
serious Christians... I think part of what I grew up with was that sense of responsibility
for the community of service and towards others and even though I didn’t stay with
the Christian faith those lessons were very strong” (Episode 1). Rosemary Blanchard
mentioned she was exposed to human rights through family: “My Aunt Ellen, who
lived next door, but I was a very little girl, and she was a big proponent of Eleanor
Roosevelt” (Episode 7).
Overall, the younger generation tended to be exposed through group settings
(social media or in classrooms), while the graduate school and older generations
typically were exposed through a family member or core values, followed by individual exploration. This suggests a notable difference in how different generations
access information about human rights. The older generation’s exposure was more
localized, often through family or community followed by individual exploration,
whereas younger individuals were more likely to access information through global
platforms like social media or human rights groups.
The analysis highlighted HRE’s historical evolution in the United States. Older
interviewees reported a lack of formal human rights education during their schooling,
whereas younger interviewees benefited from a curriculum that increasingly included
human rights topics. This shift reflects broader educational reforms and increased
awareness of human rights issues over time. Some examples shared by the older
interviewees (more than 50 years of age) clearly stated that they did not learn about
human rights in an academic setting. David Shiman (Episode 3) stated, “I don’t think
I knew about the Universal Declaration of Human Rights until I was out of college.”
Pam Bruns claimed that "human rights was never taught or offered in any of the
courses that I ever had. I grew up with civil rights, and I grew up with some of the
same things Kristen’s talking about – a sense of fairness and trying to be sensitive,
especially with civil rights and women’s rights. It was clear that people in this country
weren’t all being treated equally. So it wasn’t until after college, because I never had
an opportunity to study human rights in college, either. It wasn’t until much after
college that I started even hearing the term ‘human rights’” (Episode 11). Sandra
Sohcot noted that exposure came through a college experience outside of the formal
setting: “That is actually how I got the more formal understanding of the idea of this
framework of human rights to actually gain vocabulary for what I think was already
part of my kind of psyche… [Krishanti Dharmaraj] helped explain this framework
for how to be in the world, and how to help be part of generating a world that reflected
human rights” (Episode 9). Similarly, the graduate school level age group mentioned
human rights in the context of post-World War II initiatives, with the main exposure
in graduate school itself and through self-exploration. For example, Yvonne Vissing
claimed “We talked about women’s rights, but there was no conceptual framework
30
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that we ever learned about the Universal Declaration of Human Rights or the CRC
[Convention on the Rights of the Child]” (Episode 17).
As K-12 human rights curriculum in the U.S. expanded during the 1990s, young
generations were more frequently exposed to human rights in formal settings. One
high school student stated, "My entry point into human rights, I would say probably began last year when I was a sophomore in high school. It was when I was
taking my civics course, which is a requirement for all high school students that go
to the Center for Global Studies in Norwalk [Connecticut]” (Episode 15). Another
interviewee mentioned, "The very first class I took in person after COVID was a
human rights summer enrichment course at Manchester High School, and that was
before sophomore year. We talked about how we could improve our communities
through concrete action. And you know, as cliche as it sounds, like we can really
change the world with human rights if we really put our efforts into upholding them "
(Episode 15). In conclusion, the pathways to human rights awareness among interviewees vary significantly based on age and historical context, while the integration of
human rights into educational curriculum and the advent of social media have played
pivotal roles in shaping these journeys. Understanding these distinctions can inform
future efforts to enhance human rights education across different demographics.
3.4.2 Challenges and Obstacles for Advancing Human
Rights in the U.S.
Interview content analysis revealed a trend among human rights education experts
regarding perceived challenges and obstacles to advancing human rights and human
rights education in the U.S. The “Challenges and Obstacles” topic was the one most
frequently addressed, discussed a total of 28 different times by various interviewees
(Appendix H). Individual interviewees cited a lack of centralised education systems/
programs around human rights education as a chief concern. HRE practitioners also
cited the struggles educators face when attempting to implement human rights education into public school settings and curricula, and expressed concern about the lack
of pre-service training in HRE for educators.
In Episode 4, David Shiman shares his insights about the current and future challenges facing HRE in the U.S. In particular, he links the success of HRE to maintaining an open and respectful classroom climate where the exchange of ideas and
the study of controversial issues is a central instructional focus. Shiman discusses the
importance of engaging in public conversations about human rights in local communities, while recognizing that changing attitudes is a slow process. He concludes
by identifying key initiatives that would raise the profile of HRE in pre-collegiate
education and legitimize HRE as a field of scholarly inquiry.
In Episode 13, Felisa Tibbitts delves deeper into issues concerning the lack of a
centralized HRE system in the United States. She expounds upon the challenges of
American exceptionalism as an obstacle to the development of HRE, but remains
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confident that the lack of a centralized education system in the United States also
presents opportunities at the state and local level. She also discusses how a perception
that HRE is affiliated with progressive or left-leaning politics can serve as an obstacle
and how globalization may contribute to opening up discussion around human rights
in the United States.
Jake Skrzypiec (Episode 16) believes that a critical change for HRE must bring
“more people together across ideologies, across boundaries, across states, you name
it. I think we need more spaces of dialogue, and we need more spaces where people
are conversing.” In order to advance HRE and “true” justice, he contends that “more
people talking face to face with one another in order to not only address the issues
that we’re facing, but also see the possibility of how humanity can be more and
more leaning towards justice” is an essential, needed shift.Given the prevalence of
this topic, and the consistency with which interviewees across a diverse range of
demographics (age, gender, race, geographic location within the U.S.) addressed it,
the analysis suggests that challenges and obstacles to advancing human rights and
human rights education in the U.S. is one of the most pressing concerns facing the
field of HRE in the U. S. This is significant because it provides a clear illustration of
the current landscape of the human rights education movement in the United States,
indicating that much progress is still needed to advance efforts in policy and praxis.
Moreover, the analysis reveals the importance of programming like the podcast to
raise awareness around issues of HR and HRE through public platforms. Lastly, this
analysis confirms the importance of documenting the HR and HRE movement within
the United States, so that practitioners and scholars can gauge progress being made
to bring about systemic change to the United States.
3.4.3 Youth Engagement and Empowerment
The second most discussed topic across podcast episodes was youth engagement
and empowerment. This topic emerged a total of 25 times (Appendix H). Given the
prevalence of this topic it underscores the interest of U.S. practitioners and scholars
in engaging youth in the HRE movement. Interviewees shared the importance of
centering youth as agents of change in the HR and HRE movements within the
United States. They also emphasised the importance of engaging youth with tools
such as the UDHR, along with HR and HRE specific language to frame human rights
and HRE work with a common linguistic terminology, thus providing youth leaders
with common entry points into the field. The analysis also revealed consistency with
other social justice movements in the United States over the last decade regarding the
importance of centering youth voices within social justice movements. Social justice
movements and movements raising awareness around social issues such as human
rights require sustained, long term efforts. By engaging youth in the HR and HRE
movements within the United States, a sustainable cohort of advocates, practitioners,
and scholars can be developed to carry this work into future generations.
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Again, the heavy emphasis on this particular topic underscores the value of platforms such as the podcast to act as a conduit of information and story sharing, and
as a means for capacity and skill building for future generations of advocates and
practitioners alike.
3.4.4 Need for Integration and Implementation of Human
Rights Education
The third most discussed topic was the need for integration and implementation of
human rights education within educational programs. This topic was discussed a
total of 19 times (Appendix H). While there was overlap with the topic of challenges
and obstacles, the defining feature of this category centered around the expressed
need for change. Interviewees frequently cited the urgent need for human rights to
be integrated and implemented throughout educational programming.
Interviewees cited the need for schools to adopt human rights specific curricula,
as well as the need for this curriculum to be embedded into daily pedagogical practices of educators at all levels of K-University institutions. In Episodes 17 and 18,
Yvonne Vissing expressed the need for HRE to be integrated into teacher training
for professionals who work with children. Yvonne shares, “the words that we speak
say a lot about what we think of children, and we need to be very cognizant of that.”
Two interviewees mentioned the primary goal should be to have every student
learn about the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, its history, and relevance
(Episode 8 and 10). Ren Zhang (Episode 12) highlights another needed curriculum
modification for HRE is “diversifying the literature and the experiences that we
incorporate in our education curriculums, especially English heavy classes. Diversifying the type of literature we read, especially to include biographies. Remarks from
authors who have gone through experiences that are definitely human rights related
that would be not only humanizing, but also exposes so many students to different
perspectives and different cultures that they haven’t seen before.”
Shirin Unvala (Episode 12) would like the HRE curriculum to focus more on
storytelling and connections to the heart on a personal level. “If the fundamental
concepts of human rights and respect for human dignity of all was a part of every
child’s education from the earliest levels in preschool, the earliest primary years, I
think we would see a difference in culture, and that would make it possible for us
to use human rights more effectively in education and in the building of our own
society” (Rosemary Blanchard, Episode 8).
Interviewees also cited the many ways in which they are attempting to address
that need. In Episodes 9 and 10 Sandy Sohcot cited a 2nd grade project she coordinated through her organisation, The World As It Could Be, Human Rights Education
Program, to integrate human rights education into the daily curriculum at public
schools. In Episodes 11 & 12, Kristin Ghazarians, of the Human Rights Student
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Task Force, discussed the importance of integrating human rights vocabulary into
everyday lessons at schools.
In Episodes 23 and 24, Dr. Sandra Sirota, discussed Tibbitts’ Accountability
Model with regards to teacher training, delving into the challenges and strategies
for educating pre-service and veteran teachers. Dr. Sirota specifically elaborates on
the lack of a requirement for HRE training in professional licensure as a noteworthy
challenge in teacher education, and one that needs direct attention.
The strong emphasis on needs expressed by the human rights and human rights
education community to ensure the integration of HRE into curricula and instruction
highlights the value of podcast programming, which not only documents the progress
of human rights and human rights education within the United States, but also serves
as an educational tool in and of itself.
Educators are encouraged at all levels to utilise the episodes as educational material for the purposes of integrating HR into lessons. Educators can use these episodes
to inform their work in HRE by downloading and sharing them with colleagues and
students along with developing lesson plans and activities using episode content. The
podcast team’s commitment to emphasizing student voice and participation alongside
educators reinforces and supports its use as a professional development tool.
3.4.5 Student Voice and Participation Alongside Teachers
The following two episodes concentrate on the inclusion of student voices in interviews, prompting a call for further exploration within critical discourse spaces.
Episodes 11 and 12 featured the Human Rights Watch Student Task Force, which
empowers high school students and educators to advocate for human rights, particularly children’s rights. Episode 11 delved into student activism and the challenges
students face in educating peers about human rights and climate change. The two
students also shared their thoughts on HRE professional development advances
and challenges with faculty, administration, and students. Episode 12 explored the
intersection of human rights with local issues, strategies for advancing HRE, and
dialogue with diverse viewpoints. Both episodes underscored the significance of
student voices, creating a space where students made personal connections to human
rights and ongoing professional development in HRE.
Episodes 15 and 16 featured a panel discussion with Connecticut Educators and
Students. The discussion centred on making schools more receptive to human rights
issues, emphasizing the importance of HRE as a universal curricular requirement.
Episode 16 highlighted the role of today’s HRE students as “change agents” and
urged community support for human rights at all levels. Students shared strategies for
addressing U.S. challenges through HRE, while teachers connected their discussion
about HRE with current issues like LGBTQ+ rights and U.S. history restrictions.
Both students and teachers emphasised the need for critical dialogue, notably in
history/social studies education and HRE.
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All four episodes emphasise a need for more critical spaces of dialogue between
students and educators. In each episode, students had the opportunity to share their
ideas and create a space for teachers to learn from their perspectives. In the context
of teacher education, the inclusion of student voices in interviews serves a vital
purpose, allowing prospective educators to understand the perspectives, experiences,
and needs of students first hand regarding human rights issues. This is evident in the
viewership of the four episodes. Episodes 15 and Episode 16, Connecticut Educators
and Students Panel’ included two educators and two students in the interview. Episode
15 has received 35 downloads and Episode 16 has received 36 downloads. Episode
16 was the third most downloaded podcast episode, followed by Episode 15 as the
fourth download. Episodes 11 (32 downloads) and Episode 12 (33 downloads) ranked
as the 7th and 8th most downloaded episodes. This demonstrates the significant
engagement with episodes featuring student voices, suggesting a growing interest in
hearing perspectives from youth involved in human rights education and activism.
This approach aligns with the general goals of HRE. By providing opportunities
for youth to voice their opinions, concerns, and aspirations, educators can create
a more inclusive and participatory learning environment (HRE USA Priority 5).
Going forward, the exploration of a student-only interview could enhance this critical
discourse and space for learning.
3.4.6 Recommendations for Critical Changes for HRE
in the United States
Despite the importance of HRE in protecting the right to education, there is currently
very limited implementation of HRE in the United States. Under our federal system,
national, state, and local authorities share responsibility for delivery of HRE. To date,
the U.S. federal government has provided no significant guidance or encouragement
on HRE to state and local authorities. At the state level, curriculum standards related
to human rights education are disparate and unregulated. According to a 2016 report
by the Advocates for Human Rights, only 39 states even mention human rights
in their social studies standards, and among them, only 22 contain the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). Very few state standards include specific
international human rights or humanitarian treaties, obligations, or mechanisms.
Each interviewee described needed critical changes for HRE in the United States.
Five recommendations emerged from the first year of the podcast interviews, ranging
from structural, standards, and policy setting, accessibility and professional training,
freedom to teach and learn, and curriculum modifications and dialogues.
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3.5 Structural, Standards, and Policy Setting
David Shiman (Episode 4) emphasized HRE should be “built into the structures, built
into standards, built in at the state and local levels.” He cited Rosemary Blanchard’s
work to promote HRE within the policies of the National Council for the Social
Studies. By infusing HRE into different structures, policies, and practices he sees
this action as legitimizing HRE, and “can point to their structures and say, ‘look,
this is what we’re supposed to be doing.’ Let’s build this in our curriculum.” Yvonne
Vissing (Episode 18) believes we need to reframe children as rights respecting human
beings with inalienable human rights. She recognizes that “Children are watchers of
the world, and we need to make sure that in everything that we say and do that we
reflect that.” This positions children and their growth and well-being at the center of
HRE work.
3.6 Accessibility and Professional Training
Nancy Flowers (Episode 2) discussed how HRE should be infused into professional
training for all occupations, not only within the education arena. Sandy Sohcot
(Episode 8) recommended that all state and federal employees should have human
rights training and be required to write something about how it relates to their work.
Marissa Gutierrez-Vicario (Episode 6) stated, “I want people to know the [human]
rights but also want them to have them. To have quality access to them…regardless
of the context that you’re in.” She shared an experience of running an HRE workshop with individuals in jail. One participant wrote down all the human rights from
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. She hoped that one day all individuals,
especially the most vulnerable, would learn about and have equal access to HRE.
Similarly, Sandra Sirota (Episode 24) pointed to “accessibility” challenges, “I think
the right to human rights education is a human right, and right now it’s one that a lot
of people in the U.S. don’t have access to. And I think the best way we can reach
everyone is through schools. So, if we could have human rights education be offered
in all schools grades K through 12, I think that can make a big difference.”
3.7 Freedom to Teach and Learn
Anita Yudkin-Suliveres (Episode 20) stressed the critical change necessary for HRE
is to “give teachers the freedom to learn and the freedom to teach for equity, for
justice and empowerment based on human rights. That’s a big one. But that’s what
I would wish for.” She added “if you trust teachers and if you allow them to learn,
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and you help them with the tools they might not have regarding human rights, then
let them go run with this. Now let them decide what they want to learn and pursue
and do it with their students.” With “less bureaucracy and more academic freedom
and giving responsibility to people,” they will make “thoughtful decisions.”
3.7.1 Future Expansion of the Project
While Human Rights Education NOW! has progressed during its initial year, there is
room for improvement. Upholding the goal of including diversity and inclusiveness,
HRE USA aims to include youth voices (students, activists, etc,) and adults (educators, academics, and human rights experts). Doing so aligns with strategic priority 5:
“providing youth with HRE leadership, training, and other opportunities to engage
in HRE activities.” HRE USA recognises a need to increase youth integration in (1)
the podcast interviews and (2) podcast production processes. The podcast also aims
to expand its scope by including student perspectives in interviews, alongside educators or independently. Youth interview guests may highlight student-led campaign
activism, initiatives, and or leaders working in human rights. This expansion could
incorporate round table discussions with multiple guests to increase the diversity of
youth voices. HRE USA may also consider an opportunity for youth to host future
podcast episodes. These individuals could act as “Youth Correspondents,” who would
act as on-the-ground journalists.
Lastly, as the team looks toward the future growth and maintenance of the podcast,
its members recognize the need to identify a sustainable model regarding funding
and the project’s division of labor. Currently, the team is exploring funding opportunities to support the continuation of production and of team member positions.
Founding host Bill Fernekes, will step down from his position as host in 2025 and
the team is exploring options on how to fill this role, including experimenting with
guest hosts. This is a model for possible replication, potentially rotating guest hosts
while exploring funding and more permanent host options. The team is confident the
benefits to the HRE community are well worth the effort and looks forward to continuing the project, while focusing on future possibilities for growth, collaboration, and
partnerships.
3.8 Conclusion
This study has revealed that documentation of the stories of HRE practitioners and
scholars fills a need in the HRE community and will contribute to the continued
progression of the human rights movement in the United States. After examining
our first year in production, the analysis showed prominent themes focused on (1)
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interviewees’ origin stories (2) challenges and obstacles for advancing human rights
in the U.S., (3) youth engagement and empowerment, and (4) the need to integrate
and implement human rights education. This study highlights, from the perspective
of both listeners and interviewees, how podcasting can be applied as a community
building and sustaining HRE tool.
Appendix A
Episodes by Publication Date and Interview Guest(s)
Date
Episode
#
Interview Guest
3-1-2023
1
Nancy Flowers
3-1-2023
2
Nancy Flowers
4-1-2023
3
David Shiman
4-1-2023
4
David Shiman
5-1-2023
5
Marisa Gutierrez-Vicario
5-1-2023
6
Marisa Gutierrez-Vicario
6-1-2023
7
Rosemary Blanchard
6-1-2023
8
Rosemary Blanchard
7-1-2023
9
Sandy Sohcot
7-1-2023
10
Sandy Sohcot
8-1-2023
11
Human Rights Watch Student Task Force (2 program leaders, 2 high
school students):
Pam Bruns and Kristin Ghazarians; Ren Zhang and Clementine Causse
8-1-2023
12
Human Rights Watch Student Task Force (2 program leaders, 2 high
school students):
Pam Bruns and Kristin Ghazarians; Ren Zhang and Clementine Causse
91-2023
13
Felisa Tibbitts
9-1-2023
14
Felisa Tibbitts
10-1-2023
15
Connecticut Educators/Students Panel (2 teachers, 2 high school
students):
Chris Buckley and Jake Skrzypiec; Kevin Maysonnet and Shirin Unvala
10-1-2023
16
Connecticut Educators/Students Panel (2 teacher, 2 high school
students):
Chris Buckley and Jake Skrzypiec; Kevin Maysonnet and Shirin Unvala
11-1-2023
17
Yvonne Vissing
11-1-2023
18
Yvonne Vissing
12-1-2023
19
Anita Yudkin-Suliveres
12-1-2023
20
Anita Yudkin-Suliveres
1-1-2024
21
Monisha Bajaj
(continued)
38
W. R. Fernekes et al.
(continued)
Date
Episode
#
Interview Guest
1-1-2024
22
Monisha Bajaj
2-1-2024
23
Sandra Sirota
2-1-2024
24
Sandra Sirota
Appendix B
List of Topics by Episode
Episodes 1 and 2: Nancy Flowers
Part One:
• Development & evolution of HRE
• Involvement with HRE in the United States and globally
• HRE infrastructure
• Allies & efforts in the HRE field
Part Two:
• Contextualizing the local within a global
• Transnational solidarity building
• Resisting xenophobia and anti-democratic tendencies
• Challenging mainstream narratives as pathways for HRE
• Places and strategies for incorporating HRE
• Recalibrating how HRE is perceived and relating HRE to social justice issues
• Patience as an essential quality for HRE advocates
Episodes 3 and 4: David Shiman
Part One:
• HRE activities across Europe
• Role of the Internet and social media in forging connections about HRE
• Challenges for HRE growth
• Deweyan conception of education
Part Two:
• Connecting HRE to local issues through community investigation
• HRE and contemporary social crises
• Link between work in prejudice reduction and human rights education
• Developing stronger community connections
• Importance of forging global connections between HRE advocates
• in the USA and other countries
• Embedding HRE into local and state curriculum standards
(continued)
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(continued)
Episodes 5 and 6: Marissa Gutierrez-Vicario
Part One:
• Importance of art, creativity, and justice
• Examining the root causes of social problems using human rights language
• Using the word "resistance"
• Origins and development of ArteJustice
Part Two:
• Unitarian Universalism role towards eradicating racism and oppression
• Importance of being explicit about addressing racial justice
• Art and personal narratives as an entry point to understanding injustice
• Key insights that would help HRE move forward in the USA
Episodes 7 and 8: Rosemary Blanchard
Part One:
• Introduction to human rights education through civil rights law
• Navajo work and its connection to her work in HRE
• American exceptionalism’s role in hampering HRE’s advance in the USA
• Insuring encounters through public education with humanitarian law
• Abu Ghraib and contradictions between U.S. ideals and practices
Part Two:
• Connections between NCSS work and Civic Education coalition
• Emphasizing “human rights of the playground”
• Avoiding demonizing opposing views
• Understanding how a historic legacy of pain too often translates into inflicting
• pain on others
• Learning fundamental concepts early in one’s education to advance HRE
• Nelson Mandela, Thích Nhất Hạnh, and Lawrence Senesh
Episodes 9 and 10: Sandy Sohcot
Part One:
• Initial interest in human rights
• Women’s Leadership Alliance and connections to HRE
• Work as the Executive Director for the Rex Foundation
• Creation of The World As It Could Be
• Significance of arts in education and its role in advancing HRE
• Work with the San Francisco Human Rights Commission
• HRE and its connections to social justice movements
Part Two:
• Work with Women’s Leadership Alliance and connections to HRE
• Future priorities of HRE and collaboration with social justice movements
• Forging links between HRE and social emotional learning
• Co-authored chapter in Mindful Social Studies
• Eleanor Roosevelt as a role model for HRE
• Federal government’s weak commitment to HRE
• 2nd grade project highlighting the importance of HRE integration
(continued)
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W. R. Fernekes et al.
(continued)
Episodes 11 and 12: Human Rights Watch Student Task Force
Part One:
• Origins of the HRW Student Task Force
• Interest in human rights and work with STF
• STF activism programs
• Involvement of school faculty in STF activities
• Professional development advances and challenges
• Obstacles in educating peers about human rights and climate change
Part Two:
• Human rights and the intersection of local community issues
• UDHR as a framework for rights conversations
• Personal connections to human rights
• Integration of human rights vocabulary into conversations at home and school
• Importance of humanizing rights issues by sharing personal experience
• Link between compassion and advocacy
• Strategies to advance faculty understanding of HRE
• Importance of ongoing professional development about HRE
• Advancing HRE at home through family conversations
• Importance of learning how to engage individuals with differing views
• Influential role models in HRE and significant quotes summing up views on HRE
• Ideas about important actions which would advance HRE in USA
Episodes 13 and 14: Felisa Tibbitts
Part One:
• Initial interest in human rights and HRE
• The Cold War and impact on world view
• Research and work in Central and Eastern Europe
• Human rights work with Dutch Helsinki Committee
• Changes occurring within the field of HRE
• Lack of a centralised education system and HRE challenges/obstacles
• American exceptionalism and HRE
• Globalization and HRE
• Importance of critical pedagogy/feminist scholarship
• Three conceptual models for HRE
Part Two:
• Issues-based education and HRE
• Human Rights Education Associates
• Role of the internet in fostering HRE
• Challenge of engaging local and universal issues in HRE
• Relationship of HRE to social justice scholarship and issues
• Setbacks for human rights discourse in South Africa
• Connecting HRE to social problems via disciplinary approaches
• Future trends in HRE
• HRE and the Ukraine War
(continued)
3 Human Rights Education NOW! Podcast Case Study: Illuminating HRE …
41
(continued)
Episodes 15 and 16: Connecticut Educators and Students Panel
Part One:
• Ideas on how to make schools more accepting of HRE
• Vision for HRE as a universal requirement for students
• Misconceptions about HRE
• Importance of emphasizing “through and for human rights dimensions”
• The Human Rights Close to Home program at University of Connecticut
• Challenges and obstacles educators face when implementing HRE in public education
• Changing the conversation to emphasise HRE in public discourse in USA
• Importance of examining local issues from a human rights perspective
Part Two:
• HRE Community and connections to the National Council for the Social Studies
• HRE as a way to address human rights challenges in the United States
• Mobilizing advocates for human rights issues at a local level
• HRE as a way to address local issues such as LGBTQ+ concerns as one example
• Importance of support for HRE on a local and federal level
• Envisioning today’s HRE students as agents of change
• Influential role models in HRE
• Recommendations for advancing HRE in the USA
Episodes 17 and 18: Yvonne Vissing
Part One:
• Initial interest in human rights and human rights education
• Convention on the Rights of the Child
• Social problems with children
• The United States’ failure to ratify the CRC
• Connection between clinical experience and human rights education
• Human rights treaties informing strategies to address social issues
• Strategies for educating the population about homelessness
• The Center for Children and Youth and Human Rights Education
Part Two:
• Absence of discussion around human rights in public discourse
• Lack of knowledge around the Convention on the Rights of the Child
• Human rights education and social justice connections
• Human rights framework as a way to encompass social issues
• Necessity of keeping children safe and protected
• Ongoing failure of governments to address children’s needs
• Integration of HRE into training for professionals who work with children
• Felisa Tibbitts’ HRE model for professional accountability
• Key role models in HRE
(continued)
42
W. R. Fernekes et al.
(continued)
Episodes 19 and 20: Anita Yudkin-Suliveres
Part One:
• Origins of her interest in human rights and peace education
• Her work in El Salvador with Amnesty International
• Teaching for Freedom project
• Role as UNESCO Chair in Peace Education at the University of Puerto Rico
• Connections between HRE and political status of Puerto Rico
• U.S. Congress’ fiscal oversight and impact on public policy in Puerto Rico
• Classroom strategies to address social problems in Puerto Rico
Part Two:
• Her relationships with scholars in Latin America and the Caribbean
• Teaching for Freedom work
• Lack of dialogue between the Global South and North
• Importance of accessing different ways of knowing
• Critical pedagogy
• Paolo Freire’s impact on social justice movements in Puerto Rico
• Future trends in HRE and Peace Education
• Development of new competencies
• Influential role model, Dr. Betty Reardon
Episodes 21 and 22: Dr. Monisha Bajaj
Part One:
• Work at Human Rights Watch
• Paolo Freire and Richard Peirre Claude
• Dr. Betty Reardon
• Evolution of the field of human rights education
• Impact of social media and internet technologies in spreading HRE
• Relevance of human rights
• Impact of decolonization scholarship
• Linkages between HRE and peace education
• Work with immigrant and refugee communities
• Reconceptualizing public discourse on human rights
Part Two:
• HRE strategies when working with marginalised groups
• Partner project with immigrant students in Oakland, California.
• HRE framework supporting students from diverse backgrounds
• Connection between HRE and social justice
• HRE as a framework for working on social and economic rights
• Importance of having leaders who are human-rights informed
• Growing trend toward authoritarianism
• HRE National conference
• John Terry and the New Jersey HRE Conference
• Significant role model and inspiring quote
• Critical change that would advance HRE in the United States
(continued)
3 Human Rights Education NOW! Podcast Case Study: Illuminating HRE …
(continued)
Episodes 23 and 24: Sandra Sirota
Part One:
• Early interest in human rights and human rights education (HRE)
• Human Rights Watch
• Advocacy Lab
• Connections Project at Cornell University
• Human Rights Close to Home Program
• Importance of civic engagement
• Challenges to implementing HRE in schools
• Tibbitts’ three models of HRE
• Importance of diverse approaches to HRE
• Research with the Social Justice Project
• Challenges and strategies for educating pre-service & veteran teachers
• Importance of intergenerational collaborations
Part Two:
• Influential work of Paulo Freire
• Dialogue in social justice pedagogy
• Role of emotions in the classroom
• Changing public discourse around HRE in the USA
• Power of human rights language
• Using tools from peace, anti-racists, and social justice education
• Human rights education as a way to advance childrens’ rights
• Potential of HRE to impact cultural values, laws, patterns of thinking
• Young people in HRE as change agents
• Rising authoritarianism and importance of global HRE
• Teacher training and HRE
• Dr. Garnett Russell and Jane Goodall as influential role models
• One idea for critical change to advance HRE in the US
Appendix C
Combined List of Countries/Territories (62) And Cities (262)*
43
44
W. R. Fernekes et al.
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45
46
W. R. Fernekes et al.
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47
48
W. R. Fernekes et al.
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49
*Indicates data between February 16, 2023 to March 11, 2024. Data source: Buzzsprout
*Indicates data between February 16, 2023 to March 11, 2024. Data source:
Buzzsprout
50
W. R. Fernekes et al.
Appendix D
Map of Geographic Reach and Percentage by Continent*
©2024 Mapbox ©OpenStreetMap
*Indicates data between February 13, 2023 to March 11, 2024. 934 represents
the cumulative number of downloads. Data source: Buzzsprout
Appendix E
Episodes by Downloads
*Indicates all-time data between February 13, 2023 to March 11, 2024. Data
source: Buzzsprout
3 Human Rights Education NOW! Podcast Case Study: Illuminating HRE …
51
Appendix F
Podcast App Usage by Percentage
Podcast App
Downloads
Spotify
369
39.5%
Apple Podcasts
242
25.9%
Your Buzzsprout Site
182
19.48%
Web Browser
48
5.13%
(continued)
52
W. R. Fernekes et al.
(continued)
Podcast App
Downloads
Unknown**
21
2.24%
*Indicates data between February 13, 2023 to March 11, 2024. Percentages only
include top five podcast apps listed below chart. Data does not include any data
usage from podcast apps with less than 21 downloads.
**Google Podcasts also had 21 downloads.
Data source: Buzzsprout
Appendix G
Sample Interview Questions (Monisha Bajaj Episodes) Interview Date: 9-22-23
Prepared by: Bill Fernekes
1. Tell us about how you first became interested in human rights issues, and
subsequently, in human rights education.
2. Your scholarship and teaching have advanced understanding of human rights
education for scholars, students and the general public. Comparing the field of
human rights education today to when you began studying and publishing about
it, what changes have you seen and/or experienced in the field?
3. You’ve written extensively about the relationships between human rights education and peace education. What do you see as the critical concepts connecting
both fields, and how do you integrate those concepts in your own teaching?
4. You’ve also worked extensively with non-governmental organisations over the
years. Can you describe some of those projects and how they have informed
your scholarship and teaching about HRE and peace education?
5. You have for some time directed the graduate program in human rights education
at the University of San Francisco. What are the program’s goals, and in what
ways has this program influenced the daily practice educators in both K-12 and
collegiate/university education?
6. One of your most recent publications concerns educating immigrant and refugee
youth. Given that children from communities of colour, and particularly children of recent migrants represent a rapidly increasing percentage of the K-12
population in the United States, how do you deploy HRE and peace education
strategies to address these children’s needs?
7. There has been a vibrant dialogue in HRE USA about the relationship of HRE
to social justice, and particularly to issues of race. How do you conceptualise
the linkages between HRE and social justice, particularly in a time when there
is intence political polarization in the USA?
8. Currently there are a number of serious threats to fundamental human rights in
the USA, including legislation that seeks to limit academic freedom, censorship
of publications, restrictions of voting rights, violence directed against minorities
3 Human Rights Education NOW! Podcast Case Study: Illuminating HRE …
53
and little forward movement on meeting the nation’s commitments dealing with
poverty, gun violence, migrants and refugees. How would you deploy HRE to
address one or more of these challenges, with particular emphasis on the rights
of children?
9. Looking ahead, what changes do you anticipate occurring in the global HRE
movement that could either weaken or strengthen it? For example, the rise
of authoritarian governments, such as in Russia, Hungary and Venezuela, and
the reluctance of Republican party leaders in the United States to denounce
authoritarianism would seem to make implementing HRE and peace education
quite challenging going forward.
10. As we conclude our conversation, just a few quick questions (These will be
common for every interview on the podcast) to offer inspiration to our listeners.
Who would be the most influential role model for your HRE work? (living or dead)
What quote most effectively sums up your view of the importance of human rights?
If you had the power to make one critical change to advance HRE in the United States, what
would you do?
(Note: Questions 1, 7, 8, 9, and 10 are common for each podcast interviewee.)
Appendix H
54
W. R. Fernekes et al.
References
Advocates for Human Rights. (2016). Human rights in state social studies standards: An analysis. Retrieved from https://hreusa.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/6-28-2016-human-rightsin-state-social-studies-standards-1.pdf
Mixdown Magazine. (2023, August 23). The History of Podcasting. Retrieved from https://mixdow
nmag.com.au/features/the-history-of-podcasting/
Podcastle Team. (2023, July 29). 14 essential podcast performance metrics you need to track.
Podcastle. Retrieved from https://podcastle.ai/blog/essential-podcast-performance-metrics/
William R. Fernekes is a founding member of Human Rights Educators-USA, and currently
teaches courses in global education and human rights and education taught social studies and
Spanish from 1974–1987 at Hunterdon Central Regional HS in Flemington NJ, and then served
as supervisor of social studies at Hunterdon Central 1987 to his retirement in December 2010.
He received his doctorate in social studies education and curriculum in 1985, working under
the tutelage of Jack L. Nelson, a leading scholar in social studies and issues-centered education.
With Gloria T. Alter, he has co-edited and contributed a chapter to The Human Rights Imperative in Teacher Education: Developing Compassion, Understanding and Advocacy (Lanham
MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2022). In August 2023, Lexington. Books published his comprehensive biography of former US Senator from NJ Clifford P. Case, entitled Clifford P. Case
and the Challenge of Liberal Republicanism, (Lanham MD: Lexington Books, 2023). In Dec.
2011, he received the Mel Miller Award from the National Social Studies Supervisors Association as the outstanding social studies supervisor in the United States, and in March 2012, he
received the Distinguished Service Award from the Rutgers Graduate School of Education Alumni
Association.
Jazzmin Chizu Gota is a doctoral student in International and Multicultural Education with a
concentration in Human Rights Education (HRE) at University of San Francisco. Her research
focuses on creative and informal HRE and intergenerational knowledges. She is a researcher and
consultant in interdisciplinary visual arts and human rights working with nonprofit and educational
programs to develop communications and outreach projects. Jazzmin is a co-managing editor of
the International Journal of Human Rights Education (IJHRE) and serves as a co-regional representative for Northern California for Human Rights Educators USA (HRE, USA), as well as a
member of the podcast team for Human Rights Education Now!
Kristi Rudelius-Palmer is a human rights strategy advisor and consultant with experience in
educational and civic engagement program development and management. She is a leader in
designing state, national, and global leadership models for community collaboration and change
and a cross-cultural human rights capacity builder. She was selected as a 2023–26 Fulbright
Specialist. In this capacity, she worked with University of Iceland faculty on ‘Advancing Human
Rights in Education’, including co-instructing the first course in the School of Education on
‘Human rights: Advancing social and ecological wellbeing’. She also serves on the executive committee for the Minneapolis Child Friendly Cities Initiative. UNICEF USA designated
Minneapolis as the second city in the U.S. to become a Child Friendly City in 2023.
Sabrina Sanchez has over 20 years of experience as a human rights and social justice professional with expertise in program and project management, data analytics, research and advocacy
in the non profit, international development, and academic institution fields. Her human rights
work experience includes spearheading a legal empowerment program for women in Honduras,
researching environmental, criminal justice and Indigenous Peoples’ rights in Central America,
3 Human Rights Education NOW! Podcast Case Study: Illuminating HRE …
55
campaigning for positive youth development, and combating anti-human and sex trafficking
efforts in the U.S. She is currently a Public Health Specialist at the University of California—
San Francisco and supports the development, execution, and evaluation of virtual learning collaboratives aimed at strengthening leadership, management, and overall well-being of the State of
California’s public health workforce. Sabrina’s recent publication experience while employed with
UCSF, includes abstracts, Cultivating Communities of Practice for COVID Response Workforce,
which was accepted to the 2023 American Public Health Association (APHA) Annual Conference 2023 has over 20 years of experience as a human rights and social justice professional with
expertise in program and project management, data analytics, research and advocacy in the non
profit, international development, and academic institution fields. Her human rights work experience includes spearheading a legal empowerment program for women in Honduras, researching
environmental, criminal justice and Indigenous Peoples’ rights in Central America, campaigning
for positive youth development, and combating anti-human and sex trafficking efforts in the
U.S. She is currently a Public Health Specialist at the University of California—San Francisco
and supports the development, execution, and evaluation of virtual learning collaboratives aimed
at strengthening leadership, management, and overall well-being of the State of California’s
public health workforce. Sabrina’s recent publication experience while employed with UCSF,
includes abstracts, Cultivating Communities of Practice for COVID Response Workforce, which
was accepted to the 2023 American Public Health Association (APHA) Annual Conference 2023.
Elizabeth Schwab Schwab is at Boston College in the Morrissey College of Arts and Sciences,
pursuing a double major in Communication (Honors Program) and International Studies (concentration in Ethics and Social Justice). Passionate about human rights advocacy, Elizabeth serves
as the Vice Chair of the Executive Committee and Podcast Editor for Human Rights Education
USA. She leads initiatives to promote the Universal Declaration of Human Rights within educational policy and has expanded the reach of her organization’s podcast series, Human Rights
Education Now!, to a global audience. She is now interning at the Office of the United Nations
High Commissioner for Human Rights in the Human Rights Education and Training Unit. She
has worked in various areas of social justice including three undergraduate research positions in
climate justice, global citizenship research, and women’s rights. With experience working for the
Innocence Project on wrongful convictions and Equity Media on redlining, she is deeply interested in legal justice. She plans to attend law school after graduation and specialize in international
human rights law.
Jessica Terbrueggen is an international educator, human rights practitioner, and literary arts
advocate. She holds an MA in English Education from Columbia University. Her global leadership experience has included advancing innovative education models in China, India, South
Korea, Ecuador, and the United States. As a collaborative leader, she partners with international
human rights organizations, international schools, and various human rights stakeholders on the
development of projects, programming, and curricula, with a focus on educating for a sustainable future. Jess works at the District of Columbia International School. She is a member of the
NCTE Standing Committee on Global Citizenship, as well as a mentor for young social innovation entrepreneurs at the Resolution Project. Jess serves on the HRE USA Steering Committee,
is the Washington, D.C. Regional Representative, works with HRE USA as a Development and
Growth Consultant, and is the Communications and Public Outreach Coordinator for the HRE
USA podcast, Human Rights Education Now!
Chapter 4
The Attack of Diversity, Equity
and Inclusion (DEI) as an Attack
on Human Rights Education
Yvonne Vissing
Abstract The concept of DEI, or diversity, equity and inclusion, has permeated
the discussion in the United States about what should be the content of education
at both the K-12 and higher education levels. DEI is one of many different educational approaches designed to improve human interactions and achieve greater social
justice. This article reviews what DEI is, along with educational approaches such
as global education, peace education, socio-emotional learning, and service learning
and places them all under the human rights education umbrella. Despite their positive
intent, such approaches are seldom framed as human rights education. DEI in the US
has been both supported and attacked for promoting liberal ideology that challenges
racism, sexism, and exclusion of both individuals and the discussion of their current
and historical experiences. This article argues that DEI is a sub-variant of human
rights education and that the attack on DEI is actually an attack on the notion of
human rights. Therefore, the attack on DEI is more than a pedagogical debate but
is one that intentionally or inadvertently undermines the education of human rights
and their implementation.
Keywords Democracy · Human rights education · Diversity-equity-inclusion
(DEI) · Global education · Peace education · Social change
4.1 Introduction
In the United States, the educational concept of DEI, or diversity, equity, and inclusion, has become both a mainstream and controversial matter. In other parts of the
world, DEI is not considered to be a significant education issue. The rise of DEI is but
one new iteration of how groups try to promote human rights without using those exact
words. The term “human rights” gets adapted, adopted, modified, misinterpreted, or
Y. Vissing (B)
Department of Healthcare Studies, Salem State University, Salem, MA, USA
e-mail: yvissing@salemstate.edu
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025
J. Zajda and Y. Vissing (eds.), Globalisation, Human Rights and Education,
Globalisation, Comparative Education and Policy Research 51,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-80304-8_4
57
58
Y. Vissing
exploited to achieve particular agendas; it has subsequently become associated with
political agenda-staking. Human rights is an old concept, present in the writing of the
Magna Carta in 1215, and aspects of it are present in every religion, often touted as
“the Golden Rule” to do unto others the way you wish to be treated (Rockwell 2018).
Why DEI has become a major educational consideration in the US is explored in this
article, with the conclusion that DEI, like global education, peace education, socioemotional learning, or service learning, are sub-parts of human rights and human
rights education (HRE). Contextualizing these variants as human rights brings to
light the fact that human rights protections have not been defended for all groups of
people. DEI’s popularity stems from their “do something” approach. The need for
DEI illustrates that human rights education has not been uniformly embedded into
both curriculum and organizational policies and procedures. DEI supporters found a
needed niche and decided to fill it. Despite good intentions, DEI has been attacked
for not just conceptual issues but business and outcomes ones as well. The attack on
DEI is covertly an attack on the implementation of human rights and human rights
education. This article recommends instituting HRE into a lifespan approach that
starts with a child’s birth and advances as students age and when people go into their
respective professions. Comprehensive HRE education and cultural embeddedness
could reduce the volatility that confronts diversity, equity, and inclusion efforts.
4.1.1 Human Rights Education: The UDHR Foundation
Human rights education is the gold standard across the world for how people are to
learn about justice, equality and the importance of inclusion. What exactly constitutes HRE has become a heavily researched field that is rich with materials, research,
and pedagogy (Cargas, 2020; HRE USA, 2023; Tibbitts, 2023). Many different pedagogical approaches and learning programs have been developed to achieve the goals
of HRE under different names. DEI is just one. The majority of international human
rights treaties are elaborations of particular parts of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights (UDHR) or extensions of some of the less well-defined rights. The
UDHR was the first human rights treaty signed (1948) (UN, 2017a, b, c, d). The
basic tenants of the UDHR include:
1. Right to equality (“All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and
rights.”)
2. Freedom from discrimination
3. Right to life, liberty, personal security
4. Freedom from slavery
5. Freedom from torture and degrading treatment
6. Right to recognition as a person before the law
7. Right to equality before the law
8. Right to remedy by competent tribunal
9. Freedom from arbitrary arrest, exile
4 The Attack of Diversity, Equity and Inclusion (DEI) as an Attack …
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
59
Right to a fair public hearing
Right to be considered innocent until proven guilty
Freedom from interference with privacy, family, home, and correspondence
Right to free movement in and out of any country
Right to asylum in other countries from persecution
Right to a nationality and freedom to change it
Right to marriage and family
Right to own property
Freedom of belief and religion
Freedom of opinion and information
Right of peaceful assembly and association
Right to participate in government and free elections
Right to social security
Right to desirable work and to join trade unions
Right to rest and leisure
Right to adequate living standards
Right to education
Right to participate in cultural life and community
Right to social order assuring human rights
Community duties essential to free and full development
Freedom from state and personal interference in the above rights
These human rights treaties require that citizens of all ages be taught about them,
since the treaties are designed to promote the creation of more hospitable, equitable
societies. In particular, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and the
United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) provide international frameworks underlying human rights education. Rights education is required
by the UDHR in Article 26 (2) to strengthen respect for human rights and fundamental
freedoms, promote understanding, tolerance and friendships among all nations and
people in pursuit of maintaining peace. The UN International Covenant on Economic,
Social, and Cultural Rights, Article 13 (1) asserts that education shall be directed to
the full development of the human personality, sense of dignity and strengthen respect
for human rights. The UNCRC (Article 28, 29 and 42) requires rights education for
all ratifying nations in order to ensure the understanding and protection of rights
for world’s youngest citizens. The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action
alleges HRE is essential for the promotion and achievement of stable and harmonious
relations among communities and for fostering mutual understanding, tolerance and
peace. The United Nations World Programme for Human Rights Education promotes
a common understanding of basic principles and methodologies of rights education,
provides a concrete framework for action, and seeks to strengthen partnerships from
the international level to local levels (OHCHR, 2006). Because we live in a more
diverse world with great differences among societies in terms of history, culture and
ideology, our capacity to affect human rights promotion and protection in this century
is greater than before (Bednarczyk, 2017). This is where DEI, global education, and
other variants of HRE have found their niche.
60
Y. Vissing
Fig. 4.1 Human rights
education components
AcƟon,
Agency,
AcƟvites,
Engagement
CogniƟve
content, HR
documents
Aƫtudes
Values
Skills
As Becker et al. (2023) point out, there have been three generations of human
rights and each have impacted how what is provided as HRE. The first generation dealt
with civil and political rights; the second concerned social, economic, and cultural
rights, and the third generation concerned group or solidary rights. The right to
education forms part of the second generation of rights that focus on equality, equity,
an social justice. “The notion of social justice, in and through education, and in and
through HRE, is key to the realization of equality, equity, and the right to education”
(Becker et al., 2023, p. 24). Audrey Osler has identified human rights education to
be a major agent for positive social change. Schools and teachers have the ability
and opportunity to play a pivotal role in the transformation of society through human
rights education (Osler, 2005; Osler & Banks, 2016; Osler & Starkey, 2017; Osler &
Starkey, 2018). According to Becker et al. (2023), human rights education must
include three things. One, HRE must ensure that students gain cognitive content and
familiarity with human rights treaties and documents. Two, it must include action or
agency opportunities where people engage directly with social issues. Three, people’s
attitude, values and rights (See Fig. 4.1).
HRE is thus not just one thing. It includes training, information sharing, skills
development, and developing attitudes that are a rights respecting. Its aims to
strengthen respect, develop a sense of dignity, promote tolerance, understanding,
and inclusion on all levels of society, enable effective participation in free democratic societies, build and maintain peace, promote social justice, and the promotion of people-centered sustainable development. It includes personal and social
values education, citizenship education, global education, intercultural and anti-racist
education, development education, environmental education, peace education, and
law related education. HRE is not fixed concept based but are open, fluid, and evolutionary concepts (Becker et al., 2023). As shown in Fig. 4.2, there are many different
approaches to learning how to “do” human rights. Each approach has its own focus
but all have underpinnings in the creation of social justice for all. They may go by
different names, have their own processes, curriculum, and practices when have led
to different forms of instructions and used in different contexts or situations. It must
4 The Attack of Diversity, Equity and Inclusion (DEI) as an Attack …
61
Human Rights
UDHR
Other
HR
TreaƟes
HRE, DEI, global educaƟon, peace
educaƟon, SEL + other approaches
Process
ApplicaƟons
PracƟce
Examples
SituaƟons
Fig. 4.2 Human rights relationship to HRE educational variants
be remembered that all of them have the goal of enhancing human rights, dignity,
access, equality, and justice.
Dignity, equality, values, and freedom are all interrelated and represent core ideals
of humane society. Dignity, they argue, is the foundation of many other rights.
Equality can be symbolic, such as the belief that all humans are born equal, as
well actionable where people put into practice what it means to show that all people
are equal. Dignity and equality are core component to the realization of freedom,
which is a prerequisite to democracy A culture of human rights cannot flourish in
a society where dignity and equality are not realized. Because cultural context and
geographic and historical factors impact a population, how HRE is delivered must
be carefully considered (Bajaj, 2011).
All human rights education efforts are to be monitored to ensure that they are
employing best practices to produce the best, most effective outcomes. This monitoring relies upon the state’s support, having funding and staff to carry out this
mission, and to relay findings so that HRE can continuously improve. There have
been several stages of HRE evolution from working directly with individuals to
schools, to higher education and with professionals in different fields. In September
2020 the SDG/Human Rights Education Monitoring Tool was launched by the UN
World Programme for Human Rights Education (WPHRE) to enable National Human
Rights Institutions or state parties to monitor the human rights education element of
global SDG target 4.7. These include implementing educational policies, creating a
supportive learning environment, educating school personnel to carry out effective
teaching and learning processes and tools. Human rights education (HRE) is a tool
for building peaceful and just societies and States are held accountable for their HRE
implementation through various global and regional conventions, resolutions, declarations and programmes. If future generations are to participate in the development
of a universal culture of human rights, it is crucial that human rights education is
embedded in both national education policies and in the curricula. Only by integrating
human rights values into all aspects of schooling and education, can we promote a
62
Y. Vissing
universal culture of justice, non-violence and equality (Danish Institute for Human
Rights, 2020).
4.2 What is DEI?
Diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) are three closely linked values held by many
groups that are working to be supportive of different groups of individuals, including
people of different races, ethnicities, religions, abilities, genders, and sexual orientations (McKinsey and Co. 2022). It has become a ubiquitous educational and organizational concept in academic, public, and business discourse that is supposed to
improve justice. Yet there is not a clear consensus about the definition of each term
or their relative importance as social change agents (Arsel et al., 2022). Sometimes
a J for justice is added to the concept, since all together the three terms are designed
to promote social justice. Others refer to it as DIB (Diversity and Belonging), DEIB
(Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Belonging), JEDI (Justice, Equity, Diversity and
Inclusion), (Gay, 2022). Patton, Shahjahan and Osei-Kofi (2010) observe that DEI
and social justice have become buzzwords in both higher education and business but
it is unclear what does these phrases mean, how DEI is implemented, and the degree
to which it is effective as an individual or organizational positive change agent. How
terms like diversity, equity, inclusion, and justice are operationalized influence their
perception and implementation. The words “diversity, equity, and inclusion” (DEI)
are frequently linked together as if they were a single concept. They are not. DEI has
lacked rigorous definition, measurement, and application (Esparza et al., 2022). This
lack of uniform conceptualizations and definitions of the terms is a fundamental issue
in the establishment of DEI/DEIJ as a mainstream presence not just in higher education but also in the larger business and social world. Therefore, a brief discussion of
the terms is necessary.
4.2.1 Diversity
Diversity has become a commonly used term but how it conceptualized and addressed
varies in accordance with various groups and situations. Patton, Shahjahan & OseiKofi (2010) note that diversity is not the same as difference; the concept of difference
is tricky because the notion of accepting difference in identifying a sense of oneness
can impose norms established by dominant groups onto minority groups who had
no input into the creation or challenging of the norms. Diversity means difference,
not different. Diversity as ‘difference’ creates a space where everyone has equal
claim, and everyone has equal benefit (Gay, 2022). Diversity refers broadly to real
or perceived physical or socio-cultural differences attributed to people and the representation of these differences in research, market spaces, and organizations (Arsel
et al., 2022).
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The University of Michigan (2023) defines diversity as expressed in its myriad
forms, including race and ethnicity, gender and gender identity, sexual orientation,
socioeconomic status, language, culture, national origin, religious commitments, age,
(dis)ability status and political perspective. Arsel et al. (2022) identify diversity to
include race, religion, age, social class, cultural identity, as well as body type. They
provide a very detailed analysis of how DEI is integrated in businesses and consumer
marketing. They advocate for businesses to provide a greater egalitarian, pluralist,
and equitable climate and structure so that all people are included, both as providers
and consumers. Diversity refers to who is represented in the workforce, school, or
other group of individuals. The term may include, but are not limited to:
• Gender diversity: What makes up the composition of men, women, and nonbinary
people in a given population?
• Age diversity: Are people in a group from mostly one generation, or is there a
mix of ages?
• Racial and Ethnic diversity: Do people in a group share common national or
cultural traditions, or do they represent different backgrounds?
• Sexual orientation diversity: Are the rights of the LGBTQIA+ population
defended and people represented?
• Physical ability and neurodiversity: Are the perspectives of people with disabilities, whether apparent or not, accounted for?
Diversity of appearance, background, and demographic characteristics are
commonly considered, but diversity also means inclusion of ways of thinking or
viewing a situation. Mental diversity is as important as any other type, but because
it is less visible, it is sometimes ignored in the quest for DEI fulfillment (McKinsey
and Co. 2022).
4.2.2 Equity or Equality?
The E in DEI typically stands for equity but may be referred to as equality. The terms
overlap but are not the same, which contributes to confusion over exactly what we
are talking about. Concepts of equity and equality are often used interchangeably
but they actually refer to different ideas. Equality refers to the equal distribution
of goods, services, resources, and treatment that are provided to different groups.
Equity shifts the conversation from equal treatment to that of access and removal
of barriers for historically disadvantaged groups (Ng, 2003). Equity refers to fair
treatment for all people, so that the norms, practices, and policies in place ensure
identity is not predictive of opportunities or workplace outcomes. Equity differs from
equality in a subtle but important way. While equality assumes that all people should
be treated the same, equity takes into consideration a person’s unique circumstances
and adjusts treatment accordingly so that the end result is equal. Equity refers to
fairness in the treatment of people in terms of both opportunity and outcome. Equity
refers to resources and the need to provide additional or alternative resources so that
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all groups can reach comparable, favorable outcome. The University of Michigan
(2023) contextualizes equity as the active challenge and response to bias, harassment, and discrimination, to be committed to a policy of equal opportunity for all
persons, and do not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, age,
marital status, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, gender expression, disability,
religion, height, weight, or veteran status. Equity assumes that there are distinctions
between oppressed groups that require differential responses. Patton, Shahjahan &
Osei-Kofi (2010) observed that within an equity framework, “we need to live with
the complexity that there are no agreed upon standards by which we can judge what
an individual or group deserves” and depends on context, social groups, and systems
of oppression.
4.2.3 Inclusion
Inclusion refers to internal practices, policies, and processes that shape an organization’s culture (Beavers, 2018). It concerns how community members of a shared
identity experience their environment. Inclusion refers to creating a culture that
fosters belonging and incorporation of diverse groups and is usually operationalized as opposition to exclusion or marginalization (Arsel et al., 2022).The concept
of inclusion refers to how students or workers experience the organizations in which
they exist and whether those organizations embrace all of them and enable them to
make meaningful contributions. The University of Michigan (2023) operationalizes
inclusion to refer to pursuing deliberate efforts to ensure that a campus or workplace is
a place where differences are welcomed, different perspectives are respectfully heard
and where every individual feels a sense of belonging and inclusion. By building a
critical mass of diverse groups on within an institution, it will create a more vibrant
climate of inclusiveness in which the organization can more effectively leverage the
resources of diversity to advance its collective capabilities. Having an inclusive population of students or workers helps to showcase an inclusive organizational culture
that people will feel positively about. Inclusion benefits existing populations represented within an organization. Spaces can be inclusive of particular groups while still
lacking representation or diversity of other groups. A lack of inclusion of underrepresented people may result in someone feeling isolated and vulnerable to inequitable
treatment and micro-aggressions (McKinsey and Co. 2022).
4.3 Socio-Historical Underpinnings of DEI
The Diversity, Equity and Inclusion movement in the United States is not new. The
history of DEI is often associated with its role in higher education. In1800, higher
education in the U.S. was exclusively white and male. This has changed so that
in 2019 people of color earned 38% of all bachelor degrees, and women were the
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majority of graduates earing 57% of BA/BS degrees. What caused this shift? Largely,
diversity and inclusion were the result of governmental legislation (Best Colleges,
2021). One legislative act was the Morrill Act of 1890. A previous Morrill Act of
1862 created 69 land-grant institutions of higher education, and a second act included
provisions designed to protect diversity. The act stated that "No money shall be paid
out under this act to any state or territory for the support and maintenance of a college
where a distinction of race or color is made in the admission of students” (BlackPast,
2014). Yet the act allowed for the establishment of separate colleges for white and
“colored” students, which resulted in many colleges banning students of color while
states created historically Black colleges and universities, or HBCUs. The Second
Morrill Act did not desegregate higher education, but it did increase diversity in
higher education by funding HBCUs.
DEI has also been traced back to the early 1900s when Andrew Carnegie was
concerned that the sons and daughters of Pittsburgh steel workers had a right to a
good education. Carnegie was ahead of his time in his commitment to provide education to peoples typically underserved, explicitly singling out less affluent children
and women as important target groups. Carnegie asserted that colleges should offer
women wage earners an opportunity to acquire skill and efficiency, that they may be
lifted from the unskilled group to the skilled (Carnegie Mellon University, 2023).
Often DEI is associated with roots in the 1960s civil rights movement. It has grown
to include gender, sexual orientation, religion, country of origin, and other identities.
As described by the Greenlining Institute (Beavers, 2018), the focus in the 1960s
into the mid-1970s was on tolerance of the acceptance of integration of workplaces,
schools, and communities. It was active during the 1960s when civil rights activists
fought for more inclusive campuses and criticized discriminatory policies at their
schools.
Organizations responded to the shifting national landscape. Some universities
responded by creating ombudspersons who were to help achieve justice for marginalized and oppressed students (American Bar Association, 2004, 2017). Others
responded with a focus on what has become known as DEI. DEI is one of many
trends that have been used since the 1960s to address social change in an attempt to
bring about justice. The 1960s were a time in which boundaries were challenged and
redesigned. Segregation was outlawed, women demanded liberty over their lives and
bodies, sexual and gender roles shifted, social conditions such as poverty, inequality,
violence, and taxation without representation were challenged.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 banned discrimination on the basis of race and its
Title VI read, "No person in the United States shall, on the ground of race, color, or
national origin, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be
subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance." This act banned racial discrimination in the nation’s institutions of
higher education and applied to admissions, financial aid, student services, academic
programs, grading, and housing.
The Higher Education Act of 1965 (HEA) made college more accessible to
millions of low-income and middle-income students by creating the modern federal
student aid program which has helped millions of students to attend college who
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otherwise would be unable to do so. In 1972 a revision of HEA created the Pell
Grant program, work-study program, federal student loans, and the TRIO program.
It was also the year that Title IX banned sex discrimination. It stated that no person in
the United States should on the basis of their sex, be excluded from participation in, be
denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program
or activity receiving Federal financial assistance. Title IX protects victims of sexual
harassment and assault, bans sex discrimination in programs traditionally dominated
by one gender, as in sports, STEM, or vocational education, pregnant students—and
those who are LGBTQIA+. The following year with the Rehabilitation Act of 1973
banned discrimination against people with disabilities. Section 504 extended these
protections to colleges that receive federal funding and stated that higher education cannot discriminate against applicants for disabilities or treat students with
disabilities differently.
The result is that from the mid-1970s into the 1990s there was a big shift in the
diversity of the student population. A focus on multiculturalism and being aware
of the achievements of various racial and ethnic minorities resulted. As the nation’s
population demographics changed and projections about what constituted a “majority
minority” culture by the 2040s, the emphasis has been on inclusion and equity. Since
the early 2010s, there has been an increased emphasis on accountability to ensure
that that diverse groups are represented at all economic and social levels, often
using social media to hold government, corporations, and civil society accountable
(Beavers, 2018).
It is clear that the diversity in higher education was a direct result of legislation and
social changes. Affirmative Action legislation programs increased diversity in higher
education by increasing representation of historically excluded groups but Affirmative Action programs have come under recent attack for promoting bias instead of
inclusion (Dwyer & Hutzler, 2023) in movement towards a “race neutral” approach
(Jayakumar & Kendi, 2023). Urofsky (2020) finds Affirmative Action programs are
nothing new and date back to the time of the Reconstruction, World War I, and the
exodus that began when six million African Americans moved northward between
1910 and 1960. He describes how Harry Truman, after becoming president in 1945,
fought for Roosevelt’s Fair Employment Practice Act and appointed a distinguished
panel to serve as the President’s Commission on Civil Rights, as well as appointing
the first black judge on a federal appeals court in 1948 and, by executive order
later that year, ordering full racial integration in the armed forces. But most people
continue to associate Affirmative Action in the US to the 1960s Civil Rights movement. In 1976 over 80% of college students were white, and since the Affirmative
Action programs in recent years, substantial inclusion of diverse people resulted.
But in recent years, legal challenges have attempted to end affirmative action. In the
1990s, California, Texas, Florida, and Washington banned affirmative action. These
bans had an immediate and negative impact on campus diversity. After states banned
affirmative action, students of color saw their chances of being admitted into top
public institutions drop by 23% (Best Colleges, 2021; Maxwell & Garcia, 2019).
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4.3.1 Current Rationale for DEI
DEI became a major social force for several reasons. The bottom line is that not
everyone has been entitled to inclusion, participation, just, and equal treatment.
Discrimination and injustice have long prevailed in the United States but since 2016
they have increased as the nation has become politically and ideologically polarized (Jones & Lloyd, 2021; Pew Research Center, 2019). This has been especially
true in discrimination of people who are BIPOC, female, or LGBTQIA+ (Horowitz
& Igielnik 2020; Pew, 2023). There are other contributing factors as well. One is
the obvious transformation of the nation into a heterogeneous society. Societies are
becoming more diverse in appearance, composition, lifestyle, and attitudes. There is
an increased desire for representation of, by, and for all groups. Two, there has long
been a historic marginalization and oppression of people who are not of the dominant ruling group. In many cultures, dominance in government, business, education,
healthcare, and other positions of leadership in institutions has been in the hands
of white heterosexual men. Three, resistance to social change that attempts to alter
the status quo and embrace an inevitably changing nation has been swift and significant. Negative reaction targeted against anyone who challenges a 1950s normative structure has increased through the rise of extremist views, hate speech, and
repressive violent actions against others who request a seat at the table. Four, many
people, even those who are in leadership positions, have failed to role model compassionate, respectful behavior towards others, and have said and done in*tolerant things,
including politicians, police officers, and people in positions where they are supposed
to be trusted. Five, replication of violence, especially among children, youth, and
young people, has gained the public’s attention. This is seen in particular in the rise
of mass shootings. In the field of child studies, this is an example of what is known as
the replication of childhood; changing the social framework towards a human rights
respecting one could shift the trend we are witnessing (James & Prout, 2015). Six,
the rise of lawsuits by people who feel they have experienced discrimination have
risen (Dobbin & Kalev, 2016). Lawsuits have ranged from oppressive treatment,
inequity in pay, differential work assignments, promotion limitations, and the lack
of representation. Training in DEI is assumed to limit these problems.
The trend from homogeneity to diversity has resulted in changes to the status
quo, challenges to existing power arrangements, threats, increase of hate speech
and intolerance (Pew, 2013). As a result there has been a systematic trend since
the 1960s towards an increased focus on tolerance and diversity. Higher education
often bends to current market demands; as businesses hire more diverse worker
pools they have found themselves confronted with conflict around bias, exclusion,
and discrimination. Because students probably have not learned human rights in US
schools, many businesses have felt compelled to institute DEI instruction to workers.
This is done to make workers aware of policies and practices that address DEI. Their
surface presentation may proport the importance of DEI, yet in one’s understanding
between the “real vs ideal” culture (Haleem et al., 2022), the way people really
think or feel, or how organizations actually function, may not necessarily reflect a
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true commitment to DEI or human rights. Just because people are trained in DEI or
organizations which proport to be a rights-respecting climate doesn’t mean that they
actually are. People or organizations may function to appear there is a commitment
to them but scratch just under the surface and that commitment may not go very
deep. This is a concern about DEI that programs proport to address (Trailant, 2023).
The need for DEI or HRE is obvious. There are countless examples of racial
inequality, sexism, homophobia, attacks on immigrants, the banning of books and
punishment for reporting history that some people are uncomfortable with (like the
Holocaust, slavery, genocide, etc.). Reports of police brutality against individuals
with certain characteristics (such as race, sexual orientation, or disability), the rise of
parental control and the curtailment of youth participation, have increased. Hunger,
homelessness, and poverty have become normative in the US. Violence in the home
and community have intensified, as gun sales, hate speech, and extremism have
escalated. Many of the problems are preventable if a human rights lens was employed.
Legislative actions could support issues of diversity, inclusion, equity, equality, and
justice.
These are problems that DEI cannot solve without a cultural shift that makes
human rights a priority. In the US, human rights education at best may be an add-on
topic that is seldom discussed as a meritorious field of study (Cargas, 2020). DEI
is not a panacea. It is fraught with curricular, methodological, and implementation
consistency challenges (Hawley, 2023; Her, 2023). But the attacks on DEI have little
to do with methodology but much more to do with ideological differences from
those who label it as “woke”. As witnessed through political wrangling over the next
national election in the US, the future of HRE and DEI hang in the balance (Johanek,
2022). But to attack DEI or other educational enlightenment programs such as global
education, peace education, or socio-emotional learning is an attempt to mask the
real issue – to challenge fundamental assumptions inherent in all international human
rights treaties.
4.3.2 Relevance of Human Rights Treaty Ratification
Ratification of human rights treaties require that the population be trained in human
rights education since the treaties impact both legislative action and public behavior.
Ratification of treaties helps shape both legal and procedural actions that a nation
will undertake. They also set the standard for how people are supposed to treat one
another. As shown in the previous section, there is significant political turmoil in the
US about human rights issues, particularly around race, gender, sexuality, migration,
police behavior, court actions, book banning, youth participation, and parental control
of children’s lives. This, I believe, is a result of the nation’s inaction when it comes
to ratification of human rights treaties.
The US has not ratified any international human rights treaties since December 2002…
Since that time, important new treaties have been adopted and other long-standing treaties
have gained new member states. Unfortunately, the US has too often remained outside these
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efforts. For example, the US is the only country other than Somalia that has not ratified the
Convention on the Rights of the Child, the most widely and rapidly ratified human rights
treaty in history. It is one of only seven countries-together with Iran, Nauru, Palau, Somalia,
Sudan and Tonga- that has failed to ratify the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms
of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). (Human Rights Watch, 2023).
The US has not ratified the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
(CRPD), despite the nation’s Centers for Disease Control acknowledgement that
there has been a rise of disabilities in children and adults (US Centers for Disease
Control, 2020). The US has not ratified the International Covenant on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) , which guarantees individual’s rights at work,
the right to education, cultural rights of minorities and Indigenous Peoples, the right
to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, the right to adequate
housing, the right to food, and the right to water. It has not signed or ratified the
International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and
Members of Their Families (CMW) either. The nation has signed and ratified the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), which is designed to
protect basic human rights such as the right to life and to human dignity, equality
before the law, freedom of speech, assembly and association, religious freedom and
privacy, freedom from torture, ill-treatment and arbitrary detention, gender equality,
fair trial and minority rights. It also signed and ratified the International Convention
on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD), which is to protect
individuals and groups from discrimination based on race, whether the discrimination
is intentional or is the result of seemingly neutral policies, as well the Convention
against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
(CAT) (Leadership Conference Education Fund 2023). Yet there are concerns that
people’s freedom of speech, assembly, gender equality, fair trials, minority rights,
torture, and discrimination on the basis of race, are regularly violated. There is thus
a concern that there is more lip-service to issues of diversity, inclusion, and equality
and equity than reality. If the standards set in all of the above treaties were truly
implemented, there may be no need for approaches like DEI. It is because of the
failure to adhere to the standards set forth in the above treaties that desperation
attempts such as DEI has resulted.
4.4 Human Rights Education Optional Frameworks
Let’s get down to the foundational fundamentals. DEI is really a part of HRE. So
are global education, peace education, socio-emotional learning, service learning,
and other frameworks. But in most of the public discourse, DEI and these other
approaches are regarded as independent concepts. They, and especially DEI training,
are almost never cast as a dimension human rights education. Because human rights
education is not a standard part of schooling in the United States, and because of the
increase of unaddressed discrimination against a variety of groups, DEI has become
the current education tend that attempts to “do something” to make life better for
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countless individuals who are getting tossed to the wayside. By attacking DEI, by
targeting groups of people for continued marginalization and discrimination, and by
hiding behind a “race neutral” justification, these techniques are obvious masked
attacks against the larger topic of human rights (Jayaumar & Kendi, 2023).
4.4.1 DEI as HRE
Human rights education may be taught in K-12 schools or in institutions of higher
education and may take the forms of global education, peace education, socioemotional learning, or other models that will be reviewed momentarily. In the business world, corporations assume that workers in the USA did not receive human
rights education in school. This is a fair assumption; the USA has not ratified most
human rights treaties, so HRE is not taught systematically in schools so if a company
wants to make sure their workers know how to treat other people respectfully, they
hire outside vendors to provide DEI training to their employees. The problem is that
there is little research to identify the best practices of different types of DEI training
or their long-term impact. This has fueled significant distrust and controversy about
whether DEI training is worthwhile for companies.
There are dozens of multinational companies that have emerged in the last decade
to provide a multiplicity of courses or training modules of things that are related
things ranging from human resource administration to how construction workers or
retail clerks are supposed to interact with others. These corporations may charge a
few thousand dollars for a DEI training to over a million dollars for a single company
to establish a comprehensive strategy for dealing with diversity, equity, and inclusion issues (Hilmanovich, 2023). DEI is now a billion-dollar industry (Gomstyn,
2023). Hundrev (2021) points out that trainings can be targeted to any worker level
to address unconscious bias, improve sensitivity, improve communication, and have
more inclusivity and engagement to avoid oppression, be it microaggressions or overt
discrimination. DEI trainings have evolved in substance, content, and approach over
the years. Most of the trainings are designed to shift actions and there are attempts
to engage the recipient with the material. Ultimately. DEI training works most effectively when there is attitude or mind-set change that is more supportive of underlying
DEI concepts. However, there is concern that the acquired DEI support may be surface
level and that it doesn’t sink down into the fiber of either the workers or the organization They may focus on laws and documents, as Becker and Roux suggest, but the
documents may be organizational, not treaty-based. This reinforces the notion that
one-shot trainings are not nearly as effective as multi-faceted, longitudinal trainings.
In a Harvard Business Review study of 829 firms, Dobbin and Kalev (2016)
found that despite good intentions, DEI is often delivered in ways that contribute
to failure rather than success. For instance, traditional forms of diversity training,
hiring tests, performance ratings, grievance systems have not resulted in the increase
of proportion of women and minorities in management, and even activate bias and
encourage rebellion. Rather, such techniques are designed to preempt lawsuits by
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policing managers’ decisions and actions. The authors identified numerous diversity
tactics that are more effective, such as recruiting initiatives, mentoring programs,
diversity task forces, multi-partner problem solving, and actions that promote greater
social accountability.
Zheng (2022a, b) finds that DEI has grown into what is called the DEI-Industrial
Complex. She observes that while more organizations are requiring DEI training
for their employees or students, many of these initiatives are less effective than are
made out to be. They may rely upon films, talking points, and interventions such
as unconscious bias training, racial sensitivity workshops, education for diversity,
resume anonymization, but Some practices are not as effective as they are made out
to seem. Reasons for their ineffectiveness include a lack of standards, consistency,
and accountability among DEI practitioners, results that don’t manifest into tangible
change in attitudes or actions, and spending money for interventions that don’t work
because organizations have a need to prove they are doing something to address DEI
issues. These criticisms exist because DEI has not been overtly conceptualized and
promoted as a human rights program with appropriate research and monitoring.
4.4.2 Global Education as HRE
DEI promotes the appreciation of the diversity of people. Another approach to accomplish this is global education. According to the Global Education Network (2017)
it is an approach to create change in society through an active learning process
based on the universal values of tolerance, solidarity, equality, justice, inclusion, cooperation and non-violence. It begins with raising awareness of global challenges
such as poverty or the inequalities caused by the uneven distribution of resources,
environmental degradation, violent conflicts or human rights. By exploring a topic in
detail, it allows for students to have a deeper understanding of the complexity of its
underlying causes. Topics often addressed in global education are not limited to but
may include justice, environment, sustainability, equality, peace and violence, intercultural communication or human rights (see Fig. 4.3). All of these are components
of human rights as an overarching framework.
Global education is designed to change people‘s attitudes by providing them with
information to reflect upon their views and the experiences of other people. It is
learner-centered, participatory, and experience based. Values of tolerance, solidarity,
fairness and justice, empathy, equality, responsibility, co-operation, non-violence,
inclusion and diversity are incorporated into a process-oriented education approach.
It begins with raising awareness of specific problems in a location, in hopes that it
will create a deeper understanding of the complex underlying issues that confront
all people. While reflecting upon one’s own role in the problem, it may be possible
to change their attitudes and behavior motivates and empower them to act in a more
responsible way. The GLEN, or Global Learning Education Network (2017) model
of global education is displayed below (Fig. 4.4).
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Fig. 4.3 Global Education’s
HRE Emphasis
Violence
Values &
AcƟon
Global
EducaƟon
Environment
&
Sustainability
Quality of
Life
Equality
Fig. 4.4 GLEN Global Education Model
Many scholars see global education as an approach that is complex. This results
in wide variability about what global education is and what its curriculum should
look like (Hicks, 2003). In practice, “global education” is often thought to be indistinguishable from peace education, civic education, human rights education, social
studies, transnational education, multiculturalism, diversity or citizenship instruction (Bender-Slack & Raupach, 2008; Bromley, 2014; Hornberg, 2002; Merryfield,
2008, 2010, 2011; North, 2008; Parker, 2003; Reardon, 2002; Smith Crocco, 2007;
Tibbitts, 2002). However, there are differences. Despite its good intentions, the field
of global education, like DEI, isn’t as tightly constructed as one may think, want
or hope. Multicultural or global education in theory involves more than a focus on
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diversity or an international approach to cultural understanding of economic and
political issues (Keeves et al., 2010). In an analysis of how globalism is taught, Kahn
(2003) found that globalization is a concept that should both transcend individual
disciplines and unite them. Globalization contains three P’s—it is a phenomenon; it
is a philosophy, and it is a process. Global education could focus on persons, places,
things or situations. It could include a discussion of current events but could utilize
a historical perspective as well. It could include a focus on ecological, political, religious, economic, technological, interpersonal, organizational, or a variety of other
directions. It must be approached from a multidisciplinary perspective. As some
scholars note, globalization seems so big in scope that it is incredibly difficult to get
your brain around as a student, and hard to get your hands around how to teach for
instructors (Chase & Laufenberg, 2011). Figuring out how to teach both specificity
and universality in a single course can be daunting.
Because the field of global education is so broad and diverse, most global education
efforts are often relegated to a piece-meal approach in which one problem, nation,
culture, group, or situation is explored in detail. This has both benefits and drawbacks.
The benefits are that students can learn details about a given phenomenon, such as
deforestation in the Amazon, the impact of the blood diamond industry in Africa,
the use of child labor in Southeast Asian factories or the plight of the First Nation’s
people in Canada. The drawback is in their ability to generalize what they learn about
one specific phenomenon to others. How can students meaningfully compare poverty
in the Sudan with that of Mississippi? This contextualization is where the instructor’s
art is of utmost importance. Which of all the different global curriculum or topics is
best for teachers and professors to use? That answer is in the eye of the beholder,
especially since there are no standards for exactly what it is or how global education
should be taught. This is where DEI has overlapping conceptual issues to consider.
Every organization and client population will have its own unique identity and issues
to confront. A one-size-fits-all model doesn’t work as well as a targeted design to
address unique needs. When virtual trainings are used for DEI trainings (which are
the standard), there may be no opportunity for participants to really engage with the
material or the trainer to fully explore how to take DEI information provided and
actually apply it to their own situation.
4.4.3 Socio-Emotional Learning
Social emotional learning (SEL) is a program used in many schools across the United
States. It became so popular that a US Congressional bill, H.R.2437—Academic,
Social, and Emotional Learning Act of 2011, was introduced to require schools
to teach SEL. It did not pass. From a definitional perspective SEL is an educational
framework or methodology that attempts to foster social and emotional skill building
within the K-12 curricula as a topic that is regarded as important as traditional subjects
such as reading, math, or science. It is designed to help students identify emotions
and demonstrate empathy for others that will help them to make positive, responsible
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decisions and build positive relationships with others. While it can help students how
to manage their emotions, cope with stress, and work well with others, it can also
help them develop social awareness and human rights education, which are essential
for creating a more just, peaceful, and inclusive world. Its key components include
self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making. It became a popular school program because it improved
students’ positive behavior, reduced negative student actions, resulted in improved
academic performance and life-successes. Its emphasis on social awareness involves
recognizing and respecting the diversity and dignity of all human beings, and being
aware of the social and environmental issues that affect them.
SEL grew during the late 1960s when James Comer at Yale’s School of Medicine
Child Study Center worked with a team of teachers, parents, and mental health professionals on how to improve poor, low-achieving, predominately African American
elementary schools in Connecticut. Their efforts were so successful by the 1980s
that they obtained grant funding and support by school administration that led to
their designing a framework for incorporating social and emotional competence in
schools. In 1996 Daniel Goleman’s book on why emotional intelligence can matter
more than one’s IQ gained public appeal, which helped advance the SEL movement. The Collaborative to Advance Social and Emotional Learning, or CASEL,
was created to support educators with information and skills on how to help their
students achieve social emotional learning.
A similar program is PBIS, or Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports
(Freeman et al., 2021). These types of programs have been found to foster social
awareness and support human rights by providing students with opportunities to
explore and reflect on their own identities, cultures, and beliefs, and to appreciate
and respect the diversity and uniqueness of others. They can help students to develop
empathy and compassion for the situations and experiences of others, especially those
who face discrimination, injustice, or violence. SEL can also encourage students to
learn about the history and current state of human rights, and to analyze and challenge
the root causes and consequences of human rights violations. These programs can
inspire students to take action and advocate for human rights, both individually and
collectively, in their communities and beyond. HRE is not just a part of SE or PBIS, it
is the broad-based underpinnings for them as they attend to content in certain articles
of the CRC in order to focus on how to help students to develop critical thinking,
civic engagement, and ethical decision-making skills. Students can gain a greater
understanding of themselves and others, strengthen their social and emotional skills
such as empathy, communication, cooperation, and learn how to become positive
leaders, gain improved academic performance, better mental health, and enhanced
well-being. All this can be done as they develop a positive attitude towards diversity,
justice, human rights, and social responsibility. However, as Wilson (2015) points
out, program leaders must be attentive to covert issues of supremacy and superiority
that may torpedo their program’s good intent.
Just as DEI has become attacked by far-right critics, SEL and PBIS have become
seen as increasingly controversial since 2020 in the US. Discussing in a compassionate way topics pertaining to race, sexual orientation, gender identity, and freedom
4 The Attack of Diversity, Equity and Inclusion (DEI) as an Attack …
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of access to information that will help promote sensitivity, tolerance and foster inclusion is now off-limits in some schools. SEL, like DEI, or discussing global issues in a
way to foster understanding show the continuing fight some are waging against HRE
and human rights (Berg & Moroney, 2021; Casel, 2023; Durlak et al., 2011; Edutopia,
2011; Field, 2022, LinkedIn, 2023; Pondiscio, 2021; Taylor et al., 2017; Weissberg
et al., 2015). But how students are supposed to be inclusive in their rights respect
toward others if they do not learn about the humanity of groups unlike themselves is
a question that critics of them fail to address.
4.4.4 Peace Education
Peace is a component of human rights, representative of justice, acceptance of
others, and ways to resolve conflict. The Council of Europe (2022) alleges that a
culture of peace can be achieved when citizens of the world live by the international
rules of human rights, who understand global problems, have the skills to resolve
conflicts and struggle for justice non-violently, live by standards of equity, appreciate cultural diversity, and respect the Earth and each other. Such learning can only
be achieved with systematic education for peace. Peace means not only the lack of
violent conflicts, but also the presence of justice and equity, as well as respect for
individuals of all ages, all types, and the Earth that sustains us all.
Johan Galtung (2014) identifies three different types of peace studies. They include
negative peace studies which focuses on how to reduce or eliminate negative relations.
This can include solving the conflict or transforming it in a nonviolent way. A positive
peace studies program can address how to build more harmonious relations with
others. This is where global education, SEL, and HRE focus. There is the third
option, violence-war-arms studies that focus on the intent and capability to inflict
harm. In many history courses taught in the US, the focus is largely on war—from
the Civil War to World War I and II, the Korean War, Gulf War, or the Afghanistan
war. The study of peace is almost an afterthought. Peace education is a part of HRE
and one can assume is a goal of DEI as well. Peace education seeks to address
racial and ethnic hatred, the upsurge of terrorism, war, violence, discrimination, and
oppression of those who are seen as threats or somehow unworthy of others. While
DEI may focus on organizational issues that impinge upon these things, the focus
is nonetheless on how to create a more harmonious existence between those with
whom we live, work, and have contact with.
4.4.5 Service Learning
Once known as community service, service learning is an educational approach
that combines learning objectives with community service in order to provide a
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pragmatic, progressive learning experience while meeting societal needs (WolpertGawron, 2016). Service learning was initially viewed as a way to have groups of
students to have first-hand experiences with others in order to both help them and
learn from them. Service learning has evolved to be referred to as crucially engaged
civic learning, or CECL. Scholars find that service learning can be problematic
because its very structure invokes inequitable power dynamics that inherently privilege one group over another. The so-called privileged groups have an upper hand
when providing “service” to marginalized groups. A CECL model has been found to
shift service-learning from a student-centered pedagogy to an equity-based framework that views all constituent stakeholders as invested partners in the co-design,
implementation, and evaluation of CECL initiatives. It is founded on redistributed
power and authority to promote civic learning and social change. The question
is whether DEI does that. The typical DEI training modules are designed to tell
people what is “right” to do and to provide them with support to shift their actions
and attitudes towards these designed more equitable frameworks. While that may
have positive values, it is inherently a top-down model of behavior change. It is
not one that may be designed to dig deeply into collective marginalization issues.
DEI students are the focus of most of the trainings. In contrast, the CECL model
incorporates principles such as social justice, power dynamics, community, civic
learning objectives, reflexivity, and sustainability and seeks to create outcomes such
as increased self-awareness, self-efficacy, and self-empowerment; increased awareness of civic agency; better understanding of community; and workforce preparation (Vincent et al., 2021). Service learning can certainly incorporate dimensions of
human rights. However, the key to unlocking a human rights perspective depends
upon the type of service that the student undertakes and how it is conceptualized by
the teacher and supported by those overseeing or providing the service opportunity.
This is where pedagogy becomes critically important, and how a student can see
their work contributing to human rights. Understanding what human rights are prior
to undertaking the service is important, not just trying to unpack some of after the
fact.
4.5 Use of a Children’s Human Rights Framework
as the Starting Point
Many of the programs like DEI are targeted towards adults or older children. Such
programs may be limited in their locale, such as focused primarily on schools, organizations, or businesses. There may be people who are trained in how to implement
HRE, DEI, or SEL but the problem is that there may not be sufficient support for
these endeavors throughout the entire organization or community. As pointed out in
the above types of programs, tools and activities are important things to do, but they
all rely upon having a cultural climate and mindset that values the importance of
human rights. Without that basis, isolated actions may fail to achieve their goal. The
4 The Attack of Diversity, Equity and Inclusion (DEI) as an Attack …
77
Middle age
Teen
Older
adult
Young
adult
Adolescent
Child
Infant
Fig. 4.5 Chronological lifespan model
Convention on the Rights of the Child provides detailed articles about how a caring
society should institute rights to which all children are entitled. The CRC focuses
heavily on provision, protection, and participation rights that must be instituted and
defended. For people to understand the value of human rights, rights respecting
behaviors must be implemented and defended at every stage of a person’s life. This
includes when someone is a baby, a toddler, an adolescent, young adult, or when they
grow into middle and older ages (Fig. 4.5). The specific rights that may need to be
prominently addressed at a particular age may differ, but the point is that no matter
how young or old a person is, they are entitled to the protection of their rights. If a
child learns about rights in a scaffolded way across time, they can acquire a mindset
that makes rights respecting behavior the norm. If a critical mass of children grow to
have attitudes and actions that hold rights respecting behavior from themselves and
others accountable, there is the opportunity for positive social change towards the
creation of a rights respecting culture.
Children are dependent upon caregivers, adults, and organizations to showcase
their commitment to human rights respecting behaviors, attitudes, and policies.
For instance, teachers cannot be solely responsible for turning children into rights
respecting people if the rest of society are sending forth contrary messages, messages
that support unkind biases, intolerance, discrimination, or hateful talk and actions.
Parents may try to raise children to be kind and loving, but may find their children are
torn about how to act when peers, politicians, and media send forth messages normalizing divisive talks and actions that oppress others. Child development research points
out that what children learn in their early years can set the stage for other attitudes and
actions that they will have across their lifespan. Trying to eradicate deeply embedded
messages may be hard and time-intensive (Likhar et al. 2022; National Academies
of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2015 ).
In Fig. 4.5, I promote the creation of a children’s human rights framework that
includes active human rights role modeling by parents, caregivers, K-12 schools, as
well as higher education. These are all primary influencers in a young person’s life
(Vissing, 2023). But there are external, secondary influencers too that send children
messages about whether they should defend or disregard human rights actions and
attitudes. These include the media (social media, television, radio, music, news, chats
and blogs, etc.), as well as leaders of organizations that directly or indirectly shape
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Fig. 4.6 Children’s human rights education framework
children’s lives. These can be government leaders at the local, state, or national
levels, clergy members, coaches, celebrities, sports figures, recreation leaders, scout
leaders, employers, or businesses to name but a few. These figures may have the power
to shape what children know and think through their words, policies, and actions.
Figure 4.6 also points out the important role that professionals play. For instance,
daycare providers, police officers, social workers, counselors, lawyers, retail workers,
maintenance staff, nurses, and people in every profession need to know what human
rights are in general, the rights of people whom they are supposed to be serving, as
well as their own rights.
If a community-wide, age scaffolded human rights system was implemented, in a
decade or generation the human rights climate could be recast. Objectively, it would
take this amount of time and commitment to make this transformation, but it is indeed
possible, as Fig. 4.7 illustrates. If a human rights approach was used throughout a
child’s life, one can logically predict that they would be in a better position to engage
in rights-respecting behavior in their career, in doing community service, and when
they start their own families. In this way, one can view DEI as another arrow in the
quiver to attack human rights instead of it being the sole arbiter for creating a just
and equitable society.
Since research on HRE and its variants best-practices could be better formalized,
instructors have significant latitude in selection of instructional strategies, readings,
films, web links, as well as discussions.? When well-intended materials are presented
as fragmented, not holistic, it is assumed that students will automatically be able to
generalize concepts to other people, places and situations. This leap is not necessarily
4 The Attack of Diversity, Equity and Inclusion (DEI) as an Attack …
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Fig. 4.7 Lifespan Scaffolding of children’s Human Rights Education
the case. Students may not have the skill set yet to make inferential associations and
comparisons. It must not be assumed that when talking about issues like justice,
diversity, tolerance, inclusion, or peace that people will automatically link them to
their role as part of the large human rights umbrella. They need to have this link
made clear and direct for them.
Students of all ages benefit from instructors who help them to confront their real
biases, professionals who can walk them through models to see how what happens
in one place may be similar to, or different from, what happens elsewhere. It is tough
work to grind down into emotions and practices that are divisive and dangerous.
While there are many materials and approaches available, much of what students
read or view may reflect a Western view that may not represent the realities faced by
others throughout the world (Wells, 2015). Teachers and trainers often tend to select
materials that are less control (Gradwell, 2015; Hall, 2013; Kloby, 2004; Osler &
Starkey, 2010). Yet in order for DEI or any sort of HRE to be effective, it is important
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to challenges assumptions, norms, and common operating procedures. While doing
so may be uncomfortable or perceived as inconvenient, it is an important thing to do
in order to create truly rights respecting climate and culture.
4.6 Summary
Approaches like DEI tend to focus on some parts of human rights education but
not all of them. While the selected topics for programs under that umbrella are
important, so are selection of pedagogy, conceptual models, data and theoretical
paradigms. Hantzopoulos and Bajaj (2021) point out that in recent years topics like
DEI, peace education, or human rights education have emerged but they are distinct
and separate global fields of scholarship and practice. However, these fields consider
content, processes, and educational structures that seek to dismantle various forms
of violence, as well as move towards cultures of peace, justice and human rights.
I concur that all of the approaches discussed in this article are topics of their own
merit. But they all support the standards inherent in all of the human rights treaties.
Confronting misperceptions to hold true to the gold standard of HRE is essential in
creating justice for all. The push to “abolish DEI” has been couched in concerns about
“political coercion” and academic freedom. Many criticisms of DEI miss the fact that
attention to diversity, equity and inclusion advances learning for everyone. Teaching
sensitive and controversial material is imperative. Accounts of Native American relocation in the Trail of Tears, children chained to factory tables during the Industrial
Revolution, slavery and segregation as a norm, women not being allowed to go to
school, not receiving equal pay for equal work, and the rise of exclusive “clubs” for
select “members only”, many parts of our national histories have not been pretty or
comfortable. Yet they were real and it is important to learn about and from them.
According to Poku (2023), many critics of the educational programs outlined in
this article forget that both education and business were historically exclusionary.
Many groups of people were strategically left out, ignored, marginalized, or whitewashed. Not including the stories of everyone has had ongoing ramifications, and
we are living through the impact of those omissions now. Incorporating education
on human rights and the importance of justice, equality, equity, inclusion and diversity are timely and important. To help right the wrongs and create a more accurate
representation of history and experiences of ‘invisible’ marginalized peoples, introducing HRE approaches like civil rights, women’s studies, DEI, have been met with
challenges by those who refuse to consider that multiple realities may exist simultaneously. Challenging perceptions and cultivating critical thinking are central tasks
of a luminary society. Teaching sensitive and controversial material is imperative
to enhance critical thinking while being respectful to differences. Part of the task of
learning to be an educator and wise thinker requires grabbling with uncomfortable or
unfamiliar information and helping others to make logical sense of it (Poku, 2023).
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4.7 Conclusion
This book chapter, as demonstrated above, discusses what DEI is, along with
educational approaches such as global education, peace education, socio-emotional
learning, and service learning and places them all under the human rights education
umbrella. It is argued that despite their positive intent, such approaches are seldom
framed as human rights education. DEI in the US has been both supported and
attacked for promoting liberal ideology that challenges racism, sexism, and exclusion of both individuals and the discussion of their current and historical experiences.
This book chapter argues that DEI is a sub-variant of human rights education and that
the attack on DEI is an attack on the notion of human rights. Therefore, the attack
on DEI is more than a pedagogical debate but is one that intentionally or inadvertently undermines democracy, equality and the education of human rights and their
implementation.
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Vissing, Y. (2023). Children’s Human Rights in the USA: Challenges and opportunities. Springer.
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Weissberg, R. P., Durlak, J. A., Domitrovich, C. E., & Gullotta, T. P. (Eds.). (2015). Social and
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Wells, K. (2015). Childhood from a global perspective. Polity Press.
Zheng, L. (2022a). The failure of the DEI Industrial Complex. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved
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Yvonne Vissing is a Professor of Healthcare Studies, focusing on health policy and public health,
and the Founding Director of the Center for Childhood & Youth Studies at Salem State University. She is the US policy chair for the Hope for Children Convention on the Child Policy Center
in Cyprus, on the Steering Committee for Human Rights Educators USA, and is on the AAAS
Human Rights Council. Vissing is author of 17 books, including Children’s Human Rights in
the USA: Challenge & Opportunities (Springer 2023), Changing the Paradigm of Homelessness
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Rights Training Program in Montreal. She is CEO of Training for Excellence.
Chapter 5
Human Rights and Sport Participation:
The Swimming Programs in New York
City
Gonzalo Bravo, Peter Smolianov, and Yvonne Vissing
Abstract Human right activists and proponents of the power of sport as an agent
of social change advocate that sport should be treated as a human right. While the
perceived value of sport is generally accepted by most people, there is no agreement
on how to translate sport as a human right into action. Regardless of the general
acceptance and inclusion of sport as a human right in many international treaties and
declarations, the implementation and enforcement of this right is a task that is left
to the mercy of the local laws of each country. A critical step when implementing
human rights in sport is working in promoting the right to participate. The case of
the swimming programs implemented through the New York City Department of
Parks and Recreation serves to illustrate when a public organization is working in
the right direction. Many countries proclaim sport as a right, but it mostly remains
an opportunity affordable to wealthy families or talented elite athletes. In New York
City it is possible to find many public programs that offer affordable access (many
for free) to sport facilities as well as well-rounded programs to people of all ages and
backgrounds. Leaders in the city of New York not only understood that the value of
public recreation was a right for the people, but also by making it accessible to them
it was also good for the promotion of other fundamental values and rights.
Keywords Democracy · Human rights · Sport participation · Sport for all ·
Swimming · New York City
G. Bravo (B)
West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
e-mail: gonzalo.bravo@mail.wvu.edu
P. Smolianov · Y. Vissing
Salem State University, Salem, MA, USA
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025
J. Zajda and Y. Vissing (eds.), Globalisation, Human Rights and Education,
Globalisation, Comparative Education and Policy Research 51,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-80304-8_5
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5.1 Introduction
While the right to access sport for all has been addressed by many as a right for
people, there still exists some ambiguity of who should be responsible to make this
right a reality. Perhaps it is more accurate to say that access to sport is a legitimate
aspiration that many wish to see happening and positively impacting the life of all
individuals without any type of distinction. Sport and physical activity represent
important social forces that reach people from all cultures. Some enjoy becoming
active in sport participation and others become serious supporters of their favorite
teams. Sport is one of the activities that provides those magic points of convergence
not only for the fans that root for the same team, but also for those who in life have
nothing in common. Sport, as a human right, has received significant attention from
those interested in international studies, sport for development, sport sociology as
well as sport philosophy. Also, many international organizations (both sport and
non-sport related) have included sport as an area of interest because sport is seen as
a means to achieve other ends.
In this book chapter, we examine sport as a human right with particular focus
on sport participation and the challenges that exist to develop policies that advance
access to sport for all. This chapter is organized into three main parts. First, we
discuss the concept of sport and human rights. We discuss historical characteristics
attributed to sport that provide public and general support for the idea that sport is
a right and not a privilege. Attention is given to the positive characteristics of sport
that contribute to the socialization and value formation through participation and the
contribution sport makes by facilitating the achievement of other human rights. We
also discuss the challenges to make sport accessible to all as well as the challenges
policy makers face when attempting to operationalize sport as a human right. In
the second part, we discuss the challenges and opportunities offered in the sport of
swimming by making it available to the largest number of people. Finally, in the
third part, we discuss the strategies, challenges, innovative ideas and partnerships
used by the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation to make swimming
accessible and affordable for all.
5.2 Sport and Human Rights
The impact of sport as a social phenomenon has been recognized to transcend leisure,
recreation, and entertainment but also to become an agent of social change. It is said
that sport can contribute to community development, social inclusion, advancement
of people’s well-being, creation of economic benefits as well as the development
of national pride (Banda, 2017; Chalip, 2015; Morgan et al., 2021). Besides, it has
been suggested that sport can also contribute to build peace. In the past, Greeks in the
Ancient World created a truce, called Ekecheiria, to prevent attacking individuals who
were going to or coming from the site where the Olympic Games took place (Simri,
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2000). Likewise, in the late nineteenth century and inspired by the Ancient Greeks,
the founder of the Modern Olympic Games, Pierre de Coubertin, also believed that
sport could contribute to peacemaking (IOC, n.d.). While Coubertin’s dream to deter
international conflicts has been proven unsuccessful, some countries have used sport
as a tool to restore and advance diplomatic relationships while others have chosen to
include sport within their respective constitutions (Burchfiel, 2018). Thus, for most of
the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, the belief in the unifying and transformative
power of sport has been indisputable. This idea is clearly illustrated in the United
Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development when it describes the power
of sport as “…an important enabler of sustainable development particularly in the
promotion of tolerance, respect, women empowerment, health, education, and social
inclusion” (Transforming our World, 2015, p. 13).
Because sport is valued as intrinsically good –or at least has the potential to create
good– that human rights activists have advocated that sport is and should be treated
as a human right. Perhaps one of the most influential proponents of the power of sport
of the twenty-first century was Nelson Mandela who in a speech at the Laureus World
Sports Award in 2000 said, “Sport has the power to change the world. It has the power
to inspire. It has the power to unite people in a way that little else does” (Mandela,
2000, para 1). While Mandela did not explicitly allude to sport as a human right,
his powerful speech gave momentum to revive efforts made by international governmental and nongovernmental organizations that have recognized sport as a human
right since the mid-1970s. Two of the most influential initiatives were the passage of
the European Sport for All Charter in 1975 and the International Charter of Physical
Education and Sport, which was first adopted in 1978 (Kidd & Donnelly, 2000) and
then revised in 2015 by UNESCO, also known as the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization. In addition to acknowledging the health-related
benefits of physical activity, the 2015 version of this charter kept the fundamental
spirit of the original 1978 charter but also introduced important principles related to
gender equality, inclusivity, sustainability, and protection of individuals with physical
disabilities (UNESCO, n.d.). By adopting this charter, UNESCO not only brought
the charter under the umbrella of the UN, but also recognized sport as a legitimate
human right. Thus, Article 1 of this charter state that:
Every human being has a fundamental right to physical education, physical activity, and
sport without discrimination on the basis of ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, language,
religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property or any other basis.
(International Charter, 2015)
Scholars and human right advocates noted that prior to the UNESCO charter, the
idea that sport should be treated as a human right evolved from the 1948 United
Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) which in article 24 indicates the right to “rest and leisure”, and then in article 27 said “the right to freely
participate in the cultural life of the community” (Donnely, 2008, p. 283). The words
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“sport and games” appear in the 2009 International Covenant on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) as a part of the broad cultural rights.1 (Veal, 2023).
While few will argue against the idea that sport should be considered a human
right, this does not mean that violations of human rights are absent in sport, nor
does it mean that all sport organizations necessarily will abide by this principle.
In the United States, where most children are introduced and socialized into sport,
participation in interscholastic sport is considered an extracurricular activity. Thus,
many school districts treat sport as a privilege and not as a right. For students to
become part of an interscholastic team they need to comply with certain eligibility
rules such as a minimum GPA or not failing a class during a given semester (Riede,
2006). In terms of violations of human rights in sports, many international agencies
recognize the problems and abuses related to sport and human rights (Center for Sport
and Human Rights, 2022). Most of these violations are due to failed organizational
practices as well as lax governing rules. Violations of human rights in sports occur
at the local, regional, and global level and the types of violations are vast, including
racism, sexual harassment, displacement of people (due to sport events), exploitation
of athletes, treatment of construction workers in sport mega events, corruption inside
sport, abuse of power, gender barriers to sport participation, and lack of inclusivity
for marginalized groups people with disabilities, people of color, indigenous people,
LGBTQ, immigrants, etc. (Heerdt & Rook, 2022).
Fighting abuses and violations of human rights in sport is a major task that cannot
be neglected. Thus, it is critical that counties in general and sport organizations in
particular fulfill their obligations with the rights they commit to protect. As noted by
Hunt, “human rights are still easier to endorse than to enforce” (cited in Donnelly,
2008, p. 383). Although protecting all rights is important, in sport, protecting the
right to participate is of paramount importance. Without access to sport, there is no
sport, and by limiting sport participation, organizations cannot advance other humans
rights related to equal opportunity, gender, or race (Veal, 2023). Donnelly (2008)
noted that human rights in sports can be achieved in three interrelated categories:
First, by promoting the right to participate. Second, by using sports as a platform
to achieve other human rights (i.e., fighting apartheid). Third, by promoting sport
participation within marginalized groups (i.e., homeless, sex workers, child soldiers,
etc.).
5.2.1 Challenges to Sport Participation
One of the first intergovernmental initiatives that recognize the importance of mass
sport participation was the Sport for All idea which was launched by the Council
of Europe in 1966. This idea gained momentum later and was adopted in the mid1970s as the European Sport for All Charter (Scheerder et al., 2011). The main idea
1 The ICESCR is a treaty that aims to protect the economic, social, and cultural rights of people.
The ICESCR is part of the UDHR.
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behind the sport for all concept, which then became the sport for all movement, is
that sport, including physical activity, recreation, and leisure must be freely adopted
and practiced by individuals with the purpose to provide health and positive social
development. One of the fundamental principles of the sport for all movement is
that it is not exclusionary, given emphasizes to the ludic and joyful aspect of sport,
games, and recreational physical activity and less in the outcome of the competition
(Doczi, n.d.). Sport for all aims to reach the general population, including all types
of social groups without distinction of class, gender, or level of skills. In this sense,
sport for all represents the opposite of competitive or high-performance sport, which
is based on selection, exclusion, and performance. It is because of these attributes
and alleged benefits of health, recreation, and positive socialization that international
governmental organizations like UNESCO have recognized sport for all as a right to
individuals.
But regardless of the relevancy and legitimateness of the cause, recognizing the
value of sport for all and the benefits it brings to society does not guarantee that sport
for all will reach everyone. On the contrary, barriers to sport participation exist in
many forms. That is where the effective policies and policy networks (i.e., the group
of stakeholders that have an interest in sport) can work and help to mitigate some of
the barriers that prevent people having access to sport participation (Scheerder et al.,
2011). Sport policies are best achieved when multiple actors can effectively identify
their stake, their role, and their contribution in the policy implementation process.
These actors include not only public organizations at the national or regional level
but also at the local level. Similarly, the role of sport organizations, sport federations
as well as private commercial sport organizations is also critical. It is important to
note that the enactment of declarations like the European Sport for All Charter from
1976, as well as UNESCO International Charter of Physical Education and Sport of
1978, represent the very first step of a long and monumental process of trying to make
mass sport participation real. Thus, it is critical that sport leaders and policy makers
use these international charters and resolutions to their advantage and apply the letter
and the spirit of these declarations through a coalition of multiple stakeholders.
The extent of success of policy implementation in sport is determined by a multiplicity of factors including, among many others, the socio-economic and historical
characteristics of each country. In the case of Europe, the sport for all movement,
although with widespread acceptance in most countries, significant differences in
sport participation still exist across many countries (Hoekman et al., 2011).
Several studies have examined the trends of sport participation (Gratton et al.,
2011; Hovemann & Wicker, 2009; Kokolakakis et al., 2012). Wicker et al. (2012)
examined the micro and macro level factors that affect sport participation. Micro
level factors refer to those individual variables directly related to the participant like
age, gender, income, educational level, time, and migration background. Macro level
factors are variables that are critical for individuals to participate in sport like type
and availability of infrastructure and programs available to different segments of
the population (i.e., fitness classes for seniors, lessons for beginning and advanced
swimmers, etc.). Findings across different studies of sport participation revealed that
age and gender are common factors that affect sport participation, also income and
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educational level (Farrell & Shields, 2012; Humphreys & Ruseski, 2006; Richard
et al., 2023; Scheerder & Vos, 2011). This means that men tend to participate more
than women, and rates of participation in sport tend to decrease as age increases. Then,
higher income and more educated individuals also tend to participate more than the
less affluent and less educated individuals. These barriers to sport participation are
also reflected in studies conducted in the United States where the most prominent
barrier is income disparities and social class. For example, a study conducted in
2020 by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found significant gaps of
sports participation among children from families with incomes above $100,000
when compared to those with middle and low income (Matt, 2023). Wicker et al.
(2012) noted that a municipality cannot alter individual factors, but they can influence
sport participation by providing infrastructure or sport programs. Wicker et al. noted
that the provision of services and infrastructure is also relevant “due to the positive
externalities such as applied democracy, integration of immigrants and youth” (p. 52).
5.2.2 Based Approach to Human Rights and Sports
Although many treaties, conventions, and resolutions from international organizations support the idea that sport participation should be treated as a human right, the
implementation of these rights still represents a major challenge for public as well
private organizations, particularly the enforcement of such rights. For example, what
happens to an organization when intentionally or unintentionally breach some of
these rights? If the specific violation is prescribed in the law (i.e., denied access to a
fitness center to an individual of color), then the violation will be enforced under the
specific code of law of that country, but if there is no law that protects an individual
from such discriminatory action, the effectiveness of the ‘right to participate in sport’
as a part of a human right noted on these international resolutions will have no impact
in that case. The problem lies in the incapacity to enforce these international treaties.
While many treaties and resolutions, particularly those under the umbrella of the UN,
are said to be legally bound, enforcement and fulfillment of these rights not always
work straight forward (Quintavalla & Heine, 2019; Veal, 2023).
When policy makers face the challenge of implementing sport policy initiatives,
human right advocates suggest using the Human Right Based Approach not only to
give legitimacy and strengthening the core aspects of the policy, but also to empower
those who are the right holders of such policies. The Human Right Based Approach,
or simply the Right Base Approach (RBA), represents a strategy developed by experts
in Development Sciences2 “that replaces the charity aspect of developmental interventions for a structure of rights and responsibilities” (Rezende-Teixera, 2012, p. 4).
Thus, instead of addressing people’s needs as if they were the beneficiaries of the
generous efforts of a non-for-profit organization, the RBA framework recognizes
2 Development Sciences is a multidisciplinary approach that studies human development. It involves
research in social, psychosocial and biobehavioral disciplines (Bronfenbrenner & Evans, 2000).
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that in many instances people’s needs refer to people’s rights. Thus, it changes the
discourse from “individuals deserve to” to “individuals are entitled to”. Fulfilling
individuals’ basic needs like food, shelter, education, safety, etc. is critical to achieve
human development, and human development is a fundamental factor to achieving
human rights (Hamm, 2001).
If society fails to address individuals’ human needs, it fails to address human
rights. For example, communities that lack access to education fail to provide and
fulfill the right to individuals to get an education. As the RBA recognizes sport
and physical activity for the value and contribution to people’s education and health,
which are critical dimensions to advance human development, the adequate provision
and access to sport and physical activity is also considered to fulfil an individual’s
human rights. From this line of argument, it is possible to say that sport and physical
activity constitute not only a right for people that contributes to advance human
development, but also sport and physical activity are also instrumental to achieve
other human rights (Rezende-Teixera, 2012).
The value and the need for people to participate in sport and physical activity
became evident during the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown. During that time, an
important question was raised by policy makers and health authorities, “do humans
have a right to be [physically] active?” (Messing et al., 2021, p. 201). During the
pandemic confinements, many cities across the world made adjustments to specific
regulations by opening times during the day to allow individuals to go out and exercise
in the parks or in the streets (Berteloot, 2020, Johnson & Fritz, 2020). Studies found
that while overall sedentarism increased during the time of the pandemic, COVID
19 increased public awareness of the importance of exercise and physical activity
for people to the extent that many European countries developed recommendations
of physical activity during quarantine including exercise in open spaces (Gelius
et al., 2021). This example illustrates that sport and physical activity are not just
important to people, but in many instances represent rights which individuals claim
wholeheartedly and demand to be acknowledged and respected. From the perspective
of the RBA framework, individuals not only become aware of their rights but also,
they are empowered to be agents of change. Thus, individuals become right-holders
while others—individuals and organizations in positions of power and authority—
become duty bearers (Rezende-Teixera, 2012).
5.3 Challenges and Opportunities in the Sport
of Swimming
While the systematic practice of physical activity and sport–defined in the broader
sense–brings many benefits associated with mental and physical health (Messing
et al., 2021), the practice of water-based exercises offers many more advantages
when compared to traditional sport and physical activity practiced off the water
(Moffatt, 2017). For example, swimming offers significantly reduced weight bearing
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stress when compared to other sports. This and other features, unique to water-based
sports and exercises, contribute to creating a safer environment for treatment and
health prevention. Swimming is one of the most healing and stimulating activities.
Children under five who have swimming lessons develop better language, literacy,
and numeracy skills. Moreover, swimming is an activity that can be practiced by
people of all ages and is perceived to be more gender integrated. Nevertheless, and
while swimming is considered among the top five most popular forms of physical
activities across the world (Hulten et al., 2017), access to swimming still presents
many barriers for participation. For example, in the United States only 14% of Americans six and older participate in water sports, a trend that has not increased since
2022 (Physical Activity Council, 2023).
Mass swimming is not only important for recreational purposes but also for
safety. During 2005–2009, there were more than 3,500 fatal unintentional drownings per average year in the US, and about one in five were children aged fourteen
or younger (Smolianov et al., 2016). USA Swimming has been helping children
through the Make-A-Splash foundation, but more substantial efforts and resources
are needed to teach everyone to swim. Another major barrier to participation is sociocultural, where individuals from lower socio-economic backgrounds and minorities have historically shown low rates of participation. Blagrove (2022) reported
that in England 95% of Black adults do not know how to swim. In the United
States, according to the USA Swimming Foundation, the percentage of Black people
with little to none swimming skills reach 64%. This low rate of participation is
also reflected in the low disproportionate numbers of swimmers registered in US
Swimming where only 1% are Black (Toran, 2021).
In the following sections we discuss the benefits of making swimming available
to the masses. We also discuss the problems with the lack of diversity in swimming
as well as the challenges of making swimming a more inclusive sport. Then, we
discuss the benefit of maximizing opportunities to amplify the base of participants
through effective partnerships with private as well public organizations.
5.3.1 Swimming for All to Benefit Public Health and Safety
Examples of free swimming programs at national, regional and local levels are evident
across the world in different socio-economic conditions, from socialist countries
(e.g., former USSR and GDR), state capitalist countries (e.g., current Russia, China)
to market economy nations such as Australia, Canada, UK, and the USA (Bolton &
Martin, 2013; Fetisov, 2005; Isaev, 2002; PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2010; Smolianov
et al., 2014; Tingting, 2022). However, despite the benefits of swimming described in
the previous section, public policies in many countries, including the United States,
do not provide affordable access to swimming for all. In this regard, the opportunity
to have free access, or low cost to swimming programs as available in New York City
remain exceptional in the United States (see Sect. 5.3 of this chapter). In the case of
New York City, making swimming available to the large number of people, including
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ethnic minorities, has been a pioneering effort by public authorities in New York City,
and also a commitment of the city for the past 80 years. In 1938, the New York City
Department of Parks and Recreation launched a massive free-swimming program
with the aim to democratize an activity that until that time has been socially stratified
and segregated. Also, this plan aimed to curb the raising numbers of drownings (New
York City Council, n.d.).
As previously discussed, the need to provide access to swimming is justified not
only from the recreational point of view, but also from many health benefits associated
with this activity. Over the past century, public pools have played a critical role in
American culture, and as climate changes and extreme heat waves worsen, their
public health role increases. Heat kills more Americans than any other weatherrelated disaster, but pools have become less available for Americans who cannot
afford a country or health club, or do not have a local YMCA (Meyersohn, 2023).
A legacy of segregation, the privatization of pools, and starved public recreation
budgets have led to the decline of public places to swim in many cities (Meyersohn,
2023).
5.3.2 The Challenge of Making Swimming More Inclusive
In the United States, giant municipal pools were built in the first half of the twentieth
century, and desegregating public pools was a key target of the civil rights movement.
But, strapped for funding, many local governments have neglected public pools.
According to the National Recreation and Park Association, there is one outdoor
public pool for every 38,000 people in America from 34,000 in 2015 (Meyersohn,
2023). The retreat of government and privatization of swimming pools and recreation
has hurt the poor and minority groups the hardest. As noted by Wiltse (2014), “the
suburban location of the swim clubs and the relatively high cost of membership
effectively excluded poor and working class,” (p. 376).
Sixty-four percent of Black children, 45% of Hispanic children, 40% of White,
and 79% of children in families with household incomes less than $50,000 have no
or low swimming ability (Meyersohn, 2023). Drowning is the second leading cause
of death for children 2–19 years of age. Black children are 40% of the drowning
victims even though African Americans are only 12% of the US population. Public
transit and large-scale construction of pools increased the “learn to swim” trend
dramatically starting in the 1920s, but swimming pools were race segregated (c.f.
Irwin et al., 2009, 2011; Mock, 2014; Resnic et al., 2015; Wiltse, 2014).
Racial stereotypes turned pools into some of the most segregated public spaces
in America. Police armed with nightsticks dispersed part of a crowd of 5,000 people
during a riot in St. Louis in 1949, when 13 people were injured and several Black
people were beaten. In the late 1940s, there were major swimming pool riots over
integration in St. Louis; Baltimore; Washington, D.C.; and Los Angeles. The Kerner
Commission, tasked with studying the underlying causes of disorder in cities during
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the 1960s, found that the lack of recreation facilities, including pools, was a “deeplyheld grievance” among Black people fueling urban unrest during sweltering summers
(Meyersohn, 2023).
Gaining entry to swimming pools was a top priority for civil rights groups who saw
recreation as a fundamental human right, but the success of the civil rights movement
integrating pools coincided with a surge of private pools and swim clubs. Millions of
middle-class White families left the city for the suburbs and built pools in their new
backyards during the era. New suburbanites chose to organize country clubs with
fees rather than build pools open to the public. From 1950 to 1962, 22,000 private
swim clubs opened, mostly in White suburbs. As Whites withdrew from public pools
and parks, taxpayer funding and support for pools dwindled (Meyersohn, 2023).
Another major challenge related to inclusivity is the need to diversify the workforce in swimming. Benton (2000) noted that swimming organizations need to do
better when hiring personnel by opening more opportunities for minorities. Bento’s
study, which included a survey to 700 Aquatic Directors across the United States,
found that 96% of them were Caucasian. Similarly, more lifeguards of color are also
needed at swimming pools, motels, hotels and other venues particularly where black
children are likely to swim (Resnic et al., 2015). Providing a more diverse workforce
will contribute to attracting minorities to participate in swimming.
5.3.3 Swimming for All Through Strategic Partnerships
Lack of facilities and financial resources at mass participation was the key obstacle
indicated by a study on American swimming coaches conducted by Smolianov et al.
(2016). In this study, swimming administrators noted that mass participation in swimming was not affordable for too many people. The same problem exists in the highperformance level of sport where academies are not affordable on a large scale. While
some private schools have great facilities and excellent swimming programs, private
schools in the United States reach only 10% of the student population (Smolianov
et al., 2016).
Public sport academies, swimming classes in regular schools as part of the physical education classes and free community center programs are also important to
support and connect mass and elite sport across the world (Smolianov et al., 2014).
For example, in the UK all British schools have been provided with guidelines to
teach swimming during PE classes for children seven-to eleven-year-old. Embedding
swimming classes in schools is one way in which many countries ensure that young
children not only acquire swimming skills but also help to reduce inequalities in who
knows how to swim and who does not. In some countries, swimming lessons are a
mandatory part of the elementary school curriculum, such as in Austria, France, and
Germany (Bayrische Staatskanzlei, 1996; Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de
la Jeunesse, 2022; Rechtsinformationssystem des Bundes, 2022).
If downsizing of physical education continues in American schools, swimming
will be increasingly managed by private entities, which might be insufficient to
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97
provide affordable swimming to all. Schools can include swimming in their physical
education curriculum and teach it at the pools of nearby universities, colleges, or
community centers. For example, in Russia a multi-step program assisted by federal,
regional, and local government provides free transportation from schools to local
pools and free-swimming lessons. After students have completed a certain level,
parents are required to pay some minimal fee to continue. This strategy not only
attracts children to learn and improve their skills in swimming but also increases
parents’ commitment to the program while keeping costs affordable (Smolianov
et al., 2014).
A study conducted on swimming coaches and administrators in the United States
recommended that getting more pools in schools, so that swimming is introduced to
more children as a part of the physical education curriculum, would open the sport
to a more diverse group of children (Smolianov et al., 2014). Another way to make
swimming affordable and accessible to more people is illustrated in Denmark by a
partnership between the national swimming federation and the schools (Westerbeek,
2009). In this program, students are provided an hour daily of physical education
and sport including swimming. Finland’s hundreds of free or substantially subsidized
programs in swimming ensure no one is excluded from participation.
As suggested by Bowers et al. (2011) and Smolianov et al. (2014), benefits of local
and national partnerships for consolidated health-focused development of sport are
proven across the world. All these efforts represent not only the provision of more
and better services through the collaborative work done with multiple partnership,
but also it shows that it is possible to open more opportunities for people of all ages
to participate in sport, and thus sport becomes a right for everyone and not a privilege
of a few.
5.4 The Swimming Programs in New York City
New York City (NYC) is the most populous city in the United States, with over eight
million people. The city is considered a global center of finance and commerce,
culture and technology, entertainment and media, academics and arts and fashion.
It is also a city with a great tradition in professional sports. The city is one of
the premier gateways for legal immigration to the United States. As many as 800
languages are spoken in NYC, making it the most linguistically diverse city in the
world. In 2021, the city was home to over 3 million residents born outside the US, the
largest foreign-born population of any city in the world. These characteristics create
great challenges and opportunities for the city’s socio-economic development, giving
birth to progressive social movements and human rights activities and advancements
(Lankedich, 2024).
In the next subsections, we discussed how the city of New York, and particularly the New York Department of Parks and Recreation, have tackled numerous
challenges to make swimming more accessible and affordable for their residents.
First, we describe how during the 1930s through the 1940s, New York City became
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the recipient of the largest subsidization for public recreation infrastructure and
programs through the Works Progress Administration (WPA) appropriation as a part
of the New Deal plan implemented by Franklin D. Roosevelt to rescue and guard the
economy during the Great Depression. Then, we describe the numerous initiatives
implemented by the city of New York to make swimming affordable and accessible.
Finally, we describe how leadership, political will, and strategic partnership make
it possible to build effective programs and bring innovative ideas that contribute to
make sport accessible for all.
5.4.1 The New Deal Program and Public Recreation in New
York City
Although historians have debated about the effect of the New Deal during America’s
post-depression years (Wrinkler, 2009), the impact of the New Deal efforts on
infrastructure for public recreational sports during the 1930s and 1940s is indisputable (Lucas & Smith, 1978). Davidson (1944) noted that from 1933 to 1943, the
federal government invested more than 1.5 billion dollars on work relief programs
with almost half of that amount going to public recreational infrastructure. These
projects included construction, repairment of private as well public infrastructure
including parks, athletic fields, swimming pools, stadiums, and ski areas. Davidson
noted “Government spending on sport-related projects provided the opportunity for
more Americans than ever before to participate in recreation sports” (p. 9). While the
massive subsidization of recreational sport facilities and programs benefited many
cities across the country, one of the most visible beneficiaries was the city of New
York.
Historians have referred to New York City as the heart of American sports
(Norwood, 2018). New York City not only developed the like for so many professional sport teams that have followers all over the world, but also it championed many
initiatives to make sport participation accessible to the people. Before 1935, access
to recreational sports in New York City was highly socially stratified making it very
difficult for working class people and minorities to take part in it. Davidson (1983)
noted that Franklin D. Roosevelt in his presidential campaign in 1932 promised “a
commitment by the federal government to provide recreational sport as a part of the
‘good life’ for many people who previously were denied such opportunity” (p. 108).
While most of the funding allocated through the Works Progress Administration
(WPA) appropriation directed to public recreational sports during the mid-1930s
supported the renovation and building of a variety of sport facilities, swimming
projects accounted for more than 40% of the total amount invested. Similarly, New
York represented the city that received the largest amount of this money with an
estimated 82% of the 20 million dollars that were distributed through the WPA
appropriation funds (Davidson, 1983). Thus, resources from the WPA, as a part of
the New Deal, and the leadership of many public officials who were responsible to
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plan the development of recreational sports for the city have contributed significantly
to the creation of a culture of public sport recreation that New Yorkers today not only
enjoy but also protect as if these were their rights.
5.4.2 Access and Affordability to Swimming Pools
and Programs in New York City
In contrast with the rest of the world, New York City offers children and senior
citizens free membership in recreation centers, free lessons teaching children to
swim, free coaching in preparation to mass competitions for all who can swim,
and free participation in mass swimming meets where clubs representing different
districts of New York City compete with each other throughout the year. All these
programs help children to develop healthy habits through the sport of swimming
whether this is by taking part in mass swimming events or by competing in more
selective meets. New York City Department of Parks and Recreation, also known as
NYC Parks, maintains, and operates 79 outdoor swimming pools (including 17 minipools) and 12 indoor swimming pools dispersed across 64 facilities throughout the
five boroughs. Chelsea Recreation Center is six floors and includes two dance rooms,
two cardio rooms, two volleyball courts, six basketball courts, an arts and crafts room,
a weightlifting area, and a computer resource center. The Chelsea Recreation Center
in Manhattan cost $22.4 million, while the largest recreation center in New York
City, the Flushing Meadows Corona Park Aquatic Center was built for $66.3 million
(City of New York, 2024).
New York public initiatives regarding access to public recreation not only involves
the provision of state-of-the-art facilities, but also several offices within NYC government contribute with a multiplicity of initiatives to make sport participation accessible
to the people. Among these initiatives are the provision of guidelines for designing
buildings, streets, and urban spaces that support physical activities. In addition,
other initiatives include helping teachers incorporate physical activity through the
school day with the “Move-to-Improve” guidelines; organizing Shape Up NYC,
where people who are not members of recreation centers can take part in free
fitness programming; offering free aquatics programs through the Learn to Swim
program. These are examples of how sport and physical activity become the center
of many public initiatives and can be enjoyed by large numbers of New Yorkers
(NYC Department of Education, 2024).
In 2024, access to all NYC recreation centers, including swimming pools and
gyms, for adults 25 through 61 was only $150 per year (City of New York, 2024).
Membership is free for those under 24, while for people with disabilities, veterans,
and over 61, annual membership is $25. The Learn to Swim classes for toddlers, children, adults, and seniors are all free. The Adaptive Swim program is also free and
offers children and adults aquatic exercise therapy. The Swimming Improvement
Program advances one-on-one coaching to improve speed, fitness/endurance, and
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stroke technique for those looking to become a lifeguard or train for serious competitions. This program is designed for participants ages 15 and over who already
are capable swimmers. Advanced individual coaching with handouts on workouts
and drills is also free and does not require a recreation center membership. Each
session offers individual coaching, but there is no need to show up every week to
participate. Adult and Senior Water Exercise Program offers a stress-free time to
swim, improve health and fitness by participating in an instructor-led water exercise
class, and socialization with others. This program is also free with an NYC Parks
and Recreation center membership (City of New York, 2024). The affordability of
these programs is extraordinary if compared with the cost of similar programs in
many other cities across the United States and the world, making NYC swimming
conditions exemplary and particularly contributing to public wellbeing and making
swimming accessible to minorities and low-income families.
A Parks Swim Team is perhaps the most comprehensive program that is also
free offering to learn competitive swimming strokes and prepare those who desire
to compete against other Parks Swim Teams citywide (City of New York, 2024).
New York City Parks offers youths ages 6 through 18 an opportunity to join a Parks
swim team. Swimmers train for the High Point Meets and the Borough Cup Championship. Practice sessions are held at least three times a week and emphasize stroke
technique, endurance, and speed training, starts and turns, rules, and sportsmanship.
To qualify for the team, the participant must be capable of swimming 50 m freestyle
in good form, submit an online application and provide a copy of birth certificate,
and be a member of an NYC Parks recreation center, which is also free for anyone
younger than 25 years old. By becoming a member of a Parks Swim Team, children
and adolescents have the opportunity to improve their swimming skills as well as
experiencing the thrill and excitement of the sport competition. That was the case of
African American swimmer Lia Neal3 who, in 2012 and 2016, won a bronze medal
and a silver medal at the 2012 London Olympic Games and 2016 Rio Olympics,
respectively. Lia’s first strokes in swimming started by taking classes in a public
swimming pool in Brooklyn, where she resided, and then by becoming member of
the Asphalt Green Unified Aquatics (AGUA), a primer swimming club in downtown NYC that provide swimming lessons and coaching. The AGUA Club is also an
example of what non-for-profit organizations can do when providing not only a path
to excellence but also when they open their doors to sport to people from diverse
backgrounds (Asphalt Green, n.d.).
3 The case of Lia Neal serves to illustrate the relevancy of the Parks Swim Team initiative. In 2012,
Neal become the second female African American to make the U.S. Olympic Swimming Team.
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5.4.3 Leading Innovation Through Organizational
Partnerships
New York City benefits significantly to have and receive enough resources from the
state of New York as this is one of the top richest states in the nation. Therefore,
many of the public recreational programs that benefit residents of NYC are paid with
money from the State as it is the case of The New York Statewide Investment in
More Swimming Initiative (NY SWIMS) that was launched in February of 2024 by
New York Governor Kathy Hochul. This state initiative NY SWIMS will expand
swimming opportunities across the state by focusing on underserved communities
and areas prone to extreme heat.
According to this initiative, NY SWIMS will deliver $150 million in grant funding
to build ten new public swimming pools in underserved areas. Through NY SWIMS,
local municipalities can apply for grants for public pool projects. NY SWIMS grants
can be used to fund the design and construction or renovation of swimming pools
along with other related capital expenses, including site infrastructure, splash pads,
diving boards and slides, bathrooms and changing rooms, concessions, land acquisition, and other features that create value for local communities (New York State,
2024).
Additional initiatives at the state level include New York State Parks which in
2024 plan to more than double the number of pools and beaches that offer water
safety instruction. Safety is important as drownings in New York State have claimed
the lives of more than 1,000 New Yorkers from 2017 to 2021. Drowning still ranks
as the leading cause of death among children aged one to four years old in the United
States, and it is the second-leading cause of death for children aged 5 to 14.
Other initiatives include the New York State’s Extreme Heat Action Plan, which
provides access to outdoor cooling opportunities and recreational resources such
as parks and swimming areas, an initiative vital for disadvantaged communities
and high-risk populations that do not have access to indoor cooling (New York
State, 2024). To combat hotter summer temperatures and to integrate swimming
opportunities into urban environments, the State created a municipal grant program to
fund small, mobile, pop-up swimming pools. These pools are movable or temporary
facilities that can be dispatched to block parties, parks, events, or open spaces.
For the water safety instruction program New York State partners with municipalities to utilize facilities for swim instruction. State Parks transport students and
their families to facilities where swimming is offered through the Connect Kids
programs. State University of New York (SUNY) collaborates with schools, youth
and community-based organizations and municipalities to increase learn to swim
opportunities across the state. In addition, New York State incentivizes SUNY
students who are skilled swimmers to become lifeguards by covering the cost of
a lifeguard certification exam, and by giving college credit for lifeguard training
courses. Governor Hochul also initiated a pilot program at State Park pools to offer
free sunscreen (New York State, 2024).
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As described above, many of these partnerships are led at the state level. However,
at the city level, the city of New York also develops its own partnership. The city
of New York has relied heavily on private partnerships for funding since 2002.
Organizations working with New York City agencies have raised more than $1.4
billion in philanthropic contributions for 10 years from 2002 to 2012. Also, in 2024,
New York City developed the vision of + Pool, a filtered floating pool which can sit
in New York City’s rivers. The project jointly funded by the city and the state ensures
that this innovative model can safely provide access to swimmers.
Another important partnership developed by the city of New York is with the
Police Athletic League (PAL) of New York City. The PAL continues its tradition of
providing organized sports and recreation experiences for the youth of NYC, who
otherwise would not be able to afford private sports leagues or play on a school
team. The Sports and Recreation Department provides a model sports curriculum
for PAL, organizing and facilitating leagues, tournaments, and special events in 16
sports including aquatics, for over 13,000 youth annually. PAL’s sports and recreation
programs keep young people engage in positive youth development activities and
reinforce the concepts of discipline, leadership, teamwork, and sportsmanship (PAL,
2024).
As stated above, many of these programs are subsidized with public dollars.
However, is also important to keep in mind the historical tradition of philanthropy
that has existed not only among the richest New Yorkers who love sports but also
from non-for-profit organizations that use sport as an agent of social change. In many
instances, these individuals and organizations partner with the city of New York to
maximize these efforts to support many initiatives that directly benefit the ordinary
people, particularly those who are less fortunate to have access to sport through
private clubs.
5.5 Conclusions
Human right activists and proponents of the power of sport as an agent of social
change advocate that sport should be treated as a human right. Influential leaders such
as Nelson Mandela have said that “sport has the power to change the world,” and The
United Nations has included sport in the 2023 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
While today the perceived value of sport, whether this is from the health benefits
or from the angle that sport can contribute to promote tolerance, respect as well as
social inclusion, is generally accepted, there is no agreement into how to translate
the idea of sport as a human right into action. The implementation and, at times,
the enforcement of many human rights is a task that, in many instances, is left at
the mercy of the local laws as well as the priorities and urgency each country puts
upon these rights (Quintavalla & Heine, 2019). Donnely (2008) noted that a critical
step when implementing human rights in sport is working in promoting the right to
participate. While there is not a clear strategy of how to make sport participation
accessible to all, some scholars have suggested that the provision of programs at a
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lower cost and accessibility to critical infrastructure have been found to influence
sport participation. The concept of sport for all, which became instrumental in the
creation of the European Charter for Sport for All in the mid-1970s, understands that
sport is a right that must be protected and promoted. Although today more people are
aware of the health benefits associated with the practice of physical activity and sports,
there are certain sport activities that still present many obstacles to participation,
particularly for the working class and minorities. One of these activities is swimming.
While the challenges include the lack of swimming pools, low participation, and
lack of swimming skills of many minorities and working-class people–as a part
of institutional racism and segregation–the benefits associated with swimming far
exceed the mere recreation and playful aspects, and also include safety, therapeutic
capacity, in addition to providing a safe escape during the summer months when high
temperatures reach unhealthy levels. In this regard, swimming should not be treated
as a country club sport, but instead it should be a public health issue that requires
close attention.
The case of the swimming programs discussed in this chapter implemented
through the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation serves as a promissory example to illustrate when a public organization is advancing in the right direction. Like other Departments of Parks and Recreation in large cities, the New York
City Parks and Recreation is an entity that is not exempt from challenges and problems. That said, working to create the conditions to make sport accessible and affordable to large masses of people is something that leaders in New York City understood
a while ago, particularly the importance and the value that was attained with that.
More critically, access to affordable public recreation is something that New Yorkers
have enjoyed for decades, and they are not ready to lose. In this regard, the allocation of large sums of public resources to public recreation, demonstrates that political
leaders in the city of New York not only understood that the value of public recreation
was not only a right for the people, but also by making it accessible to them was also
good for the promotion of other fundamental values and rights such as democracy,
justice, civility, inclusivity, and respect among many others.
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Gonzalo A. Bravo is a Professor of Sport Management in the School of Sport Sciences in the
College of Applied Human Sciences at West Virginia University where he teaches undergraduate
and graduate courses in sport management. Bravo completed a master’s degree in Sport Administration at Penn State University and a Ph.D. in Sport Management at The Ohio State University. His research examines policy and governance of sport, organizational behavior in sport, and
sport in Latin America. He has 53 publications, including peer-reviewed articles and book chapters. His work has been published, among others, in the International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing, Managing Sport and Leisure, International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, and the Journal of Sport Management. Also, he has published five books and is the author of
three technical reports commissioned by different sport and research agencies including the International Council for Coaching Excellence, the Organizing Committee of the ICF Canoe Slalom
World Championship, and the Research and Science Agency of Japan. Currently, Bravo serves
on the Board of Directors of the American Kinesiology Association in the United States. Prior to
working in academia, he worked as the Sport Director at Fundación Club Deportivo Universidad
Católica in Chile
Peter Smolianov teaches at Salem State University 352 Lafayette Street, Salem, MA 01970,
USA. Peter Smolianov, PhD, Professor. Educated in Australia (Deakin U), USA (BYU) and USSR
(Moscow U). Provided business analysis, strategic planning and marketing as consultant to corporations as well as governmental and sporting organizations and major events since 1990. Delivered training courses to leaders of sport governing bodies from 2021. Coached national team
athletes and coordinated their sport specific and conditioning coaches, therapists, scientists and
training programs in preparation for World Cups, World Championships and Olympic Games
since 1996. Developed conditioning programs for coaches of professional/Olympic and university Division I-III teams from 2016. Authored 200+ publications and presentations in 28 countries,
including articles in 20 different refereed journals. Authorship in 11 academic books, five of which
published by Routledge London-New York, comprised the fundamental research monograph used
for teaching at universities–Sport Development in the United States: High Performance and Mass
Participation.
Yvonne Vissing is a Professor of Healthcare Studies, focusing on health policy and public health,
and the Founding Director of the Center for Childhood & Youth Studies at Salem State University. She is the US policy chair for the Hope for Children Convention on the Child Policy Center
in Cyprus, on the Steering Committee for Human Rights Educators USA, and is on the AAAS
Human Rights Council. Vissing is author of 17 books, including Children’s Human Rights in
the USA: Challenge & Opportunities (Springer 2023), Changing the Paradigm of Homelessness
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(Routledge 2020), and The Rights of Unaccompanied Minors (Springer 2021). A clinical sociologist, National Institute of Mental Health Post-Doctoral Research Fellow on child abuse and
Whiting Foundation fellow studying child rights, she was also a Dialogue and Democracy fellow
at UCONN’s Dodd Center for Human Rights. She is a graduate of Equitas International Human
Rights Training Program in Montreal. She is CEO of Training for Excellence.
Chapter 6
The Right to Education in South Africa:
A Critical Decolonial Reading
in Place-Space–time
Anne Becker
Abstract Human rights and specifically the right to education have enormous potential to disrupt marginalisation and enable humans to live a dignified and free life.
There has, however, in recent decades, developed a mistrust in the political and
normative premise of human rights. For many humans around the world, human
dignity, respect and protection against discrimination and oppression remain only
abstract and discursive ideals despite the standards and values set out in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR, 1948). In this chapter a critical, decolonial
shift in how we think about, for and towards the right to education is proposed. Such a
shift could be enabled through decolonial human rights literacies. Decolonial literacy,
as a critical literacy, aim to interrupt and counter the colonial and Euro-Western lens
through which human rights are read which enables ongoing marginalisation. The
epistemological foundations of critical literacies rest on the power of social transformation and not so much on the functional purposes of literacy. Critical literacies
are situated and develop in material reality in place-space–time. Geographical place
anchors space, which refers to human interaction and movements in and through the
flow of time (past, present and future). The (non)realisation of the right to education in
South Africa is used to illustrate why the need for decolonial human rights literacies
is urgent. The right to education stated in the UDHR (1948), the normative standards
for education set out by the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(1999) and reflected in the Convention of the Rights of the Child (1989, hereafter
CRC) and the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (1990, hereafter ACRWC) are juxtaposed with the right to education in material reality in South
Africa. As with the rights stipulated in the UDHR, the abstract and discursive ideals
of the CRC (1989) and the ACRWC (1990) are in stark contrast to material reality in
South African education. Some concluding thoughts and suggestions are provided.
Keywords Decolonial human rights literacies · Decoloniality · Democracy ·
Equality · Place-space–time · Right to education
A. Becker (B)
Department of Curriculum Studies, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
e-mail: annebecker@sun.ac.za
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025
J. Zajda and Y. Vissing (eds.), Globalisation, Human Rights and Education,
Globalisation, Comparative Education and Policy Research 51,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-80304-8_6
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6.1 Introduction
Although human rights have the potential to disrupt marginalising social, economic,
and political orders, a global mistrust of and in human rights has developed in recent
years (Du Preez & Becker, 2016; Keet, 2015). Baxi (2007, p. 1) describes this as
“distinctive forms of human rights weariness and wariness”. Weariness he equates
to moral fatigue with human rights logics and languages, and wariness he relates to
contemporary politics of and for human rights which remain imbedded in racism,
capitalism, and neo-liberalism (Becker & Roux, 2019a; Baxi, 2007). Critique on the
unproductive nature of abstract and universal human rights mainly concern exclusions, the failure to acknowledge the humanity of the other and identity politics
(Cistelecan, 2011; Zembylas & Bozalek, 2014). Globalisation has resulted in moral
problems being compressed into the language of human rights, but scholars such
as Žižek (2005) and Ranciѐre (2004) contend that the political and moral core of
human rights serve colonial economic and power interests in the guise of tolerance
or humanitarian intervention or aid (Du Preez & Becker, 2016).
Decolonial scholars has critiqued human rights since the 1950’s (Fanon,1952/
2008; Césaire, 1950/2000). During colonisation, hierarchical identities were created
to categorise humans (Maldonado-Torres, 2007). These identities are still embedded
in the moral and political core of human rights (Mignolo, 2009; Maldonado-Torres,
2017). During 2020, #BlackLivesMatter, founded in the USA, grew into a global
social justice and human rights movement. The movement and protests evolved in
focusing on centuries of global structural and systemic ongoing colonial power.
Because of the imperial and colonial hierarchical categorisation of humans, black
and brown bodies are still regarded as disposable today (Becker, 2021a). For many
humans around the world, human dignity, respect and protection against discrimination and oppression remain only abstract and discursive ideals despite the standards
and values set out in the UDHR (1948).
Decolonial human rights literacy, as a critical literacy, aims to interrupt this colonial lens. Pandya et al. (2022, p. 3) define critical literacies as practices that “individuals need in order to survive and thrive in the world, foregrounding the concept that
information and texts are never neutral; they afford the ability to produce powerful
texts that address injustices in our lived worlds”. The epistemological foundations
of critical literacies therefore rest on the power of social transformation and not so
much on the functional purposes of literacy.
The epistemology of critical literacies has also shifted in recent years from the
traditional dominance by Global North scholars towards literacies as embodied experiences from both the North and South (Willis, 2023). This leads to the notion of
multiple critical epistemologies in the world. These epistemologies are premised on
material reality and the critical reading of that reality in place-space–time. A critical
reading of material reality interrogates power dynamics and is an ethical and political
process towards social transformation (Trigos-Carrill et al., 2022).
This book chapter advocates for critical, decolonial human rights literacies as an
option for interrupting the reproduction of colonial place-space–time, resulting in the
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non-realisation of human rights and ongoing colonial and marginalizing structures
and systems. This is done through a decolonial reading of the (non)realisation of
the universal right to education in South African place-space–time. The right to
education is chosen because, as Osler and Stokke (2021) pose, the right to education
is an enabling right, which is fundamental to the realisation of all other rights.
In South Africa, marginalising social and material spaces are reproduced (even
thirty years after democratisation) through the relational movement between place,
space and time. Despite the Constitution of South Africa and the Bill of Rights
(1996), the lack of acceptable quality education resulting in growing poverty and
inequality, remain within historic colonial and apartheid race-based frameworks. In
is so ingrained in South Africa that Nqwane et al. (2021) state that many South
Africans tolerate poverty and inequality because they perceive it as normal. The first
two sections of this chapter are devoted to the link between coloniality/decoloniality
and place-space–time and how this link influences meaning making of human rights.
The colonial premise of human rights reinforces colonial hierarchical categories of
humanity. A critical decolonial reading of human rights is an option to interrupt
and counter the mistrust in human rights. When choosing decoloniality as a critical, ethical, political, and conscious positioning, decolonial human rights literacies
develop and the subjects of rights act towards interrupting and renewing material
reality.
With that as background the right to education as stipulated in the UDHR (1948),
the normative standards for the realisation of the right to education, as set out by
the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1999), the right to
education as set out in the CRC (1989), and the ACRWC (1990) are explained. A
decolonial reading of the (non)realisation of the right to education in South African
place-space–time is then done against the criteria posed by these documents. Some
concluding thoughts are presented.
6.2 Decoloniality in Place-Space–time
Meaning making of life experiences and human rights is always situated in place(s),
space(s), and time. Everyday life is anchored in geographical place. (Roux & Becker,
2019). Meaning making, however, is not bounded by geographical places or borders.
Sociological, political, economic, historic, and discursive relations and their consequences, within place, enable the construction of meaning spatially (Becker & Roux,
2019b). Lefebvre (1991) analyses space in terms of the social relations embedded in
it, rather than the ‘things’ that constitute space. Space is socially produced through
social practices. It is structured within webs of relationships and are continuously
and actively produced and reproduced in place and time (Christie, 2013). Meaning
making of human rights in place and space therefore requires a critical consciousness
of the web of human relations at a particular present point in place-space–time, as well
as an understanding of the processes of spatial production that extend beyond that
point, such as histories, cultures of remembrance, intergenerational knowledge, and
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past experiences (Christie, 2013; Roux & Becker, 2023). In South Africa, movements
between present social relations and colonial and apartheid histories and relations
produce and reproduce marginalising social spaces, systems, and structures.
Hudson and Melber (2014, p. 2) referencing Faulkner (1951) argue that the notion
‘the past is never dead. It’s not even past’ is applicable to South Africa (Roux &
Becker, 2021). The past, however, repeats itself differently in the present. Lefebvre
(2013, p. 7) argues that absolute repetition “is only a fiction of logical and mathematical thought”. The different repetition and manifestation of the past in the present
do however “constitute the thread of time’ (Lefebvre, 2013, p. 7). The thread of
time is a dialectic relation of past, present and future (Lefebvre, 2013). Colonialism
and apartheid therefore still produce very specific (although different) forms of
domination and exploitation in South Africa today.
The recent decolonial turn in humanities has the potential to interrupt and disrupt
the flow and reproduction of marginalisation in place-space–time. Formalised in the
Global South, decoloniality aims to dismantle global colonial relations of power
and conceptions of being and knowing which reproduce racial, gender and geopolitical hierarchies in place-space–time (Becker, 2020; Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2019).
While postcolonialism is a condition or an existential situation over which individuals
may have no power, decoloniality is an option for action. Decoloniality is a “political,
ethical, and epistemic positionality and an entry point into agency” (Roux & Becker,
2023; Tlostanova, 2019). The decolonial stance involves a conscious choice of how
to interpret material reality and how to act upon it.
Although decoloniality and decolonial human rights literacies are global projects,
decolonial thinking and living are always rooted in the local. It is always situated in
place(s)-space(s)-time and decolonial literacies are therefore pluriversal in nature.
Decolonial thinking is an individual, but also a collective and communal, conscious
choice. It is a task for both the global and the local us. (Becker, 2021b). Decolonial
thinking and theory provide the possibility of a national and transnational choice
and a point of connection for critical, pluriversal decolonial literacy activists and
educators to construct new realities towards realising human rights. When human
rights knowledge is constructed through critical literacies with the marginalised, it
is an act of creation where all humans and not only some, on behalf of others, name
and create the world they share (Freire, 2017). The epistemologies of decolonial
human rights literacies then becomes geared towards relational and bottom-up social
transformation.
Decolonial thinking and living are relational through past, present and future
(Walsh & Mignolo, 2018). It interrogates relations between different local histories and cultures of remembrance resulting in different ways of seeing and living
the world. This includes an interrogation of relations of privilege and oppression
resulting from the ongoing colonial hierarchical categorisation of human bodies
(Walsh, 2018). Through an embodied decolonial praxis of living totalising claims and
colonial violence are countered in attempts to make meaning of the (non)realisation
of human rights and to act on it in place-space–time. In the next section the case
is made for an urgent shift towards decolonial thinking and living for and towards
human rights.
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6.3 Decolonial Human Rights Literacies
in Place-Space–time
Coloniality outlives colonialism (Maldonado Torres, 2007). Mignolo (2018) argues
that the ongoing global colonial matrix of power still control the world economy,
notions of authority and power, gender and sexuality, subjectivity, and knowledge.
It controls ways of being and ways of knowing (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2019). Eurowestern notions of literacy had, since colonialism, been used to control being and
knowledge and in so doing domesticated populations and silenced indigenous voices.
What counts as powerful literacies are still deeply shaped by coloniality (Janks &
McKinney, 2022; Willis, 2023). Before the inception of the UDHR (1948), human
rights have been exclusionary in nature (Becker, 2021b). Although equality and
liberty were widely accepted in the late 1800s, it never included black and indigenous
peoples, slaves, women, children, and persons who did not own property (Becker,
2021b; Woldeyes & Offord, 2018). Pushback on the premise of human rights (specifically the UDHR, 1948), from decolonial scholars started during the 1950s, with
Fanon (1952/2008) and Césaire (1950/2000) (Becker, 2021b; Moyn, 2014). Césaire
(1950/2000) argued that the UDHR (1948) never considered the wider problem of
colonialism and growing racism (Maldonado-Torres, 2017). The crucial and fundamental question regarding different forms of being (Human/human), never addressed
by the UDHR, remains embedded in the premise of human rights (Becker, 2021b;
Maldonado-Torres, 2017; Yang, 2015). Mignolo (2018, p. 153) states:
The question is not what is human and humanity but rather who defined themselves as
humans in their praxis of living and applied their self-definition to distinguish and classify
and rank lesser humans.
To realise the revolutionary and transformative potential of human rights there needs to be a
critical and decolonial interrogation of the universal norms and ideological frame in which
human rights is embedded (Keet & Zembalys, 2019). Decolonial theory, premised on the deemphasis and interruption of Western knowledge and modes of conception of the world and
humanity is a clear option for such an interrogation. The Eurocentric history of human rights
does not need to be discarded within human rights discourse and education, but decolonial
thinking is a choice to engage with other conceptions of rights to remove Eurocentrism from
its hierarchical categories and monologue. Decolonial thinking stresses the importance of
creating space for many cultural, political, and social memories and epistemologies from
different geopolitical contexts (Faulkner & Nyamutata, 2020). It results in a different (otherwise) way to think and teach about, for and towards human rights. This is an otherwise, in
plural, in place-space-time.
There is no universal in decolonial work. It seeks to expand pluriversality which
also include western knowledges and ways of being. Decoloniality however seeks “to
make visible, open up, and advance radically distinct perspectives and positionalities
that displace Western rationality as the only framework” (Walsh, 2018, p. 17. own
emphasis). Being decolonial human rights literate is the ability to understand what
human rights could and should mean in any given place-space–time and what actions
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and practices are needed to thrive (or survive) through and for human rights in placespace–time. It underscores an acute awareness of the unequal valuation of different
forms of knowledges and ways of being in human rights (Roux & Becker, 2023).
Starting in material reality, marginalisation and exclusion are exposed from the
bottom-up through human rights literacies. This process requires a critical consciousness of not only present material realities but also of how present material realities
are embedded in historic global and local place-space–time. In contesting abstract
discourses of human rights in place-space–time, the processes, and reasons for, the
(non)realisation of human rights become clear. This enables critique, cognitive dissonance and disruption, dissensus and interruption (Du Preez & Becker, 2016). Willis
(2023, p. 203) poses that “[C]critical literacies provide a pathway to read between
the lines, understand historical and contemporary contexts and subtexts, and refuse
to stay silent”. Reading between the lines in place-space–time creates entry points
into agency and action (Tlostanova, 2019). Critique, alone, cannot change societies.
Social change is a result of a choice to act. Social group(s) need to intervene in
place-space–time to enact change (Lefevre, 2013). The ideals of the right to education, which is an enabling right for every child in the world, is presented in the next
section.
6.4 The Right to Education
Education as a human right was declared in 1948 in Article 26, stating that all citizens
of the world have the right to education and a life of learning. The statement from
the UDHR (1948) reads as follows:
Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and
fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional
education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible
to all based on merit.
Human rights, however, are evolutionary in nature. The development and ratification of nine human rights conventions, treaties, documents, and protocols since
1948, accepted by the UN, attest to that. The Convention on the Rights of the Child
CRC (1989) is one of the nine conventions and has been celebrated for its universal
acceptance (Faulkner & Nyamutata, 2020).
6.4.1 The Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
The CRC (1989) is the most ratified of any international human rights conventions and is regarded as the most important document in history to protect children
(Vissing, 2023). The CRC (1989) has been instrumental in changing the social and
political status of children, influencing laws, policies, and practices across the world
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(Faulkner & Nyamutata, 2020). Regarding education the CRC (1989) states the
following in Article 28 (Vissing, 2023, pp. 97–98):
1. States Parties recognize the right of the child to education, and with a view to
achieving this right progressively and on the basis of equal opportunity, they
shall, in particular:
(a) Make primary education compulsory and available free to all.
(b) Encourage the development of different forms of secondary education,
including general and vocational education, make them available and accessible to every child, and take appropriate measures such as the introduction
of free education and offering financial assistance in case of need.
(c) Make higher education accessible to all on the basis of capacity by every
appropriate means.
(d) Make educational and vocational information and guidance available and
accessible to all children.
(e) Take measures to encourage regular attendance at schools and the reduction
of drop-out rates.
After critique from decolonial scholars on the CRC (1989) and to situate the rights
of children on the African continent, the ACRWC was adopted by African leaders
in 1990 and entered into force in 1999.
6.4.2 The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare
of the Child (1990)
There has been critique from decolonial scholars on the CRC (1989). There are
three main points of critique. Firstly, Faulkner and Nyamutata, (2020) challenge the
perception that the CRC (1989) creates a framework of children’s rights that represents and benefits the world’s children. The global and universally accepted rights
for children remain unreachable because of economic disparities and difficulties in
developing countries. Such disparities have been attributed to years of colonial rule
which stagnated development throughout the Global South (Faulkner & Nyamutata,
2020).
Secondly, it has been argued that the language of the CRC (1989) promotes liberal
individualism—an individual divorced from a social grouping—which is contrary
to the collectivist models associated with many non-Western societies (Faulkner &
Nyamutata, 2020). Personhood and human dignity in African countries are defined
while considering the lived experiences of a person’s relations with others in the
community (Becker, 2021a). Ikuenobe (2018) argues that the binary between individual rights and community in liberal western conceptions of personhood and rights
can only exist in the abstract. Substantive rights are balancing acts between the
individual and community within specific contexts.
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The above leads to the third point of critique, namely, the definition of what a child
is. Vissing (2023, p. 17) rightly argues: “Ideologically, how children are defined and
conceptualized impacts theory construction, their place in society, and why things
are the way they are for them”. The CRC (1979) in Article 1 stipulates as follows: ‘a
child means every human being below the age of 18 years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier.’ Although it is argued that age limits
reflect societies’ judgement, the definition of childhood in the CRC (1979) suggests
a universalised, standardised child irrespective of context (Faulkner & Nyamutata,
2020). In line with the notion of place-space–time the ACRW (1990) reflects the
needs of children in the African context. Whilst there are many similarities between
the CRC (1979) and the ACRWC (1990), the latter represents ideological differences
in the conception of childhood and children’s rights. The ideological differences and
the emphasis on cultural values and African solidarity are particularly clear in Article
11 (2) which states that the education of the child shall be directed to:
(a) the promotion and development of the child’s personality, talents, and mental and physical
abilities to their fullest potential.
(b) fostering respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms with particular reference to
those set out in the provisions of various African instruments on human and peoples’ rights
and international human rights declarations and conventions.
(c) the preservation and strengthening of positive African morals, traditional values and
cultures.
(d) the preparation of the child for responsible life in a free society, in the spirit of understanding, tolerance, dialogue, mutual respect and friendship among all peoples ethnic, tribal
and religious groups.
(e) the preservation of national independence and territorial integrity.
(f) the promotion and achievements of African Unity and Solidarity.
(g) the development of respect for the environment and natural resources.
(h) the promotion of the child’s understanding of primary health care.
The ACRWC (1990) contests the CRC’s (1979) premise of a universal child.
By contextualising the definition of childhood, the ACRWC (1990) challenges the
Eurocentric and universalistic predicates of the CRC (1979) (see for example 11
[2c] which refers to the preservation and strengthening of positive African morals,
traditional values and cultures—children are assumed as part of a community with
certain rights but also responsibilities) (Faulkner & Nyamutata, 2020). In Article
11(1) the ACRWC (1990) states:
Every child shall have the right to education.
In Article 11(3) the Charter declares that all States Parties to the Charter shall take all
appropriate measures with a view to achieving the full realization of this right and shall in
particular:
(a) provide free and compulsory basic education:
(b) encourage the development of secondary education in its different forms and to
progressively make it free and accessible to all.
(c) make the higher education accessible to all on the basis of capacity and ability by
every appropriate means.
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(d) take measures to encourage regular attendance at schools and the reduction of
drop-out rate.
(e) take special measures in respect of female, gifted and disadvantaged children, to
ensure equal access to education for all sections of the community.
To assist states in realising the right to education, the UN Committee on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights (1999) has set four normative standards. These standards are categorised
into a 4-A Right to Education Framework. They are availability, accessibility, acceptability,
and adaptability (Tomaševski, 2001). These standards are premised on both the CRC (1989)
and also reflected in the ACRWC (1990).
Availability refers to the state’s obligation to make education available to all. It
must be compulsory and free within the age range of 6–15 years old. It demands
from states to make available programmes and materials and all necessary and functional facilities which should meet safety and sanitary standards. Availability of
education is therefore directly linked to the infrastructure and available resources of
schools, which include access to drinking water, sanitation facilities, books, furniture,
science and computer labs, teachers, and buildings. (Moinipour, 2021a; Strohwald
& Horsten, 2024). Accessibility refers to education based on different educational
stages. Accessible education has three overlapping dimensions: non-discrimination,
physical accessibility, and economic accessibility (Moinipour, 2021a; Strohwald &
Horsten, 2024). The principle of acceptability of education protects human dignity.
Acceptability relates to the content and quality of education. Education must be nondiscriminatory. Schools must be safe, and teachers must be qualified and professional.
States should ensure that all schools have certain minimum standards for teachers,
building facilities and curricula (Moinipour, 2021b; Strohwald & Horsten, 2024). The
adaptability of education ensures that all children are considered in their difference.
It relates to the way in which education can adapt and evolve with the needs of society
by addressing inequalities in the education systems. That includes class, race, gender,
sexual orientations, religions, and different psychical, mental, and emotional abilities.
Schools should, to be adaptable, always ensure that the best interest of all children
are served (Moinipour, 2021b; Strohwald & Horsten, 2024; Tomaševski, 2001). The
above excerpts from the UDHR (1948), the CRC (1989), the ACRWC (1990) and
the A4-normative framework state the ideals of equal and equitable education for
all, both globally and in African / South African place-space–time. Documents do
however not always reflect material realities.
6.5 The Right to Education in Place-Space–time: South
Africa
As stated in the introduction, the right to education is an enabling right. It enables the
rights to dignity, equality, freedom, and full participation in the world we live in. The
right to education forms part of second-generation rights. Second generation rights
are claims to social justice and equity (Becker & du Preez, 2016). The notion of social
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justice, in and through education, and in and through human rights education, is key
to the realisation of freedom, dignity, equality and equity. Where equality refers to
equal treatment and opportunities for everyone, equity points to the fact that not
everyone starts at the same place (Becker & Roux, 2023). Working towards equity
requires a critical consciousness of the web of human relations at a particular present
point in place-space–time, as well as an understanding of the processes of spatial
production that extend beyond that point, such as histories in place-space–time. To
situate the right to education in place-space–time, a brief history of the development
of South African education is presented first.
6.5.1 A Brief History of the Development of Education
in South Africa
Formal western education in South Africa can be traced back to colonialism when
South Africa was occupied by the Dutch and English empires (Becker, 2021a,
2021b, 2021c). The first school in South Africa, established in 1829, the South
African College, did not admit any Black1 students. In line with colonial hierarchies of humanity, Black South Africans were viewed as inferior and were taught in
missionary schools. The discovery of diamonds in the 1860s and gold in the 1880s led
to the focus of Black South African education being re-directed and geared towards
supplying cheap labour in the gold and diamond mines (Becker, 2021a, 2021b,
2021c). The apartheid government came into power in 1948 and the race-based
education system that was born during colonialism was legitimised (Becker, 2021a,
2021b, 2021c). Educational policies were premised on racial superiority and inferiority (a remnant of colonial hierarchies classifying humans). Black South Africans
were consequently excluded from the educational, economic, social and political
spheres in South Africa resulting in inequality and poverty (Becker, 2021a, 2021b,
2021c). The state’s annual per capita expenditure for Black schools compared to
white schools showed stark differences (Chitsamatanga & Rembe, 2020). During
apartheid, racialisation of all aspects of the South African segregated social formation was enforced. This had as consequence that the production of educational space
became a “racialized political economy of space, and/or the political economy of
racialized space”. (Christie, 2013, p. 778).
By the time of liberation in 1994, white children were given more years of
schooling in a compulsory system in well-resourced schools. They were taught by
better qualified teachers in smaller classes and had lower failure and repetition rates.
In contrast, schooling was not compulsory for Black students; schools were inadequate in number and had poor infrastructures. Black schools had a high teacher–child
1 Black in this context refers to all population groups affected by discrimination and marginalisation
during the colonial and apartheid eras. This included Black African, Coloured and Indian children.
6 The Right to Education in South Africa: A Critical Decolonial Reading …
119
ratio at 1:39 compared to white schools which had a teacher–child ratio of 1:18 (Chitsamatanga & Rembe, 2020). Many teachers were also under- or unqualified (Christie,
2013).
After 1994 there was a dire need for implementing the 4-A normative standards,
the CRC (1979) and the ACRWC (1990) in a quest for social justice, equality, and
equity in education. To redress previous educational inequality and a growing demand
for education, the new ANC government focussed education policies on open access
to education for all children. The White Paper on Education and Training of 1995 was
implemented to serve as a principal reference point and to set new ground rules for
the restructuring, transformation, and development of the education system in South
Africa (Department of Education, 1995). These polices were centred on non-racism
and equal rights (Chitsamatanga & Rembe, 2020).
Access to equal quality education remains critical for interrupting historic, intergenerational transmission of poverty, inequality, and lack of literacies (functional and
critical) (Gumede, 2021). During 1996, however, there was a shift from a promotion
of inclusive constitutional democratic values and social justice and equity in education towards economic thinking. The labour market became an integral partner in
the shaping of the curriculum. Education was expected to aid economic growth and
development and market principles enabled the reproduction of marginalisation in
place-space–time (Becker & du Preez, 2016).
During and after 2015–2016, decolonisation and decolonising became key to
educational discourse in South Africa due to the #mustfall student protests. Decolonisation in relation to education is not a new or a uniquely South African topic. The
#mustfall protests, or movements, as the students themselves referred to it, targeted
neo-liberalism, capitalism, social inequality, lack of access to higher education
and sociopolitical alienation. Factors which were specific to the #mustfall protests
include coloniality and humanist othering, racism, whiteness, patriarchy, and sexism
(Booysen, 2016). Although the #mustfall protests were mainly focused on higher
education in South Africa, the need for the decolonisation of all educational structures and systems in South Africa became paramount. There are ongoing efforts
towards decolonising South African education but as Le Grange et al. (2020) pose,
it seems to be more focused on symbolism which ultimately leads to nothing more
than decolonial-washing.
6.5.2 Post-Apartheid Education in South Africa
After 1994, provision of schooling expanded, enrolments increased to internationally respectable levels, and teacher qualifications improved initially (Christie, 2013;
Chitsamatanga & Rembe, 2020). Concerning access and availability of education,
basic education is now compulsory for all children from the age of 7 to 15 years
(Grade 1–9), and Provincial governments are required to ensure sufficient places for
all children in that age-range in their respective provinces. South Africa do provide
for secondary and tertiary education, but it is not compulsory nor free. Availability of
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functional facilities which include facilities meeting safety and sanitary standards are
however not adhered to as many historically Black schools still operate under severe
financial inadequacies and lack basic water and sanitation infrastructure (Motala &
Menon, 2020).
Overcrowding is another big problem, particularly at the primary school level.
The average class size for grade 6 is 1:61 in Limpopo, 1:59 in Mpumalanga and 1:54
in KwaZulu-Natal provinces. The Provincial governments, under law, is compelled
to place all children in the age group 7–15 years but they do not provide the infrastructure and teachers to make quality teaching and learning possible. Effective teaching,
especially in basic skills such as reading and writing, is impossible because no individual attention is possible. Add to that, the fact that many schools in Black and
poor township and rural areas do not have libraries, and it’s clear why only 1 out
of 5 pupils in grade 4, (9–10 years old), can read with comprehension. Secondly,
although pupils are encouraged to take STEM (science, technology, engineering,
and maths) subjects, many schools in poor and historically Black communities do
not have science or computer laboratories or the necessary qualified teachers in these
subjects.
The lack of functional facilities and infrastructure in schools, results in what
Gumede points to as a lack of access to quality and acceptable education. Deep
disparities as to access to acceptable education remain. This was re-affirmed by
Amnesty International (2020) in its report on education in South Africa stating that
the South African education system is characterised by stark inequalities and underperformance (Amnesty International, 2020; Wanka & Rena, 2019). There is a link
between an individual’s educational access to quality education and poverty as well
as a link between poverty and access to equal quality education (Wanka & Rena,
2019).
The realisation of availability and acceptability of education in South Africa are
hampered by neoliberal market principles (Maistry & Africa, 2020). Wealthy and
desperately poor schools within the same urban location is a well-documented feature
of South African education. This marginalisation and discrimination in education is
masked by propagating the right for parents to choose schools in post-apartheid South
Africa. This choice, however, is only available to the wealthy. The implementation
of high school fees exclude poor Black children from attending historically white
schools and further exclude these children from the benefits of qualified teachers and
a wide choice of subjects to choose from (Chitsamatanga & Rembe, 2020).
This is typical of a neoliberal agenda which favours privatisation over adequate
state provision for education (Maistry & Africa, 2020). Affluent schools (mostly situated in historic white areas) with access to financial resources such as high school fees
and various other means of financial assistance, offer education which are materially
better than those of poor schools which operate in permanent financial survivalist
mode (Maistry & Africa, 2020). The poor may be theoretically fully included in the
right to state provision to education but in South Africa this has been normalised as
a limited right (Becker & du Preez, 2016).
To counter the lack of access to quality education, there are however parents
and children who navigate educational spaces successfully in search of access to
6 The Right to Education in South Africa: A Critical Decolonial Reading …
121
acceptable quality education. Navigating historical patterns of segregated spatial
educational reproduction in urban areas requires multiple and multilayered movements in place-space–time. The rise of the black middle class have reshaped race and
class dynamics in urban developments, enacting new spatial living and educational
geographies (Fataar, 2015). Urban Black middle-class children have gained access to
historically white schools and better-quality education. Race has given way to class
privilege for that segment of the population (Christie, 2013). There are also movements and flows through place and space in urban areas where children travel large
distances by train, bus and on foot, from their homes in townships to city schools in
white or privileged neighbourhoods, daily (Fataar, 2015; Chitsamatanga & Rembe,
2020).
In rural and poverty-stricken Black township areas, however, racial spatial patterns
persist, and overall, patterns of performance remain racially skewed. Eighty percent
of Black children still attend historically Black underfunded schools in the townships
and rural areas where they live, and many of their spatial activities have not changed
since 1994 Chitsamatanga & Rembe, 2020; Christie, 2013). Their marginalization
in the production of space has not changed, either in their everyday lives or in their
access to education (Christie, 2013).
This is masked every year when the Department of Education (DoE) cluster
educational results and statistics for the nine provinces in South Africa. Historically
marginalised schools’ performances are countered by historically privilege schools’
performances which then creates the illusion of successful educational and schooling
structures and systems in South Africa.
In January 2024 the DoE released the results of the 2023 National Senior Certificate exams. In its statement the DoE claims that of the 691,160 candidates who
wrote the National Senior Certificate exams, 82.9% (572,983) passed. The DoE
however confuse quantity with quality (or symbolism with equality), and this has led
to ongoing debates between politicians and educationalists regarding the real pass
rate and the state of South African education.
Of the class of 2023 (691,160), 1,208,973 children entered the first year of school
(grade 1) in 2012 when they were 7 years old. Only 928,050 made it to grade 11 in
2022 when they were 17 years old, and only 740,566 enrolled for grade 12 in 2023
when they were 18 years old. Thus, 468,407 pupils (almost 40%) disappeared into
the system. Analysts therefore argue that the actual pass rate is 55%. Organisations
such as the African Transformation Movement (ATM) again called for a “critical
examination” of the factors that play a role in the alarmingly high school dropout
rate (le Roux, 2024).
Despite new plans and existing efforts to improve educational systems and structures in South Africa the education system remains indicative of apartheid legacies
(Chitsamatanga & Rembe, 2020). The relation between historic and present privilege and oppression remains stable, despite the South African Constitution and Bill
of Rights (1996), the CRC (1979) and the ACRWC (1990). With a high dropout
rate, a lack of infrastructure such as sanitation and water, a lack of qualified teachers
and sufficient classroom space, no libraries and no science and technology labs in
schools in poor Black townships, the South African state cannot claim full adherence
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to the CRC (1979), the ACRWC (1990) and the A4-normative framework. Within the
South African educational systems and structures, Black children’s bodies remain
disposable.
6.6 A Decolonial Reading of the Right to Education
in South Africa
South African colonial and apartheid education systems and structures laid the foundation for the severe inequality in education today. Although the post-apartheid
government had lofty ideals for education, limited progress has been made. All children in South Africa are included in the abstract right to education, but poor and
(mostly) Black children are excluded from the right to acceptable quality education
which would enable them to become active participants in the world they live in. The
segregated colonial and apartheid spatial distribution of educational resources remain
in place-space–time. A critical reading of, and a decolonial stance to, the right to
education in material reality in South Africa is needed. The decolonial stance involves
critical and conscious choices of how to interpret material reality and how to act upon
it. Being decolonial human rights literate is the ability to understand what human
rights could and should mean in any given place-space–time and what actions and
practices are needed to thrive (or survive) through and for the right to education in
place-space–time.
In analysing the material reality of the right to education in South Africa the results
and statistics released by the DoE regarding the National Senior Certificate exams
every year, is of no use. The realisation of the right to education, in material reality
needs to be judged according to the demands of the UDHR (1948), the normative
standards set by the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1999),
the CRC (1979) and the decolonising ideals of the ACRWC (1990). Black children
and youth entered the new constitutional democracy with a severe disadvantage
as far as education goes. There was thus a dire need for both equality and equity in
education. The post-apartheid government immediately took steps to make education
available and compulsory to all South African children aged 7–15 years. The historic
racially segregated educational structures and systems, however, remain in place and
space. Christie (2013, p. 775) explains:
In South Africa, centuries of colonization laid the groundwork for spatialized relations of
power, which were extended and formalized by apartheid into a hybrid sovereignty that tied
race to place in structurally unequal ways These configurations of power and opportunity
have proven hard to shift in post-apartheid education. Differentiated patterns of access,
provision, and performance fall along the lines of historical geography, albeit with blurring
forms as race gives way to class in segments of the system.
This impacts the levels by which the normative standards for the right to education
in South Africa are met. For previously white privileged schools, the normative
standards are met because most of the infrastructure, facilities, qualified teachers in
6 The Right to Education in South Africa: A Critical Decolonial Reading …
123
specifically STEM subjects, libraries, computer and science labs, counsellors and
remedial specialists are paid for by means of very high school fees, and benefactors.
These schools do not have to rely on the minimum funds they receive from the state.
In historical Black and poor communities and schools which do not have the financial
means to supplement financial provisions from the state, the normative standards are
not met. While one of the aims of the ACRWC (1990) as stated in article 11 (2) is
the promotion and development of the child’s personality, talents and mental and
physical abilities to their fullest potential, education in mostly Black, poor, and rural
areas fall short. With overcrowded classrooms, no libraries, no science and computer
labs, the accessibility, availability, acceptability and adaptability standards and the
aims of the ACRWC (1990) are not met.
The normative standards not met by the government have dire consequences for
primary but, specifically, for secondary education. Although basic education for
children up to 15 years are compulsory and free, secondary, and tertiary education
are neither compulsory nor free. As the statistics from the class of 2023 indicate, there
is a massive dropout rate in South African schools as children move from primary to
secondary education. This is not in compliance with either the CRC (1979) Article
29 (1e), or the ACRWC (1990) Article 11 (3b) demanding states to encourage regular
attendance and to make efforts in reducing the dropout rates.
The ACRWC (1990) states in Article 11 (3b) that states should encourage and
develop secondary education in its different forms and progressively make it free
and accessible to all. The CRC (1979) takes a stronger view on accessibility of
secondary education and states in Article 29 (1b) that the development of different
forms of secondary education, including general and vocational education, should be
encouraged. It further demands from states to make secondary education available
and accessible to every child and take appropriate measures such as the introduction
of free education and offering financial assistance in case of need.
One of the reasons for the high dropout rate in South Africa is the socio-economic
conditions many children live in. Although extreme poverty has somewhat declined
in post-apartheid South Africa, levels of poverty remain very high. The persistence of
colonial and apartheid spatial distribution in place and time has as consequence that it
is mainly the Black population group that experience poverty (Gumede, 2021). South
African education has not adapted to accommodate these socio-economic needs.
Another reason for the high drop-out rate is the ideological framing of childhood
in Africa. While the CRC (1979) defines a child as an individual, the ACRWC (1990)
defines a child as part of a social grouping, a family and a collective. Many children
therefore must either leave school and seek employment when they are 16 years
old as a means of survival or combine education with work. This is a double-edged
sword because while being part of the labour market can affect children’s education
negatively, it can also assist children with the financial means to pursue education.
This is why the adaptability of education is crucial. Much more need to be done by
communities and the government to assist children in combining education while
also contributing to the survival of their families and upholding African traditions
and values (Faulkner & Nyamutata, 2020).
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One might rightly question the influence of any human rights conventions, treaties
or documents, when it comes to the full realisation of the right to education in
South Africa. Knowledge of human rights documents and treaties do not lead to the
realisation of rights in material reality. There is a need to be critically literate about
how rights could and should materialise in material realities.
Being critically human rights literate in South African place-space–time opens
possibilities for action. The decolonial challenge is to move beyond a simple reading
of and about human rights in material reality, towards a thinking from and with
material reality in place-space–time (Walsh, 2018). Decolonisation (as a verb and a
project) is tied to disrupting and intervening in material reality through lived struggles
in place-space–time. Both decoloniality (as a noun) and decolonisation (as a verb) are
always contextual, relational, practice based, and lived (Walsh, 2018). Intellectual
knowledge about the right to education and the numerous related policies are not
enough. All kinds of knowledge, including lived and embodied knowledge in colonial
and apartheid spaces, constructed from grass roots conversations and movements,
are needed.
An example of such as decolonial communal choice resulting in a decolonising
project is the Molo Mhlaba (Hello Earth) Pan African school in the Khayelitsha
township in the Western Cape, South Africa. Molo Mhlaba is a non-profit private
school that was established in 2018 in Khayelitsha and focusses on science, technology, engineering, maths, art, and design. This project was initiated by Sonibare
and Athambile Masola with the board members of a non-profit Thope Foundation.
It is deliberately run and driven by black women. Sonibare, a social worker, became
frustrated by interventions targeted at township children which were driven by white
women and men with no knowledge of the lived experiences and the actual needs of
children living in Khayelitsha (Davis, 2018).
To interrupt the colonial and apartheid education structures and systems and create
something new, the founders of the school undertook a survey in the Khayelitsha
community to find out if there was a demand for such a school and what the actual
needs of the community were. This was therefore a bottom-up project from and with
the community in Khayelitsha. The community wanted a girls’ school where girls
could be safe. Because it is a private school they must charge fees—R400 per month.
Given that many parents spend R600 in transport fees to provide acceptable and
quality education for their children in affluent schools, this is a cheaper and safer
option for girls, but it remains unaffordable for many parents (Davis, 2018). At Molo
Mhlaba, parental involvement in the school is required and encouraged. The school
is very much a community project. Parents spend 30 h a year volunteering at the
school. (Davis, 2018). By mid-2023 a third Molo Mhlaba campus opened its doors
in the Western Cape (Khay, 2023). All campuses are premised on the decolonial
principles of bottom-up, relational, situated knowledge and struggles from and with
material realities of communities in place-space–time.
6 The Right to Education in South Africa: A Critical Decolonial Reading …
125
6.7 Conclusion
This chapter unpacked the (non)realisation of the right to education in South Africa
through a critical decolonial lens. A critical, decolonial shift in how we think about,
for and towards human rights and the right to education is proposed. Such a shift is
enabled through critical decolonial human rights literacies. The UDHR (1948), the
normative standards set by the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights and reflected in the CRC (1979) and the ACRWC (1990) state the ideals of
the right to education for every child. Documents however do not always translate to
the realisation of rights in material reality. Colonial and apartheid racial and spatial
educational marginalisation remain in place for most Black and poor children in postapartheid South Africa. A decolonising project in place-space–time requires a critical
consciousness of the web of human relations in place and space at a particular present
point, but also an understanding of the processes by which those relations have been
produced and re-produced through history in place and space. Decolonial thinking
and living opens possibilities to create new educational spaces in a diversity of
cultural and socio-economic contexts. It, however, also demands accountability and
adaptability from both the state and communities towards realising rights in placespace–time. Only then can a bottom-up and relational intervention and renewal of
educational spaces become possible. Decolonising in place-space–time is, primarily,
a conscious choice to action and renewal. It is easy to talk about decolonising the
right to education in South Africa. Interrupting colonial place-space–time and living
and doing decolonising is a difficult and unsettling process (Becker, 2021b). It is a
courageous intervention in persistent colonial and apartheid education spaces towards
the full realisation of the right to education for all children in South Africa.
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Dr. Anne Becker is currently a Research Fellow at the University of Stellenbosch, Johannesburg,
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justice, and specifically curriculum, freedom, dignity and equality), marginalisation, social exclusion, social theory, sociology, qualitative analysis, education science, othering and decoloniality,
and teacher training.
Chapter 7
Education for Development and Human
Rights: The Contribution of Educational
Projects in Portuguese Schools
Graça Santos, Maria da Conceição Martins, Sofia Bergano,
and Cristina Martins
Abstract The diversity of the global world generates dynamics that pose challenges for individuals and communities. In a democratic society, it is essential to
be committed to human rights and to ensure respect for social justice. Education in
general, and schools in particular, play a key role in developing skills that make citizens more participatory and aware of their actions in the world around them. Based on
international guidelines on the principles of Education for Development and Global
Citizenship (EDGC), Portugal has taken up the issue of education for citizenship as
an explicit concern in the educational context, seeking to implement it in schools.
This research aims to analyze, in a descriptive way, the presence of indicators related
to EDGC in the Portuguese School Educational Projects (SEP), and also to analyze
the potential of EDGC in the daily lives of students and in their future. This is a
qualitative, descriptive and exploratory study of four school groupings in the Terras
de Trás-os-Montes Intermunicipal Community (Portugal). Using the content analysis technique, four categories/dimensions were defined: ethical; political; collective
(and interpersonal and inter-institutional relations); and alterity. There is a concern
to achieve an education that promotes values, but it is considered that democracy will
only be achieved indirectly, through the development of skills associated with the
practice of citizenship. There is also a discrepancy between the evidence of EDGC
present in the guiding principles and objectives and its limited expression in the
strategies and targets, concluding that these concepts are not worked on effectively
G. Santos (B) · M. da Conceição Martins · S. Bergano
Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
e-mail: gmsantos@ipb.pt
M. da Conceição Martins
e-mail: mcesm@ipb.pt
S. Bergano
e-mail: sbergano@ipb.pt
C. Martins
Research Center in Basic Education, Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
e-mail: cmartins@ipb.pt
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025
J. Zajda and Y. Vissing (eds.), Globalisation, Human Rights and Education,
Globalisation, Comparative Education and Policy Research 51,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-80304-8_7
129
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and intentionally during the implementation of the SEP. It is therefore recommended
that EDGC be implemented at all levels of education, including higher education, as
a way of encouraging practices that promote respect for diversity and equity in the
construction of a democratic and just society.
Keywords Citizenship education · Democracy · Diversity · Education for
development · Equality · Human rights · Portugal · Portugal education system ·
Social justice · School educational projects · Values
7.1 About Human Rights and Education
Globalization has increased environmental, economic and social interdependence
on a global scale, increasing the challenges facing all communities. The growth
of information technologies and the increase in migration mean that people with
very different ways of being and thinking live side by side. This diversity can be
positive, but it has to be managed carefully, establishing dynamics that highlight
common values rather than differences (GENE, 2022). But harmoniously organizing
different world views and objectives is not easy. This requires a “culture of democracy” (Barrett, 2016, p. 15), in which institutions and laws are based on democratic
values, attitudes and practices. Among other things, these include a commitment to
human rights, “the recognition of and respect for diversity, a willingness to express
one’s own opinions, a willingness to listen to the opinions of others, a commitment
to decisions taken by majorities, a commitment to the protection of minorities and
their rights” (p. 15).
Despite the fact that “the enshrinement of human rights” has come to “embody
a universal principle and ideal of social justice” (Quintão & Marques, 2023, p. 24),
many injustices are observed, precisely because “they are rooted in the ignorance,
invisibility and stigmatization of certain social categories based on socially rooted
patterns that give certain categories a distinct cultural value compared to others”
(p. 20). Also at the political level, injustices often occur, in this case resulting from a
lower capacity to make decisions “on the part of specific social groups (ethnic, age,
for example), but above all on the part of groups with a limited citizenship status
(immigrants, asylum seekers, etc.), which refers to a global dimension of justice”
(p. 20).
Education plays a fundamental role here, as “the skills that citizens need to acquire
in order to participate effectively in a culture of democracy are not acquired automatically, but need to be learned and practiced” (Barrett, 2016, p. 16). It is important that
schools enable students to “become active participants in democratic processes, intercultural dialogue and society in general” (p. 16), to be “autonomous social agents,
capable of choosing and pursuing their own goals in life” (p. 16) and to “defend the
democratic principles that allow all cultures to coexist” (p. 7). In response to these
challenges and concerns, this research has set itself the following objectives: (i) to
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descriptively analyze the presence of indicators relating to Education for Development and Global Citizenship (EDGC) in School Educational Projects; (ii) to analyze
the potential of EDGC in students’ daily lives and in their future.
7.2 Education for Development: From the Guiding
Principles to Implementation at Schools
Education for Development and Global Citizenship (EDGC) assumes social justice as
“one of its central principles and values”, since “it is inherently an education for social
transformation, for the search for a more balanced world, with fewer inequalities and
injustices, where the well-being of each person, humanity and the planet prevails”
(Quintão & Marques, 2023, p. 8), and must “provide democratic and participatory
learning processes that can promote global citizenship, sustainability, intercultural
understanding, inclusion, a culture of peace and non-violence and gender equality
in education and society” (GENE, 2022, p. 4). However, as Fonseca (2011) points
out, today’s social, economic, axiological and cultural contexts require “active citizenship”, in which each citizen is able to respond to the demands of global and technological democratic societies in an autonomous, responsible, critical and reflective
way. It’s about forming a citizenry capable of analyzing, discussing and responding
to the challenges of society, recognizing itself as a member of society, acting and
deliberating consciously on the issues of the twenty-first century (UNESCO, 2014).
In this sense, in an attempt to respond to these challenges, Global Citizenship Education aims to “enable individuals to reflect critically on the legacies and processes of
their cultures, to imagine different future solutions and to take responsibility for their
decisions and actions” (Andreotti, 2014, p. 48).
In Portugal, this issue has been the focus of attention and considered in various
documents. In a chronological approach, we highlight the approval of the National
Strategy for Education for Development (NSED 2010–2015). Recognized as a
priority by a joint order of the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs and Cooperation and the Assistant Secretary of State for Education (Dispatch 25,931/2009,
of November 26), it was in force until 2017, with the aim of “promoting global citizenship through learning processes and raising awareness in Portuguese society of
development issues, with a view to action aimed at social transformation”. National
and international recognition of its social, political and educational relevance has led
to a recommendation to update it, which has come about through the approval of a
new National Strategy for Education for Development (NSED 2018–2022), which
emphasizes: (a) critical and ethically committed thinking; (b) the deconstruction of
stereotypes; (c) participatory, collaborative and horizontal learning processes, aimed
at developing autonomy and accountability in learning and action; and (d) learning
that interconnects, in a complex and non-linear way, different knowledge and levels
of analysis that promote intercultural approaches (Council of Ministers Resolution
94/2018, of July 16).
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The issue of education for citizenship has also been an explicit concern in the
curricula of educational systems. Social, political, economic and environmental
changes justify that citizenship education is an increasingly central concept in society
and, therefore, that its broad approach in schools is essential (Martins, 2021). The
Basic Law of the Education System (Law 46/86, of October 14) highlighted the principles of “democratic practice” and “citizenship” and Decree-Law 139/2012, of July
5, introduced a series of measures into the curriculum of basic and secondary education, among which the transversal nature of Citizenship was reinforced. The document “Education for Citizenship—guidelines” (DGE, 2013) identified the dimensions of Education for Citizenship, including Education for Development, and developed different frameworks in collaboration between the Directorate-General for
Education and other entities, acting as instruments to support education and teaching,
taking into account the levels and subject areas.
The Development Education Framework—preschool, primary and secondary
education (Cardoso et al., 2016) was one of the documents drawn up by the
Directorate-General for Education, in partnership with Camões—Instituto da Cooperação e da Língua, I.P., CIDAC—Centro de Intervenção para o Desenvolvimento
Amílcar Cabral and the Gonçalo da Silveira Foundation, with the aim of promoting
the pedagogical intervention of EDGC, as a dimension of education for citizenship
in preschool, primary and secondary education.
In 2017, the National Strategy for Citizenship Education (NSCE) was published
(Monteiro et al., 2017), which has become a reference document at a national
level, proposing that learning be carried out, in the Citizenship and Development
curriculum component, “through the plural and responsible participation of everyone
in the construction of themselves as citizens and of fairer and more inclusive societies, within the framework of democracy, respect for diversity and the defense of
human rights” (p. 3). In the 2017/2018 school year, this document was considered
as a guideline for schools that adopted the Autonomy and Curricular Flexibility
Project (Dispatch 5908/2017, of July 5), in convergence with the document “Profile of Students Leaving Compulsory Education [PSLCE]” (Dispatch 6478/2017, of
July 26) and the “Essential Learning” (Dispatch 6944-A/2018, of July 19; Dispatch
8476-A/2018, of August 31).
Internationally, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Resolution
“Transforming Our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” in 2015.
The “Sustainable Development Goals” (SDG), namely SDG 4 dedicated to “Quality
Education” and, within this, measure 4.7—“By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire
the knowledge and skills necessary to promote sustainable development, including,
inter alia, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles,
human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence,
global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and the contribution of culture
to sustainable development”. In another document “Preparing students for the challenges of the twenty-first century”, UNESCO (2014) highlights that EDGC aims
to “empower students to engage and take active roles, both locally and globally,
to address and solve global challenges” and “proactively contribute to a more just,
peaceful, tolerant, inclusive, safe and sustainable world” (p. 15). It also points out
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that EDGC makes it possible to enrich the concepts and content of all subjects and
areas of education, broadening their dimensions.
This work assumes the relevance of a set of ethical values linked to social justice,
solidarity and equity, considering that this “is about ensuring that there is a concern
with fairness, such that the education of all learners is seen as having equal importance” (UNESCO, 2017, p. 13). This includes the promotion of equity and inclusion at schools. Portugal continues to consider inclusive education as a challenge
to be implemented nowadays (Santos & Bergano, 2023). It is in this area that leadership and decision-making are particularly important. As advocated by UNESCO
(2017), “Particular forms of leadership are known to be effective in promoting school
equality, equity and social justice” (p. 26). Therefore, at the institutional and local
level, it is important to consider these leaderships in the School Groupings, which are
considered to be organizational units, within the scope of the autonomy, administration and management regime for public preschool, primary and secondary education
establishments (Decree-Law 137/2012, of July 2).
It is in this context that the School Educational Project (SEP) emerges as a management tool, which clarifies the school’s mission and goals within the framework of its
pedagogical, curricular, cultural, administrative and patrimonial autonomy (article
9-A, n. 2, of the same Decree-Law). It is the analysis of these documents, in relation
to their articulation with EDGC, that we will focus on in this chapter.
7.3 Methodology
This qualitative study is descriptive and exploratory in nature, as it seeks to descriptively analyze the presence of indicators relating to Education for Development and
Global Citizenship (EDGC) in the Educational Projects of schools located in the territory of the Intermunicipal Community of Terras de Trás-os-Montes (CIM-TTM), in
the northern region of Portugal. In general terms, it’s important to mention that these
schools are located in a sociodemographic context with a mostly aging population.
The methodological positioning in the qualitative paradigm is based on the fact that
qualitative research, as a methodological option, presupposes an interpretative and
naturalistic approach to the object of study (Amado, 2014; Denzin & Lincoln, 2005;
Silverman, 1993). Thus, this study considers the analysis of documents in an educational context and not produced specifically for the research situation. To carry out
this study, four School Groupings from the Terras de Trás-os-Montes Intermunicipal
Community were selected (subsequently referred to as A1 to A4). In this sense, the
following criteria was taken into account: having an education offer from preschool
to the end of secondary education (preschool and all years of compulsory education).
By applying this criterion, one of the eleven school groupings in the area was eliminated. Subsequently, two school groupings were selected from among those with
the largest number of students (more than 1500 students) and two school groupings
from among those with the smallest number of students (less than 550 students). In
order to make this selection, the number of students enrolled in the 2021/2022 school
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year was provided by the Directorate-General for Education and Science Statistics
(DGESS, 2023).Once the school groupings had been selected according to the criteria
described above, their websites were consulted in order to collect the SEP for each
grouping. These documents are planning instruments produced by the school, with a
time horizon of four years. It should also be noted that these documents are available
in open access for public consultation.
In order to achieve the proposed objective, the content analysis technique was
used with a framework of analysis categories defined a priori(Bardin, 2013). The
definition of the categories of analysis was based on the dimensions proposed in
the tool “Key dimensions for analyzing ED/ECG practices”, produced as part of the
Project “Escolas Transformadoras” [Transforming Schools] (n.d.), which proposes
the following dimensions: (i) ethical principles, (ii) political dimension; (iii) collective and relational dimension, (iv) openness to the community, (v) learning process,
(vi) critical thinking, (vii) experiential and participatory approach, and (viii) alterity.
Based on the key dimensions of education for development, it was considered pertinent to construct a content analysis structure for the SEP that considered the following
categories: (i) Ethical dimension, (ii) Political dimension, (iii) Collective dimension (and interpersonal and inter-institutional relations), and (iv) Alterity dimension.
Table 7.1 illustrates the organization of the categories and the respective indicators
used for the content analysis.
Reducing the eight key dimensions of development education to the adopted model
of four dimensions took into account the nature of the documents analyzed. Since the
SEP are instruments for planning educational activity, the dimensions (v) learning
process, (vi) critical thinking, (vii) experiential and participatory approach have less
visibility than the others. With regard to dimension (iv) openness to the community,
it was considered to be very close to (iii) the collective and relational dimension,
and in this sequence they were considered together as the Collective Dimension (and
interpersonal and inter-institutional relations).
7.4 Analysis and Discussion
As mentioned above, the analysis is centered on four categories/dimensions of
EDGC, ethical, political, the collective (and interpersonal and inter-institutional relations) and alterity, which are considered across the board in the School Educational
Projects (SEP) of the four school groupings (A1 a A4).
7.4.1 Ethical Dimension
This analysis considers that the ethical dimension is expressed through concern for
the common good, with the promotion of fairer, more democratic and humane social
relations, oriented towards care and commitment. Various indicators are considered
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Table 7.1 Analysis centered on 4 categories: Ethical, political, collective and alterity dimensions
Categories/Dimensions
Indicators
Ethical—Presence of a set of ethical values
linked to Social Justice and the Common
Good
- References to the Common Good
- Promoting fairer, more democratic and humane
social relations
- Promoting care and commitment to our
surroundings
Political—Transforming structures;
Promoting social transformation and
questioning power relations
- Stimulating the will to transform reality
- Expression of political intent to change
structural situations that generate imbalances and
injustices (environmental, social, economic, etc.)
- Questioning power relations and
reflection-action processes relating to social
transformation
Collective (and interpersonal and
inter-institutional relations)—Promoting
dialogue and collaborative work between
people and organizations
- Valuing the dialectic between individual and
collective thought and action
- Promoting meetings and spaces for dialog and
reflection in order to co-construct knowledge and
transform reality
- Promoting horizontal processes and
collaborative and interdisciplinary work
Alterity—Valuing difference as enrichment
- Reference to the principle of freedom and
recognition of difference
- Recognition of multiple identities
- Promoting attitudes of respect and dialog
(Source Adapted from the Project Escolas Transformadoras [Transforming Schools] (n.d.)
to illustrate the presence of this dimension in the School Educational Projects (SEP).
The analysis showed that the ethical dimension is taken up in different ways in the
different SEP and the need to affirm school education as a space for building citizenship. In School Grouping A1, the ethical dimension finds expression in the identification of the mission, namely through the intention to contribute to “the formation
of active and enterprising citizens” (A1). This aim is also reflected in the guiding
values of educational action, which can be seen in the classification of pedagogical
action as oriented towards the “commitment to the integral formation of students,
with a view to their full realization as human beings and citizens” (A1). In identifying
the actions to be taken in pursuit of the school’s mission and values, the strategies
and actions proposed include the need to “consolidate the vision of European citizenship and participation in international projects” (A1), which can be related to
the intention to “promote the values of intercultural society” (A1), as defined in the
strategic actions and lines of intervention related to “training competent citizens for
full integration into society” (A1). We are in the presence of a conception of Western
citizenship, more specifically European, and oriented towards a liberal social organization, strongly focused on digital training, entrepreneurship and innovation, as
we can illustrate with the intention to “improve students’ digital skills” (A1) and
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“promote recognition of the potential and risks of today’s society (entrepreneurship, financial literacy, etc.)” (A1), present in the strategic lines/areas of intervention
presented in the SEP.
Also with regard to the ethical dimension, the promotion of fairer, more democratic
and humane social relations is highlighted, as stated in the statement that educational
action is “guided by respect for and promotion of democratic values, ethics, equal
opportunities, sharing, responsibility, transparency, professionalism and openness
to change, innovation and entrepreneurship” (A1), which reflects the importance
given to democratic values and equal opportunities, in a logic that is consistent
with the vision of citizenship presented above. Also considered is the promotion
of care and commitment to our surroundings. In this regard, what is considered
to be the teacher’s profile is highlighted, proposing that the teacher should have
“human, personal and ethical quality” (A1), which will take the form of openness
“to relationships, dialogue and commitment to others” (A1). These aspects are mainly
present within the framework of the ideology defined and are not prominent when it
comes to defining concrete actions.
In the analysis of the SEP of School Grouping A2, it can be seen that the ethical
dimension is expressed in the guiding principles identified, which reveal ethical
values linked to social justice and the common good, by referring to “Humanistbased education—for the construction of a fairer society, centered on the person,
human dignity and action on the world as a common and sustainable good” (A2),
and “Inclusion, equity and democracy—as presuppositions of a school of all and
for all, which accepts the challenges of difference, plurality and interculturality”.
In particular, the evocation of the values “Inclusion and equity” (A2) stands out. In
terms of the operationalization of the interventions to be developed, we highlight
the “Citizenship and Development” axis (A2), which aims to “develop a humanistic,
responsible and proactive citizenship, in the construction of identity and for intervention in the environment” (A2). In order to put these principles and values into
practice, A2 is considered to have the common good in mind and to foster fairer, more
democratic and humane social relations, in the “Rules and discipline” intervention
area (A2), defining the objective as “creating a culture of respect for oneself, for
others and for the rules and norms of coexistence and well-being” (A2) and the goal
as “fostering team spirit, respect, solidarity and tolerance” (A2). In particular, the
strategic action “to establish conflict mediation measures in the school environment”
(A2) reveals the intention to achieve the common good, in the social sphere and
in interpersonal relationships. Also included in these goals, the promotion of care
and commitment to our surroundings is considered evidence of the ethical dimension, by “ensuring active and responsible citizenship tutoring for students with risk
behaviors” (A2).
It is important to look more closely at the ethical dimension in relation to concern
for the common good. In the SEP of School Grouping A3, this comes out explicitly in
the identification of the group’s vision, when the aim is to provide for the “well-being
of the entire educational community” (A3), and innovative practices as a means of
creating a “learning ecosystem geared towards quality, participation and inclusion for
all” (A3). In this context, responsibility and accountability, highlighted in the service
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provision axis of intervention, are seen as fundamental, in collaboration with institutional and non-institutional partners. The sense of the common good is also evidenced
in the reference to “a philosophy of support for the social and personal well-being of
students” (A3), by guaranteeing “the application of processes and procedures aimed
at achieving equity and inclusion for all students, acting preventively in situations of
risk, academic failure and school dropout” (A3).
The following principles also tend to value the common good. We should mention
the principle of citizenship and democratic participation, which takes into account
that each individual in the school and educational community is an “active element
capable of intervening in a responsible, supportive and critical manner in the school
and the surrounding environment, as well as in the development of values such as
freedom, solidarity and justice” (A3). Also noteworthy in this SEP is the principle of
discipline, which considers that all those involved in the educational process assume
their responsibility and respect for others, as well as the principle of participation
in the decision-making of the educational community, made with respect for the
freedom of others. Also noteworthy are the principle of the humanist school, which
focuses the educational process on the student and their integrity, and the principle
of knowledge, promoting the development of intellectual curiosity, a taste for work,
study and research, not confining them to the limits of the national curriculum and
the explicit curriculum.
In the same line of analysis, the SEP of School Grouping A4 identifies a set of
ethical values in the definition of its “guiding principles and values” (A4), namely
when it states that it should “contribute to the formation of character and citizenship,
preparing [the student] for conscious reflection on spiritual, aesthetic, moral and civic
values”, “ensure the civic and moral formation of young people” and “contribute to
developing a democratic spirit and practice” (A4). In addition, in the “diagnosis and
identification of problems” (A4), the “lack of values in the civic and moral domains”
(A4) of the students is expressed as a concern, and the “line of action” is “to promote
a sense of ownership of the school in the educational community” (A4). However,
in the other components of the document, references to ethical principles are very
scarce, and it can be concluded that, although stated, this dimension is not present
in the intervention areas listed, nor in the strategies to be implemented.
7.5 Political Dimension
The political dimension is considered to refer to transformation (of structures and the
promotion of social change) and the questioning of power relations. The presence
of the political dimension is explicitly evidenced in the four documents analyzed. In
the analysis of the political dimension in the SEP of School Grouping A1, the focus
on preparing capacities and opportunities that enable and promote participation is
considered relevant. School Grouping A1 chooses participation as one of the pillars of
its motto, highlighting the importance and commitment invested in training participatory citizens. In this sequence, the political dimension is expressed in the Pedagogical
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Services subsection, in the description of some of the projects and clubs promoted,
namely in the reference to the Eco-Schools Project which “aims to create habits of
participation and citizenship, with the main objective of finding solutions to improve
the quality of life at school and in the community” (A1), and in the description of
School Sports which “also aims to encourage student participation in the planning
and management of school sports activities” (A1). This dimension is also present in
the school’s Citizenship Education Strategy, which refers to “planning activities that
provide students with opportunities to participate in building themselves as citizens,
being able to understand society and the world” (A1).
As far as School Grouping A2 is concerned, reference is made to the political
dimension in the explanation of the principles “change and adaptability—because
educating presupposes anticipatory action to prepare to intervene in an ever-changing
world, seeking opportunities for improvement in uncertainty and adapting to new
contexts and new structures” (A2), as they relate to transformation at the level of
structures, as well as promoting social transformation and questioning power relations. In this sense, the values “citizenship and participation; flexibility, adaptability
and innovation; excellence and demand” (A2) are considered in this dimension. In
terms of the operationalization of intentions, in the “citizenship and development”
(A2) intervention axis, in the “identity construction” (A2) intervention area, by setting
the goal of “involving the educational community in the identity construction of the
school group” (A2) and, as a goal, “increasing the participation of educational actors
in cultural and recreational activities promoted by the school group” (A2), through the
strategic action “involvement of the educational community in the life of the school
group” (A2), it is considered that the SEP questions power relations in society.
In particular, the involvement of the educational community stands out here,
through the participation of its stakeholders. Still on the subject of the political
dimension, in the area of intervention “active citizenship” (A2), with the aim of “stimulating humanistic, responsible and proactive citizenship; promoting actions within
the scope of active citizenship in the areas of health, financial literacy and consumer
education, road safety, volunteering and environmental sustainability” (A2), the SEP
sets itself the goal of “increasing student participation/presentation/achievement in
activities/projects based on their personal interests and motivations” (A2). It is important to highlight the strategic actions “participation in the Youth Parliament Project;
participation in volunteering activities; student association; holding class assemblies;
carrying out research work in pairs/groups (financial education and consumption);
participation in awareness-raising activities on various topics” (A2). Based on these
examples, it is considered that the SEP stimulates the will to transform reality, seeking
to stimulate participation and political intent (environmental, social, economic, etc.).
In the analysis of the political dimension, the valuing of the educational community is taken up again in another SEP. In the areas of intervention (internal evaluation; leadership and management; service provision; school results) the importance
of listening to the educational community is made clear in order to “diagnose key
points in its operation that need intervention” (A3). Specifically in the internal evaluation area, emphasis is placed on diagnostic evaluation “to assess the quality of
the work carried out within the educational community” (A3), including relevant
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community agents and the plan is to disseminate the results of the evaluation to the
educational community as well.
With regard to the leadership and management axis, the strategic vision gives
prominence to official guiding documents and ministerial policies. The intention is
to promote the “existence of an integrated, appealing and stimulating professional
environment” (A3) and the “existence of a safe, inclusive and stimulating educational
environment” (A3), as well as encouraging the “democratic and civic participation
of students, their parents and guardians in activities, internal structures and procedures for analyzing and reflecting on results” (A3). Also included in leadership and
management is Improvement and innovation through the promotion of “concerted
reflection with relevant agents of the educational community on the results of internal
evaluation” (A3) and the participation/creation of projects, processes or partnerships
with other institutions and agents of the educational community that promote the
quality of learning of the students in the school. Internal and external communication, which is also part of the Leadership and management axis, points, on the one
hand, to the implementation of an internal and external communication plan appropriate to the information and target audience and, on the other hand, to improving “the
media presence of the school and the ease with which the educational community
can access news, information and relevant documents” (A3).
With regard to the political dimension in the analysis of another SEP, there is
a considerable presence in the “guiding principles and values” (A4), highlighting
“ensuring the civic and moral training of young people” (A4) and “contributing
to the development of a democratic spirit and practice, through the adoption of
participatory structures and processes in the definition of educational policy, in the
administration and management of the school system…” (A4). It is also worth noting
that the general objectives show the “political intent to change the structural situations
that generate imbalances and injustices” (A4), stating that they intend to “continue to
promote school success for all, through measures that minimize economic and social
inequalities…” (A4). A line of action is also indicated as “… developing in students
a spirit of autonomy, initiative, responsibility and critical thinking” (A4). However,
once again, despite being mentioned, this dimension of EDGC is not present in the
areas of intervention or in the strategies defined.
7.6 Collective (and Interpersonal and Inter-Institutional
Relations) Dimension
In this analysis, it is understood that the collective dimension is based on promoting
dialogue and collaborative work between people and organizations. Based on these
assumptions, an attempt is made to justify the presence of this dimension in the SEP
of the four School Groupings analyzed.
Analysis of the SEP for School Grouping A1 shows that the collective dimension
is referred to in the guiding values of educational action and in the (desired) profile
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of the group’s teachers, but also in the field of action, namely in the SWOT analysis
presented and in the strategic lines and areas of action proposed. The guiding values
of educational action state that the school is “conceived with students at its center,
thought of as a social organization and emotional space, a place to study, but also to
socialize and open to the community in which it is inserted” (A1), which underpins
the appreciation of the role and centrality of the student, the emotional dimension of
education and the interrelationship with the community.
Interpersonal relationships are also mentioned in the teacher’s profile, namely
when it is stated that this professional “cooperates with the other actors in the
educational process in detecting situations that require correction or intervention
and applies the measures defined by the class council or other bodies, with a view
to improving the quality of students’ learning or other situations that are identified”
(A1), “works as part of a team and develops collaborative work” (A1) and “collaborates in identifying and resolving problems in the environment (environmental,
social and cultural)” (A1). This evidence illustrates the promotion of dialogue and
collaborative work between people and organizations, especially in relations between
teachers, between teachers and students, and in relations between teachers and the
surrounding community.
As we mentioned earlier, the collective dimension also finds expression in the
field of action, being present as a strong point in the SWOT analysis, present in the
SEP, which states the “existence of mechanisms that facilitate collaborative work”
(A1), the reference to the implementation of practices that promote the effective
participation of students and different entities in the strategic planning of the school,
namely by holding a “meeting with partner organizations and the Students’ Association to develop the AAP [Annual Activities Plan]” (A1) and the existence of a “good
working climate and cooperation between all those involved” (A1), which indicates
an investment in the quality of relations between the players involved. Also in the
field of action, we highlight the proposals for action aimed at “preventing stress
and burnout in professional performance” (A1), which shows a clear concern with
promoting the mental health and well-being of the teaching and non-teaching staff
at the school, also visible in the care taken to “promote professional development
and recognition” (A1). In short, the reference to the collective dimension and interpersonal and inter-institutional relations is reflected in the document under analysis,
in the defense of collaborative work between institutions and between social actors
within the school.
Along the same lines of identifying the collective dimension, the SEP of School
Grouping A2, in terms of principles, is concerned with: the “integral and harmonious
development of students—in the areas of Knowing, Doing, Being and Being, through
a pedagogical relationship based on rigor and discipline, the development of effective, inclusive, innovative pedagogical practices and the follow-up and monitoring
of the quality of teaching” (A2); “autonomy and learning—as a result of the strategic
planning of a learning school organization, which intentionally promotes the development of students’ capacity to construct and (re)construct knowledge and lifelong
learning” (A2); and also, with the “coherence and flexibility—of educational action,
in order to guarantee the achievement of significant learning and the development of
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more complex competences embodied in an integrated management of knowledge
and the enhancement of disciplinary knowledge” (A2). The values mentioned are
“cooperation and sharing” (A2).
Also in the SEP of the same school grouping, some lines of action are presented in
which it is possible to identify the collective dimension, through which skills can be
developed that could be equally relevant to promoting the EDGC of school agents.
In particular, the strategic action “support for dialoguing and open, cooperative and
collaborative leadership, based on the delegation of competences and commitment
to people, in a way that identifies with the group” (A2) makes it possible to promote
horizontal processes and collaborative and interdisciplinary work, considering it a
key element of the process. Also noteworthy is the “leadership and management”
axis (A2), with the strategic objective of “mobilizing educational actors to build
the cluster’s vision, ensuring management based on quality criteria” (A2). Under
this heading, the intervention area “involvement and participation” (A2) has the
objectives of “valuing different levels of leadership, particularly middle leadership”
(A2) and the goal of “improving coordination and collaboration between the different
technical and pedagogical structures and educational stakeholders” (A2). With these
examples, the SEP aims to support the valorization of opportunities and spaces for
dialogue and reflection for the co-construction of knowledge and the transformation
of reality. This relationship is justified by considering the potential of research work,
both disciplinary and interdisciplinary, to enhance the construction of knowledge
and action on reality.
In the analysis of the SEP of School Grouping A3, in the characterization of the
educational community, it is indicated that interaction with the SEP is carried out “by
educators, class teachers, class directors of their students, administrative services or
the Association of Parents and Guardians” (A3), showing the availability and interest
of the School Grouping for multiple interactions to be established, which could, if it
materializes, contribute to strengthening collective interaction skills. The same can
be seen in the reference to students, with various internal structures being indicated
in which they can join and participate: Finalists’ Committee, Students’ Association,
and ‘Students’ Voice’ Assembly” (A3).
The collective dimension is the most present and explicit EDGC dimension in
the SEP of School Grouping A4, with several references, in the various sections
of the document, to the development of skills that promote “interpersonal and
inter-institutional relationships” (A4) and “dialogue and collaborative work between
people and organizations”. In the “Guiding principles and values” (A4), the importance of: “contributing to the personal and community fulfillment of individuals, not
only through training for the system of socially useful occupations…” (A4) and “contributing to the development of a democratic spirit and practice, in which all those
involved in the educational process are integrated, especially students, teachers and
families” (A4). In terms of “diagnosing and identifying problems” (A4), the “insufficient involvement of parents and guardians who do not take co-responsibility for
the success of students” (A4) and the “lack of complicity and cooperation between
the various educational agents in the conceptual, attitudinal and behavioral training
of students” (A4) stand out as concerns.
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Following this diagnosis, two general objectives were defined: “to encourage
student participation, particularly through their representative bodies” (A4) and “to
deepen and develop communication channels with Parents and Guardians” (A4). In
order to achieve these objectives, three “development priorities” (A4) were established: “to increasingly involve students in the life of the school” (A4), “to encourage
teamwork” (A4) among teachers and “to promote and develop the school’s relationship with parents” (A4) and two lines of action were defined: “to ensure training
where knowledge and know-how, school culture and everyday culture, theory and
practice are combined” (A4) and “to promote a more active, continuous and organized intervention by parents in the life of the cluster and the different schools”
(A4).
7.7 Alterity Dimension
It is understood that the alterity dimension is based on valuing difference, namely
the recognition of multiple identities and the promotion of attitudes of respect and
dialogue. Analysis of the documents reveals that there are references that can be
included in this dimension in the four SEP, although there is a certain fragility in this
evidence.
Issues of alterity are present in the values defined in the SEP of School Grouping
A1, namely in the reference to “recognizing local and national identity and culture
as support for the promotion of a European dimension of education, which promotes
the development of intercultural awareness and a spirit of openness, interest and
respect for the culture and traditions of other regions” (A1). The SEP also refers to
the PSLCE, stating that “the school grouping also considers it important for students
in the municipality to develop their intercultural awareness, perception and awareness of European citizenship” (A1). In the teacher’s profile, the dimension of alterity
is present in the statement that this professional needs to respect “the cultural differences of all members of the school community” (A1). From the point of view of
observing evidence of the presence of alterity in the work carried out at the school, it
is worth noting that the SWOT analysis refers to “initiatives to promote intercultural
awareness” (A1) and the “integration [of the school] into the Network of Schools for
Intercultural Education” (A1).
In the dimension of alterity, which values difference as an enrichment, the SEP of
School Grouping A2 identifies the following as relevant principles: “the integral and
harmonious development of students and the development of effective and inclusive
pedagogical practices” (A2), and also “inclusion, equity and democracy—as presuppositions of a school of all and for all, which accepts the challenges of difference,
plurality and interculturality” (A2). The values to be highlighted are: “inclusion and
equity” (A2) and “identity and belonging” (A2). With regard to the “Provision of
Educational Services” axis (A2), with the strategic objective “to provide a quality
educational service by improving curricular development that enhances the Profile
of the Student Leaving Compulsory Schooling” (A2), the “curricular development
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and training offer” intervention area (A2) stands out, which identifies the objective
“to adapt the training offer to the interests of students and the training needs of the
community” (A2) and the goal “to ensure an educational offer and network of partnerships and protocols with a focus on improving the conditions for providing the
educational service and the diversity of learning opportunities” (A2). The aim of
these examples is to highlight the diversity of students’ interests and needs, enabling
other educational paths that value the multiplicity of identities.
Also considering the “Provision of Educational Services” axis (A2), in the “curriculum development and training offer” intervention area (A2), with the objective of
“defining measures to support inclusion that promote equal opportunities for access
to the curriculum” (A2), a relevant goal is identified in this context: “to affirm inclusion as a process that aims to respond to the diversity of needs and potential of each
and every student; to respond to the educational needs of all students throughout
their school career” (A2), which can be achieved through the strategic action “identification and implementation of measures to support learning and inclusion” (A2).
This example highlights the promotion of an attitude of respect and dialogue, taking
into account the diversity, needs and potential of each and every student.
It is possible to see the link with alterity in some of the values/principles expressed
in the SEP of School Grouping A3, namely the principle of equity, in the sense of
effectively “promoting equal rights and opportunities, regardless of social class,
ethnicity, religion and other belongings and options” (A3), as well as the principle of
inclusion, understood from a perspective of creating differentiated opportunities and
diversified pathways, which lead to “the educational success of students, regardless
of their cognitive styles and learning difficulties” (A3). The same intention is pointed
out in the school’s mission statement when it says that the training of all individuals
is fundamental, particularly with regard to the acquisition of knowledge, with a view
to them becoming active and participative citizens, “respecting the pathways of each
student and the freedom to choose training paths, in the construction of a responsible
and qualified citizen” (A3). The same purpose is evident in the educational offer,
which is organized according to the territory and the capacity of the facilities, with
the aim of “serving the educational interests of its educational community” (A3),
by providing “a comprehensive, diversified and appropriate educational offer to the
interests and needs of its educational community” (A3).
With regard to School Grouping A4, the “Guiding principles and values” (A4)
state that the SP aims to contribute to “ensuring the right to difference, by respecting
personalities and individual projects of existence, as well as taking into account and
valuing different knowledge and cultures” (A4). In order to embody this principle, the
general objective is to “continue on the path of making the school an institution with
its own identity, involved and fully accepted by the community” (A4). However,
in the remaining components of the document, only the need to “instill rules of
coexistence in students” (A4) identified in the “Development priorities” (A4) can be
considered to be related to alterity.
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7.8 A General Overview
In the discussion of these documents, we highlight general aspects that have emerged
from the analysis of the SEP: (1) in none of the School Groupings studied is there
an explicit reference to the EDGC; (2) in all of them it is possible to identify the
intention to promote values, develop strategies, pursue objectives and achieve goals
that contribute, directly or indirectly, to reinforcing some of the dimensions of the
EDGC.
The dimensions of the EDGC are present in the SEP of School Grouping A1. This
presence is mainly visible in the definition of the mission and values that guide the
school in its educational activities, but they are also present in the SWOT analysis,
in the teacher profile and in the objectives of the actions to be implemented included
in the SEP.
The SEP of School Grouping A2 was created to accompany the new challenges
and demands of school organization, so that “the school can seek the most appropriate
responses to the new challenges that social, economic and environmental transformations are bringing to light”. It is a “guiding document for the life of the school”,
“as a useful working tool” (A2). This SEP identifies the principles, mission, values
and vision by which it is guided, establishing axes of intervention and the respective
areas of intervention. An analysis of the document shows that the four dimensions
of the EDGC are present. As it is considered to focus explicitly on the subject under
analysis, particular attention has been paid to the “Intervention axis—Citizenship
and Development”. However, although these dimensions are identified equally in
the principles and values, they are not as clearly operationalized in the intervention
areas.
The SEP of School Grouping A3 focuses particularly on the ethical dimension,
developing the ability to work and providing, on the basis of a solid general education,
specific training for occupying a fair place in working life that allows the individual to
make their contribution to the progress of society in line with their interests, abilities
and vocation. Likewise, it considers literacies and structured learning to develop
multiple capacities to participate as an active citizen in public life and the principle
of simplifying administrative procedures and internal and external communication.
The SEP of School Grouping A4 states that “it was drawn up with a view to
change and innovation”, taking on the central challenges of “significantly improving
school results” and “training for citizenship and values”. Analysis of the document
revealed evidence of concern with the principles underlying the four dimensions
of the EDGC addressed in this study, occurring more frequently in the collective
dimension. It should be noted, from the outset, in the framing text of the “Principles
and guiding values of the Educational Project”, which stresses that the SEP should
foster “the integral formation of students in an ideal of an autonomous, free, responsible, supportive citizen, with a critical spirit, defending the principles of democratic
living, accepting and respecting differences of ideas and cultures, open to dialogue
and tolerance, respecting others and oneself, within moral values” (A4).
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7.9 Final Considerations
With regard to the concepts of Democracy and Social Justice, the SEP under analysis
do not highlight the need to explicitly define educational objectives and strategies in
these areas. The occasional reference to the concept of democracy can be understood
as evidence that there is a concern to achieve an education that promotes values,
but that it is considered to be achieved indirectly, through the development of skills
associated with the practice of citizenship. In fact, we can consider that some of
these values are reflected in the mission, objectives, strategies and goals defined
by the SEP and can be identified in the dimensions of the EDGC under analysis,
namely in the ethical and collective dimensions. However, the weak presence of the
alterity dimension in the SEP deserves to be highlighted, since recognizing alterity is
a decisive step towards being willing to recognize and respect multiple identities and
thus build a more democratic and fairer society. Nevertheless, there is no evidence
of the presence of the four dimensions of EDGC in the definition of the strategies
to be implemented, or in the indicators of success and targets to be achieved. This
discrepancy, between the centrality that EDGC currently assumes in international
documents and national strategies, with explicit guiding principles and objectives that
are highlighted as relevant and urgent, and its limited expression in the SEP analyzed,
leads us to conclude that these concepts are not being worked on effectively and
intentionally during the implementation of the SEP. This weakness is most evident
in the dimensions of politics and alterity.
As a recommendation, it is understood that the implementation of EDGC at the
various levels of education, including higher education, and especially in teacher
training, can become an opportunity to influence future practices towards an education based on values and knowledge, such as respect for diversity and equality. It is
important to implement the necessary changes to create an inclusive and enriching
school and academic environment, as these institutions are places of social reproduction (Martins & Bergano, 2020). It is therefore important to establish a solid
foundation for student growth and success, while contributing to an empathetic and
reflective academic environment. This favors the integration of democracy and social
justice into the daily lives of students and society in general.
7.10 Conclusion
This research aims to analyze, in a descriptive way, the presence of indicators related
to EDGC in the Portuguese School Educational Projects (SEP), and to analyze the
potential of EDGC in the daily lives of students and in their future. As demonstrated
above, the concept of Democracy is closely linked to the principles of inclusion and
equity. It is also at the level of principles that the concept of (social) Justice is located,
namely in the reference to humanist-based education. It was understood in this study
that EDGC can be a way of promoting democracy and social justice, considering
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that the literacy, values, attitudes and competences for action that it aims to achieve
will make it possible to train more proactive, supportive, tolerant and fair people.
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arespace.com/static/5f6decace4ff425352eddb4a/t/65cbd5b4dbd08357e1f86d56/170785736
1786/GE2050-declaration.pdf
Law 46/86, of October 14. Basic Law of the Education System. Diário da República n.º 237/1986,
Série I. https://files.dre.pt/1s/1986/10/23700/30673081.pdf
Martins, C., & Bergano, S. (2020). Escolas Transformadoras: contributos para uma mudança
social a partir da Educação para o Desenvolvimento e para a Cidadania Global na Escola—
Sistematização das práticas e aprendizagens. Fundação Gonçalo da Silveira. https://fgs.org.pt/
wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Escolas-transformadoras_Sistematizacao.pdf
Martins, G. (2017). (Coords.). Perfil dos Alunos à Saída da Escolaridade Obrigatória. Lisboa:
Ministério da Educação. Direção Geral de Educação. https://dge.mec.pt/sites/default/files/Cur
riculo/Projeto_Autonomia_e_Flexibilidade/perfil_dos_alunos.pdf
Martins, M. C. (2021). Educação para o desenvolvimento sustentável: uma janela de oportunidades
para a CPLP. In C. Teixeira, V. Gonçalves, P. O. Fernandes, A. Rodrigues, C. A. E. S. Guerreiro,
L. Santos (Eds.). LUSOCONF2019: II Encontro Internacional de Língua Portuguesa e Relações
Lusófonas: livro de atas (pp. 5–14). Instituto Politécnico de Bragança. https://doi.org/10.34620/
lusoconf.2019
Monteiro, R., Ucha, L., Alvarez, T., Milagre, C., Neves, M. J., Silva, M., Prazeres, V.,
Diniz, F., Vieira, C., Gonçalves, L. M., Araújo, H. C., Santos, S., A., & Macedo,
E. (2017). Estratégia Nacional de Educação para a Cidadania. Direção-Geral da
Educação. https://dge.mec.pt/sites/default/files/Projetos_Curriculares/Aprendizagens_Essenci
ais/estrategia_cidadania_original.pdf
Project “Escolas Transformadoras” [Transforming Schools] (n.d.). Integração. https://www.esc
olas-transformadoras.fgs.org.pt/integra%C3%A7%C3%A3o
Quintão & Marques (2023). A urgência de ler o mundo—justiça social. Estudo Formativo EDComunicar: do Conhecimento à Mobilização. ADRA Portugal e Associação A3S. https://adra.
org.pt/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/justica_social_est_formativo_FINAL_compressed.pdf
Santos, G., & Bergano, S. (2023). The right to education of children and adult refugees in Portugal. In
S. Leitão, & Y. Vissing (Eds.), Community structures and processes on lives of refugee children
(pp. 121–135). Vernon Press. https://vernonpress.com/book/1728
Silverman, D. (1993). Interpreting qualitative data: Methods for analyzing talk, text and interaction.
Sage.
UNESCO (2014). Global citizenship education: Preparing learners for the challenges of the 21st
century. Paris: UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002277/227729E.pdf
UNESCO (2017). A guide for ensuring inclusion and equity in education. Paris: UNESCO. https://
unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000248254
Graça Santos holds a PhD in Educational Sciences, specializing in Educational Psychology, from
the University of Coimbra. She is an Assistant Professor at the Escola Superior de Educação of the
Polytechnic Institute of Bragança (Portugal), where she teaches in the training of social educators
and teachers, since 1998. She is a member of the Portuguese Society of Educational Sciences and
an individual member of European Society for Research on the Education of Adults (ESREA). She
is Chair of the ‘Hope For Children’ CRC Policy Center (Cyprus). She has scientific production in
the area of Educational Sciences.
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Maria da Conceição Martins holds a PhD in Education, specializing in Psychology of Education. She is Assistant Professor of the Natural Sciences Department of Higher School of Education
at the Polytechnic Institute of Bragança (Portugal), where she teaches biology, ecology, environmental education and education for sustainable development since 1990. She was director of the
School between 2003-2013 and is Department Coordinator at the present time. She has participated in several projects in the field of environmental education and was a volunteer and leader
of several environmental NGOs in Portugal.
Sofia Bergano holds a PhD in Education Sciences, specializing in Continuing Education and
Adult Training. She is Professor-Coordinator of the Department of Educational Sciences and
Supervision at the Polytechnic Institute of Bragança (IPB), where she has been teaching in Higher
Education since 1998. She has extensive experience in teaching curricular units in the field of
research methodology. She is vice-president of the IPB Gender Equality, Inclusion and Diversity Commission and was a member of the IPB Ethics Committee from March 2019 to March
2023. She has participated in various projects in the field of education for development and global
citizenship.
Cristina Martins holds a PhD in Education, specializing in Mathematics Education, and a Master
and graduation in Education. She is a Professor-Coordinator of the Mathematics Department of
ESE at the Polytechnic Institute of Bragança (Portugal). Where she has been teaching in Higher
Education and continuous teacher training since 1996. She has participated in some projects
within the scope of reflection on teaching and professional practice; evaluation and communication; pedagogical supervision; education for development and global citizenship. She coordinated
a study on beliefs, knowledge and practices of teachers.
Chapter 8
Human Rights Education and Popular
Democracy: Meeting the Challenge
William R. Fernekes
Abstract This book chapter argues that HRE advocates in the USA should recognize the limitations blunting their efforts to integrate HRE within the formal K-12
and post-secondary education systems and direct more of their efforts to working
with popular democratic movements and organizations outside of that institutional
framework. While popular education faces challenges of its own (See Mayo and
Ranford, European Journal for Research on the Education and Learning of Adults
14:97–108, 2023), particularly the orientation of many adult education and other
popular education initiatives to focus on learning and/or training for the labor market
rather than sustaining a focus on emancipatory pedagogies that challenge structures
of oppression, popular education has great potential to be a vital avenue for human
rights education’s expansion and impact.
Keywords Conscientizacao · Deliberative democracy · Emancipatory
pedagogies · Human rights education · Popular education · Social movements
8.1 Introduction
The field of human rights education (HRE) has experienced substantial growth since
its origins in the 1970s. In the third decade of the twenty-first century, the HRE field
has matured as a field of scholarly inquiry: there are three major international journals presenting scholarship, book reviews and commentary, an international organization which organizes conferences, symposia and other projects (International
Association of HRE); regional networks of human rights educators and activists;
and non-governmental organizations across the globe that promote HRE and provide
services to educators in diverse settings. The integration of HRE theory, practices and
programs has accelerated, with the Council of Europe being the most prominent entity
advocating for HRE’s central role in building democratic institutions and practices.
W. R. Fernekes (B)
Rutgers University Graduate School of Education, New Jersey, NB, USA
e-mail: bill41@comcast.net
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025
J. Zajda and Y. Vissing (eds.), Globalisation, Human Rights and Education,
Globalisation, Comparative Education and Policy Research 51,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-80304-8_8
149
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Despite these advances, HRE in the USA remains at the margins of K-university
education. While a dedicated group of K-12 and post-secondary educators advocates for a greater presence of HRE in curricula, classroom instruction and school
administration, the decentralized structure of educational governance in the USA
presents significant challenges for HRE to assume a more prominent role in daily
educational practice. An additional obstacle facing the institutionalization of HRE in
higher education are the requirements imposed on pre-service teachers seeking licensure, which is typically controlled by state educational policymakers. Adding a new
course for teacher licensure is rarely an option pursued by those in charge of teaching
licensure policy when pre-service educators today encounter increased costs for an
undergraduate or graduate level education and often are strained to complete existing
requirements. And overlaying these structural impediments is a cultural challenge—
the United States’ historical skepticism towards the United Nations and international
human rights standards. The contradictions evident in U.S. adherence to or defiance
of international human rights treaties and institutions (i. e., the International Criminal
Court) reflect a traditional reluctance by the nation’s elected officials to question what
is termed “American exceptionalism” and abide by norms and procedures embodied
in international treaties, let alone meet the obligations of treaties which the U. S. has
signed and ratified. (Flowers & Magendzo, 2023).
For example, the United States ratified the UN International Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination in 1994, 28 years after the treaty
was signed under the Johnson administration. But there is little or no evidence that
the federal government has developed a national strategy to address the language
of Convention Article VII: “States Parties undertake to adopt immediate and effective measures, particularly in the fields of teaching, education, culture and information, with a view to combating prejudices which lead to racial discrimination and
to promoting understanding…” (United Nations, CERD) Rather, because educational policymaking is primarily a state-level activity within the federal structure
of the United States Constitution, this makes it dependent upon each state legislature and educational bureaucracy to address this language, if they even know about
the United States’ obligation under this treaty article. This lack of enforcement of
CERD’s educational requirement is only part of the story: as the American Bar Association has reported, “the United States has failed to materially adhere to its ICERD
obligations by (1) submitting reservations that nullify the treaty’s effect, (2) failing to
enact implementing legislation, (3) preventing citizens from bringing claims under
ICERD, and (4) failing to deliver timely reports of measures it has taken to address
racial discrimination.” (Watson, 2019).
Popular education is compatible with the concept of “popular democracy”,
which the Center for Popular Democracy defines as “building power from
communities up and empowering people to participate fully in their democracy.”
(Center for Popular Democracy, https://www.populardemocracy.org/news/what-pop
ular-democracy) This “bottom up” emphasis, with education that seeks to empower
people being embedded in communities, is informed by Freire’s work on education for transformation and the development of a critical consciousness about the
world among participants. To achieve a “critical consciousness” as Freire conceives
8 Human Rights Education and Popular Democracy: Meeting the Challenge
151
of it, dialogue and social action are essential to challenge structures of oppression.
Engaging this process would ideally help those who were oppressed to challenge
the social conditions and institutions that were oppressing them, while also offering
oppressors the opportunity “to recover their lost humanity.” (Mayo & Ranford, 2023,
p. 99).
8.2 Structural Challenges for Human Rights Education
The expansion of HRE in the United States began in the mid-late 1980s when
Amnesty International USA created a Human Rights Education Task Force that
included educators from K-university and which worked hand in hand with
Amnesty’s growing network of student chapters in both K-12 schools and higher
education. Around the same time, the National Council for the Social Studies
published a theme issue of its flagship journal, Social Education, devoted to study
of international human rights, edited by Samuel Totten. As Flowers notes (Podcast,
Episode 1), a major challenge for human rights educators during this early stage was
the lack of curriculum and instructional materials dealing with international human
rights issues for classroom use. Over time, the development of curricula and instructional materials accelerated, with the result that educators in the US today have a
wealth of resources available them in print, electronic or other formats. (See sample
resources offered by Human Rights Educators USA, Generation Human Rights, and
UNICEF Canada).
Despite improvements in the quality and accessibility of HRE classroom curricula
and instructional materials, the professional education of teachers at all levels about
HRE remains a serious impediment. As documented in a Universal Review report
submitted in 2019 to the United Nations Human Rights Council, teacher preparation
programs in US higher education rarely address the topic of human rights education.
(HRE USA and UCCHRE, 2019) Additionally, there are only a handful of graduate programs in the US which offer advanced degrees or program concentrations
in human rights education, which limits the options for veteran teachers to pursue
in-depth study of HRE. Historically, most study of human rights was clustered in
law schools, while today there is some evidence of human rights education content
being prioritized by other disciplines, such as social work. But by and large, human
rights education does not occupy a prominent place in either state licensure requirements for K-12 educators or in the content recommendations set forth by accrediting
organizations for schools of education. And the situation is even more fragmented
regarding the education of post-secondary level instructors, where study of human
rights is rarely a prerequisite for appointments to professorships.
A third structural challenge rests within the idea of American exceptionalism, or
the belief that the United States is a nation whose history, laws and policies stand apart
from those of the international community. This cultural belief, reiterated by elected
officials across the political spectrum, reinforces the reluctance of the United States
federal government to make strong, binding commitments to international human
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rights treaties. In addition to refusing to ratify major international treaties such as
the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Convention to End Discrimination
Against Women, the U. S. Senate has regularly inserted “reservations” in ratification
documents that weaken the U. S. commitment to enforcing treaty provisions, claiming
that “reservations” allow U. S. domestic law to reign supreme, instead of bringing
U. S. laws into conformity with international treaties.
Lastly, the decentralized governance structure of US public education prioritizes
policy development and changes in curriculum, instruction and evaluation at the state
and local level. This is in marked contrast to many ministries of education in other
countries, where educational governance emanates from the central government and
educators at all pre-collegiate levels take direction from a central authority. Thus,
in the United States efforts to implement HRE must focus on changing policies
and practices by influencing state legislatures, educational bureaucracies in all fifty
states and boards of education at the local level. This structure by its very design
slows the process of implementing change and requires a large network of educators,
scholars and activists to organize and lobby for reforms, and if such reforms are
implemented, to monitor their effectiveness. Doing so is even more challenging when
state legislatures pass laws that censor the study of specific topics in U. S. History,
such as African American history and culture, as well as content associated with
diversity, equity and inclusion initiatives. (Pen America, https://pen.org/report/edu
cational-gag-orders/). In light of these challenges, it is not surprising that HRE has not
made a major impact on the US educational landscape in the same way as curriculum
initiatives such as STEM, expansion of pre-K programs and others with nationwide
impact. While content about human rights was included in the curriculum standards
of 36 states as of 2019 (Carson, 2019) it is unclear how educators on the local
level actually incorporate HRE within their daily instruction. Additionally, while
various models for HRE curriculum integration are available, the degree to which
those curriculum models have been adopted and applied within school districts and/
or individual schools remains unclear (Fernekes, 2023).
8.3 Expanding the Focus of HRE: Deliberative Democracy
and Popular Education
Popular democracy emphasizes direct participation in democracy by the population
and as Leib and Elmendorf note, “employs initiatives, referenda, and more innovative
forays in participatory democracy as counterweights to the power of political parties.”
(Leib & Elmendorf, 2012, p. 70) Rather than placing sole reliance on political parties
for advancing change, popular democracy advocates the broad-based engagement of
the electorate to both set agendas and make decisions about policy initiatives that
can be stymied in legislative bodies. More recently, a number of democratic theorists
have argued for the development of “deliberative democracy”, defined as a model of
8 Human Rights Education and Popular Democracy: Meeting the Challenge
153
democratic practice that focuses on improving the quality of democratic discourse
and action. Held summarizes the essential focus of deliberative democracy.
While the term now spans a wide range of positions, its main advocates use it to distinguish
a political approach used to improve the quality of democracy. At issue is enhancing the
nature and form of political participation, not just increasing it for its own sake. Deliberative
democrats often portray contemporary democracy, representative or direct, as a descent into
personality clashes, celebrity politics, sound-bite ‘debates’ and the naked pursuit of personal
gain and ambition. They champion, instead, informed debate, the public use of reason, and
the impartial pursuit of truth. (Held, p. 232)
Central to deliberative democracy is a commitment to “politics as an open-ended
and continuous learning process in which the roles of ‘teacher’ and ‘curriculum’ are
raised and where the matter of what is to be learned has to be settled in the process of
learning itself.” (Offe & Preuss, 1991, cited in Held, p. 233) People’s judgements and
positions are not viewed as fixed and given, but rather are to be critiqued when set
against standards and processes of learning, with the ultimate goal of improving them
through deliberative dialogue and reasoning. (Held, p. 233) In short, no set of values
or specific perspectives are deemed valid simply because they have historic roots or
have garnered support in the past. Rather, such value sets and perspectives are only
deemed valid if they can be justified through reflective discourse. Offe & Preusse
claim that the development of “reflective preferences”, which stand in contrast to
“spontaneous” and context-contingent ones, require “a conscious confrontation of
one’s own point of view with an opposing point of view, or the multiplicity of that
the citizen, upon reflection, is likely to discover within his or her own self.” (Offe &
Preuss, quoted in Held, p. 234).
This process of reflective discourse appears quite compatible with Paolo Freire’s
concept of “conscientizacao”, which he defined as a process “in which men, not s
recipients, but as knowing subjects, achieve a deepening awareness both of the sociocultural reality that shapes their lives and of their capacity to transform that reality.
(Friere, quoted in Cruz, 2013) Deliberative democracy requires that ideas, values
and ways of viewing the world (perspectives) be critiqued through discourse and
debate in the public sphere, not within elite settings such as legislatures and political party meetings. Argument and justification are central to the process of deliberation, and theorists of deliberative democracy argue that such discourse should
take place in public, where private perspectives can be transformed “via a process
of deliberation into positions that can withstand public scrutiny and test.” (Held,
p. 237) Additionally, deliberative democracy rejects deference to experts, majoritarian institutions (i. e., legislatures), and randomly selected groups (i. e., citizen
commissions), instead arguing that the responsibility for policy development and
critique rests squarely among citizens themselves through their active participation
in the deliberative process (Lafont, 2020, p 162).
One might raise the issue of how such deliberative processes can be implemented
within a society whose politics are highly polarized. To limit confirmation bias and to
have an authentic engagement with ideas that is truly deliberative, guidelines already
exist in the literature on classroom discussion and social issues education. Works such
as those by Diana Hess (2014) projects such as those currently implemented by the
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Harwood Institute, and guidelines provided in the Handbook for Teaching Social
Issues.
This can be adapted to help participants engage in active listening and civil
dialogue. (Camicia, “Discussion Methods for Teaching Social Issues, in Evans, ed.,
2021, pp. 289–298; Hess, 2009 and 2014; The Harwood Institute, 2024; and National
Issues Forum, ‘Deliberation’, 2024). For Freire, a ‘dialogical’ process invites participants to publicly question social realities as they reject what he termed ‘banking
education’, or the transmission of ideas that reinforced existing patterns of oppression. The dialogical process requires that participants draw upon their own experiences, critique them and then develop strategies for action. This form of ‘praxis’, in
Freire’s view, can only be achieved through reflective dialogue which helps participants develop a critical consciousness about their lived reality. Both deliberative
democracy and the development of conscientizacao, therefore rely on processes of
critique and debate where ideas and perspectives are subjected to tests of reason
and public scrutiny, and where what deliberative democracy theorists call “private
perspectives” are shared so they can become part of the public process that legitimizes
political decision-making and shared governance.
8.4 Popular Education and HRE
While HRE in the United States has primarily been focused on influencing change
within institutional structures of K-12 and post-secondary education, HRE in Latin
America and Asia gained momentum through popular education movements, many
inspired by Freire’s work. As Flowers & Magendzo note, movements opposed to
dictatorships in Latin America viewed HRE as a tool for social transformation,
and when dictatorships were toppled and democracy was restored, HRE was then
deployed as a critical component of what Benito Fernandez called “the struggle
for economic social, cultural and environmental rights.” (Fernandez, quoted in
Flowers & Magendzo, 2023, p. 25). The impact of these popular HRE movements in
Latin America soon spread to the Philippines, which sought to make HRE a central
focus of public education following the downfall of the Marcos dictatorship in 1991.
The legacy of the People Power Revolution’s successful opposition to Marcos led the
country to create a Commission on Human Rights and to incorporate many human
rights provisions within the 1987 constitution. As Flowers & Magendzo point out,
the use of a “bottom-up” (popular education) focus that forced inclusion of human
rights provisions within the new constitution and as part of legislative action demonstrated “that grassroots movements be institutionalized and legislative mandates be
implemented.” (Flowers & Magendzo, p. 25).
Popular education movements rely on the development of a critical consciousness
among the population about the world, focusing on their lived reality through a
process of reflection and dialogue. In seeking to make HRE a central focus of social
improvement, human rights must be seen as a core component of democratic theory
and practice. Not only must such movements help participants critically analyze their
8 Human Rights Education and Popular Democracy: Meeting the Challenge
155
lived reality, but they need to provide them with opportunities to actively engage in
democracy and gain respect for the rule of law. To do so, any HRE popular education
movement must move beyond existing institutional settings where formal education
is delivered and embrace non-formal and community educational settings: religious
groups, labor unions, non-governmental organizations, youth groups and community
associations, to name just a few.
One might ask whether the experiences of groups in Latin America and Asia
seeking to restore democracy and end autocratic rule are applicable to the United
States. Given the ample evidence in contemporary US political discourse that the
potential return of Donald Trump to the presidency poses a direct threat to the maintenance of democracy, the development of popular education about HRE in both
non-formal and community education settings is critical so the public understands
how the undermining of democracy by an autocratic political party poses a direct
threat to human rights. (See Goldberg, 2024; Jong-Fast, 2024) Additionally, efforts
by a number of state legislatures to restrict the study of African-American history, to
ban or severely constrain implementation of diversity, equity and inclusion initiatives
in K-university programs, and to ban books deemed “unacceptable” in public and
school libraries are further evidence that a popular education movement supporting
HRE is desperately needed. (PEN America, 2024).
Experienced HRE activists from Latin America offer guidance on the challenges
and opportunities involved in implementing a popular education HRE program. Rosa
Maria Mujica Barreda (Peru), a longtime HRE advocate and founding member of
the Instituto Peruano de Educacion en Derechos Humanos y la Paz (IPEDEHP)
explained it was critical for the initial group of HRE volunteers to develop a theoretical framework to guide their work, and while they initially developed networks with
classroom teachers, after 1992 Rosa saw the need to expand education about HRE
to include community leaders and the general public. She summarizes the impact of
the IPEDEHP’s popular education work.
We trained more than 2,500 leaders, men and women, youths and adults, peasants, and
city dwellers. Illiterate and literate, speakers of Quechua, Aymara, Spanish, Aguaruna and
Ashaninka. They are Authorities or social leaders, who today continue to work actively
promoting respect for dignity. Of all peoples and the defense of rights and who demand that
their communities fulfill their duties. And responsibilities. Many of them now hold political
and public posts: they are mayors, regional. Education directors, judges, governors, etc. The
training they received made a deep impression in their lives, and they still work in favor of
human rights education. (Barreda, 2015, p. 10)
Similarly, Susana Sacavino (Argentina and Brazil) began her work in HRE with
educators in public schools, and then expanded the activities of the NGO Novamerica
to embrace active citizenship, a particularly important issue in a Brazil that in the
early 1990s was working to develop a vibrant democracy after decades of autocratic rule. Susana noted that beyond her work with teachers in the formal education
sector, Novamerica’s work expanded to include training of “social activists from
popular settings belonging to different social movements.” (Sacavino, 2015, p. 156)
Most importantly, she believes that creation of a human rights culture that addresses
issues and problems in “different societal arenas ranging from the civil, political, and
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W. R. Fernekes
economic to the social and cultural.” (p. 156). Developing a theoretical framework
to guide popular education HRE is a critical task, and a number of HRE scholars
have argued for what Tibbitts has labeled a model of “transformational human rights
education.” Transformative HRE “aims to empower members of communities, both
within and outside of institutional settings, to learn about their human rights, defend
them and seek justice through non-violent social action. The narratives of community members who have suffered human rights violations are particularly important
in curricula associated with this model, which is heavily influenced by Freire’s focus
on dialogue and reflection on social reality by individuals. (Alter & Fernekes, 2020,
p. 218) A useful example of the transformational model is Abraham Magendzo’s work
in Chile and later in many other Latin American countries. A longtime HRE leader
in Latin America, Magendzo drew upon Freire’s ideas about critical pedagogy when
developing workshops for community leaders and members of the general public,
later expanding this to teacher education training and curriculum reform after the fall
of the Pinochet regime in Chile (Magendzo, 2015, pp. 102–106).
8.5 Putting Ideas into Practice: HRE in the Public Square
Making HRE a central focus of public deliberation in the United States will require
that its theoretical foundation, historical roots, policy proposals and core practices
be shared, critiqued and defended outside of the K-university community. LaFont
summarizes the essence of democratic public deliberation.
From the perspective of the democratic ideal of self-government, public deliberation essentially
contributes to democratic legitimacy by enabling citizens to endorse the laws and
policies to which
they are subject on their own accord instead of being coerced into blind obedience
(like in
authoritarian regimes). There is no shortcut for reaching that goal. Only the long
deliberative
road can get us there. (LaFont, p. 168)
Here are three recommended steps the HRE community can utilize to advance
human rights education as pillars of a broader initiative to help the public understand
and potentially embrace HRE as a central element of what it means to be civically
engaged in a democratic republic.
1. HRE leaders, groups and organizations should intensify outreach to groups and
social movements outside of K-university education. They should make the case
for HRE as a central focus of democratic life. This will require development of
content that speaks in lay terms about HRE: its origins, theoretical foundations,
defining characteristics, standard practices and implications for daily life.
2. Development of public forums where HRE content would be presented, critiqued
and defended through the process of public deliberation. As Landemore argues,
8 Human Rights Education and Popular Democracy: Meeting the Challenge
157
this process of public deliberation must be inclusive, rejecting a sole reliance on
experts, where “efforts must be made to reach out to the shy, the less articulate,
minorities and the vulnerable.” (Landemore, 2020, p. 139) This means that advocates of HRE must seek out groups which have not been among its traditional
constituencies and engage in deliberation with them. Among these would be political party organizations, labor unions, religious communities, non-governmental
organizations outside of the human rights community, and trade and professional
organizations.
3. Creation of a proposal for citizen assemblies where HRE is the central focus of
deliberation. Following the establishment of public forums involving the groups
noted in recommendation number 2, a process to create popular assemblies, first
in selected U. S. states and territories, and then expanded to all states, would be
needed. These assemblies would engage questions about HRE and its role in a
democratic republic, with the goal of developing proposals and recommendations
for consideration by legislatures. These citizen assemblies must be definition be
decentralized within individual U.S. states to maximize participation and prioritize transparency, with a coordinating council that would organize the results
of assembly deliberations and then provide all citizens with the opportunity to
endorse, amend or reject proposals and recommendations. These popular assemblies have been used effectively in France, Iceland and Ireland for a variety of
policy issues and those examples can inform HRE assemblies going forward.
(See Landemore, 2020, Chapter 7) The use of social media and Internet-based
mechanisms (i. e., Zoom) to engage the greatest number of the population would
be important, particularly to engage those who live in remote communities and
others who are unable to attend in person due to financial limitations, work
schedules and/or disability challenges.
8.6 Conclusion
With threats to fundamental human rights escalating in the United States, including
restrictions on voting rights, censorship of curriculum and learning materials, the
ending of the right to abortion through the Supreme Court’s Dobbs decision and
efforts to demonize and punish international migrants entering the country, the importance of expanding and deepening popular understanding of human rights and human
rights education cannot be overstated. HRE advocates are only making incremental
progress in their efforts to integrate human rights content and pedagogy within Kuniversity education, so the time for a more broad-based, popular education effort is
now. With 11.2% of U. S. wage and salary workers represented by unions in 2023,
this provides only one of the potential audiences where HRE advocates can direct
their resources going forward to advance understanding of HRE and its central role
in maintaining a democratic republic. (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2024). The time
for action is now—the survival of the republic may depend on it.
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Note The author expresses his gratitude to Nancy Flowers for her review and critique of an earlier
version of this essay.
References
Alter, G., & Fernekes, W. (2021). Human rights education and issues-centered social studies. In R.
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William R. Fernekes is Part-time Lecturer 2 at the Rutgers University Graduate School of Education, where he teaches courses on global education and human rights education. He serves on the
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Chapter 9
Beyond Borders: Navigating Social
Integration and Community Support
for Refugees in Australia and Italy
Nina Maadad
Abstract The situation of refugees must be analyzed in the context of the respective
host society and regarding the living and working conditions of nationals. However,
it is also clear that international events, discourses and frameworks have an important
impact on the integration of refugees and respective policies at the national and local
level. There are several broad goals of integration that apply across countries. These
include efforts to enable refugees to reach and develop their full potential, to protect
their human rights, prevent their marginalization, and foster social cohesion and
harmonious co-existence.
Keywords Australia · Cohesive society · Democracy · Equality · Human rights ·
Intercultural understanding · Italy · Social integration · Social justice · Refugees
9.1 Introduction
The concept of social integration involves individuals or groups actively engaging
with and forming connections with their host society, as well as working towards
increasing their mobility within that society. It is evident that social integration, which
is intricately linked with economic integration and identity integration, are the three
main pillars of a newcomer’s experiences in the host society that receives them (Alba
& Nee, 1997). The greater is the extent of social integration, may in effect, contribute
towards narrowing the social distance between groups. With more consistent practices and shared values, various racial/ethnic groups, regardless of their language,
creed, caste, etc., have the potential to contribute to the socio-cultural, economic
and political milieu of the host country. By incorporating refugees and migrants
into the structure and culture of the society, a cohesive society can be achieved and
allow newcomers access to all areas of community life and activities. One of the
N. Maadad (B)
School of Education, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
e-mail: nina.maadad@adelaide.edu.au
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025
J. Zajda and Y. Vissing (eds.), Globalisation, Human Rights and Education,
Globalisation, Comparative Education and Policy Research 51,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-80304-8_9
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earliest analyses of social integration was carried out by Valle and Burgess in 1921
through the concept of assimilation. They defined it as, “a process of interpenetration and fusion in which persons and groups acquire the memories, sentiments, and
attitude of other persons and groups and, by sharing their experience and history, are
incorporated with them in a common cultural life” (Park & Burgess, 1969, p. 735).
While some scholars offered an assimilation theory for integration, arguing that
immigrants would be assimilated into the host society economically, socially and
culturally over successive generations, others developed a multiculturalism theory,
anticipating that immigrants could maintain their ethnic identities through the integration process to help shape the host society with a much more diversified cultural
heritage (Glazer & Moynihan, 1964). Scholars have also proposed a segmented
integration theory, emphasizing that diverse groups of migrants may follow distinct
trajectories towards upward or downward mobility, depending on their individual,
structural and contextual factors (Gans, 1992).
Social integration captures the relationships between community interaction and
mobility, focusing on the process of people becoming part of the wider social fabric
and improving their socio-economic status and circumstances (Castle & Miller, 2009;
Ericson & Godthorped, 2002). With this in mind, the integration of refugees is a
dynamic and multifaceted two-way process, and it is one that requires efforts by
all parties concerned, including a preparedness on the part of refugees and asylumseekers to adapt to the host society while preserving their own cultural identity.
There must be a corresponding readiness on the part of host communities and public
institutions to welcome refugees and support the needs of this remarkably diverse
population. The process of integration is complex and gradual, comprising of distinct
yet connected facets: legal, political, economic, social and cultural. These are all
important aspects for refugees and asylum seekers to successfully navigate the host
society and potentially become well-functioning members of its communities.
It will be stated here that every refugee is primarily an asylum-seeker. A good
reception policy for asylum-seekers is therefore vital to the would-be refugee’s eventual integration in legal, psychological and social terms. It is in the best interests of
both the host society and asylum-seekers and refugees to promote a reception policy
with a long-term perspective. Refugees who began their life in the host country in
detention, or were isolated for several months in a state of enforced inactivity at
a collective reception centre for asylum-seekers, are likely to be encumbered when
they later attempt to socially integrate. The conditions in which asylum-seeking families find themselves during the immediate reception stage are therefore of important
significance with reference to the future possibilities for integration. A reception
policy that combines effective and adequate services (in particular with regard to
skills training, access to gainful or meaningful employment and healthcare) with a
swift asylum procedure and that is based on giving asylum-seekers as much autonomy
as possible, would greatly increase the chances of successful integration in the host
country for both the parents and children.
In Europe, a significant number of refugees, including families with parents and
children have settled in various countries. While some have successfully integrated
economically and become valuable members of society, there is a noticeable portion
9 Beyond Borders: Navigating Social Integration and Community …
163
that continues to face challenges in social and economic inclusion. High rates of
unemployment and underemployment persist, obstacles to citizenship hinder naturalization efforts, and instances of residential and social segregation continues in certain
regions. This chapter will examine similarities and differences in how refugee young
adults and their families conceptualize social integration in two countries: Australia
and Italy. Factors that contribute to social integration will be explored, as well as
the challenges that refugees encounter in achieving it. As social integration play an
important role in subsequent social mobility of refugees’ lives, related concepts such
as the ability of these people to firstly, feel a sense of belonging in their host societies;
and secondly, enhance their settlement and socio-economic standing.
9.2 Conceptualisations of Social Integration
Social integration in the context of modern societies is one where individuals and
groups have systemically adapted to the society to the extent that they have functionally participated in specified systems, including the economy, polity, science, law,
education, the media, arts and literature, or religion. The OECD (2024) emphasise
the two-way process and mutually interactive model of social integration, in that the
refugees/migrants/asylum-seekers and the host country both have to make the effort
to create a cohesive society and live harmoniously. The United Nations Department
of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA, 2007, n.p.), defines social integration
as:
[…] a dynamic and principled process in which societies engage in order to further human
development. Successful social integration processes encourage “coming together” while
respecting differences, and consciously and explicitly putting great value on maintaining
diversity. Social integration represents the attempt not to make people adjust to society, but
rather to ensure that society is accepting of all people.
[Its goal] is to create a more stable, safe and just society for all, in which every individual,
each with rights and responsibilities, has an active role to play. Such an inclusive society
must be based on the principles of embracing – not coercing or forcing – diversity and using
participatory processes that involve all stakeholders in the decision-making that affects their
lives.
This definition of social integration not only brings to the forefront the recognition
that refugees, migrants and asylum-seekers as active participants to their integration
to the host society, but also gives the host nations the opportunity to enact the values
of inclusivity and maintain diversity in order to further human development. The
literature on the social integration of refugees and their families into host societies
and their economies has become far-reaching and studies on their integration have
also developed quite strongly. Traditionally, research on refugees had focused on
the classical large immigration countries, for instance the United States, Canada and
Australia (Alba & Nee, 1997). However, the recent refugee waves (and the prospects
of future waves) into Europe and especially since the crises which have emerged
in sub-Saharan Africa and throughout the Middle East, have generated increased
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research in Europe as well. Indeed, when thinking about successful integration, three
broad domains have been delineated: economic, sociocultural, and civic-political
(Ravanera et al., 2013), and these domains can be mutually reinforcing. Evaluating
social integration is thus conceptually and empirically complex. Successful economic
integration can be facilitated by socio-cultural integration, while opportunities for
socio-cultural integration can arise from economic integration. However, these interactions can also result in harmful integration dynamics. For instance, if asylumseekers are unable to obtain work authorization in a country with strict laws, they
may be perceived as reliant on social benefits, potentially leading to negative perceptions of refugees and asylum-seekers within the broader population. Asylum-seekers
and refugees may then be discriminated against in the housing market, creating residential segregation and channelling migrants’ children to certain neighbourhoods and
schools. Such a dynamic of increasing separation (rather than integration) becomes
erroneously linked to a group’s “culture” when the process was set off by a lack of
legal inclusion or safeguards.
The issue of social integration among refugee young adults and their families,
as well as their social mobility constitute a global problem. Social integration is
a complex process by which refugees become active members of the host society,
building connections, taking part in community events, finding employment, and
embracing some cultural norms and values (Castles & Miller, 2009). Social integration can also be conceptualized as comprising three different but linked dimensions:
legal, economic, and socio-cultural. These dimensions reflect the fact that these three
areas are affected by and complement each other. For example, if the legal aspect
refers to some rights, for example access to work or education, these rights can then
assist a refugee in becoming economically self-reliant and make him or her able
to progressively pursue a sustainable livelihood. Hence, this refugee would become
economically integrated due to his or her previous legal integration. Another example
can be imagined, where a refugee has a further opportunity to obtain a job or be
employed as s/he has already successfully completed her/his education or a specific
training course (Jafari, 2021, p. 5). In fact, this right to education has been granted
to him/her based on his/her previous legal integration. Therefore, the relevant circle
between these three different dimensions of local integration can be clearly realized.
A social integration in the cover of access to education which has itself resulted from
the previous legal integration (having a right to education), can lead to an economic
integration through having access to the job market.
Social integration is significant for refugees because it enables them to build a
sense of belonging, acknowledge and welcome the change which fosters their wellbeing and contributes to their successful settlement into the host country. Crosscountry comparisons can provide insights into the conceptualizations of social integration and the factors that contribute to it. The key question to ask is: at what point
should integration programmes for refugees commence? Upon their application for
refugee status? Following the recognition of refugee status? Upon the granting of citizenship? A good reception policy for asylum-seekers is therefore vital to the would-be
refugee’s eventual integration in legal, psychological and social terms. The long-term
objective of social integration programs is to ensure that: firstly, resettled refugees
9 Beyond Borders: Navigating Social Integration and Community …
165
have access to the same level and quality of services as nationals; and secondly,
refugees may feel and become part of their new community. However, refugees
may have particular and intensive support needs in the immediate post-arrival stage,
and these are unlikely to be met by existing services available to nationals. For this
reason, refugee-receiving countries have established specialised services to assist
new arrivals with long-term integration support (UNHCR, 2024). It is in the best
interests of both the host society and asylum-seekers and refugees to engage in a
reception policy with a long-term perspective. Refugees who began their life in the
host country in detention, or isolated for several months in a state of enforced inactivity at a collective reception centre for asylum-seekers are likely to be hampered
when they later attempt to integrate.
In recent times, it was estimated that nearly 300 million people live outside
their country of birth (IOM, 2024). There are many global forces that shape human
mobility patterns – conflict, poverty, inequality, among others, and these are have
contributed to increasingly polarizing debates. For example, in nations of origin of
migrants, brain drain, broken families, and alienation of their citizens in faraway
lands are causing widespread concerns. There is no denying the positive impact of
mobility on humanity. It is a fundamental aspect of human progress and a valuable
tool for adapting to challenges and changes. Mobility has played a crucial role in
lifting communities out of poverty and driving economic growth in various countries. However, the increasing influx of refugees, undocumented migrants, and the
perilous conditions under which some individuals migrate have raised concerns and
cast doubt on the efficacy of government policies in both the countries of origin
and destination (Devictor et al., 2022). This has been a pattern of both Australia
and Italy. Achieving social integration of refugees, and eventually social mobility
a reality means that first, refugees must be seen as persons, endowed with agency,
dignity and their own individual identity. Countries of origin and destination go
beyond being mere labor markets or safe havens; they are complex societies with a
shared sense of identity and mechanisms for making collective decisions. Handling
cross-border mobility requires consideration of both the economic consequences of
migration and its social effects. The interaction between these aspects is where much
of the complexities, tensions, and policy challenges lie.
To make this happen, the first step is understand that refugee parents and children
are entitled to basic assistance including food, legal representation, accommodation,
food and psychosocial assistance, in addition to the right to be hosted for free in a
reception centre. However, Tuckett (2016) several years ago made the point that in
Italy, at least, the ideals of social integration and social mobility have been stymied by
exclusionary and restrictive immigration laws, which means that most refugees have
only temporary and insecure legal status, consolidate their subordinate position in the
Italian job market, and the wider society. A refugee’s legal status and subsequently
the ability to be social integrated and engage in social mobility, is contingent upon
presenting a regular work contract. Consequently, regardless of how many years one
has lived in the country, losing one’s job or being employed unofficially in the “black
market” can lead to the loss of legal status. Immigration laws ensure, therefore, that
refugees remain in poorly paid and low level jobs, since otherwise they risk falling
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into “illegality”. This structural economic and legal marginalization is reinforced by
the everyday racism and discrimination that migrants in Italy are routinely subject
to. Among much of the native population, the reaction to migrants’ arrival has been
featured by racism, xenophobia and islamophobia (Cachafeiro, 2002; Cole, 2005;
Grillo & Pratt, 2002; Rodwell & Maadad, 2018).
Despite the UNHCR’s emphasis on promoting refugees’ self-reliance, it is contradictory that mobility, a common livelihood strategies that does not require external
funding, is portrayed as a problem. Interestingly, social mobility is indirectly
acknowledged as an effective strategy for refugees. The absence of self-reliance
is listed among the main causes of refugees’ movements. Urban refugees who have
left camps are often presented as a positive example of people who have succeeded
in achieving self-reliance; remittances sent by family members who have succeeded
in moving to another part of the world are acknowledged to contribute to livelihoods
in Somali camps in Kenya (Scaletarris, 2009).
9.3 Factors Contributing to Social Integration of Refugee
Parents and Children in Italy and Australia
The factors that contribute to social integration differ from country to country.
In Australia, education is seen as a key driver of social interaction and social
mobility (Dustmann & Preston, 2019). The Australian Federal Government with
both major political parties have over the last few decades invested heavily in education, providing free public education up to Year 12. This has enabled many refugees
to access education and many to achieve some social mobility. In Italy, access to
employment is a key factor in social mobility (Benedetti & Regoli, 2019). However,
refugees experience significant barriers to employment, including discrimination
and lack of recognition of their qualifications. What has helped the situation in
Italy improve since 2015 when thousands of refugees from the Middle East started
heading for that country, was that UNICEF started providing critical support and
social integration services to children and families. This task included working with
the government of Italy and partners, namely to ensure children and women could
access quality healthcare, education and protection services including mental health
and psychosocial support (UNICEF, n.d.). Furthermore, and much recently in 2023,
responding to the rise in unaccompanied and separated children arriving in Italy,
UNICEF and the European Commission’s Department of Migration and Home Affair
(HOME) commenced what was known as the PROTECT program. This delivered,
for the purposes of social integration, child protection services, access to information,
skills education/training and inclusion interventions to help children, young people
and their refugee parents. Specifically, it was undertaken in Sicily at Lampedusa,
Calabria, Apulia, Latium and Fruili-Venezia Giulia (UNICEF, n.d.).
Italy’s domestic legislation, while it does not incorporate provisions for protecting
minors immediately after their arrival at the border or concerning their treatment in
9 Beyond Borders: Navigating Social Integration and Community …
167
detention facilities, has long established that all migrant minors present on Italian
territory – even if irregularly present—have the same rights to education and medical
care as Italian citizens. Italian law also specifically protects all minors who are not
members of a family unit, ensuring that they have legal representation as well as
adequate care within family units or private facilities. According to the 2002 BossiFini Law (ERCC, 2002), upon reaching the age of 18, individuals staying in Italy on
a “minor age” permit convert their document into a permit for study, work or “job
search” only under certain conditions. They should be able to prove that they have
resided in Italy for at least three years and have been following “a project of social
and civil integration run by a public or private agency” for more than two years. A
further condition is that a decision of “assisted repatriation” has not been decided on
by the Foreign Minors Committee. The only exception (i.e., permission to convert
the permit in the lack of the requirements) is available for minors who have been
formally placed under foster care (Amnesty International, 2006, p. 9). It is every
evident that research has documented refugees still facing significant challenges in
accessing both due to limited job opportunities and some levels of discrimination
from the law and social attitudes that can work against social integration (Dimitriadis
& Ambrosini, 2023).
9.4 Methodology
This present study examined the experiences of how refugee-background families
and young adults in Australia and Italy perceive social integration. The substantive aim of this chapter is to investigate from the perspective of a cohort refugees
who migrated in the last decade to two destination host countries: Australia and
Italy. The refugee experiences and views on their path to social integration to their
host countries, the challenges encountered, how they failed and overcame, and the
effects of these experiences on their general wellbeing, provided insightful case
studies for analysis. The data for this study was drawn from online surveys and
face-to-face interviews conducted with a total of 150 individuals from refugee backgrounds living in Australia, and young adults from refugee backgrounds living in
Italy. The selected participants include those from Africa, Afghanistan, Albania,
Bosnia, Egypt, Lebanon, Iran, Iraq, Morocco, Myanmar, Pakistan, Palestine, Syria
and Ukraine backgrounds who have arrived in Australia between 2013 and 2023.
Some of them have lived in stop-over countries such as Lebanon, Türkiye and
Jordan, while awaiting more permanent humanitarian settlement in Australia and
the European Union (Table 9.1).
The study’s participant pool is composed of young adults, and they constitute
approximately 75% of the participants. These individuals answered online surveys
and took part in interviews spanning the period August 2022 to May 2023. Within
this demographic, 68 young adult refugees went independently to Italy via sea route,
while 45 of their counterparts in Australia were accompanied by at least one parent in
some cases but both parents in most cases. Prior to the survey and interview phases,
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N. Maadad
Table 9.1 Refugee-background parents and young adult respondents (n = 150)
Country of
birth
Migration to
Female parent
Male parent
Young adults
Total
14
4
2
18
24
6
2
2
9
13
Australia
Italy
Other African
countries
10
Afghanistan
7
Albania
4
4
4
Bosnia
2
2
2
19
Egypt
4
Eritrea
15
1
1
17
2
2
Lebanon
6
2
1
1
4
6
Iran
8
2
2
4
8
Iraq
13
4
3
Myanmar
7
10
Morocco
5
1
1
1
Pakistan
7
1
Palestine
4
1
Syria
10
Ukraine
4
2
8
4
3
82
68
22
13
20
10
10
3
5
5
7
3
4
2
10
14
9
12
15
113
150
strict adherence to ethical research protocols was observed and always followed.
Utilizing a qualitative data analysis approach aligned with grounded theory (GT), the
study drew inspiration from the principles laid out by Glaser and Strauss in 1967 and
Thornberg’s informed grounded theory (IGT) in 2012. This analytical methodology
speculates theory as a guide for data collection and analysis, emphasizing the dynamic
relationship between data and theory. It is crucial to note that grounded theory looks
at existing theories that may inspire a distinctive understanding of a phenomenon.
It makes possible the natural/whole emergence of new or reimagined theories from
the collected data. Furthermore, grounded theory is used to uncover such things as
social relationships and behaviours that occur in groups, known as social processes
(Charmaz, 1995; Crooks, 2001).
The informed grounded theory (IGT) of Thornberg (2012), serving as both a
process and an outcome, integrates the research development with the outcomes
that result. This integration involves grounding the research thoroughly in data while
drawing insights from existing literature and theoretical frameworks. The critical lens
applied here centres on recognizing the intersection of refugee disadvantage, echoing
the perspectives of Maadad and Yu (2021) and Crenshaw (1989). This approach
makes it possible to identify generative themes that capture each respondent’s unique
situations while concurrently shedding light on common or generalized circumstances. Thornberg’s IGT, implemented for exploring emerging patterns in interviews with refugee-background students, champions flexibility over the imposition
9 Beyond Borders: Navigating Social Integration and Community …
169
of pre-existing concepts and theories. It actively avoids the substitution of constant
comparisons with systematic coding, safeguarding against biases and insensitive
theoretical interpretations. As articulated by Thornberg (2012, p. 254), the principles outlined extend beyond GT, encompassing the broader analytical relationship
between literature and data in various qualitative research approaches. Researchers
are urged to be mindful of their theoretical knowledge and assumptions, leverage
existing research and theories to enhance theoretical sensitivity, maintain openness
and data sensitivity, and avoid imposing pre-existing theories or assumptions during
analysis. Being informed not only locates the study within the current knowledge
base but also enriches it by extending, challenging, refining, or revising existing
knowledge.
9.5 Challenges Facing Refugee Children and Young Adults
The obstacles confronting refugee children and young adults in their pursuit of social
integration (and eventual social mobility) are substantial and pervasive across both
Australia and Italy. In both countries the issues faced can be summarized as follows:
feelings of loneliness and loss of social support networks or connections; open or
subtle discrimination; experiencing harassment from peers, adults or law enforcement agencies; experiences with others who do not trust the refugee child/young adult
and family; loss of social status; and feeling of not fitting in with others (Anderson,
2020).
Access to education stands out as a paramount challenge, with language barriers,
discrimination, and resource shortages hindering numerous refugee youth from
obtaining a worthwhile learning outcome (Oktarina & Wibowo, 2020). Firstly, to
describe the situation in Australia, people in need of protection are often keen to
study and start training, to make up for lost time and opportunities. Young people
are especially likely to be motivated. However, they also face many challenges in
studying and training, especially if they come with little English and have had a
limited or unique experience of education in the past. A key challenge is learning the
English language. Although many refugees will speak several languages, they often
come from countries which do not speak English. Learning English is a common
challenge many of them encounter. This is often made harder because at the same
time, they are busy dealing with other issues of settling into Australia, as well as
the trauma of their past experiences. The Australian federal government funds free
English language lessons for refugees who have resettled in the country through what
is known as the Adult Migrant Education Program (AMEP). This is one of the key
settlement programs for refugees. One of the key concerns of refugee communities
is the support available to help them learn English through this program. While the
Program is a good start for settlement, it is often not enough for people to learn the
level of English needed to succeed in mainstream education or training, or to get
work. Young people in school face other important challenges in their education and
training in Australia. These include:
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• Being placed in classes by age, rather than their level of education
• Adjusting to formal education for the first time
• Pressure to start working to support themselves and/or their families
• Under-resourced public schools that find it difficult to meet their needs
• Difficult home environments where the process of settlement means family
members cannot support them as much as is required
• Pressure to support older family members because of their better English, and
• Discrimination and racism in and outside school.
Secondly, with reference to Italy, it in fact holds significant importance for refugees
due to several reasons and they are summarized here. Firstly, referring to access to
the asylum-seeking process, when refugees arrive in Italy, the country is responsible
for registering their applications for asylum (international protection) (Ministero
Dell’Interno, n.d.). The Italian authorities offer a pathway for individuals who fear
persecution or danger in their home countries (Torrisi, 2018). Secondly, when granted
international protection, refugees have the right to stay in Italy and are not sent back to
their countries of origin (Refugee.Info Italy, 2023). Thirdly, Italy’s strategic position
in the Mediterranean Sea belies its geographical location, making it a primary entry
point for refugees attempting to reach Europe, so Italy is a crucial transit country for
them (Di Iasio & Wahba, 2023).
The complexity of their circumstances is further exacerbated by challenges in
gaining meaningful employment. Discrimination routinely obstructs refugees from
securing jobs commensurate with their qualifications, as research has convincingly
shown (Benedetti & Regoli, 2019). This dilemma leads to a cycle of social isolation
and a dearth of social support, posing formidable barriers to their integration into
new communities (Ibrahim, 2018). Expanding the lens to encompass a cross-country
perspective amplifies the gravity of these challenges and generates valuable insights
into the elements of social mobility for refugee children and young adults. Although
similarities in the chosen countries’ experiences are evident, significant distinctions
emerge in the factors influencing social mobility and the array of challenges refugees
confront. The persistent issues of education and employment accessibility emerge as
key factors shaping the setting of social mobility for this vulnerable demographic. In
the present study the following comments were elicited from respondents in Australia
and Italy:
‘It is tough being a refugee. You need to work so much harder than the local groups in
Australia to get somewhere. We face so many challenges but we also have many advantages’.
‘In Australia schooling is available for us but I can’t spend my life studying because I need to
find a job and support my family. My parents should not do it all and I should be responsible’.
‘I am so lucky to have both my parents with us. I know some kids who lost one and even
two parents in the war. I feel sad sometime because I know people don’t like refugees and
think that we are a burden’.
‘I wish there was no war and we didn’t have to move countries, learn a new language, new
culture and spend our lives trying to prove that we are good people’.
‘Leaving my country on my own with a dozen of boys my age and younger was hard but
not as hard as trying to survive in Italy. You know that you are not welcome especially when
you come from Africa’.
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‘I will face many issues here I know it. When you see how we are treated in comparison to
the refugees from Ukraine, you will understand.
‘I need to survive because my family paid so much money to get me to Italy. I am 15 and
need to find a job before anything else so I can repay and support them’.
‘I was so scared having to travel for over a week on a small boat to Italy. I spent over a
month in a closed container hiding with 32 other children while waiting for connection to
Italy. Now I must settle and do what ever it takes to get a job and survive’.
Unquestionably, refugee children endured many challenges and psychological
issues. Those who are with their families (in Australia) seem to feel more settled and
happier in general when compared to the refugee children in Italy who are on their
own:
‘Forgetting what we have been through is impossible! We still have nightmares about the
war and we talk about how lucky we are to have left and came to a safer place’.
‘My young sister who was 7 when we arrived to Australia 5 years ago still wake up screaming
at night and telling us to run to shelter. These visions may never leave us’.
‘My experience on the sea journey was so bad. I use to stick my head in the water and hope
to die. When you arrive to Italy, you have nothing and no one. Many boys got lost already
doing all the things they shouldn’t be doing but no family there to guide them’.
‘I need to learn Italian well but I don’t think that I will stay in school. I need to make money
and save to help back home’.
‘It is so difficult to be alone. Living in ‘Casa Famiglia’ is not the same as being with a caring
and loving family. People are nice but you feel so lonely which scares me because I can
see how many are giving up and following others who are taking the wrong path to making
money’.
9.6 Language Barriers and Limited Access to Language
Support
Effective communication is of immense importance in the lives of refugee children,
impacting crucial aspects such as education, social assimilation, and emotional wellbeing (OECD, 2019). Yet, it is essential to delve into the intricate web of influences
that ethnicity casts on communication within this demographic. This section will
explore the multifaceted dynamics through which ethnicity shapes the communication experiences of refugee children. A comprehensive exploration will focus on
three key facets: language barriers, cultural disparities, and the indispensable role
of social support. Ethnicity intertwines with these communication dynamics, influencing how refugee young adults navigate their education journeys and adapt socially
and emotionally (UNHCR, 2021). The following responses reflected what refugee
children had to say about language, culture and social support:
‘Learning English was difficult but we had a lovely and caring teacher who supported us. I
wanted to learn well to make her happy because she is nice to me and my sisters’.
‘It is difficult to learn a new language especially for my parents. They are truly struggling
especially with appointments and chores. I think they will get better with time’.
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‘Being in school makes it easier to learn the language but having many friends from my
home country means that we speak our language and not Australian. It is nice to have people
from your country with you to make your life a bit more meaningful’.
‘For us in school, we have a good social support and network but our families don’t. They
struggle and miss having family and friends around’.
‘Learning Italian is difficult- very difficult- especially because I could not read or write before
coming here’.
‘The school system and programs for refugees are available but you must make the effort
and push yourself to attend all the time. It gets harder especially the days that you are feeling
down and lonely’.
‘It is easier to learn Italian from the street I think. I will learn the language while working
because a friend said he will get me a job in agriculture where I don’t have to talk to anyone.’
The refugee children feel that language learning is easier for younger generations
than the older ones. They mentioned that being in school is enjoyable when you
have good caring teachers and friends but more difficult for adults to learn. What
may be positive for those in Australia, may not be as positive for others in Italy. It
is important to design programs to support and promote social and active learning
which will be inclusive, engaging and motivational to all.
9.6.1 Communication Challenges and Language Support
Program
Language proficiency poses a formidable challenge for refugee children, impacting
various facets of their lives, including communication abilities, education experiences, and overall well-being. Upon entering a new country, refugee children, who
come a wide range of cultural and ethnic backgrounds, often confront substantial language and cultural difficulties. Limited familiarity with the host country’s
language and culture regularly impedes their capacity to communicate effectively,
express themselves, comprehend instructions, and actively learn in the schools in
which they are enrolled (Azizah & Kasan, 2018; Berti & Stefanelli, 2020; Slaughter
& Marsden, 2004). Some of the comments shared when asked to refugee children
about cultural diversity, language challenges and how they managed that through
schooling in Australia, elicited the following statements:
‘Sometimes people look at me with fascination, especially because I am attending a Christian
school. My hijab makes me odd I guess. I use to get asked all sorts of questions, such as who
do you pray for? Who is your God? What do you think of other religions?‘
Rasha who was strong minded and fearless, had a funny answer to this question, she said:
‘Being through almost every country possible before getting our paperwork and coming to
Australia made us resilient -What you see is what you get I say to children in my school- I
am human like you, being a refugee does not make me an alien’.
‘I get treated like others, there are too many refugees from Syria, Iraq and Egypt here in my
school which makes it easy to have friends, speak Arabic and even share similar food. We
even teach the Aussies about our yummy dishes and we share with them’.
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In Italy, the situation is slightly different, especially because many of the interviewed children did not have any family members with them. This reflects a very
typical situation in that country, as it has been documented (MEE & Agencies, 2016),
that the number of unaccompanied child refugees arriving from across the Mediterranean Sea, had more than doubled in the first month of 2016, and in fact, 9 out of
10 minors arrived in Italy without parents or guardian, comprising 7,009 out of a
total of 7,567 arrivals. All those children came from Africa, Egypt, Lybia, Morocco,
and Afghanistan were mostly alone, while those from Syria and Ukraine had some
family member(s) with them:
‘I was lucky to have a group of people from Egypt like me, who speak my language and
share similar beliefs and culture. This made my hard travel easier because they understood
me and what I am going through’.
‘What I found difficult and horrible to accept was the division politians and citizens create
in Italy. What I was surprised to see is the difference in treatment on arrival in allocating
accommodation, eduation and support to refugees. This was based on your country of origin
and religion. We certainly were treated poorly in comparison to those who refuged from
Ukraine’.
Refugee children, particularly those originating from conflict-ridden regions such
as Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan, Iran, and various African countries, communicate in
their native languages, including but not limited to Arabic, Dari, Pashto, Somali,
Tigrinya, Amharic, Rohingya, or Bahay. The linguistic dissimilarities between their
mother tongues and the language spoken in their host country, coupled with limited
language support resources, significantly hinder their ability to acquire new language
skills (Berti & Stefanelli, 2020; Wright, 2017). This linguistic discrepancy creates a
formidable barrier, impeding effective communication and interaction within the
academic environment. The challenges intensify as these refugee children often
grapple with unfamiliar language characters and structures, making the acquisition of
the host country’s language a formidable task. Research underscores that the struggle
to adapt to a new language can lead to academic/schooling difficulties, hindering their
capacity to comprehend coursework, actively take part in classroom activities, and
build connections with their peers (Meloni, 2018). The lack of proficiency in the host
country’s language not only affects academic pursuits but also permeates their social
interactions, making it challenging for refugee children to socialize with their peers
and seek assistance from teachers or other school staff (Meloni, 2018).
9.6.2 Cultural Differences and Adjustments
Cultural differences have a profound influence on communication challenges faced
by refugee children, presenting a complex display of varying practices, norms,
assumptions, values, and communication styles. The rich tapestry of ethnic diversity inherent in the refugee population introduces a myriad of cultural elements
that, when interwoven, may lead to potential misunderstandings during attempts at
communication. These differences become particularly evident when considering
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the distinct cultural practices, traditions, and communication patterns of refugee
children from diverse regions, which often diverge from the norms prevalent in their
newly adopted countries. Refugee children from Middle Eastern and Southeast Asian
cultures, for instance, may prioritize group or collective harmony and employ indirect
communication styles (Chung, 2017; Rousseau, 2017). These communication styles,
although deeply ingrained in their cultural backgrounds, may starkly contrast with
the prevailing direct communication styles practiced in the education institutions
they find themselves in, resulting in potential misinterpretations and difficulties in
navigating social interactions in the school setting. The impact of cultural differences
extends beyond verbal communication, delving into the domain of nonverbal cues.
Variances in body language, gestures, and eye contact, which are integral components of communication, can vary significantly among ethnic groups. This diversity in
nonverbal communication may inadvertently lead to the transmission of unintended
messages, potentially provoking tensions or challenges in the academic environment
(Derince & Balta, 2019; UNHCR, 2019). An illustrative example lies in the cultural
views and importance of eye contact. In some cultures, maintaining direct eye contact
is construed as disrespectful or indicative of disengagement or lack of confidence.
In the context of the new education environment, this variance may be misinterpreted by teachers, parents and peers, further complicating the process of forming
connections and establishing rapport. These cultural disparities not only pose challenges in the formation of connections with peers but also impact the understanding
of social cues and the navigation of interpersonal relationships within the education
setting. Addressing these multifaceted challenges requires a nuanced approach that
acknowledges and accommodates diverse cultural backgrounds to foster an inclusive
and supportive learning environment.
9.6.3 Social Support Systems
Equally important to the above, social support systems play a crucial role in enhancing
communication strategies and resources for refugee children, complementing the
challenges posed by language proficiency, cultural differences, and adjustments.
Establishing robust, trustworthy, and professional relationships among teachers,
mentors, and peers is vital to providing linguistic and emotional support, ensuring the
success of communication experiences. Scholars and researchers have consistently
underscored the significance of social support networks in aiding refugee children’s
language acquisition and overall adjustment to the education systems of the host
countries (Cakar et al., 2020; Majumder et al., 2019; Raturi et al., 2020). In certain
countries of the world, such as Italy, community-based organizations and language
support programs have been instituted to facilitate language practice with the assistance of volunteers in public spaces. These initiatives, identified by Accorinti et al.
(2020) and Ayyash-Abdo (2019), extend beyond formal classroom settings, providing
refugees with opportunities to enhance their communication skills and foster social
integration in more relaxed environments like cafés. The success of such endeavours
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relies on creating meaningful relationships between refugee children and their Italian
peers and communities. Similarly in Australia, informal community-based organizations operate within schools or religious institutions, offering additional avenues
for linguistic and social support for refugee children. These localized efforts reflect
a recognition of the diverse needs of refugee populations and the importance of
tailored support systems within education and community settings. The intertwined
challenges of language barriers, cultural disparities, and the pivotal role played by
social support systems significantly influence the communication dynamics experienced by refugee children. An astute recognition and proactive response to these
multifaceted challenges are essential for fostering effective communication, seamless
integration, and the overall well-being of refugee children within society.
9.7 Opportunities for Attaining a Good Education Toward
Social Integration
Refugees who migrate to a new country and do not speak the national or official
language of the country encounter many communication challenges and tend to
struggle in getting access to specialized language support programs. There are several
reasons for this and overall, it is harder for some than others, especially if the language
and alphabet are totally different. Others may also endure similar challenges if they
are illiterate. In this chapter, we will focus on the Australia and will explore a few
key factors shaping the challenges in each individually. Themes covered here are as
follows: linguistic diversity of migrating refugee populations, limited resources and
funding available and the need for tailored language support programs.
9.7.1 Multicultural Education Policies and Support
Programs in Australia
Australia is a multicultural country that hosts refugees from various ethnic and
linguistic origins. Non-English-speaking refugees no doubt face several serious
challenges including communication due to the language barriers. Many refugees
who arrive in Australia and have limited proficiency of the English language, will
face tremendous difficulty in expressing themselves, understanding instructions,
and interacting effectively in education and social or workplace settings (Refugee
Council of Australia, 2021). Catering for all the diverse cultures and experiences
of refugee populations, requires tailored language programs which need funding,
trained professionals, interpreters, materials, infrastructure, specific resources, and
expertise (Victorian Foundation for Survivors of Torture, 2021). This limitation
poses significant challenges and intensifies the barriers blocking the learning for
non-English-speaking background refugees. All these requirements may be lacking
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due to budgetary constraints and conflicting or more urgent priorities. However, many
refugees especially those who are from unique linguistic backgrounds and needs, do
not seem to have adequate access to language support and services (Cumming et al.,
2020). Consequently, due to the lack of resources, communication challenges worsen
for non-English-speaking refugees, hindering their socialization and integration into
Australian society. The cultural and linguistic diversity of refugees makes it more
challenging to provide a meaningful supportive and inclusive learning environment.
In particular, the wide geographical distribution of refugees throughout Australia
in its states and territories creates a bigger challenge in ensuring access to equitable language support programs, since such support services have been legislated in
diverse ways, regulations vary and there is little consistency in the programs offered
(Refugee Council of Australia, 2021).
To summarize, ethnicity impacts on refugees’ education experiences in Australia.
Despite the challenges noted earlier, including language barriers, cultural differences,
and discrimination, there are opportunities for attaining a good education and social
integration. It is fundamental for the Australian government, community organizations and education institutions to identify and attend to the specific needs of different
ethnic groups that refugees come from. This can be enhanced by implementing
multicultural education policies, providing suitable language programs, promoting
community and peer support, and providing financial support and scholarships. These
can help Australia create a more inclusive, equitable and fair education system that
gives refugees from diverse ethnic backgrounds opportunities to thrive academically,
socially, and economically.
9.7.2 Multicultural Education Policies and Support
Programs in Italy
Italy lacks a comprehensive national policy framework or legislation that supports
policies for refugees’ language learning, a problem that impedes the fulfilment of
effective language support programs (International Organization for Migration, 2020,
2021). There is no specific national legislation regulating resettlement: the existing
Italian legislation on refugees and international protection apply in all cases. Refugee
status is granted in Italy according to the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of
Refugees (1951 Convention), which has been implemented by the national legislator
by law n. 722/1954. The legislative decree n. 251/2007 regulates the asylum procedure and criteria for recognition of refugee status. Meanwhile legislative decree n.
25/2008 determines the procedure for granting and withdrawing refugee status, while
legislative decree n. 142/2015 establishes standards for receiving applicants for the
purposes of international protection. Other legislation, such as law n. 47/2017, introduced additional rights and specific asylum procedures for asylum-seeking minors
and for unaccompanied foreign minors.
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The lack of such a policy creates inconsistencies leading to shortages of standardized language support resources and funding, creating major barriers in different
regions in Italy and exacerbating communication challenges for non-Italian-speaking
refugees. Like Australia, these resources require trained and employed professionals,
materials and infrastructure but this is impossible due to recent budget restrictions
and limitations, and legislative controversies about the status of refugees in Italy
(Caponio & Donatiello, 2017). Notably, these shape the geographic disproportions
for refugees in accessing specialized language support in smaller towns and rural
farming areas when compared to larger cities (Caponio & Donatiello, 2017). The
national policy restrictions, and inequalities in resource distribution hinder language
learning, and diminish the opportunities to communicate and integrate successfully
into Italian society (International Organization for Migration (IOM), 2021).
Furthermore, it is evident that in Italy there are myriad legal and administrative
complexities associated with refugees’ status which can hinder or completely prevent
their access to language programs. Part of the Italian administration problem are the
delays in access to documentation and registration which in turn restrict, block, and
deprive the refugees from services to essential resources such as education and health
support (IOM, 2021). Addressing these challenges requires increased funding and
investment in language support services, including qualified teachers and appropriate
learning resources. F0r this reason, government policies need to be revised, updated
and specifically include funds to support language learning for refugees. It is crucial
that these issues are dealt with to develop the communication needs and facilitate integration, access to education and other essential services for refugees. Speaking the
Italian language is vital in Italy. Non-Italian language speakers face serious communication challenges as there is only limited access to specialized language support
programs. Many refugees come from countries where the language is Arabic, Persian,
Dari, Pashto or Somali. The lack of proficiency in even basic Italian hinders their
communication skills, subsequently making it difficult to express themselves, ask for
support and assistance and integrate into Italian society (Fleury & Chelli, 2017). Not
having the language skills can deprive refugees from access to healthcare, education
and other essential services creating a bigger marginalization and isolation for them.
9.7.3 Conclusive Summary for Both Countries
A comprehensive overview encompassing the two nations—Australia and Italy—
leads to the conclusion that they all face distinct communication challenges and
limitations in education due to issues around cultural diversity, language barriers,
legal and legislative/administrative challenges. Australia struggles with linguistic
diversity, limited resources and funding and the need for tailored language support
programs. Italy faces linguistic barriers, resources limitations and policy constraints
that hinder access to specialized language support programs. To address these multifaceted challenges, each country must invest in language support services, qualified instructors, appropriate learning materials, improved education infrastructure,
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psychosocial support services, community engagement initiatives, and legal reforms.
By prioritizing these actions, these nations can empower refugee children, enhance
education opportunities, facilitate integration into society, and promote their overall
well-being.
9.8 Breaking Barriers and Empowering Refugees Through
Mental Health
Mental health issues, such as depression play a significant role in shaping the inclusion and integration experiences of refugee children and families in different countries. These challenges can have far-reaching outcomes, shaping various aspects of
integration, including access to education, employment opportunities, social activities, and the overall social and cultural adjustment and perceptions of refugees (Alpak
et al., 2020). Research documents that refugee children have a higher prevalence of
mental health disorders, including depression compared to their non-refugee peers
(Gadeberg et al., 2021). This can be attributed to the traumatic events, displacement,
and loss that many refugee children have experienced. The exposure to violence,
separation from family members, and the loss of social support systems contribute
to increased rates of depression and anxiety among these vulnerable individuals.
Consequently, these mental health challenges often hinder their ability to engage in
educational, social, and cultural activities in the host society.
It is noted that the impact of mental health issues on the inclusion and integration
of refugee children and families is complex and multifaceted. It is guided by several
factors, including cultural beliefs, access to mental health services, and individual
resilience (UNHCR, 2018). Cultural beliefs and stigma surrounding mental health
within both refugee and host communities can create significant barriers to seeking
help. Moreover, limited availability of specialized mental health services, language
barriers, and financial constraints further impede access to appropriate support. To
address these challenges and promote the successful integration of refugee children
and families, it is important to provide adequate mental health support (UNHCR,
2020). This includes culturally sensitive and linguistically appropriate services (Reed
et al., 2020). Collaboration between relevant stakeholders, such as non-government
organizations, international agencies, and the government, is essential in strengthening mental health support systems and removing the existing barriers. Mental
health issues, particularly depression, significantly affect the inclusion and integration of refugee children and families in different countries. These challenges hinder
their ability to fully participate in and contribute to their new communities.
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9.9 Australia’s Refugees: Education and Wellbeing
The education of refugee children and their families in Australia, is profoundly guided
by conditions of mental wellbeing, including depression. Refugees have undergone
severe challenges and traumas such as forced migration, violence, persecution, and
separation from loved ones, which contribute to the emergence of mental health
issues, including depression (Slewa-Younan et al., 2015). These issues, in turn, significantly shape the education outcomes and opportunities available to them. Research
shows that mental wellbeing and depression have many consequences for refugee
children and their families. Firstly, mental health issues hinder access to education
by reducing motivation, impairing concentration and cognitive function, and exacerbating language barriers (Fazel et al., 2012; Slewa-Younan et al., 2015). Secondly,
they affect school attendance and engagement due to the multiple stressors faced by
refugee families, leading to irregular attendance, absenteeism, and disengagement
from learning. Depression further intensifies these challenges, resulting in reduced
participation and achievement. Mental health issues, including depression, adversely
undermine overall education outcomes, including poorer academic achievement,
diminished schooling outcomes, and reduced aspirations among refugee children and
their families (Fenta et al., 2018). These setbacks have long-term consequences for
their future employment prospects and socio-economic opportunities (Dangmann et
al., 2022; Slewa-Younan et al., 2015). Socio-emotional difficulties further contribute
to poor schooling outcomes and impede their overall integration and well-being.
Students, teachers and health workers responded below to some of the questions when asked about support provided for refugee children and young adults and
families in Australia:
‘In Australia, we have access to support at school. At first, we were often asked to go and
speak to counsellors so we can share our worries and talk about what makes us sad and
unhappy’.
‘Teachers are kind and give us time out to feel better if we are stressed. We get sent to see a
special person that can help us and listen to what we have to say without judging us.’
‘My problem is seeing my parents unhappy and feeling that they are less important than
other people in this country. They feel like as if they were a burden on Australia now. They
keep to themselves and feel ashamed and berry themselves in their sadness and worries”.
To address these challenges, appropriate support and interventions are crucial.
Culturally sensitive mental health services, targeted language acquisition support,
and inclusive school environments that consider the unique needs of refugee children and their families play a critical role in supporting their education (Fazel et al.,
2012). Promoting social and emotional wellbeing, fostering social connections, and
nurturing a sense of belonging also positively help with their learning. In conclusion, mental wellbeing, particularly depression, significantly guide the education of
refugee children and their families in Australia. These consequences include limited
access to affordable education, attendance and engagement challenges, etc. Providing
appropriate support and interventions to address mental health issues is vital for
promoting meaningful education outcomes in this vulnerable population.
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9.10 Italy’s Refugees: Education and Wellbeing
Italy, as a country historically situated at the forefront of refugee arrivals in Europe,
experiences substantial challenges in fostering the inclusion and integration of
refugee children and families. The well-being and successful integration of refugees
are affected by mental health and depression. Refugee children in Italy often confront
numerous adversities, including displacement, separation from family members, and
exposure to violence in their new communities. These experiences contribute to
higher rates of mental health disorders such as depression compared to non-refugee
children (Micali et al., 2020). The presence of mental health challenges impedes their
ability to engage in educational, social, and cultural activities, thus hindering their
proper integration into Italian society. Refugee families also face significant stressors that affect their mental health. Loss of homes, disruption of social networks,
and uncertainty about the future contribute to chronic stress, anxiety, and depression
among refugee parents (Hynie et al., 2017). Furthermore, the challenges of navigating
a new and very alien language, cultural norms, and systems in Italy exacerbate mental
health issues.
Accessing mental health support for refugee children and families in Italy encounters various barriers. Language barriers, limited availability of specialized mental
health services, and a lack of culturally sensitive approaches pose significant challenges (Ventevogel et al., 2017). Stigma surrounding mental health issues, both within
refugee communities and in the broader Italian society, further discourage individuals
from seeking help. The presence of mental health challenges, particularly depression, among refugee children and families in Italy presents significant barriers to
their inclusion and integration. Mental health issues very seriously affect children’s
education, as depression often leads to difficulties concentrating, reduced motivation,
and diminished school attendance (Crea et al., 2019). Moreover, untreated mental
health conditions strain family relationships, hindering parents’ ability to support
their children’s integration process. To facilitate the inclusion and integration of
refugee children and families in Italy, addressing their mental health needs is crucial.
It is imperative to establish comprehensive mental health services that are accessible, culturally sensitive, and tailored to the unique needs of refugees (DeVylder
et al., 2019). Collaboration between government agencies, NGOs, and healthcare
providers is essential to strengthen mental health support systems and overcome
existing barriers.
It is evident that refugees have experienced different situations and overcome
various circumstances along their journey; not all of them have been lucky to have
attended schooling or finding homes/ centres to belong to which made their journeys
vary in many ways. Some of the responses to our interviews are listed below from
students, teachers and health workers in centres and schools in Italy:
‘I feel so sick constantly and so sad and lonely. I will never tell anyone but you understand
me. You have been also through this and you know what it is like’.
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‘We have been speaking to many people especially in the refugee centre and in schools. We
can’t share much, we are scared and we really want to forget what we have been through on
our journey to Italy’.
‘I would have been fully lost if I stayed in Calabria. I was used and abused and was too
scared to talk about what happened there. Now the school allow me to speak to a special
doctor but I don’t say much because I am embarrassed and scared’.
‘Pity we don’t have family here, this is all we need to feel better and supported. Some people
care so much for us I must say and I hope one day we will be able to put all this experience
behind us’.
‘We are already labelled you know? Some situations make me upset because we don’t have
the same treatment as other refugees and migrants, I don’t know why they let some refugees
from different countries sleep in hotels when they arrive to Italy and others have nothing so
they sleep in shelter and train stations. We are all human and have feelings and pride’.
‘The children have endured so much and we try so hard to do the right thing by them. It
takes a long time to gain their trust after what they have been through and this is the main
thing that makes it hard for us’.
‘As a teacher, I want to help them learn the language quickly to provide for them basic but
especially important support. Some are keen but majority find it too hard because they are
literate in their own language or they are not interested in spending time learning, they want
work!’
‘Many sad stories were shared with me and some very heart breaking experiences discussed
during counselling sessions. However, we see several of the boys (boys at the centre) do very
well after a few years, while a few of them get lost very quickly’.
To conclude, mental health challenges, particularly depression, significantly
impact the inclusion and integration of refugee children and families in Italy. The
trauma and stress of displacement contribute to higher rates of mental health disorders among refugees. To promote successful integration, it is crucial to prioritize the
provision of accessible and culturally appropriate mental health support services.
Collaboration among various stakeholders is necessary to make all this possible.
9.11 Opportunities for Social Integration Through
Education
Education can enhance economic opportunities and pave the way for social integration and material success in any country. In this section, we will explore policies,
initiatives and challenges faced by all five countries in providing education opportunities to refugee and promoting their social integration. In Australia, various programs
now provide support for refugee education and integration into society such as the
Adult Migrant English Program (AMEP); it offers free English language classes
to eligible migrants, including refugees (Australian Government, 2021). Additionally, the Refugee Education Support Program (RESP) gives specialized support to
refugee students in mainstream schools, facilitating their transition and academic
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progress (Australian Government, 2021). In Italy on the other hand, the government has made significant effort to support refugees in getting educated. The provision of comprehensive reception services, including education assistance for both
refugee children and adults, is made possible through a program called Sistema di
Protezione per Richiedentil Asilo e Rifugiati (SPRAR) (Italian Ministry of Interior, 2021). To promote social integration, programs like the Intercultural Mediators
initiative have been implemented to facilitate effective communication and foster
cultural understanding between refugees and local communities (Italian Ministry of
Interior, 2021).
9.12 Multicultural Education Policies and Support
Programs
The significance of multiculturalism has become increasingly apparent in societies
worldwide, emphasizing the importance of recognizing and celebrating diversity,
establishing a social framework that addresses the needs and challenges faced by
diverse communities, and ensuring equitable access to essential services such as
education, employment, and healthcare for all equally (Diller & Moule, 2005).
Multicultural policies and support programs serve as fundamental mechanisms in
cultivating an inclusive environment that acknowledge distinct cultural/ethnic backgrounds (Diller & Moule, 2005). Research demonstrated that integrating a multicultural perspective into the curriculum and adopting culturally sensitive pedagogical
practices fosters comprehension, empathy, and equity among students (Lo Bianco
et al., 1999). By implementing well targeted education policies and support programs,
alongside the integration of a multicultural perspective within the curriculum, this
significantly contributes to creating an inclusive society (Lo Bianco et al., 1999).
These multifaceted efforts promote equality, respect, and understanding among
individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds (Vertovec & Cohen, 2002).
9.12.1 Fostering Community and Peer Support
Community and peer support play a crucial role in facilitating the integration of
refugees. Building support networks within ethnic communities is an effective way
to provide a sense of belonging and assistance to newcomers. These networks enable
refugees to connect with individuals who share similar cultural backgrounds, experiences, and even language, which can help alleviate feelings of isolation and provide
supportive environments that make adjustment possible. In Australia and Italy, these
networks can encourage a sense of community and mutual understanding, while in
other countries, the lack of such support groups should be introduced and encouraged
to enhance integration. Overall, community and peer support serve as crucial pillars in
9 Beyond Borders: Navigating Social Integration and Community …
183
ensuring the successful integration of refugee in these multicultural nations. Support
networks in ethnic communities play a significant role in making the integration of
refugees possible. The following are a few examples of the work done in the countries
involved in this study. In Australia for instance, community groups like the Afghan
Community Association of South Australia and the Assyrian Australian Association
provide spaces for refugees to connect, share experiences, and promote/preserve their
cultural heritage (ACNC, 2020). These networks offer refugees a sense of community
and opportunities for social engagement. In Italy, community-based organizations
like the Association for Assistance to Refugees (CARA) and the Italian Council
for Refugees (CIR) provide a range of services to support refugees’ integration,
including language support, legal aid, and social integration programs (Association
for Assistance to Refugees, n.d.; Italian Council for Refugees, n.d.). These networks
foster resilience and enable refugees to support each other throughout their displacement journey. Overall, these support networks that operate in ethnic communities
contribute to the well-being and successful integration of refugees in these countries.
Peer mentoring programs have proven to be effective in facilitating the integration process for refugees in Australia and Italy. These programs pair newly arrived
refugees with individuals or families from the host community who have a better
understanding of the local context. Mentors provide practical guidance, emotional
support, and assistance in navigating various aspects of life in the host country
(Refugee Council of Australia, 2020). In Australia, the Settlement Services International’s Community Refugee Sponsorship Initiative in New South Wales offers a
peer mentoring program that empowers refugees throughout their settlement journey
(Settlement Services International, 2020). The Protection System for Asylum Seekers
and Refugees (SPRAR) program offers mentorship for refugees in Italy, helping
them adapt to Italian society and access services and opportunities (Italian Ministry
of Interior, 2017). These examples of peer mentoring programs enhance the support
networks, offering refugees guidance and assistance to navigate their new lives and
promote successful integration. In conclusion, the formation of support networks
within ethnic communities and the implementation of peer mentoring programs are
vital for the successful integration of refugees into host societies.
9.13 Scholarships and Financial Support
The Australian Federal Government recognizes the importance of education for
refugee students and provides financial aid opportunities through several programs.
For example, the Refugee Education Support Program (RESP) offers financial assistance specifically to refugee students enrolled in primary and secondary schools.
Moreover, universities and institutions in Australia have established scholarships
tailored to meet the study needs of refugee students. Examples include the Refugee
Scholarship Program at the University of Sydney and the Monash Asylum Seeker
Scholarship, which aim to alleviate the financial burdens and support refugees’
learning goals (Monash University, 2023; University of Sydney, 2023). Meanwhile,
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Italy offers various financial aid opportunities for refugee students to enable their
easier integration into higher education. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation provides scholarships specifically for refugees, emphasizing
their inclusion in Italian learning institutions. Furthermore, renowned universities
such as the University of Bologna and University of Rome Tor Vergata offer scholarships designed to address the unique challenges faced by refugee students. These
scholarships not only provide financial support but also contribute to their educational needs and foster their successful integration into the Italian higher education
system (Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation, n.d.; University
of Bologna, 2023; University of Rome Tor Vergata, 2023).
9.14 Targeted Scholarships and Education Inequities
In various countries, targeted scholarships have been implemented to address education inequities and promote equal access to it. These scholarships aim to support
students from marginalized communities and disadvantaged backgrounds in pursuing
higher education. The following examples highlight targeted scholarships examples
of the five countries associated with this study. Australia has introduced targeted
scholarships and one such notable program comprises the Indigenous Commonwealth Scholarships, which support indigenous students in receiving a higher education. These scholarships provide financial assistance for tuition fees, living expenses,
and other study-related costs, ensuring that indigenous students have equal opportunities (Australian Government, 2018). Similarly, in Indonesia, the Bidikmisi Scholarship Program was established to address education inequities among marginalized
communities. Funded by the Indonesian government, this program targets students
who are struggling financially, particularly those from rural areas and underprivileged backgrounds. It offers financial support, including coverage of tuition fees,
living allowances, and learning materials, to ensure equitable access (Directorate
General of Higher Education, 2020). Italy has implemented various scholarship
programs to address education inequities. Here the Ministry of Education, University,
and Research provide scholarships specifically designed for students with disabilities, ensuring equal opportunities for their higher education. Additionally, universities such as the University of Padua, University of Bologna, and the University of
Milan offer scholarships and financial aid programs aimed at supporting students
from disadvantaged backgrounds for the purposes of equity in learning (UNHCRUNICORE, 2023; University of Padua, 2023; University of Milan, 2023; Univerity
of Bologna, 2023). All targeted scholarship programs in Australia, Italy and other
countries in the world play a significant role in addressing education inequities
and promoting equal opportunities for students from marginalized communities and
disadvantaged circumstances.
9 Beyond Borders: Navigating Social Integration and Community …
185
9.15 Conclusion
When migrants uproot themselves and move to another society, they know that their
lives will change, and that they will have to adapt to new circumstances, and to
learn new rules and languages. Some may even relish this opportunity to make a
new life for themselves in a new country. Yet change and adaptation should not be
seen as a zero-sum process, as if immigrants can only master a new set of rules or
relationships if they hide or disavow their original familial, ethnic, religious, and
cultural ties and heritage. At the individual level, immigrants have a wide variety of
“acculturation strategies” that involve expanding their cultural repertoires without
abandoning older attachments and identities. Furthermore at the societal level, destination societies have a wide variety of policy options to support these acculturation
strategies, providing routes for immigrants to participate and to belong. There is no
“one-size-fits-all” approach to social integration. The situation of refugees must be
analyzed in the context of the respective host society and regarding the living and
working conditions of nationals. However, it is also clear that international events,
discourses and frameworks have an important impact on the integration of refugees
and respective policies at the national and local level. There are several broad goals
of integration that apply across countries. These include efforts to enable refugees
to reach and develop their full potential, to protect their human rights, prevent their
marginalization, and foster social cohesion and harmonious co-existence. Refugees
make substantial contributions to their new country—expanding consumer markets
for local goods, opening new markets, bringing in new skills, creating employment
and filling empty employment niches. There may be short-term costs as refugees are
resettled and adjust to their new surroundings but once successful integration has
occurred refugees are able to quickly make permanent cultural, social and economic
contributions and infuse vitality, humanitarian values and multiculturalism into the
communities into which they are resettled. Migration and the intake of refugees
can diversify and enhance the skill level of the population, increase economies of
scale and foster innovation and flexibility. Refugees are often entrepreneurial as they
face the need to set up and establish themselves in an unfamiliar environment. In
conclusion, Australia and Italy’s policymakers, educators, and organizations hold
the key to bridging the communication divide and facilitating the successful social
integration of refugee parents and their children. Their roles as catalysts involve
providing targeted language assistance, promoting intercultural understanding, and
cultivating inclusive environments. Through joint efforts, encompassing linguistic
support, intercultural awareness, and the establishment of nurturing environments,
the harmonious coexistence and prosperous integration of refugee communities can
be achieved, acknowledging, and respecting the diverse ethnicities that contribute to
the fabric of both countries’ communities’.
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N. Maadad
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University of Padua. (2023). Scholarships. https://www.unipd.it/en/scholarships-international-stu
dents
University of Rome Tor Vergata. (2023). 100 scholarships for refugees by Ministry of InteriorCRUI.
https://web.uniroma2.it/en/contenuto/call-for-applications-100-scholarships-for-stu
dents-with-international-protection-to-enroll-in-bachelor-master-degree-and-phd-programswithout-scholar
University of Sydney. (2023). Refugee scholarship program. https://www.sydney.edu.auscholar
ships/e/the-humanitarian-high-achiever=scholarship.html
Ventevogel, P., Schinina, G., & Sampson, N. (2017). Mental health and psychosocial support in
humanitarian settings: Linking practice and research. The Lancet, 389(10075), 1539–1541.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22008428/
Vertovec, S., & Cohen, R. (Eds.). (2002). Conceiving cosmopolitanism: Theory, context, and
practice. Oxford University Press.
Victorian Foundation for Survivors of Torture. (2021). Effective language programs for refugees
and asylum seekers. https://www.foundationhouse.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/Effect
ive-language-programs-for-refugees-and-asylum-seekers.pdf
Wright, J. (2017). Every child in this school is at risk: Language Ideologies and the Education of
African Refugees. TESOL Quarterly, 51(2), 332–359.
Dr.Nina Maadad is a senior lecturer at the University of Adelaide. She coordinated the Bachelor of Teaching program and taught a range of courses in the School of Education including
primary and secondary units. Her research interests include comparative and cross-cultural
studies, language in culture and society, migrant cultural studies and multicultural education.
Her recent publications include: Nawas, A., Darmawan, I. G. N., & Maadad, N. (2024). Singlesex schools: Unravelling girls’ and boys’ peer connections and their impacts on wellbeing and
learning outcomes. International Journal of Educational Research, 125, 102339-1-102339-13;
Maadad, N., & Darmawan, I. G. N. (2022). The Education of Arabic Speaking Refugee Children
and Young Adults Education, Employment and Social Inclusion. London and New York: Routledge; Maadad, N., & Darmawan, I. (2021). The Education of Arabic-Speaking Refugee Children
and Young Adults: Key considerations in Selected Countries. (Vol. 1, 1 ed.). Australia: Routledge.
Chapter 10
The Protection of Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights in Armed Conflicts:
The Right to Education Between Myths
and Realities
José Noronha Rodrigues , Janny Carrasco Medina ,
and Dora Cristina Ribeiro Cabete
Abstract This book chapter discusses the difficulties that exist in guaranteeing
human rights in the context of armed conflicts, especially the right to education,
which is already a challenge in the context of peace. International doctrine is practically unanimous in its view that only International Humanitarian Law is capable of
guaranteeing rights in armed conflicts, which consequently excludes human rights.
However, throughout the evolution of international law and the decisions of the International Court of Justice (ICJ), the construction has been in favor of guaranteeing
human rights and specifically economic, social and cultural rights. Precisely these
rights, and specifically the right to education, raise the question of how they coexist
with the rights already guaranteed by International Humanitarian Law and whether
they can really be protected in their entirety in the context of war and if there is no
possibility of guaranteeing their protection, what would be the way out in which the
right to education can be partially protected.
Keywords Armed conflicts · Democracy · Equality · Human rights · International
humanitarian law · Right to education
J. C. Medina
University of Brasilia, Brasilia, Brazil
J. N. Rodrigues (B) · D. C. R. Cabete
University of the Azores, Azores, Portugal
e-mail: jose.n.rodrigues@uac.pt
D. C. R. Cabete
e-mail: dora.cr.rodrigues@uac.pt
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025
J. Zajda and Y. Vissing (eds.), Globalisation, Human Rights and Education,
Globalisation, Comparative Education and Policy Research 51,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-80304-8_10
191
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J. N. Rodrigues et al.
10.1 Introduction
War and its effects have been at the center of the debate in International Humanitarian
Law (IHL). From this perspective, IHL has traced a path that shapes a law that is
absolutely necessary to humanize war. Most of today’s migratory flows are linked to
the proliferation of armed conflicts. This scenario has a significant impact on the way
in which only economic, social and cultural rights will be protected, and specifically
the right to education. Too often, human rights in their broad expression and their
various classifications and dimensions fail to effectively protect and guarantee the
right to education. The discrimination and physical violence experienced by minorities reflects a lack of global commitment to the lives of thousands of people who risk
their lives to try their luck in a different country or culture.
In the face of armed conflicts, which are becoming more and more constant in
humanity, human rights are extremely vulnerable, and more specifically access to
education. The impact that armed conflicts have on education services requires a
greater role for the international system, whose work is essential in the acquisition
of knowledge and training. Education is one of the areas of society that has a significant impact on the trinomials of human rights, the right to education and the right
to migration. The educational environment, being a crucial and decisive space for
socialisation and the acquisition of scientific and cultural knowledge, needs to adopt a
leading role in the process of welcoming and reuniting human rights. Schools are the
ideal place to materialise the right to education for migrants and refugees, especially
those from armed conflict zones.
The new scenario of global armed conflicts calls for a revolution in terms of
human rights, particularly in relation to the right of access to education. Within
the framework of international law, the International Court of Justice1 (ITJ), in its
capacity as guarantor of the effectiveness of international law within the framework
of the UN, has increasingly ruled in favor of the protection of human rights in
armed conflicts. This position makes it possible to question the effectiveness of the
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)2 , as
a binding instrument of the International Bill of Human Rights and the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, whose obligations must be fulfilled even in the context
of armed conflicts. This is why it seems appropriate and pertinent to analyze, on
the one hand, the general application of human rights in armed conflicts and the
limitations of the ICESCR in armed conflicts outside the framework of military
occupation, and specifically the right to education.
1 The Charter of the United Nations was signed in San Francisco on 26 June 1945, after the conclu-
sion of the United Nations Conference on International Organisation, and entered into force on 24
October of the same year. Article 92 of Chapter XIV (The International Court of Justice) reads
as follows: “The International Court of Justice shall be the principal judicial organ of the United
Nations…”.
2 Adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by the United Nations General
Assembly in its Resolution 2200-A (XXI) of 16 December 1966. Entered into force on 3 January
1976, in accordance with Article 27 of the Convention.
10 The Protection of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in Armed …
193
In the context of international law, the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human
Rights3 and the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(ICESCR) have been widely discussed, but with little analysis of their relationship
with armed conflicts and the right to education.
In this sense, the debate in the academic-legal space around this reality goes
through endless labyrinths when it seeks to recognize the fundamental nature of
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ESCR) and, specifically, access to education
in the space of armed conflicts, as a mechanism for neutralization and a way out
of peace. In this way, this claim encounters obstacles that are difficult to avoid and
which fall back on the legal value of ESCR, ignoring the fact that they must be
conceived in a multidisciplinary way for the full and integral realization of human
dignity.
10.2 Human Rights: Understanding a Concept
Historically, the terms human rights, fundamental rights and social rights have been
used in different ways and adopted different meanings (Cruz Parcero, 2012, p. 153).
For most academics, human rights are a historical construction that has its origins in
classical thought and the first constitutions such as the US Constitution of 1778 and
the Mexican Constitution of 1913 (Prieto Sanchis, 2011, p. 8).
Other definitions can also be found in political philosophy, where the links are
connected to axiological criteria such as: human rights and peace, human rights and
equality, human rights as the law of minorities. (Ferrajoli, 2010, p. 43).
Authors such as Rubio Llorente argue that human rights are a progressive formation of individuality, and that the state must act to correct their effects, between the
freedom of the democratic game and individual freedom. (Rubio Llorente, 2012,
p. 957). Proponents of legal positivism, on the other hand, point out that these are
inalienable and imprescriptible rights that human beings possess simply by being
born (Fierro Ferráez, 2012, p. 3). In the same line, Langley points out that this term
is international in nature and refers to certain moral and legal rights of a civil, political, economic, social and cultural nature to which all human beings are entitled.
(Langley, 1999, p. 145).
Norberto Bobbio, on the other hand, expands on these ideas in the sense of distinguishing three types of definitions of rights: tautological: which does not include any
new element to characterize these rights; formal: which does not specify the content
of these rights, but merely limits them to the desired state; and finally teleological,
which appeals to certain values that can be interpreted in different ways. (Bobbio,
1990, p. 8). On the other hand, Antonio Pérez Luño defines it as “a set of faculties which, at each historical moment, give concrete expression to the demands of
3 Adopted and proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly (resolution 217 A III) on 10
December 1948.
194
J. N. Rodrigues et al.
human dignity, freedom and equality, which must be positively recognized by the
legal system at national and international level” (Pérez Luño, 2017, p. 50).
For its part, the Italian doctrine argues that all fundamental rights are those subjective rights that correspond universally to all human beings, by the mere condition
of being citizens or persons with the capacity to act (Ferrajoli, 2010a, p. 37). On
the other hand, Luigi Ferrajoli also argues that we must recognize that today we are
experiencing a kind of modern regression in the process of secularization of human
rights, expressed in the form of religious fundamentalism, xenophobia, intolerance
and ethnic conflicts. (Ferrojoli, 2010b, p. 132).
Another element that deserves special attention is the distinction between human
rights and fundamental rights. Although they are almost the same, it cannot always
be clearly established that they are synonymous, as the concept of human rights in
recent years has been diversified, expanded and globalized compared to the classic
concept of fundamental rights (Fix, 2017, p. 428).
As stated by Rajagopal, the universalist discourse of human rights, in the context of
globalization, has achieved an unprecedented political and moral status in the world.
(Rajagopal, 2005, p. 200). Today, the hegemonic discourse on human rights is unquestionable to say the least, but more than three-quarters of the world’s population suffer
human rights violations or don’t even recognize these rights. At a global level, we see
a dichotomy between theory and practice that exacerbates North–South differences
and inequalities, which is evident in migratory processes and consequently in the
materialization of the right to education. In the same way, the fight against terrorism,
fundamentalism and dictatorships raises the banners of global security and serves
as a justification for expressing disagreement with non-compliance with national
laws and exterminating those who are already globally forgotten. These phenomena
are good arguments for killing, justifying wars on the grounds of protecting human
rights. (Hinkelammert, 1991).
On the other hand, Alejandro Pizzorusso defends social rights as the set of faculties
of individuals and groups based on the benefits of social life translated into direct or
indirect rights and benefits from the public authorities. (Pizzorusso, 2002, p. 500).
However, the main criticism of these social rights is their reduction to mere legal
norms full of formality and little practical applicability, and consequently deprived
of guarantees and mechanisms to control their material effectiveness. (García, 2015,
p. 14). Another criticism of human rights is the lack of precision about who will be
responsible for enforcing them: an institution, a state, a person? Similarly, German
doctrine argues that there is a diversity of approaches to fundamental rights, since
the fact that they are fundamental rights does not imply uniformity, as they will
depend on the conception and standardization of Western democracies. Thus, as
Ernst BENDA points out, the content of these rights depends to a greater extent
on extra-legal factors such as idiosyncrasy, culture, history, custom, among others.
(Benda et al., 1996, p. 84).
However, as José Noronha Rodrigues rightly emphasises, despite the existence
of various pieces of legislation on human rights, all of them were directly and/or
indirectly inspired by the first Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
of 1789. Progressively, legislative precepts were perfected, either by granting new
10 The Protection of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in Armed …
195
rights to citizens or by introducing some corrections, in order to always safeguard
man in time and space. However, several questions arise. Are so many rehearsals
necessary for the defence of the basic principles of the human person? Do these
principles vary from state to state, from race to race, from era to era, from religion
to religion, from person to person? Aren’t these universal principles of the human
person? (Rodrigues, 2010, pp. 211–212). Human rights must therefore be promoted
and protected by states and governments as an ideal to be achieved, safeguarded and,
above all, a universal conscience.
10.3 Human Rights in Armed Conflicts
Initially, authors such as Jean Pictet believed that International Humanitarian Law
(IHL) could only be applied in situations of armed conflict and Human Rights (HR)
in situations of peace. Thus, from this doctrinal conception, the possibility of the
universality and hierarchical superiority of human rights is ruled out (Pictet, 1975).
On the other hand, Lottie Lane considered that International Humanitarian Law in
its origins was only meant to reduce the devastating costs of armed conflicts and
guarantee loyalty. Human rights, on the other hand, seek to protect the individual
abuses suffered by individuals in the face of arbitrary state power. In this sense, the
international obligations are quite different: International Humanitarian Law aims
to balance the rights of states in conflict, while in the case of Human Rights, the
obligation is of the state vis-à-vis the human being. (Lane, 2016).
This synthesis and distinction is clearly made by Denyse Moreira Guedes and
Fabíola Andréa Chofard Adami,
International Humanitarian Law (IHL) and International Human Rights Law (IHRL) are
two distinct but complementary branches of law. Both aim to protect human life, health,
and dignity. IHL applies specifically in armed conflicts, while IHRL applies universally, in
both times of peace and war. While IHRL focuses on the protection of human rights, IHL
deals with the conduct of hostilities, the status of combatants and prisoners of war, and the
protection of the red cross emblem. Additionally, IHL covers aspects of life in peacetime
that are not regulated by IHRL, such as freedom of the press, the right to assemble, to
vote and to strike. International humanitarian law (IHL) and international human rights law
(IHRL) are two distinct legal frameworks. It is important to note that although these two
legal frameworks are independent, they are connected. Today, we have international treaties
that address both IHL and IHRL. Recent treaties have included provisions on both rights.
For instance, the Convention on the Rights of the Child and its Additional Protocol on the
involvement of children in armed conflict, as well as the Rome Statute of the International
Criminal Court. (Guedes & Adami, 2021. pp. 44031–44032)
The twenty-first century has been marked by numerous armed conflicts and struggles on the international stage. These situations have led to military interventions
being labelled as ‘humanitarian’ in order to justify the need to preserve human rights
above all else. According to Emma Bonino, few people deny the atrocity of justifying military interventions that support and justify a direct attack on the territory
196
J. N. Rodrigues et al.
of a sovereign country when it applies decisions contrary to the norms and conventions accepted by the international community. (Bonino, 2001, p. 25). The Geneva
Conference of August 22, 1864 laid the foundations for the multilateral instrument
that gave rise to International Humanitarian Law. Its objective is to provide normative
application to mitigate or prevent armed conflicts. According to García Ruiz, international humanitarian law is defined as the set of conventional or customary international norms whose essential objective is to solve humanitarian problems directly
arising from international or non-international armed conflicts. (Garcia Ruiz, 2023,
pp. 139–166).
Although IHL was created to regulate wars and prevent unnecessary harm to
the autonomy of countries and non-compliance with international instruments, it
is almost completely ineffective in customary law. This right is basically divided
into two fundamental lines: Hague Law, resulting from the 1899 Hague Convention,
and the 1929 Geneva Convention. Both microsystems are protective in nature and
have a humanitarian focus. The Hague system is focused on the use of weapons in
war situations, while the Geneva system aims to protect human beings, whether as
soldiers or prisoners of war.
In his book ‘El nuevo Derecho Internacional Humanitario’, Jorge Washington
Villacrés Moscoso refers to two opposing notions that underpin this law: the principle
of humanity and the principle of necessity. The principle of humanity requires acting
for the good of humanity, while the principle of necessity derives from the nature of
things: the maintenance of legitimate public order, the use of coercion, and the state
of war that justifies the recourse to and use of violence. (Villacrés Moscoso, 1984,
pp. 62–84). The Geneva Conventions are primarily focused on the individual and
their human treatment, ensuring that humans are not treated as objects or means to
an end. While the purpose of these conventions is to protect human dignity, there is
little that can be done on a global scale to prevent the horrors of war or abuses of
state power and its consequences.
In this sense, as Adalberto Reales Utria, points out, countries have implemented
a series of norms aimed at ‘humanizing’ wars in order to mitigate armed conflict
processes. (Utria, 2013) Throughout history, states from all cultures and civilizations
have participated in or developed armed conflicts for a variety of justifications, driven
by their positions and appetites for power and control. From religious issues to the
control of strategic territories and trade routes, to oil hegemony and political and
party fragmentation.
Armed conflicts or wars are the most radical forms of social change. They involve
winners and losers, where the winners impose conditions and the losers are forced
to accept defeat. It was originally thought that aggression was a natural condition
of men, but it is actually a result of cultural invention. It was originally thought
that aggression was a natural condition of men, but it is actually a result of cultural
invention. It was originally thought that aggression was a natural condition of men,
but it is actually a result of cultural invention. However, formal education plays a
crucial role in modifying armed conflicts and achieving global peace.
The issue is that ‘humanitarian interventions’ appear to be a logical and justified response by the international community to undertake tragic and denigrating
10 The Protection of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in Armed …
Fig. 10.1 The dilemma of
international law—The four
principles
197
Non-intervention
Prohibition of the use of force
State sovereignty
Protection and safeguarding
of human rights
treatment against human beings who are not targeted by human rights, in defense of
universal values accepted by all states. Thus, the current crises in Israel and Palestine, Ukraine and Russia, Syria, Libya, Afghanistan, among others, present a situation
where certain positions can be justified while neglecting rights that no longer exist in
these territories. In this reality, International Law struggles to harmonise four basic
principles, as shown in Fig. 10.1: (a) non-intervention; (b) prohibition of the use of
force; (c) state sovereignty; and (d) protection and safeguarding of human rights.
International doctrine polemicises over which should prevail in the legality and
illegality of armed conflicts. For Yves Sandoz, the authorisation of armed intervention
by a state on the territory of another state is aimed at establishing serious and massive
violations:
Rarely have debates around what some call the right or duty of interference, later linking it
to the concept of the right to assistance, given so much publicity to humanitarian issues. The
term ’right of interference’ is a contradiction in terms. A state may ask itself what is happening
in other states. What is indisputable is that states have the right to be aware. Although these
mechanisms are often inhibited, this right is unequivocal. In fact, defense mechanisms for
this right have been established for and by all states, mainly within the Economic and Social
Council. The Human Rights Commission adopts a broad basis for the fulfillment of human
rights. In the broad scope of controversies or situations that may endanger international peace
or security, any UN member may appeal to the Security Council. (...) However, is there a
right to act when this ’right to control’ exposes facts that are unacceptable? (...)It is difficult
to determine whether, in addition to the undisputed scope of their sovereign competence and
their possible participation in international or regional mechanisms, States retain the right
of ad hoc intervention, which implies the use of force in certain particularly serious cases.
Except for decisions made by the Security Council, the United Nations Charter does not
provide for the use of force for reasons other than legitimate self-defence. (…) The concept
of humanitarian intervention, which broadly authorises armed intervention by one state in the
territory of another state to put an end to serious and massive human rights violations, does
not have a place in the system planned by the UN. The general doctrine generally rejects the
legality of humanitarian intervention even in its narrowest sense, that is, armed intervention to
198
J. N. Rodrigues et al.
safeguard its own citizens in another state. The obvious arguments against such practices are:
tolerating humanitarian intervention would mean creating great uncertainty in international
relations, it would jeopardise the entire security system established by the UN Charter and,
finally, it would entail clear risks of abuse, since human rights violations could provide a
pretext for intervening with other intentions. However, is there no right for states to act when
acts are committed that are manifestly contrary to the objectives of the United Nations, in
case of a clear deficiency in the system designed to achieve these objectives? It cannot be
affirmed that states have a duty to contemplate the massacre of populations without using
all means at their disposal, including military means, to prevent it.? (Yves Sandoz, 1992)
On the other hand, in the security system determined by the United Nations
Charter, there are different interpretations: for some, intervention is justified if certain
requirements are met, namely that it makes it possible to fill a legislative gap. For
others, only the collective security system legitimises this type of conduct in accordance with the United Nations Charter, Article 51 “[nothing] in the present Charter
shall impair the inherent right of individual or collective self-defence in the event of
an armed attack upon a Member of the United Nations until the Security Council has
taken the necessary measures for the maintenance of international peace and security. Measures taken by Members in the exercise of this right of self-defence shall
be communicated forthwith to the Security Council and shall in no way affect the
authority and responsibility which the present Charter confers on the Council to take
at any time such action as it may deem necessary for the maintenance or restoration
of international peace and security.”(United Nations Charter, 1945).
Garzón Valdés & C Beitz therefore question the extent to which the ethical problems of humanitarian warfare in armed conflicts are really focussed on respect for
human rights. How can we justify the real ethical problem of armed conflicts, given
that armed operations can lead to the death of both the civilian population and the
soldiers who take part in the confrontations? It is, to say the least, highly contradictory that in order to safeguard the human rights of some, the human rights of others
have to be exterminated (Gazón Valdés et al., 1999, p. 47). In this context, according
to UNESCO studies, wars are defined as anti-development. Armed conflicts, whether
brief or prolonged, can harm social progress, economic growth, and scientific and
technological advances. However, it is not common for education to be a human right
preserved in situations of armed conflict. Furthermore, as UNESCO states, educational systems are not the primary cause of wars. However, in certain circumstances,
they can help to reduce resentment, local and social tensions, and even inequality.
Therefore, the main criticisms of the education systems in conflict-affected countries focus on their shortcomings. A weak education system significantly increases
the likelihood of students becoming potential candidates for recruitment by armed
groups.
In this context, the UNESCO Global Education Monitoring Report 2011 states,
“The world is not on track to achieve the Education for All goals set for 2015.”
Although progress has been made in many areas, the main message that emerges
from the 2011 Global Education Monitoring Report is that most goals will fall
far short of being achieved. Governments will need to demonstrate a much greater
10 The Protection of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in Armed …
199
sense of urgency, determination, and common purpose to make the goals achievable. Countries affected by armed conflicts face alarming challenges.” (UNESDOC
Digital Library—EFA Global Monitoring Report, 2011, p. 5). This Global Monitoring Report also presents some progress, gaps, and impacts of armed conflicts
on education (UNESDOC Digital Library—EFA Global Monitoring Report, 2011,
pp. 5–7) as we can see in Fig. 10.2:
Defining a list of countries affected by armed conflict is not an easy task. However,
UNESCO’s 2011 Global Monitoring Report presents a list of 30 countries that were
victims of armed conflict in the period 1999–2008). Taken together, these 30 countries
Well-being in early childhood is improving. Mortality among children under 5, for example, fell
from 12.5 million in 1990 to 8.8 million in 2008.
Progress
Gender parity in primary education enrolment
improved significantly in regions that began the
decade with the greatest gender disparities.
From 1999 to 2008, an additional 52 million children were
enrolled in primary school. The number of out-of-school children
fell by half in South and West Asia. In sub-Saharan Africa, the
enrolment rate rose by a third, despite the large increase in the
primary school-age population.
Hunger is holding back progress. In developing
countries, 195 million children under the age of 5 one in three - suffer from malnutrition, which
causes irreparable damage to their cognitive
development and their long-term educational
prospects.
In 2008, 67 million children were out of
school.Progress towards the universalisation of
schooling is slowing down.
Gender disparities continue to hamper progress in
education - Gender disadvantage costs lives
Remaining
Gaps
Greater inequalities have restricted opportunities.
The quality of education remains very low in many
countries. Millions of children leave primary school
with levels of reading, writing and maths skills far
below those expected.
More than 1.9 million teachers will be needed by 2015
if universal primary education is to be achieved, more
than half of them in sub-Saharan Africa.
Many children leave school before completing the
primary education cycle.
Approximately 796 million people still lack basic literacy
skills. Approximately two thirds are women.
During the decade to 2008, 35 countries had armed conflicts.
Others
In poor countries affected by conflict, 28 million
children of primary school age are out of school,
which corresponds to 42 per cent of the world
total.
Impact of
armed
Armed conflicts divert public resources from
education to military spending.
International aid funds are also diverted to military
spending. It would only take six days of military
spending by donor countries to fill the 16 billion
dollar deficit in external funding for the Education
for All initiative.
Children in poor countries affected by conflict are
twice as likely to die before the age of 5 as
children in other poor countries.
Only 79 per cent of young people are literate in
poor countries affected by conflict, compared to
93 per cent in other poor countries
There are records that more than 43 million people
have been displaced, mostly as a result of armed
conflicts, but the real figure is probably much higher.
conflicts on
education
Education accounts for just two per cent of
humanitarian aid.
Governmental and non-governmental groups involved in armed conflicts are
increasingly hitting civilian infrastructure and targets.
Fig. 10.2 The impact of armed conflicts on education
200
J. N. Rodrigues et al.
Selected education indicators for middle-income countries, by conflict situation in 2008
Children are less likely
to stay in school.
28 million children out of
school in conflict-affected
countries
Portion of the population of
primary school age
Portion of population out
of school
The gross school enrolment rate
is low
-9%
Primary
-29%
24%
Secondary
47%
Total: 491 million
The gross rate of secondary
school enrolment is 29 per
cent lower in countries
affected by conflict.
Total: 61 million
Young people and adults are more
prone to illiteracy.
Infant mortality rates are the
highest
100
Below 5 years old
93
90
0
30
60
90
120
(%)
70
69
66
60
Severe to
retardation
moderate
growth
Countries affected
by conflicts in subSaharan Africa
30
45
0.90
55
40
15
Gender
parity
All
countries
affected
by
conflict
0.80
50
0
1.10
1.00
79
150
Children are more prone to
malnutrition
Girls are being left behind.
World
85
80
Developped
countries
Not affected by
conflicts
60
Taxa de
alfabetização de
adultos
Taxa de
alfabetização de
jovens
0.70
Primary
Secondary
(%)
Low-income and lowermiddle-income countries
affected by conflict
Other low-income and
lower-middle-income
countries
Fig. 10.3 Conflict-affected countries lag behind in education
show some of the worst indicators in the world, which is logically affected by the
presence of armed conflicts, as can be seen in Fig. 10.3 below (UNESDOC Digital
Library—EFA Global Monitoring Report, 2011, pp. 26).
10.3.1 Selected Education Indicators for Middle-Income
Countries, by Conflict Situation in 2008
As we have seen, several international instruments address the issue of human rights
and armed conflicts. In this context, for example: (a) the Human Rights Committee
makes it clear that the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights is applicable even in situations of armed conflict—“3. The right to life is a right that should
10 The Protection of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in Armed …
201
not be interpreted in restrictive terms. It represents the right of the individual not to
be the victim of acts and omissions intended or expected to bring about his or her
unnatural or premature death, and to live with dignity (General Comment nº 36 of 3
September 2019), (b) the UN Human Rights Council in Resolution No. 9/9 of 2008,
has pronounced itself in a similar vein, agreeing on the complementarity of both
systems of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights Law; c) the Convention on Persons with Disabilities and the Convention on the Rights of the Child, in
article 38. (c) the Convention on Persons with Disabilities and the Convention on the
Rights of the Child, in article 38.1, call for the application of the rules of international
humanitarian law that apply to children.
In short, international humanitarian law and human rights present a conflict of
interests. It is well known and recognised that all armed conflicts involve human
rights violations, sexual abuse, torture and discrimination of all kinds. Thus, one of
the points that deserves particular emphasis is Article 3, common to the four Geneva
Conventions of 1949, on armed conflicts:
In the event of an armed conflict which is not of an international character and
which takes place in the territory of one of the High Contracting Parties, each of
the Parties to the conflict shall be obliged to apply at least the following provisions:
1. Persons not taking a direct part in hostilities, including members of the armed
forces who have laid down their arms and persons who have been put out of
action by sickness, wounds, detention or any other cause, shall in all circumstances be treated humanely, without any distinction of an unfavourable nature
based on race, colour, religion or belief, sex, birth or fortune, or any other
analogous criterion.
To this end, the above-mentioned persons shall be and remain prohibited at all
times and in all places:
a. Offences against life and physical integrity, especially murder in all its forms,
mutilation, cruel treatment, torture and torment;
b. The taking of hostages;
c. Offences against personal dignity, especially humiliating and degrading
treatment;
d. Convictions handed down and executions carried out without a prior trial
by a duly constituted court offering all the judicial guarantees recognised as
indispensable by civilised peoples.
2. The wounded and sick will be collected and treated.
An impartial humanitarian organisation, such as the International Commission
of the Red Cross, may offer its services to the parties to the conflict.
The Parties to the conflict shall also endeavour to bring into force, by means
of special agreements, all or part of the other provisions of this Convention.
The application of the foregoing provisions shall not affect the legal status of
the Parties to the conflict. (International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC))—
article 3 common to the four Geneva Conventions of 1949).
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J. N. Rodrigues et al.
As we can see, respect for human rights must be safeguarded even in the event of
armed conflicts.
10.4 The Right to Education in International Law
Globalisation and the information society have brought political polarisation to the
global debate and, consequently, have made it difficult to materialise human rights.
The current concept of human rights and education implies that every human being
should be guaranteed free and compulsory access to primary education, as well as
access to secondary and higher education. The fact that countries are now internationally obliged to guarantee these rights is the result of the struggles of social and
political movements, which have found legal support in international and national
legislation, through various multilateral agreements. This international will aims to
eradicate illiteracy globally.
When we talk about the human right to education, it materialises in three essential pillars: (a) an effective regulatory framework; (b) educational objectives; and (c)
the provision of quality services. It is essential to think of the right to education as
the essential pillar for individuals to reach their full potential and fulfil themselves
as human beings through the acquisition of knowledge, values and skills. The right
to education is enshrined in various international instruments, including the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966, in particular
Article 13:
1. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognise the right of everyone to
education. They agree that education should aim at the full development of the
human personality and the sense of its dignity, and should strengthen respect for
human rights and fundamental freedoms. They also agree that education should
enable everyone to assume a useful role in a free society, promote understanding,
tolerance and friendship among all nations and groups, racial, ethnic and religious, and favour the activities of the United Nations for the preservation of
peace.
2. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognise that in order to ensure the
full exercise of this right:
a. Primary education must be compulsory and freely accessible to all;
b. Secondary education, in its various forms, including technical and vocational
secondary education, must be generalised and made accessible to all by all
appropriate means and in particular by the progressive introduction of free
education;
c. Higher education must be made accessible to all on a fully equal basis,
according to the abilities of each individual, by all appropriate means and in
particular by the progressive introduction of free education;
10 The Protection of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in Armed …
203
d. Basic education should be encouraged or intensified, as far as possible, for
people who have not received primary education or who have not received it
to the end of their primary education;
e. It is necessary to actively pursue the development of a school network at all
levels, establish an adequate system of grants and continuously improve the
material conditions of the teaching staff.
3. The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to respect the freedom
of parents or, where appropriate, legal guardians to choose for their children
(or wards) educational establishments other than those of the public authorities, but which conform to the minimum standards which may be prescribed
or approved by the State in matters of education, and to ensure the religious
and moral education of their children (or wards) in accordance with their own
convictions. (International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
of 1966).
Another international instrument that recognises these human rights is the 1989
Convention on the Rights of the Child. Both the Convention and the International
Covenant signal the importance of materialising access to education as a fundamental human right. In the case of the Convention, Article 19(1) and Article 28(1)(c)
signal that all children must have sufficient information and appropriate guidance on
educational matters. At the same time, it determines that there is a duty for countries
or representatives of minors to effectively guarantee access to this human right. On
the other hand, the Convention obliges member states to foster and encourage international cooperation on issues related to access to education, in order to contribute
significantly to eliminating all forms of discrimination, ignorance and illiteracy;
facilitating access to knowledge from the perspective and reality of the host country
(art. 28.3). (Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989).
It is pertinent to emphasise that children belonging to minorities must be respected
in their dignity as human beings and, consequently, guaranteed access to quality
education on equal terms with their peers. It is up to the state to ensure that the
education provided respects cultural traditions such as religion, culture and mother
tongue, which is not always feasible under the conditions of transnational globalisation of migratory flows. Offering educational opportunities that allow them to
preserve, understand and conserve their cultural identity, including elements such as
languages and values, is extremely important if the primary objective is respect for
the dignity of the human being.
In the same way, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966,
in Article 27.1 and Article 27.2, deals with the cultural rights of minorities, and
Article 18§4 deals with the obligation to respect education as a fundamental human
right (International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966). Article 13 of
the Organisation of American States (OAS) also states the obligation of states to
guarantee the right to education as a fundamental human right.
Although this range of rights, which involves the right to education as a fundamental human right, is considered a cornerstone of contemporary society and must
be respected by states when they carry out their tasks and plan their actions, they are
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J. N. Rodrigues et al.
permeated by and are full evidence of the Eurocentric model that leaves aside the
diversity between states, as the following points out (Koskenniemi, 2014, p. 121).
The hegemonic approach of Eurocentric values and interests that have been perpetuated over time in the international legal framework establishes various types of
exclusions affecting states and creating an international segmentation of rights that,
according to the overlapping Eurocentric system, permeates the global governance
regime, silencing the voices of minorities such as migrants and refugees in the
capacity of global actors who need access to education that has not been respected in
the country of origin as a result of armed conflicts. (Galindo, 2013, p. 59). As (Mutua,
2000, p. 34) emphasises, non-European citizens have historically been forced to
assimilate the nuances of international law and fight tirelessly to secure their rights.
However, the “Third World” is a necessary term for understanding international law
“that does greater justice to individuals who find themselves especially in states
plagued by various types of social and economic exclusion and armed conflict”,
especially those located in Asia, Africa and Latin America. (Galindo, 2013, p. 47).
Faced with the current reality, we must answer the question of what is considered
to be the Right to Education. Historically, we have been taught that education is
one of the paths to progress and the social development of human beings, as well as
the proliferation of values such as peace, equality and respect. According to Maria
Victória de Mesquita Benevides, education for democracy (EPD) is structured around
three elements that are indispensable and interdependent for understanding education
for democracy: (a) intellectual formation and information—from classical antiquity
to the present day, this is about developing the capacity to know in order to make better
choices and better judgements. In order to educate citizens, it is necessary to start by
informing them and introducing them to the different areas of knowledge, including
literature and the arts in general; (b) moral education, linked to the teaching of
republican and democratic values, which are not only learnt intellectually, but above
all through ethical awareness, which is made up of feelings as well as reason. In other
words, it is the conquest of hearts and minds; (c) the education of behaviour. From
primary school onwards, in the sense of ingraining habits of tolerance towards what
is different or divergent, as well as learning active co-operation and subordinating
personal or group interests to the general interest, the common good. (Benevides,
1996).
Analysing the comments made by Maria Victória de Mesquita Benevides, we can
see that the Eurocentric model of international law contradicts the reality and applicability of the three dimensions described above. Bearing in mind that International
Law as it is conceived universally protects intellectual formation and various international instruments already discussed here, however, its Eurocentric vision limits
what would be ethical and moral and, consequently, the reflection of behaviour in
today’s world.
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205
10.4.1 The Right to Education in Armed Conflicts
To talk about the right to education, it is necessary to understand the General
Comment No. 13 (Twenty-first session, 1999)—The right to education (article 13
of the Covenant) of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of the
United Nations, 15 November- 3 December 1999. The document addresses an indepth interpretation of the international obligations derived from this international
instrument, establishing that the right to education is an intrinsic human right and an
essential means of realising other human rights: “[as] an empowerment right, education is the primary vehicle by which economically and socially marginalized adults
and children can lift themselves out of poverty and obtain the means to participate
fully in their communities. Education has a vital role in empowering women, safeguarding children from exploitative and hazardous labour and sexual exploitation,
promoting human rights and democracy, protecting the environment, and controlling
population growth. Increasingly, education is recognized as one of the best financial
investments States can make. But the importance of education is not just practical:
well-educated, enlightened and active mind, able to wander freely and widely, is one
of the joys and rewards of human existence” (General Comment No. 13 (Twenty-first
session, 1999).
According to General Comment no. 13 identified above, four interrelated characteristics are fundamental to the materialisation of this right to education: availability,
accessibility, acceptability and adaptability. The General Comment itself recognises
the difficulties and obstacles facing the realisation of this fundamental human right.4
When we think of availability, in terms of education, it involves the need for institutions and educational programmes to exist within the framework of the state party, so
that services can be guaranteed. Accessibility, on the other hand, needs to be focused
on minimising or eradicating any situation that leads to discrimination or distinction
for a given person, whether due to economic or financial conditions, geographical
location or even technological availability. With regard to acceptability, this implies
that the content chosen is accepted by the people to whom it is addressed. In the case
of education, this implies adapting or even adjusting teaching plans and methodologies so that they are accepted not only from an instructional point of view, but also
from the point of view of respecting the cultural diversity that we are experiencing
today in the context of globalisation.
Although the United Nations Economic, Social and Cultural Committee understands and recognises the restrictions due to the limited resources available to states,
this does not mean that immediate measures will be taken to ensure the effective
fulfilment of this right. The aforementioned document stipulates that States Parties
have an immediate obligation to respect the right to education and guarantee its
effectiveness. Hence the need to adopt measures to ensure the real applicability of
international standards. But how do we fulfil an international commitment in the
4 Cfr. Article 13 (2), 6. (a), b), (c), (d), 7 of the General Comment No. 13 (Twenty-first session,
1999)—The right to education (article 13 of the Covenant” of the Committee on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights of United Nations, 15 November- 3 December 1999.
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J. N. Rodrigues et al.
context of armed conflicts? As a general rule, states have an obligation to realise
and facilitate the exercise of these rights, although there are countless violations that
are committed. That’s why the Committee has adopted a dynamic process to facilitate investigations into violations of the right to education “[when] the normative
content of article 13 (Part I) is applied to the general and specific obligations of States
parties (Part II), a dynamic process is set in motion which facilitates identification
of violations of the rights to education. Violations of article 13 may occur through
the direct action of States parties (acts of commission) or through their failure to
take steps required by the Covenant (acts of omission).”5 (General Comment No.
13—Twenty-first session, 1999).
On the other hand, since 1966, the International Court of Justice has ruled in favour
of the application of economic, social and cultural rights in situations of armed
conflict. Both the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights and the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights apply in the context of armed
conflicts. When analysing the advisory opinion on the construction of the wall in the
Palestinian area, the International Court of Justice was emphatic in its view that the
economic, social and cultural rights provided for in international conventions do not
cease in the event of armed conflicts. (Summary of the Advisory Opinion of 9 July
2004, International Court of Justice).
At this point, we must emphasise that even though they are considered rights with
a global and international connotation, their actual application is not very effective
in territories where the law of war prevails. It is objectively difficult to articulate
in practice a joint application between human rights and, specifically, the right to
education and international humanitarian law. Depending on the magnitude of the
conflict, we have to analyse which norm would have greater legal force and effectiveness. Certainly, there are economic, social and cultural rights that will have a
greater degree of legal effectiveness in armed conflicts and others that will be impossible to respect, such as the right to education. In this line of thought, Lottie Lane
defends the protection of so-called subsistence rights, where the presence of the state
is fundamental to the very survival of human beings in situations of armed conflict.
In Lottie Lane’s words, the right to health, food and water form part of the core of
preserving life. It is important to understand that although there is a “justification”
for armed conflict, the state is not exonerated from its international obligation to
guarantee these rights. (Lane et al., 2016, p. 2).
In short, even in armed conflicts, states must endeavour to safeguard the right
to education, not least because it is a universal human right as set out in Article
26(1) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Education is the only social
platform, as it offers people opportunities to improve their lives, rise socially and
achieve their goals. Through education, individuals acquire knowledge, skills and
competences that can open the door to better jobs, higher incomes and greater participation in society. In addition, education can help break the cycle of poverty by
empowering people to make informed decisions and become agents of change in
their communities, namely by calling for peace over war.
5 Idem, paragraph 58.
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207
10.5 Conclusion
We can affirm that the right to education, as part of economic, social and cultural
rights in the context of armed conflicts, needs to be guaranteed at the same level of
protection as so-called survival rights.
It is important to emphasise that there is a willingness on the part of states involved
in armed conflicts to guarantee economic, social and cultural rights, specifically the
right to education. Another element we must emphasise is that the doctrine and the
international community have overcome the dichotomy between human rights and
international humanitarian law. On the one hand, the undeniable complementarity of
the systems and the complexity of their joint applicability are confirmed. On the other
hand, the right to education guaranteed in times of peace contributes significantly
to reducing armed conflicts, illiteracy and discrimination, all supported by the ICJ’s
stance, generating an international understanding of the need for joint application.
The broad integration of states involved in armed conflicts into the Protocol on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ESCR) points to and reaffirms the need for a
more coercive international law. One element that must be emphasised in the context
of education is the impossibility for countries involved in armed conflicts to justify
the inapplicability of these rights in the conflict. States must irrevocably guarantee
these rights.
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Chapter 11
Research Trends in Globalisation,
Human Rights and Education
Joseph Zajda and Yvonne Vissing
Abstract The eleven chapters in this book reflect a wide array of ways that scholars
can use to think about the intersection of human rights and education. These include
theoretical, historical, and global examples of the ways in which democratic justice
can be nurtured or torpedoed. From what we wear, whether we can vote, how education is formulated, and how narratives about certain groups of people are created,
the dynamic social construction of justice exists in what we say, what we do, and
how we think about others. Preservation of democracy and human rights is essential
at this point in the history of the world. The scholarly works remind us that human
rights and social justice are vulnerable and subject to attack.
Keywords Democracy · Equality · Human rights · Quality education ·
Neo-liberalism · Social justice · Values education
The concept of democracy is inextricably linked to human rights (Friede, 2020). The
symbiotic relationship between human rights, democracy, and social justice could be
seen as an obvious one—but it is not. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights both convey that there is
a human right for democracy. These treaties hold that everyone has the right to take
part in the government of their country and to be active participants in its construction
and maintenance. This includes direct involvement or voting for certain people to
represent their interests.
Human rights education is essential to the full realization of human rights and
fundamental freedoms and contributes significantly to promoting equality, respect
J. Zajda (B)
Australian Catholic University, East Melbourne, VIC, Australia
e-mail: joseph.zajda@acu.edu.au
Y. Vissing
Department of Healthcare Studies, Salem State University, Salem, MA, USA
e-mail: yvissing@salemstate.edu
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025
J. Zajda and Y. Vissing (eds.), Globalisation, Human Rights and Education,
Globalisation, Comparative Education and Policy Research 51,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-80304-8_11
211
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for human dignity, preventing discrimination and enhancing participation in all
democratic processes.
As such, human rights education reflects societal standards that need to be learned
by each generation and transferred to the next. The United Nations produced two
important policy reports on human rights in 1966: The International Covenant
on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) (1966), and the International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (drafted in 1954 and signed in 1966). The
latter declared that all humans have the rights to health, food and employment. The
United Nations’ (2015) Millennium Development Goals Report focused on poverty
eradication as the greatest global challenge facing the world, and economic rights,
such as food, health, and education (United Nations, 2015). Its first goal was to
‘Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger’ (p. 14. See also UN, 2020). However, what
is also missing in the discourse of human rights education is the politics of human
rights. It must be accepted that human rights policy documents are not neutral, but
are inherently political in their origin, development and application.
11.1 Defining Human Rights
There are numerous definitions and conceptions of human rights. However, there
exists a global consensus that human rights refer to freedom, justice, and equality:
the rights that are considered by most societies to belong automatically to everyone.
Ozdowski (2015, 2024) stressed that human rights help us to recognise that every
person has ‘inherent dignity and value’ and that in this sense human rights are
global—they are the same for all people. This is what makes human rights truly
‘universal’ and global. Furthermore, human rights, from a cultural perspective, are
global mores, and norms that help to protect all people everywhere from unacceptable political, legal, and social abuses. Human rights include the right to freedom,
diversity, privacy, due process, and property rights. The right to freedom of religion,
the right to a fair trial, and the right to engage in political activity, are all significant
principles of a pluralist democracy. These rights exist in morality and in law, at both
the national and global levels. The main sources of the contemporary conception of
human rights can be traced to the Universal Declaration of Human Right (United
Nations, 1948). The 1948 United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights
defined the fundamental rights of people, including:
• The right to life
• Freedom of thought, opinion, and religion
• The right to a fair trial and equality before the law
• The right to work and education
• Freedom from torture and arbitrary arrest
• The right to participate in the social, political and cultural life of one’s country.
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11.2 Social and Cultural Dimension of Human Rights
Education
The creation of a more equitable, respectful, inclusive, and just society for everyone
is a dream for all concerned citizens everywhere, be they democratic policy makers,
empowering and egalitarian pedagogues, and informed and active citizens, who
believe in human rights education and the much needed policy reforms to address
and eradicate an endemic culture of rigid and ubiquitous social stratification that
legitimizes unacceptable economic, social and political inequalities in societies. The
United Nations declared 1995–2004, as the Decade of Human Rights Education.
It stressed that the human rights education was a powerful tool to fight racism
and discrimination in all spheres of education and in society. Social and cultural
dimensions of human rights education include ideology, power, inequality, education,
gender, ethnicity, race, religion, and social justice.
Major discourses of human rights education tend to remain at a policy rhetoric
level. As such, they tend to be uncritical of the existing status quo of legitimized
social and economic inequality. From a critical discourse analysis, we need to ask
the following questions: What social action is needed to move from proclaiming the
rights and obligations of people in a given country, towards effective and empowering
implementation of those rights and obligations? How can we best ensure that the
rhetoric of human rights is matched by reality? We need to recognise that the ideology
and the politics of human rights play a significant part in the discourse of human rights
education.
Furthermore, there is an ambivalent nexus between social stratification, inequality
and human rights. From a critical discourse analysis, one could argue that the
greater the social inequality, the less one finds human rights and social justice
(Zajda & Vissing, 2024). Research findings have demonstrated that the prospect of
widening inequalities in societies and education, due to market-oriented schooling,
and substantial tolerance of inequalities and exclusion, are more than real (Milanovic,
2012, 2022). Access and equity continue to be enduring concerns in education. This
was confirmed in the OECD (2009) study:
Across OECD countries, over 40% with less than an upper secondary qualification are not
even employed...Even those with higher levels of education are vulnerable if they become
unemployed. Around half of the unemployed young adults aged 25-34 with lower and upper
secondary attainments are long-term unemployed. (OECD, 2009, p. 13, see also OECD,
2018)
11.3 Children’s Rights
Human rights education is particularly relevant to teaching children’s rights.
Ozdowski (2009) in his significant policy report to the Australian Government An
absence of human rights: Children in Detention, argued that ‘The imprisonment of
children under mandatory detention policy in Australia’s detention camps was one of
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the worst, if not the worst, human rights violations in the Australia’s post-World War
II history’ (Ozdowski, 2009). Children have the right to special protection because
of their defencelessness against mistreatment. The first United Nations statement
devoted exclusively to the rights of children was the Declaration on the Rights of the
Child, adopted in 1959. This was a moral rather than a legally binding document. In
1989 the legally binding Convention on the Rights of the Child was adopted by the
United Nations. In its 54 articles, the Convention incorporates the whole spectrum
of human rights—civil, political, economic, social and cultural—and sets out the
specific ways these should be ensured for children and young people.
• Around 11 million children die each year from largely preventable diseases caused
by lack of clean water and inadequate health care (Madamombe, 2006). Through
improved access to clean water, food and immunisation, the lives of many children
can be saved.
• Some ‘129 million girls are out of school, including 32 million of primary school
age’ (UNICEF, 2020)
• A total of ‘93,236 children have been killed or maimed in conflicts in the last ten
years in the past decade… The report also reveals that in 2019 some 426 million
children lived in a conflict-affected area—a slight increase on the year before’
(Save the Children, 2020)
• Some 196 nations in the world have signed the Convention on the Rights of the
Child (CRC), and committed themselves to promoting, protecting and fulfilling
the rights of children (World Vision, 2021).
There is a great deal of empirical evidence on the occurrence of different types
of human rights violations in many countries today. In its 2023 Human Rights Risk
Atlas, global analytics firm Maplecroft revealed that that 43 countries have seen a
significant increase in the risk posed to human security since 2020, and the number
of countries with an ‘extreme risk’ of human rights offenses has risen dramatically
(Human Rights Risk Atlas, 2023). Human rights education research has grown in its
significance since 1948, when the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights (UDHR), which established and legitimized the right to education
by declaring in its Preamble that we all should ‘strive by teaching and education to
promote respect for these rights and freedoms’ and in Article 26 directing us to work
for ‘the full development of the human personality and to strengthening of respect
for human rights and fundamental freedoms.’ (UDHR, 1948).
During the last seventy odd years human rights policies and standards were defined
and a range of education programs, curricula and best practices in schools were
developed, both globally and locally, to advance human rights education. Initially,
UNESCO took the UDHR challenge and become the first major human rights education world advocate. However, only after the end of Cold War, human rights education became a core activity for the United Nations and its agencies. The 1993 World
Conference on Human Rights was a significant policy generation event. The resulting
Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action acknowledged that human rights
education is ‘essential for the promotion and achievement of stable and harmonious
relations among communities and for fostering mutual understanding, tolerance
11 Research Trends in Globalisation, Human Rights and Education
215
and peace.’ (Part II. D, para. 78). The key advancements in human rights education
followed with the announcement of the United Nations Decade for Human Rights
Education (1995–2004) and establishment of the 2005 World Program for Human
Rights Education of which the third phase continued to 2019. Added to this was
the integration of human rights into the framework of the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) for 2001–2015. The Millennium Declaration recognized the ‘interdependence of social development, human rights and global peace’ (MacNaughton
& Koutsioumpas, 2016). As a result, the human rights education was not only about
UN policy pronouncements, and officially endorsed education quality, standards and
pedagogy, but it also became a significant social movement, with many diverse and
relevant people’s activities, aiming to make a difference by making human rights
accessible to all.
Yet worldwide, both democracy and human rights are under attack. This is observable in the attack of democratic governments and democratic leaders. The rise of
wars, especially in Ukraine, Middle East, and Africa, are very troubling as violence
towards innocent victims has left thousands of children, women, elders, and others
dead, disabled, or starved with their families destroyed and their homes demolished.
The attack on democracy is observable through the rise of strategically designed
misinformation campaigns that are largely (but not exclusively) operated out of
social media and online platforms by groups with harmful agendas they wish to
disseminate. Marginalized groups have been particularly targeted for injustice. This
has been apparent among attacks on children and women, and those whose race,
gender, ethnicity, religion, social class, and sexual orientation has been maligned
(Aradau & McCluskey, 2022 ; Eleni & Kalypso, 2021; Hall, 2023; Samaras, 2023;
Zajda, 2022, 2023; Zajda & Vissing, 2024).
What has happened to the support for human rights and social justice? Human
rights are defined to be universal, inalienable, and indivisible. A violation of one type
of rights tears away at the fabric supporting other rights. Therefore, to have justice
implies that it is essential to defend all types of human rights for all people, without
exception. Some scholars argue that the terms are synonymous in many ways while
others allege that they are different things. Roth (2018) finds that it is important to
unpack their relationship because they have become so convoluted. Coppedge et al.
(2011) allege that a new approach must be created to measure what democracy is.
Landman (2017) observes that in recent years the tension between what is democracy
and its relationship to human rights has been reduced, but despite these achievements,
there remain tensions between conceptualizations of democracy and human rights.
He argues that there must be greater specificity in how each term is conceptualized
and operationalized. Besson (2011) acknowledges that the uniformity of the two
concepts of democracy and human rights have been uncoupled post-World War II.
She has created a three-step process by which they can be linked back together,
which she finds to be very important in establishing a just new global human rights
order. Regilme (2018) sees that reform of the global human rights order requires a
reconfiguration of the relationships between the Global North and Global South. He
sees that this could be done by shifting to a more pluralist and inclusive notion of
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human dignity, considering different global economic development, but requiring
public education on human rights.
The existing literature thus conveys two messages. One is that human rights,
democracy, and justice refer to the same basic concept. The other is that the relationship between them has become fragmented, misunderstood, and needs to undergo a
face-lift to meet the demands of a changing world. The chapters contained in this
book provide different vantage points to consider how to support justice and human
rights through democratic actions.
In the introductory chapter, Joseph Zajda discusses dominant discourses of globalisation, and human rights education for democracy, and the relevance of cultural identities to democracy, human rights and social justice globally. The chapter concludes
that the growth of global education policy hegemony, based on neo-liberal ideology,
defining accountability, standards, quality assurance, and assessment, fails to respond
to the changing and problematic relationships between the state, education, human
rights and social justice in the global economy.
In ‘Building HRE into the world as it could be in higher and secondary education’,
Sandy Sohcot, Jazzmin Chizu Gota & Yvonne Vissing discuss how institutions of
secondary and higher education could better incorporate human rights education
into their curriculum and frameworks. It underscores many of the challenges that
HRE educators face and the opportunities that HRE can provide students, schools,
and communities, particularly in the United States context. The authors analyze The
World as It Could Be Human Rights Education Program (TWAICB) and other HRE
programs in schools.
In ‘Human Rights Education NOW! Podcast Case Study: Illuminating HRE
through the Lived Experiences of Scholar Practitioners, Bill Fernekes, Jazzmin Gota,
Kristi Rudelius-Palmer, Sabrina Sanchez, Elizabeth Schwab & Jessica Terbrueggen,
examine Human Rights Education NOW! as a framework utilizing the podcasting
medium, transcripts and keywords, and the digital space to document collective work,
expanding on critical discussions about the field, and forging vital connections with
and between US human rights educators with colleagues nationally and globally.
In ‘The attack of diversity, equity and inclusion (DEI) as an attack on human
rights education’, Yvonne Vissing examines what DEI is, along with educational
approaches such as global education, peace education, socio-emotional learning,
and service learning and places them all under the human rights education umbrella.
Despite their positive intent, such approaches are seldom framed as human rights
education. DEI in the US has been both supported and attacked for promoting liberal
ideology that challenges racism, sexism, and exclusion of both individuals and the
discussion of their current and historical experiences. This book chapter argues that
DEI is a sub-variant of human rights education and that the attack on DEI is actually
an attack on the notion of human rights. Therefore, the attack on DEI is more than
a pedagogical debate but is one that intentionally or inadvertently undermines the
education of human rights and their implementation.
In ‘Human rights and sport participation in the swimming programs in New York
City’, Gonzalo Bravo & Peter Smolianov discuss the role of human right activists
and proponents of the power of sport as an agent of social change advocate that sport
11 Research Trends in Globalisation, Human Rights and Education
217
should be treated as a human right. While the perceived value of sport is generally
accepted by most people, there is no agreement on how to translate sport as a human
right into action. Regardless of the general acceptance and inclusion of sport as
a human right in many international treaties and declarations, the implementation
and enforcement of this right is a task that is left to the mercy of the local laws of
each country. A critical step when implementing human rights in sport is working in
promoting the right to participate. The case of the swimming programs implemented
through the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation serves to illustrate
when a public organization is working in the right direction. Many countries proclaim
sport as a right, but it mostly remains an opportunity affordable to wealthy families
or talented elite athletes.
In ‘The right to education in South Africa: A critical decolonial reading in placespace–time’, Anne Becker examines a ‘critical, decolonial shift in how we think
about, for and towards the right to education is proposed’. It is enabled through
decolonial human rights literacies. Decolonial literacy, as a critical literacy, aim to
interrupt and counter the colonial and Euro-Western lens through which human rights
are read which enables ongoing marginalisation. The epistemological foundations
of critical literacies rest on the power of social transformation and not so much
on the functional purposes of literacy. Critical literacies are situated and develop in
material reality in place-space–time. Geographical place anchors space, which refers
to human interaction and movements in and through the flow of time (past, present
and future). The author argues that ‘Decolonising in place-space–time is, primarily, a
conscious choice to action and renewal. It is easy to talk about decolonising the right
to education in South Africa. Interrupting colonial place-space–time and living and
doing decolonising is a difficult and unsettling process. It is a courageous intervention
in persistent colonial and apartheid education spaces towards the full realisation of
the right to education for all children in South Africa’.
In ‘Education for development and human rights: the contribution of educational
projects in Portuguese schools’, Graça Santos, Maria da Conceição Martins, Sofia
Bergano & Cristina Martins discuss the presence of indicators related to EDGC in
the Portuguese School Educational Projects (SEP), and the authors also analyze
the potential of EDGC in the daily lives of students and in their future. Using
the content analysis technique, four categories/dimensions were defined: ethical;
political; collective (and interpersonal and inter-institutional relations); and alterity.
There is a concern to achieve an education that promotes values, but it is considered
that democracy will only be achieved indirectly, through the development of skills
associated with the practice of citizenship.
In Human rights education and popular democracy: Making the challenge’,
William R. Fernekes, argues that HRE advocates in the USA should recognize the
limitations blunting their efforts to integrate HRE within the formal K-12 and postsecondary education systems and direct more of their efforts to working with popular
democratic movements and organizations outside of that institutional framework.
While popular education faces challenges of its own particularly the orientation of
many adult education and other popular education initiatives to focus on learning
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and/or training for the labour market rather than sustaining a focus on emancipatory pedagogies that challenge structures of oppression, popular education has great
potential to be a vital avenue for human rights education’s expansion and impact.
In ‘Beyond borders: navigating social integration and community support for
refugees in Australia and Italy’, Nina Maadad argues that that the situation of refugees
must be analyzed in the context of the respective host society and regarding the living
and working conditions of nationals. However, it is also clear that international events,
discourses and frameworks have an important impact on the integration of refugees
and respective policies at the national and local level. There are several broad goals
of integration that apply across countries. These include efforts to enable refugees
to reach and develop their full potential, to protect their human rights, prevent their
marginalization, and foster social cohesion and harmonious co-existence.
In ‘The protection of economic, social and cultural rights in armed conflicts: The
right to education between myths and realities’, José Noronha Rodrigues, Janny
Carrasco Medina & Dora Cristina Ribeiro Cabete examine some of the difficulties
that exist in guaranteeing human rights in the context of armed conflicts, especially
the right to education, which is already a challenge in the context of peace. International doctrine is practically unanimous in its view that only International Humanitarian Law is capable of guaranteeing rights in armed conflicts, which consequently
excludes human rights. However, throughout the evolution of international law and
the decisions of the International Court of Justice (ICJ), the construction has been
in favor of guaranteeing human rights and specifically economic, social and cultural
rights. Precisely these rights, and specifically the right to education, raise the question
of how they coexist with the rights already guaranteed by International Humanitarian
Law and whether they can really be protected in their entirety in the context of war
and if there is no possibility of guaranteeing their protection, what would be the way
out in which the right to education can be partially protected.
Finally, the concluding chapter discusses recent research trends in globalisation,
cultural diversity and human rights. The eleven chapters in this book reflect a wide
array of ways that scholars can use to think about the intersection of human rights,
democracy, and social justice. These include theoretical, historical, and global examples of the ways in which democratic justice can be nurtured or torpedoed. From what
we wear, whether we can vote, how education is formulated, and how narratives about
certain groups of people are created, the dynamic social construction of justice exists
in what we say, what we do, and how we think about others. Preservation of democracy is essential at this point in the history of the world. The scholarly works remind
us that justice is vulnerable and subject to attack. It is in the everyday actions of
what we think and do that reality is constructed. Effective implementation of human
rights and social justice education in educational settings has the potential to create a
more equitable, just, tolerant, and peaceful society for everyone for all in the global
culture. Human rights, therefore, is not an abstract concept but an essential, vibrant
component of our global world, one that is essential to protect and defend in both
macro and micro levels of society and within our own individual actions and beliefs.
11 Research Trends in Globalisation, Human Rights and Education
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11.4 Conclusion
Recent research suggests that human rights education is recognised as an essential tool for building stability in post-conflict societies. In some circumstances, it
can also deal effectively with racism, bigotry and xenophobia (Zajda & Ozdowski,
2023). However, at the same time, many human rights education questions remain
unanswered. Human rights education is not only about principles and goals. It is also
a dialogue about tools and methodologies that can be used to deliver the quality and
value-added education, which reflects the values of social justice and human rights.
Human rights education is also about relevant pedagogy and curriculum development
that are appropriate and effective in promoting the concepts and values of human
rights, democracy, equality and social justice.
As above demonstrates, to address human rights for all, and participatory democracy, we need to develop and consolidate a strong emphasis on human rights, inclusivity, and the values of social and economic justice. In the classroom we need
to ensure that children have a meaningful and well-grounded approach to their
own rights and responsibilities, as they mature into adulthood. Both families and
schools are powerful shapers and agencies of socialisation and the best places to
begin nurturing and teaching an understanding of cultural diversity, human rights
and democracy (Vissing, 2020; Zajda & Vissing, 2024). Finally, effective human
rights education has the potential to create a more equitable, just, tolerant, peaceful
society for everyone for all in the global culture. But it will remain a mere hollow
policy rhetoric, or ‘magic words’, unless we debate more vigorously social, cultural
and economic inequality in the global culture, within the legal framework of human
rights education, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the Millennium
Development Goals Report. We need to critique the existing status quo of stratified
societies and nations, neoliberal politico-economic imperatives, authoritarian and
dictatorial power structures, dominant ideologies, and forces of globalisation, which
have affected all levels of society, reinforcing cultural, political and economic social
stratification. This has serious implications for realizing a genuine and empowering
human rights education and social justice in the future. Human rights education will
need to become an integral part of critical and progressive pedagogies for social
justice and pluralist democracy.
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Joseph Zajda Ph.D. FACE, and teaches in the Faculty of Arts and Education, the Australian
Catholic University (Melbourne Campus), is a world-renowned scholar in the area of globalisation and education policy reforms. He has published 60 books (including 11 monographs and 40
edited books with Springer) and hundreds of book chapters and articles in refereed journals internationally. He was awarded the 2012 Peter Sheehan Excellence in Research Award. The award
recognizes the high quality of research activities, and particularly celebrates sustained research
that has had a substantive impact nationally and internationally (Faculty of Education, Australian
Catholic University). He received an Australian Award for University Teaching, July 2011, for
Outstanding Contributions to Student Learning for his innovative, influential and sustained contribution to teacher education through scholarship and publication. Synopsis: The applicant has
pioneered an innovative approach in teacher education, where he uses global pedagogy and
‘teacher as a researcher’ model. He also received Vice-Chancellor’s Award for Excellence in
Teaching, Australian Catholic University. The award was presented at the April 2005 Graduation
Ceremony, the Melbourne Town Hall. It was the sole award for the whole 6-campus university. He
has made an outstanding contribution to research in education globally, with emphasis on globalisation, education reforms, human rights, social justice, gender and equity and the enhancement of
quality in teacher education. Scientific index 2024, lists him 581st out of 1,345, 218 researchers
in the world (or top 0.5%). His published research includes 119 works in 665 publications in 4
languages and 12,524 library holdings (WorldCat catalogue), adding immense research expertise
to his work globally in teacher education and pedagogy. He has provided outstanding service to
teacher education through his research globally, graduate teaching, doctoral supervision, and his
editorial work.
Yvonne Vissing is a Professor of Healthcare Studies, focusing on health policy and public health,
and the Founding Director of the Center for Childhood & Youth Studies at Salem State University. She is the US policy chair for the Hope for Children Convention on the Child Policy Center
in Cyprus, on the Steering Committee for Human Rights Educators USA, and is on the AAAS
Human Rights Council. Vissing is author of 17 books, including Children’s Human Rights in
the USA: Challenge & Opportunities (Springer 2023), Changing the Paradigm of Homelessness
(Routledge 2020), and The Rights of Unaccompanied Minors (Springer 2021). A clinical sociologist, National Institute of Mental Health Post-Doctoral Research Fellow on child abuse and
Whiting Foundation fellow studying child rights, she was also a Dialogue and Democracy fellow
at UCONN’s Dodd Center for Human Rights. She is a graduate of Equitas International Human
Rights Training Program in Montreal. She is CEO of Training for Excellence.
Index
A
Academic achievement, 4
Accorinti, M., 174
Acculturation strategies, 185
Active citizenship, 2
Adami, F.A.C., 195
Adult Migrant Education Program
(AMEP), 169
Adult Migrant English Program (AMEP),
181
Affirmative Action programs, 66
Africa, I.E., 120
Age, 63
Alba, R., 161, 163
Alienation, 2
Alpak, G., 178
Alter, G., 13, 156
Alterity dimension, 142
Amado, J., 133
Ambrosini, M., 167
American Bar Association, 65
Amnesty International, 120, 167
Anderson, B., 2
Anderson, M., 169
Anomie, 2
Anti-racist education, 60
Apartheid, 118
Apartheid education structures, 124
Apartheid race-based frameworks, 111
Aradau, C., 215
Armed conflicts, 192, 196, 198, 200, 202,
206, 207
Arriagada, P., 9
Arsel, Z., 62–64
Assimilation, 162
Asylum-seekers, 162, 165
Asylum-seeking families, 162
Australia, 3, 163, 169
Australian Government, 181, 184
Ayyash-Abdo, H., 174
Azizah, N., 172
B
Bajaj, M., 14, 61, 80
Balta, N., 174
Banda, D., 88
Bandura, A., 6
Banks, J., 4, 5, 60
Bardin, L., 134
Barrett, M., 130
Basic education, 123
Baxi, U., 110
Beavers, D., 64, 65
Becker, A., 60, 110, 111, 113–115, 117,
119, 125, 217
Bednarczyk, B., 59
Beitz, C., 198
Benda, E., 194
Bender-Slack, D., 72
Benedetti, I., 166, 170
Benevides, M.V. de M., 204
Bergano, S., 133, 217
Berg, J., 75
Berteloot, T., 93
Berti, A.E., 172, 173
Besson, S., 215
Best Colleges, 66
Black children, 120, 122
Black Lives Matter (BLM), 28, 110
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025
J. Zajda and Y. Vissing (eds.), Globalisation, Human Rights and Education,
Globalisation, Comparative Education and Policy Research 51,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-80304-8
223
224
Black schools, 120, 121
Blagrove, M., 94
Blanchard, R., 14, 17, 29, 32, 35
Blogs, 77
Bobbio, N., 193
Bolton, N., 94
Bonino, E., 196
Booysen, S., 119
Bowen, D.H., 17
Bowers, M., 97
Bozalek, V., 110
Bravo, G., 216
Bromley, P., 72
Bronfenbrenner, U., 6
Burchfiel, A., 89
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 157
Burgess, E., 162
C
Cachafeiro, M.G.-R., 166
Cakar, F.S., 174
Camicia, S., 154
Caponio, T., 177
Cargas, S., 14, 58, 68
Carson, M., 152
Casel, 75
Castles, S., 162, 164
Center for Childhood & Youth Studies
(CCYS), 18
Center for Sport and Human Rights, 90
Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 92
Césaire, A., 110, 113
Chalip, L., 88
Charmaz, K., 168
Chase, Z., 73
Chats, 77
Children’s language acquisition, 174
Children’s rights, 213
Chile, 156
Chitsamatanga, B.B., 118–121
Christie, P., 111, 118, 119, 121, 122
Chung, J., 174
Cistelecan, A., 110
Citizenship instruction, 72
City of New York, 99
Clash of civilizations, 3
Cohen, R., 182
Cole, J., 166
Colonialism, 118
Comer, J., 74
Communication styles, 174
Index
Conflict, 165
Conflict-ridden regions, 173
Connect Kids programs, 101
Conscientizacao, 154
Conscientizacao, 153
Controversial material, 80
Convention against Torture and Other
Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading
Treatment or Punishment (CAT), 69
Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities (CRPD), 69
Convention on the Rights of the Child
(CRC), 15, 77, 203
Coombs, P., 8
Coppedge, M., 215
Council of Europe, 75, 90, 149
COVID-19 pandemic, 28, 93
Crea, G., 180
Crenshaw, K., 168
Critical consciousness, 111, 114, 150
Critical discourse analysis, 213
Critical literacy, 110, 217
Critical thinking, 80
Crooks, D.L., 168
Cruz, A., 153
Cruz Parcero, J.A., 193
Cultural differences, 173
Cultural disparities, 171, 174
Cultural diversity, 4, 5, 75, 177, 205, 218
Cultural identity, 5, 8, 162
Cultural imperialism, 2
Culturally diverse environments, 3
Culturally diverse students, 8
Cultural rights, 207
Cultural ties, 185
Culture, 63
Culture of peace, 75
Cumming, T., 176
D
Dahlgren, R., 79
Dangmann, C., 179
Danish Institute for Human Rights, 62
Davidson, J.A., 98
Davis, R., 124
Decolonial challenge, 124
Decolonial human rights literacy, 110
Decolonial reading, 111
Decolonial theory, 113
Decolonial thinking, 112
Decolonial turn, 112
Deliberative democracy, 153, 154
Index
Democracy, 145, 152, 215
Democratic values, 130
Denzin, N., 133
Depression, 178, 179, 181
Derince, N., 174
DeVylder, J.E., 180
Dialogical process, 154
Di Iasio, V., 170
Diller, J.V., 182
Dimitriadis, I., 167
(Dis)ability status, 63
Discrimination, 4, 5, 7, 120, 169, 170, 201,
205, 207
Disengagement from learning, 179
Diversity, 62, 63, 66, 145, 163, 174, 182
Diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI), 57,
58, 62–64, 67, 69, 81, 216
Dobbin, F., 67
Doczi, T., 91
Donatiello, D., 177
Donnelly, P., 89, 90, 102
Du Preez, P., 110, 114, 117, 119
Durlak, J.A., 75
Dustmann, C., 166
Dwyer, D., 66
E
Economic inequality, 219
Educational inequality, 119
Educational marginalisation, 125
Education for citizenship, 132
Education for Development and Global
Citizenship (EDGC), 131
Education for peace, 75
Edutopia, 75
Effective teaching, 120
Eleni, C., 215
Elmendorf, C.S., 152
Emotional well-being, 171, 179
Empathy, 182
Equal educational opportunities, 4
Equality, 61, 63, 119, 145, 211
Equitable society, 78
Equity, 63, 145, 182
Ericson, R., 162
Ethical dimension, 134
Ethnic communities, 183
Ethnic groups, 176
Ethnicity, 63, 171
Ethnicity discrimination, 6
Evans, R., 154
225
F
Fair Employment Practice Act (Roosevelt),
66
Fanon, F., 110
Farrell, L., 92
Fataar, A., 121
Faulkner, E.A., 113–116, 123
Faulkner, W., 112
Fazel, M., 179
Fernekes, B., 22, 25, 26, 36, 216
Fernekes, W., 13, 152, 156, 217
Ferrajoli, L., 193, 194
Fetisov, V.A., 94
Field, K., 75
Fierro Ferráez, A.E., 193
First Nation’s people, in Canada, 73
Fix Zamudio, H., 194
Flowers, N., 13, 24, 35, 150, 154
Freedom, 193
Freeman, K., 74
Freire, P., 112, 150, 153
Fritz, A., 93
Fukuyama, F., 3
G
Gadeberg, A.K.N., 178
Galindo, G., 204
Galtung, J., 75
Gans, H., 162
Garcia, S., 66
Gay, D., 62
Gender, 63
Gender equality, 131
Gender identity, 63
Ghazarians, K., 32
Glaser, B.G., 168
Glazer, N., 162
Global citizenship, 131
Global colonial matrix, 113
Global education, 4, 58, 60, 71, 72, 81
Global Education Network, 71
Global hegemonies, 2
Global inequalities, 9
Global social justice, 110
Goldberg, J., 155
Goldthorpe, J.H., 162
Goleman, D., 74
Gomstyn, A., 70
Gota, J.C., 18, 22, 216
Gradwell, J., 79
Gratton, C., 91
Grillo, R.D., 166
226
Guedes, D.M., 195
Guibernau, M., 2
Gumede, V., 119, 123
Gutierrez-Vicario, M., 35
H
Haleem, A., 67
Hall, M.E.K., 215
Hamm, B.I., 93
Hart, M., 17
Hasell, J., 9
Hawley, M., 68
Health benefits, 102
Heerdt, D., 90
Heine, K., 92, 102
Held, D., 153
Hess, D., 153
Hicks, D., 72
Higher Education Act (HEA) of 1965, 65
Hilmanovich, A., 70
Hinkelammert, F., 194
Hoekman, R., 91
Holocaust, 18
Hornberg, S., 72
Horowitz, J., 67
Horsten, D., 117
Hovemann, G., 91
Hudson, M., 112
Hulteen, R.M., 94
Humanist-based education, 145
Humanist school, 137
Human rights, 9, 27, 57, 61, 75–78, 81, 92,
110, 112, 114, 124, 151, 157,
192–194, 197, 200, 201, 212, 213,
215, 216, 218
activists, 216
discourses of, 114
in sport, 87
literacies, 112
policy documents, 212
specific curricula, 32
treaties, 68
umbrella, 79
violations of, 90, 201, 214
Human rights education (HRE), 13, 31, 58,
61, 72, 81, 118, 149, 213, 219
Human Rights Education NOW!, 22, 24, 36
Human Rights Educators USA (HRE
USA), 21
Human Rights Risk Atlas, 214
Human Rights Watch, 69
Humphreys, B.R., 92
Index
Hundrev, I., 70
Hutzler, A., 66
Hynie, M., 180
I
Ibrahim, A., 170
Igielnik, R., 67
Ikuenobe, P., 115
Illiteracy, 207
Immigrants, 162, 185
Immigration laws, 165
Inclusion, 60, 64, 145, 178, 180, 181
Inclusive environment, 182, 185
Inclusive school environments, 179
Inclusive society, 182
Indigenous Commonwealth Scholarships,
184
Indigenous students, 184
Individual resilience, 178
Inequality, 5, 7, 8, 71, 111, 119, 165, 213
Intercultural awareness, 185
Intercultural understanding, 131, 185
International Association for Human Rights
Education (IAHRE), 15
International Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination (CERD), 69
International Convention on the Protection
of the Rights of All Migrant
Workers and Members of Their
Families (CMW), 69
International Court of Justice (ITJ), 192
International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights, 203
International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights (ICCPR), 212
International Covenant on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights
(ICESCR), 69, 192, 193, 212
International Humanitarian Law (IHL),
192, 195, 206, 207
International Monetary Fund, 9
International Organization for Migration
(IOM), 177
Interpersonal relationships, 140, 174
Irwin, C., 95
Isaev, A.A., 94
Italy, 163, 169
Ivano-Frankivsk, 3
J
James, A., 67
Index
Janks, H., 113
Jarvis, P., 2
Jayakumar, U., 66, 70
Johnson, T., 93
Jones, J., 67
Jong-Fast, M., 155
K
Kalev, A., 67
Kalypso, I., 215
Kandel, I., 8
Kasan, A., 172
Katz, S.R., 13
Keet, A., 110, 113
Kendi, I., 66, 70
Key performance indicators (KPIs), 25
Kidd, B., 89
Kisida, B., 17
Kloby, J., 79
Kokolakakis, T., 91
L
Lafont, C., 153, 156
Landemore, H., 156
Landman, T., 215
Lane, L., 195, 206
Langley, W.E., 193
Language, 63
acquisition support, 179
barriers, 171
proficiency, 172
Lankedich, G., 97
Laufenberg, D., 73
Lefebvre, H., 111, 114
Le Grange, L., 119
Leib, E.J., 152
Leitkultur, 3
Le Roux, C., 121
Lewis, J., 19
LGBTQ+ rights, 33
Likhar, A., 77
Lincoln, Y., 133
Linguistic discrepancy, 173
Linguistic diversity, 177
LinkedIn, 75
Literacy, lack of, 119
Llorente, R., 193
Lloyd, C., 67
Lo Bianco, J., 182
227
M
Maadad, N., 166, 168, 218
Magendzo, A., 150, 154, 156
Magna Carta, 58
Maistry, S.M., 120
Majumder, M.A., 174
Maldonado-Torres, N., 110, 113
Mandela, N., 89, 102
Marsden, E., 172
Martin, S., 94
Martins, C., 217
Martins, M.C., 132, 217
Matt, R., 92
Maxwell, C., 66
Mayo, M., 151
McCluskey, E., 215
McKinney, C., 113
McKinsey and Co., 62–64
Medinam, J.C., 218
Melber, H., 112
Meloni, C., 173
Menon, K., 120
Mental health, 181
issues, 178, 180
services, 178
support, 178
Merryfield, M., 72
Messing, S., 93
Meyersohn, N., 95
Micali, N., 180
Miendlarzewska, E.A., 17
Mignolo, W.D., 110, 112, 113
Migrants, 165, 185
Milanovic, B., 213
Millennium Development Goals Report,
212
Miller, M.J., 162, 164
Mixdown Magazine, 24
Mobility, 165
Mock, B., 95
Moffatt, F., 93
Moinipour, S., 117
Monash Asylum Seeker Scholarship, 183
Monteiro, R., 132
Morgan, H., 88
Moroney, D., 75
Motala, S., 120
Moule, J., 182
Moynihan, D.P., 162
Moyn, S., 113
Mujica Barreda, R., 155
Multicultural education, 3–5, 7, 176
Multiculturalism, 4, 72, 182
228
Multiculturalism theory, 162
Multicultural perspective, 182
Multicultural policies, 182
Multiple identities, 142
N
National Academies of Sciences,
Engineering, and Medicine, 77
National Council for the Social Studies, 35,
151
National identity, 2
National origin, 63
Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S.J., 112, 113
Nee, V., 161, 163
Neo-liberalism, 119
Neoliberal market principles, 120
New York State, 101
Ng, R., 63
Non-English-speaking background
refugees, 175
Nonverbal communication, 174
North, C., 72
North, M., 8
Nqwane, S., 111
Nyamutata, C., 113–116, 123
O
OECD, 8, 163, 171, 213
Offe, C., 153
Offord, B., 113
Oktarina, N., 169
Osei-Kofi, N., 62, 64
Osler, A., 15, 60, 79, 111
Ozdowski, S., 212, 213, 219
P
Pandya, J.Z., 110
Parker, W., 72
Park, R.E., 162
Parks Swim Team, 100
Patton, L., 62, 64
Peace, 75
Peace education, 58, 81
PEN America, 155
Pérez Luño, A.E., 193, 194
Pew Research Center, 67
Physical Activity Council, 94
Pictet, J., 195
Pizzorusso, A., 194
Pluralist democracy, 219
Poku, S., 80
Index
Poland, 3
Police Athletic League (PAL), 102
Political dimension, 137, 138
Political perspective, 63
Pondiscio, R., 75
Popular democracy, 152
Portugal, 131
Post-apartheid South Africa, 125
Poverty, 71, 111, 119, 123, 165
eradication, 212
Pratt, J.C., 166
Praxis, 154
Preston, I., 166
Preuss, U., 153
Prieto Sanchís, L., 193
Prout, J., 67
Q
Quality education, 120, 124
Quintavalla, A., 92, 102
R
Race, 63
Racial stereotypes, 95
Racism, 81
Rajagopal, B., 194
Ranciѐre, J., 110
Ranford, F., 151
Raturi, P., 174
Raupach, M., 72
Reardon, B., 72
Reed, R.V., 178
Reflective discourse, 153
Refugee-background families, 167
Refugee children, 169, 171–173, 175,
178–181
Refugee communities, 185
Refugee Council of Australia, 175, 176, 183
Refugee Education Support Program
(RESP), 181, 183
Refugee families, 180
Refugees, 162, 163, 165, 166, 170,
175–177, 183, 185, 218
Refugee students, 184
Refugee young adults, 163
Regilme, S.S.F., 215
Regoli, A., 166, 170
Religious commitments, 63
Rembe, N.S., 118–121
Rena, R., 120
Resnic, S., 95
Responsive teaching, 7
Index
Rex Foundation, 16
Ribeiro Cabete, D.C., 218
Richard, V., 92
Riede, P., 90
Rights for children, 115
Rights-respecting behavior, 78
Right to education, 207
Rockwell, N., 58
Rodrigues, J.N., 194, 218
Rodwell, G., 166
Rook, W., 90
Roser, M., 9
Roth, B.R., 215
Rousseau, C., 174
Roux, C., 60, 110, 111, 114, 118
Rudelius-Palmer, K., 22, 216
Ruseski, J.E., 92
S
Sacavino, S., 155
Samaras, G., 215
Sanchez, S., 22, 216
Sandoz, Y., 197, 198
Santos, G., 133, 217
Scalettaris, G., 166
Scheerder, J., 90–92
Schwab, E., 22, 216
Science, technology, engineering, and
maths (STEM), 120
Self-concept, 6
Sense of belonging, 179
Service learning, 75, 81
Sexism, 81
Sexual abuse, 201
Sexual orientation, 63
Shahjahan, R.A., 62, 64
Shields, M.A., 92
Shiman, D., 30, 35
Silverman, D., 133
Simri, U., 88
Sirota, S., 33
Skrzypiec, J., 31
Slaughter, V., 172
Slewa-Younan, S., 179
Smith, A., 1
Smith Crocco, M., 72
Smith, F., 17
Smolianov, P., 94, 96, 97, 216
Social assimilation, 171
Social emotional learning (SEL), 14, 73
Social identity, 2
Social inclusion, 102
229
Social inequality, 5, 119
Social integration, 161, 163, 166, 169
Social interactions, 174
Social interdependence, 130
Social isolation, 170
Social justice, 9, 60, 118, 131, 145, 215,
218, 219
Social media, 77
Social mobility, 166, 169
Social reconstructionist pedagogy, 7
Social regimes, of truth, 2
Social status, 169
Social stratification, 213
Social support systems, 174
Socioeconomic status, 63
Socio-emotional learning, 58, 81
Sohcot, S., 14, 16–18, 29, 32, 35, 216
South Africa, 111
Spero, A.M., 13, 17
Sport, as a human right, 88
Sport for All, 90
Stanisławów, 3
Starkey, H., 15, 60, 79
State University of New York (SUNY), 101
Stefanelli, S., 172, 173
Stokke, C., 111
Strauss, A.L., 168
Strohwald, A., 117
Sustainability, 131
Sustainable development, 60
Sustainable Development Goals (SDG),
132
T
Taylor, R.D., 75
Terbrueggen, J., 22, 216
Thornberg, R., 168
Tibbitts, F., 13, 30, 33, 58, 72
Tingting, Y., 94
Tlostanova, M., 114
Tomaševski, K., 117
Toran, A., 94
Torrisi, C., 170
Torture, 201
Trailant, 68
Trigos-Carrill, L.N., 110
Trost, W.J., 17
Truman, H., 66
Tuckett, A., 165
U
UNESCO, 132
230
Global Education Monitoring Report,
198
UNICEF, 166
UN International Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination, 150
United Nations Convention on the Rights of
the Child (UNCRC), 59
United Nations Declaration on Human
Rights Education and Training, 14
United Nations Department of Economic
and Social Affairs (UNDESA), 163
United Nations Human Development
Report (UNHDR), 9
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(UDHR), 14, 35, 58, 59, 89, 114,
193, 212, 214
Unvala, S., 32
Urofsky, M., 66
USSR, 3
Utria, A.R., 196
V
Valdés, E.G., 198
Values, 2
Values education, 8
Veal, A.J., 90, 92
Ventevogel, P., 180
Verbal communication, 174
Vertovec, S., 182
Victorian Foundation for Survivors of
Torture, 175
Vienna Declaration and Programme of
Action, 214
Villacrés Moscoso, J.W., 196
Index
Vincent, C.S., 76
Vissing, Y., 14, 16, 29, 32, 35, 77, 115, 116,
213, 215, 216, 219
Vos, S., 92
W
Wahba, J., 170
Walsh, C.E., 112, 113, 124
Wanka, F.A., 120
Wars, 3
Weissberg, R.P., 75
Well-being, 175, 179, 183
Wells, K., 79
Westerbeek, H.M., 97
Wibowo, A., 169
Wicker, P., 91, 92
Willis, A.I., 110, 113, 114
Woldeyes, Y.G., 113
World Bank, 8
Wright, J., 173
Wrinkler, A.M., 98
Y
Yang, K.W., 113
Yudkin-Suliveres, A., 35
Yu, M., 168
Z
Zajda, J., 4, 5, 8, 10, 213, 215, 216, 219
Zembylas, M., 110, 113
Zhang, R., 32
Zheng, L., 71
Žižek, S., 110