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CDE3701/1/2021–2024
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CONTENTS
FOREWORD
Learning unit 1:
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THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
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1.1‌INTRODUCTION
1.2‌WHAT IS CHILD DEVELOPMENT?
1.2.1 Perspective on child development
1.2.2 African perspective about the stages of child development
1.2.3 Domains of child development
1.2.4 Developmental milestones
1.2.5‌The brain house
1.2.5.1‌Physical development symbolises the foundation of the house
1.2.5.2‌Emotional development represents the walls of the house
1.2.5.3‌Social development symbolises the windows and doors
1.2.5.4‌Cognitive development symbolises the roof of the house
1.3‌GENERAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CHILD DEVELOPMENT
1.3.1‌Cultural Context
1.3.2‌Risk factors
1.3.3‌Protective factors
1.3.4‌Theory on the importance of context in child development
1.3.4.1‌The interaction depends strongly on two aspects
1.3.4.2‌Process-person-context-time (PPCT)
1.4‌THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
1.4.1‌Dimensions of physical development
1.4.2‌Theoretical perspectives of cognitive development
1.4.3‌Theories of socio-emotional development
1.5‌CONCLUSION
1.6
REFERENCES
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Learning unit 2: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN FOUNDATION PHASE
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2.1‌INTRODUCTION
2.2‌CONCEPT CLARIFICATION
2.2.1‌Types of movement skills
2.2.2‌Components of movement development (perceptual-motor abilities)
2.2.3‌Perception
2.2.4‌More perceptual-motor abilities (underlying the above)
2.3‌PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOUNDATION PHASE CHILD
2.3.1‌General characteristics of the foundation phase child
2.3.2‌Growth of the body
2.3.2.1‌Growth of the foundation phase child
2.3.2.2‌Body form
2.3.2.3‌Development of motor skills
2.3.2.4‌Gross motor skills
2.3.2.5‌Fine motor skills
2.4‌ACTIVITIES FOR GROSS AND FINE MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
2.4.1‌Teacher planning and preparation of physical movement activities
2.4.2‌Methods of presentation
2.4.2.1 Direct method
2.4.2.2‌Indirect method
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2.4.2.3‌Lesson content
2.4.2.4‌Planning and preparation of a physical movement lesson
2.4.3‌Activities to promote gross motor development
2.4.3.1‌To sit in the correct position at a desk to write requires a child to have physical
endurance and concentrate for at least 15-40 minutes
2.4.3.2‌To develop good handwriting skills
2.4.3.3‌For the correct spacing of written work on the page, the child needs to have
midline crossing, directionality, spatial perception, and planning skills
2.4.3.4‌For a child to learn to read well, they need good visual tracking and focusing skills.
Hand-eye coordination can help the child with visual tracking and to catch a ball
in sports
2.4.3.5‌Basic maths skills involve rhythmic counting, which can help the child to
internalise number sequences
2.4.3.6 Dance activities
2.4.4‌Teacher preparation for promoting fine motor development
2.4.5‌Parent involvement for promoting physical development
2.5‌FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
2.5.1‌The effects of nutrition and obesity on physical development
2.5.1.1‌What is the role of the physical education teacher?
2.5.2‌The effects of genes and environment on physical development
2.5.3‌The effect of cultural practices on physical development
2.5.4‌The effect of gender differences on physical development
2.5.5‌The effect of illness and accident injuries on physical development
2.5.5.1‌Diabetes
2.5.5.2 Epilepsy
2.5.5.3‌Cerebral palsy
2.5.5.4‌Muscle dystrophy
2.5.5.5 Auditory impairments
2.5.5.6 Visual impairment
2.5.5.7‌Movement activities for children with physical handicaps
2.6‌CONCLUSION
2.7
REFERENCES
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Learning unit 3: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF THE YOUNG CHILDREN
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3.1‌INTRODUCTION
3.2‌THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CULTURAL CONTEXT
3.3‌GENERAL MILESTONES IN COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
3.4‌MOST INFLUENTIAL THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
3.4.1‌Piaget’s constructivism theory
3.4.2‌Overview of piaget’s stages of cognitive development
3.4.3‌Discussion of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
3.4.3.1‌Sensorimotor stage
3.4.3.2‌Preoperational stage
3.4.3.3‌Concrete operational stage
3.4.4‌Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
3.4.4.1‌Zone of Proximal Development
3.4.4.2‌Higher and lower mental functions
3.4.4.3‌Critical periods
3.4.4.4‌Vygotsky on language development
3.4.5‌Bruner’s theory of cognitive and language development
3.4.5.1‌Bruner's theory on language development
3.4.6‌Information processing theory
3.4.6.1‌Mental hardware
3.4.6.2‌Mental software
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3.4.6.3‌General age-related advances in memory
3.5‌LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
3.5.1‌Language development of babies
3.5.2‌Language development during early childhood
3.5.3‌General language development during middle childhood
3.5.3.1‌Bilingualism
3.6‌THE DEVELOPMENT OF MATHEMATICAL THOUGHT
3.6.1‌Cognitive prerequisites for mathematical thought
3.7‌CONCLUSION
3.8
REFERENCES
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Learning unit 4: THE SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE
FOUNDATION PHASE CHILD
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4.1‌INTRODUCTION
4.2‌CONCEPT CLARIFICATION
4.2.1‌Social development
4.2.2‌Emotional development
4.3‌DEFINITIONS OF SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
4.4‌THE IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
4.5‌COMPONENTS THAT SHAPE SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
4.5.1‌The influence of the components on children’s social development
4.5.1.1‌Social development of the foundation phase child
4.5.1.2‌Race and cultural awareness
4.5.1.3‌How can the teacher embrace diversity?
4.5.1.4‌Become aware of gender roles
4.5.1.5‌Conditions of friendship
4.5.1.6‌Sociometric techniques
4.5.1.7‌Leadership qualities
4.5.2‌The influence of the components on children’s emotional development
4.5.2.1‌Different temperament traits
4.5.2.2‌Teacher’s attitude and the child’s emotional and then scholastic competence
4.5.3‌Learning styles and multiple intelligence
4.6‌THEORY OF SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES
4.6.1 Erik Erikson’s theory of social development
4.6.1.1‌Trust vs mistrust (oral/hope) starts at birth
4.6.1.2‌Autonomy vs shame or doubt (anal stage/will)
4.6.1.3‌Initiative vs guilt (third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.)
4.6.1.4‌Industry vs inferiority (latency phase/competence)
4.6.1.5‌Learning identity versus identity diffusion (fidelity)
4.6.1.6 Learning intimacy versus isolation (love)
4.6.1.7‌Learning generativist versus self-absorption (care)
4.6.1.8‌Integrity versus despair (wisdom)
4.7‌SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES
4.7.1‌Social development milestones
4.7.2‌Emotional milestones
4.8‌THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER
4.8.1‌Where does the foundation phase teacher begin to teach all these principles?
4.8.2‌Informal general evaluation of social competence
4.8.3‌The shy child
4.8.4‌Bullying
4.8.4.1‌How can the teacher address bullying?
4.9‌THE ROLE OF THE PARENTS
4.9.1‌Different family structures
4.9.2‌Parents in the family structure
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4.9.2.1‌Family law in South Africa
4.9.2.2‌Why do children of authoritative parents tend to turn out well?
4.9.3‌Positive parenting guidelines
4.10
CONCLUSION
4.11
ENRICHMENT ARTICLES
APPENDIX 4.1
4.12
REFERENCES
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Learning unit 5: MORAL DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
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5.1
INTRODUCTION
5.1.1
What is moral development?
5.2
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
5.2.1 Piaget’s theory of moral development
5.2.1.1 Piaget’s stages of moral development
5.2.2 Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
5.2.2.1 Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
5.2.2.2 Moral development from infancy to adulthood
5.3
A SENSE OF BELONGING
5.3.1 The concept of sense of belonging
5.3.2 The importance of a sense of belonging
5.3.3 Strategies of promoting a sense of belonging
5.3.4 Implications of morality and a sense of belonging
5.3.4.1 Implications for the learner
5.3.4.2 Implications for the teacher
5.4
CONCLUSION
5.5
REFERENCES
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Learning unit 6: CREATIVE DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
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6.1
6.1.1
6.1.2
6.1.3
6.2
6.2.1
6.2.2
6.2.3
6.3
6.4
6.4.1
6.5
6.5.1
6.5.1.1
6.5.1.2
6.5.1.3
6.5.1.4
6.5.1.5
6.5.1.6
6.5.1.7
6.5.1.8
6.5.1.9
6.5.2
6.6
6.7
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INTRODUCTION
What is creativity?
What is creative development?
The importance of the creative process
CREATIVE DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
Infancy period (0 to 2 years)
Pre-school period (2 to 6 years)
Middle childhood period (6 to 9 years)
THE BENEFITS OF PLAY AND CREATIVE DEVELOPMENT
THE IMPORTANCE OF IMAGINATION AND CREATIVITY
Creative thinking and imagination
ENHANCING CREATIVITE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN IN DIVERSE CONTEXT
Strategies of stimulating creativity in children
Spend time outdoors with children (play)
Invent scenarios/situations
Verbal activities
Ask open-ended and thought-provoking questions
Limit screen time (TV movies, computers, tablets, smart phones, video games)
Encourage art activities
Share library activities
Do not over control or over prescribe
Encourage internal motivation
Important factors to consider when planning creative activities for children
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
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FOREWORD
1.
INTRODUCTION
Dear Student
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Welcome to CDE3701, CHILD DEVELOPMENT (0-9).
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Because this is a blended module, you will need to use myUnisa to study and complete the
learning activities for this module. Visit the website for CDE3701 on myUnisa frequently.
The website for your module is the module website code written out in full, for example,
MODULE CODE-20-Y.
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We trust that you will find the course rewarding and hope you will integrate the knowledge
and skills you acquire in this module to become more successful in your teaching career.
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Broadly speaking, the field of early childhood development is a field that is shared among
three government departments in South Africa albeit from different perspectives. The focus
of the Department of Social Development (DSD) is on the wellbeing and care of young
children from birth to the age of five years, hence the title they use is “early childhood
development and care” (ECDC). In the field of education, the focus on young children
is to understand how they develop and to plan educational activities that can promote
their learning. Their education is based on the curriculum of the foundation phase that
is guided by the Curriculum and Programme Statement (CAPS).
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This module is on child development in the early years; the foundation phase is one of
the core modules in the Early Childhood Education (ECE) curriculum. It is thus important
for you to learn and understand the content since it cuts across all other modules in the
curriculum. Please read this section carefully so you understand how it links to other
modules in the foundation phase curriculum.
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CDE3701 serves as an overview and links with a number of modules in the foundation
phase curriculum. The first learning unit gives an overview of child development. The
important theories in the field will give you an overview on the different facets of child
development like the physical, social-emotional, cognitive and language aspects. The
second learning unit focuses on physical development of the foundation phase child and
explains how the different development areas are integrated with one another. The unit
addresses child growth and motor development, and provides the student with some
ideas and a lesson plan on teaching physical development in general. This is followed
by learning unit three, which focuses on cognitive development. In this study unit, an
overview will be given of some general milestones of cognitive development from birth
to nine years. Major theories of cognitive development will be discussed, namely Piaget,
Vygotsky, Bruner, and Information Processing Theory. Considering the complex relationship
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that cognitive development has with both language and with mathematical thought, as
visually depicted, children’s development in both of these areas will be addressed.
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Figure 1.1:
Overview of the foundation phase curriculum
Source: CAPS, 2012
The last learning unit focuses on the social and emotional development of the child. An
overview of some general social and emotional milestones will be given, and how the
teacher and parent can support the child in their development.
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The best way to discuss child development is to adopt a holistic approach, that is, see the
child as one whole. Scholars like to depict the holistic development of the child as follows:
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Figure 1.2:
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Holistic development of the child
I see you blossoming into a competent and creative teacher after completing this module!
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Thank you.
1.1
Getting started …
Owing to the nature of this module, you can read about the module and find your study
material in print and online. Go to the website at https://my.unisa.ac.za and log in using
your student number and password. You will see [module site-CDE3701] in the row of
modules displayed in the orange blocks at the top of the webpage. Select the More
tab if you cannot find the module you require in the blocks displayed. Then click on the
module you want to open.
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We wish you much success in your studies!
2.
OVERVIEW OF CDE3701
2.1
Purpose
Students who have completed this module successfully will have the knowledge, skills, and
values related to the development of the young child through the framings of a reflective
teacher. Students will explore each domain of child development in the early childhood
phase from birth to nine years. As students engage with the domains of development,
they will be afforded opportunities to understand child development in diverse contexts
with sensitivity to the varying capabilities of children. In this way, students will enhance
their understanding of the variations and complexities of child development. The age and
stage contextual approach will assist in developing appropriate activities for supporting
early learning.
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2.2
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Outcomes
For this module, you will have to master the following outcomes:
• Engage with various theories of child development and learning.
• Examine physical development of young children.
• Examine cognitive development of young children
• Examine social and emotional development of young children.
• Address the moral development of young children.
• Discuss the creative development of young children.
3.
DEPARTMENT CONTACT DETAILS
3.1
Department
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You can contact the Department of Early Childhood Department:
Telephone number: 012 429 4583
E-mail: makgome1@unisa.ac.za
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4.
RESOURCES
4.1
Joining myUnisa
The myUnisa learning management system is the university's online campus, which will
help you communicate with your lecturers, with other students, and with the administrative
departments at Unisa.
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To go to the myUnisa website directly, go to https://my.unisa.ac.za. Click on the Claim
UNISA Login on the top of the screen on the myUnisa website. You will then be prompted
to give your student number in order to claim your initial myUnisa details as well as your
myLife e-mail login details. For more information on myUnisa, consult the brochure, Study
@ Unisa, which you received with your study material: www.unisa.ac.za/brochures/studies
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4.2
Electronic reserves (e-reserves)
Please see the different e-reserves’ articles in the different learning units.
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E-reserves can be downloaded from the Library catalogue. More information is available
at http://libguides.unisa.ac.za/request/request.
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4.3
myUnisa tools
The main tool that we will use is the Lessons tool. This tool will provide the content of
and the assessments for your module. At times you will be directed to join discussions
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with fellow students, and complete activities and assessments before you can continue
with the module.
It is very important that you log in to myUnisa regularly. We recommend that you log in
at least once a week to do the following:
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• Check for new announcements. You can also set your myLife e-mail account so that
you receive the announcement e-mails on your cell phone.
• Do the Discussion Forum activities. When you do the activities for each learning
•
unit, we want you to share your answers with the other students in your group. You
can read the instructions and even prepare your answers offline, but you will need
to go online to post your messages. We have also provided a Social Cafe where you
can socialise with the other students in the module.
Do other online activities. For some of the learning unit activities, you might need
to post something on the Blog tool, take a quiz, or complete a survey under the SelfAssessment tool. Do not skip these activities because they will help you complete
the assignments and the activities for the module.
We hope that by giving you extra ways to study the material and practise all of the activities,
you will succeed in the online module. To get the most out of the online module you
MUST go online regularly to complete the activities and assignments on time.
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5.
CONCLUSION
Do not hesitate to contact us by e-mail if you are experiencing problems with the content
of this study guide or with any academic aspect of the module.
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We wish you a fascinating and satisfying journey through the learning material and trust
that you will complete the module successfully.
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Enjoy the journey!
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Learning unit 1
THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Aim of learning unit
In this learning unit, you will engage with various theories of child development, and
examine personal and contextual factors that influence child development.
Learning outcomes
After the completion of this learning unit, you should be able to do the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
1.1
Explain the concept of child development
Identify factors influencing child development
Identify and explain theories underpinning child development
Critically discuss different contexts that influence children’s lives and their varying
abilities
Reflect on and record the implications of theories for practise with children with
diverse needs
Apply specific outcomes to CAPS
‌INTRODUCTION
Child development was largely ignored throughout history. Children were viewed as small
versions of adults and therefore not much attention was given to the many advances in
cognitive, language, emotional, social or physical growth during childhood. Interest in
the field of child development only emerged early in the 20th century with the increased
focus on abnormal behaviour. Researchers and well-known theorists became interested
in topics of child development along with the environmental influences on their physical,
cognitive, language, and social/emotional development. These included the likes of John
Locke (1632-1704); Sigmund Freud (1856-1939); Erik Erikson (1902-1994); John Watson (18781958); BF Skinner (1904-1990); Albert Bandura (1925-present); Jean Piaget (1896-1980); Lev
Vygotsky (1896-1934) and Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005).
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Understanding children’s physical, cognitive, and social and emotional development
is essential for teachers and early childcare practitioners as they have an immense
responsibility to prepare each learner for success in the informal (grade R) and formal
(grades 1-3) educational bands. In this learning unit, we will explore the concept of
child development, as well as the contexts and factors by which development may be
influenced. Finally, an introductory overview of the major theoretical perspectives of
child development, which will be discussed in detail in the following learning units, will
be given.
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1.2
‌WHAT IS CHILD DEVELOPMENT?
Child development refers to the biological, psychological and emotional changes that
occur in a human being between birth and the end of adolescence (which is 19 years),
as the individual progresses from dependency to increasing autonomy. Developmental
changes may occur as a result of genetically controlled processes known as maturation,
or as a result of environmental factors.
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There are different definitions of periods in a child’s development since each period is
a continuum with individual differences regarding where the development starts and
where it ends. The optimal development of a child is considered vital to society, so
it is important to understand the physical, social/emotional, cognitive, and language
development of the child.
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When engaging with different theoretical perspectives on child development, it is still
important to remember that a child develops as a whole or holistically, and that the
domains of development are always interrelated (Brewer, 2014). Development in one
domain influences development in other domains. For example, as a child becomes
more mobile, there are more opportunities to explore since the child can move around
and view the environment from different angles and heights, thus the child learns more
about the environment.
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1.2.1
Perspective on child development
In order to understand perspective on child development, we need to answer this question,
“Do all children in the world follow universal (the same) developmental pathways or are there
clear differences along cultural lines? For many years it was believed that child development
followed the same pattern in all countries and cultures. This view was mostly influenced
by psychologists who believed that development is discontinuous and therefore the child
develops in stages that have universal characteristics. According to Louw & Louw (2014),
the primary reason for the wide acceptance of this viewpoint was that psychology as
we know developed mainly in Western cultures and developmental researchers in these
countries, especially in the USA and Europe, focused almost exclusively on their own
cultures. The inevitable result was that the study of child development means the study
of white middle-class Western/American children (Arnet & Jensen, 2018). This was and
largely still is, a very unfortunate state of affairs as the majority of children in the world
do not live in the USA or in Western countries combined.
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Now, as the horizon of psychology started to expand, many researchers started to realise
that the cultural context in which a person develops cannot be rejected. (Culture
refers to the beliefs, norms, customs and general way of life of a specific group of people,
which are passed from one generation to another. Context refers to the setting or
specific environment in which development and behaviour occur). When studying child
development it is important to understand that culture and context play a pivotal role
and may differ from one ethnic group, tribe, or nation to another. Nsamenang (2003)
indicates that culture influences development by ensuring that children acquire appropriate
cognitive, communicative, motivational and social-emotional or affective and spiritual
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attributes as well as practical skills that will make them competent adults who will
contribute to their own survival and progress of their people and society (Louw & Louw
2014).
1.2.2 African perspective about the stages of child development
In an attempt to explain an African worldview on child development Nsamenang (1999)
explains human life cycle in term of three phases of selfhood that is the spiritual selfhood,
social or experiential selfhood and ancestral selfhood. These stages were later
modified by Ngaujah and Dirks (2003) as captured in Table 1.1.
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Unlike the Western view, the developmental stages among Africans, seem to be defined
not in terms of age alone, but also in terms of the capabilities of an individual at a given
period as well (Ramokgopa , 2001). To support the view, Nsamenang (2005) also maintain
that development in Africa is interpreted within the social thought ‘‘as the acquisition and
growth of the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional competencies required to engage
fully in family and society’’. Table 1.1 shows the perspective on ontogeny in indigenous
African view of life stages (The conventional stages described by Western theories are
in italics).
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Table 1.1: African perspective on ontogeny in African view of life stages (Ngaujah &
Dirks, 2003 cited in Ntshangase 2017)
Sequential stages
(1)
Core features
Developmental task(s)
Infant is a “project in-progress
(Human frame to shelter a
spiritual selfhood).
Begins at conceptions and end
at the naming ceremony.
Neonatal
The newborn period is identified
by happiness for the safe arrival,
the gift, and the projections
regarding his/her future.
The naming ceremony; names
are determined on the basis
of historical and circumstantial
factors-transcendent, characterevoking, expectations-laden.
Second social stage
Infancy period(pre-social)
Social priming such as smiling,
crying, teething and sitting up
Social apprentice (novice)
Initiated into social roles.
Expected to recognise, and
rehearse social roles.
Spiritual selfhood
Prenatal
(2)
(3)
First social stage
Infancy
(4)
Third social stage
Childhood
Adapted from Ngaujah & Dirks, 2003 (cited in Ntshangase 2017)
1.2.3 Domains of child development
Child development is studied and explained through domains. It is important to identify
and explain each developmental stage and domains of development as they have a
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bearing on the child’s future and learning specifically. Domains of child development
generally encompass the following:
Physical: Growing in size and strength, and the development of both gross motor skills
and fine motor skills.
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Cognitive: Ability to process thoughts, pay attention, develop memories, understand
their surroundings.
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Emotional: The growth of a child in understanding and controlling his/her emotions,
awareness of self, how the child feels about himself/herself as an individual.
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Social: Ability to form relationships with others
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Language: Ability to communicate with others
Moral development: Awareness of morality as children grow.
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Furthermore, child development is also studied and understood through the developmental
milestones children need to achieve at a particular period of time during their developmental
process. Below is the explanation of the developmental milestones.
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1.2.4
Developmental milestones
Children move through stages of development as they mature. The rate of development
varies from one child to another. Development is influenced by the culture, experiences
children have, as well as by hereditary factors. Children may grow rapidly in one area and
more slowly in another. The direction of development is from general to specific, from
dependence towards independence and interdependence, and from gross motor control
towards fine motor control. During the process of development, children generally reach
developmental milestones at more or less the same period. Developmental milestones can
be described as developmental skills believed are mastered at roughly the same time by all
children but that are far from exact. The developmental milestones are a useful guideline
of ideal development. By checking a child’s developmental progress, one can ensure that
the child is approximately ‘on track’ for their age. If not, this checking of developmental
milestones can be helpful in the early detection of any delays in development. Though child
development has a predictable sequence, all children are unique in their developmental
journey and the time frames that they meet the many developmental milestones. It is
important that both teachers and parents observe and monitor child developmental stages
in order to identify any delays or any abnormality. It is also important for the teacher to
know that developmental stages among children are not only defined in age, but also in
the capabilities of an individual’s readiness to be involved in a given task. Researchers like
Oppong (2015) and Erikson (1959) further put more emphasis on collective responsibility
and altruism – typical features from an African perspective – than on achievement and
failure, which are typical features from a Western perspective.
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14
The following table depicts the different child developmental milestones.
4
Table 1.2: Movement development milestones (Brewer, 2014; Erikson, 1959; Ramokgopa,
2001)
Child development milestones’ chart
Age
Physical
Social-Emotional
Cognitive
Language
Birth
(infant)
*Lies in the foetal position with
knees tucked up.
*Unable to raise
the head.
*Head falls backwards if pulled
to sit.
*Reacts to sudden sound &
movement.
*Closes eyes to
bright light.
*Opens eyes
when held in an
upright position.
*Bonds with
mother.
*Smiles at
mother.
*Develops concepts of awareness of physical
sensations such
as hunger.
*Explores using
the senses.
*Make eye contact and cries to
indicate needs.
*Cries
vigorously.
*Responds to
high-pitched
tones by moving
the limbs.
3 months
*The pelvis is
flat when lying
down.
*The lower back
is still weak.
*Back & neck are
firm when held
sitting.
*Grasps objects
placed in hands.
*Turns head
around to have a
look at objects.
*Establishes eye
contact.
*Squeals.
*Reacts with
pleasure to
familiar routines.
*Discriminates
smiles.
*Takes an
increasing
interest in their
surroundings.
*Shows interest
in toys.
*Understands
cause and effect
e.g. tie a balloon
around the hand
and observe the
movement.
*Attentive to
sounds. Indicates needs with
differentiated
cries.
*Begins to
vocalise.
*Smiles in
response to
speech.
6 months
*Can lift head &
shoulders.
*Sits up with
support.
*Enjoys standing
& jumping.
*Transfers objects from one
hand to another.
*Pulls self upwards to sit.
*Sits erect with
support.
*Responds to
different tones
or the mother/
caregiver.
*May display
“stranger
shyness”.
*Takes stuff to
mouth.
*Finds feet
interesting.
*Understands
objects & knows
what to expect
from them.
*Understands
“up” & “down”.
*Makes appropriate gestures
such as raising
the arms to be
picked up.
*Double syllable sounds like
“mama” “dada”.
*Laughs in play.
Screams with
annoyance.
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Child development milestones’ chart
Age
Physical
Social-Emotional
Cognitive
Language
6 months
*Rolls over to
prone position.
*Palmer grasp of
a cube.
*Well-established visual
sense.
9 months
*Sits unsupported. *Grasps
with thumb and
index finger.
*Release toys
by dropping.
*Wiggles and
crawls.
*Sits
unsupported.
*Picks up objects
with the pincer
grasp.
*Looks for fallen
objects.
*Holds bottle.
*Is visually
attentive.
*Apprehensive
about strangers. Imitates
handclapping.
*Clings to familiar adults.
*Shows interest
in picture books.
*Watches activities of others
with interest.
*Babbles
tunefully.
*Vocalises to
attract attention.
*Enjoys communicating with
sounds.
1 year
*Stands holding furniture.
*Stands alone for
a second or two
then collapses
with a bump.
*Walks holding one hand.
*Bends down
and picks up
objects.
*Pulls to
stand and sits
deliberately.
*May walk alone.
*Holds spoon.
*Points at
objects.
*Picks up small
objects.
*Pulls to
stand and sit
deliberately.
*May walk alone.
*Cooperates
with dressing.
*Waves
goodbye.
*Understands simple com-mands.
*Demonstrates
affection.
*Participates in
nursery rhymes.
*Response
to simple
instructions
*Uses of trial and
error to learn
about objects.
*Babbles two
or three words
repeatedly.
*Responds
to simple
instructions.
*Understands
several words.
*Use jargons.
6
Child development milestones’ chart
Age
Physical
Social-Emotional
Cognitive
Language
15 months
*Can crawl upstairs forwards
and backwards.
*Kneels unaided.
*Balance is poor.
*Builds a twoblock tower.
*Can place
objects precisely.
*Turns pages of
picture books.
*Helps with
dressing.
*Indicates soiled
or wet pants.
*Emotionally dependent on the
familiar adult.
*Is very curious.
*Can com-municate needs.
*Jabbers freely
and loudly.
18 months
(children are
able to do
chores through
play and imitation adults)
*Squats to pick
up toys.
*Can walk alone.
*Drinks without
spilling from a
cup.
*Picks up toys
without falling
over.
*Shows a preference for one
hand.
*Gets up/down
stairs holding onto a rail.
*Begins to jump
with both feet.
*Can build a
tower of 3-4
cubes and throw
a ball.
*Plays alone near
familiar adult.
*Demands constant mothering.
*Drinks from a
cup with both
hands.
*Feeds self with
a spoon.
*Attains bowel
control.
*Tries to sing.
*Imitates domestic chores.
*Enjoys simple
picture books.
*Explores the
environment.
*Knows the
names of parts
of the body.
*Uses jargon.
*Uses many intelligible words.
*Repeats an
adult’s last word.
*Jabbering
established.
2 years
*Walks more
rhythmically.
*Hurried walk
changes to run.
*Jumps, hops,
throws and
catches with
a rigid upper
body.
*Pushes ridging
toy with feet;
little steering.
*Can kick a large
ball.
*Squats with
ease.
*Throws
tantrums
*Can put on
shoes.
*Completely
spoon feeds and
drinks from a
cup.
*Is aware of
physical needs.
*Cry by day.
*Joins 2-3 words
in a sentence.
*Recognises
details.
*Uses own name
to refer to the
self.
*Talks to self
continuously.
*Speaks over
200 words and
accumulates
new words
rapidly.
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Child development milestones’ chart
Age
Physical
Social-Emotional
Cognitive
Language
2 years
*Rises without
using hands.
*Builds a tower
of 6 cubes.
*Able to run.
*Walks up &
downstairs with
2 feet per step.
*Turns pages of
a picture book
one at a time.
3 years
*Can jump off
lower steps.
*Can pedal and
steer tricycle.
*Goes upstairs
1 foot per step
and downstairs
2 feet per step.
*Throws and
catches with
slight involvement of the
upper body;
still catches
by trapping a
ball against the
chest.
*Copies circle.
Imitates cross
and draws a man
on request.
*Builds a tower
of 9 cubes.
*Has good pencil control.
*Can cut paper
with scissors.
*Can thread
large beads on a
string.
*Plays
cooperatively.
*Undresses
with assistance.
*Imaginary companions.
*Tries very hard
to please.
*Uses spoon and
fork.
*Relates
present activities and past
experiences.
*Can draw a
person with a
head.
*Can sort objects into simple
categories.
*Constantly
asks questions.
*Speaks in
sentences.
*Talks to self
when playing.
4 years
*Sits with knees
crossed.
*Gallops and
skips with one
foot.
*Argues with
other children.
*Plan games
cooperatively.
*Dresses and
*Counts up to
20.
*Asks meanings
of words.
*May use infantile substitutions
in speech.
*Uses correct
grammar most
of the time.
8
Child development milestones’ chart
Age
Physical
Social-Emotional
Cognitive
Language
4 years
*Ball games’
skills increase.
*Goes downstairs one foot
per step.
*Throws the ball
with increased
body rotation
and transfer of
weight on feet;
catches the ball
with hands.
*Rides tricycle
rapidly and
steers smoothly.
Imitates gate
with cubes.
*Copies a cross.
*Can turn sharp
corners when
running.
*Builds a tower
of 10 cubes.
undresses with
assistance.
*Attends to own
toilet needs.
*Developing a
sense of humour.
*Wants to be
independent.
*Draws a recognisable house.
*Enjoys counting up to 20 by
repetition.
5 years
(boy & girl)
*Increases running speed. *Displays mature,
whole-body
throwing and
catching patterns; increases
throwing speed.
*Well-developed
ball skills.
*Can walk on a
long this line.
*Skips on both
feet and hops
more smoothly.
*Draws a man
and copies a
triangle.
*Gives age.
*Can copy an
adult’s writing.
*Colours pictures carefully.
*Builds steps
with 3-4 cubes.
*Chooses own
friends.
*Dresses and
undresses alone.
*Shows caring
attitudes towards others.
*Copes well with
personal needs.
*Writes names.
*Draws a detailed person.
*Matches most
colours.
*Understands
numbers.
*Fluent speech
with few infantile substitutions
in speech.
*Talks about the
past, present,
and future with
a good sense of
time.
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Child development milestones’ chart
Age
6 years
and onwards
(boy & girl)
Physical
Social-Emotional
Cognitive
Language
*Learns to skip
with rope.
*Copies a
diamond.
*Knows right
from left and
numbers of
fingers.
*Ties shoelaces.
*Rides a bicycle
with training
wheels.
*Stubborn and
demanding.
*Eager for fresh
experiences.
*May be quarrelsome with
friends.
*Draws with
precision and attention to detail.
*Reading skills
develop well.
*May write
independently.
*Fluent speech
with confidence.
*Can pronounce
the majority of
the sounds of
own language.
All the different stages and milestones can be explained as parts of a brain house. If a
part of the house is not solid it might affect the rest of the house.
15
1.2.5 ‌The brain house
In this module, several different theories addressing different aspects of child development
will be explored. However, integrating all of these theories into practise may be an
overwhelming task. De Jager’s (2013) conceptualisation of child development as the
building of a “brain house,” serves as a holistic model of development, which will enable
you to unify all of the theories that you will come across into a single model. All the
different stages and milestones can be explained as parts of a brain house. If a part of
the house is not solid it might affect the rest of the house.
16
De Jager (2013) coined the idea that the different stages of developing are similar to
building a house. Although the “house” is built already when the child is born, each part
of the house has a specific time and route to receive the ultimate attention for optimal
development.
17
18
Figure 1.3:
Illustration of the model “brain house”. (De Jager 2013)
10
1.2.5.1
‌Physical development symbolises the foundation of the house
The foundation represents regulating sensory input and motor output to provide a stable
neurological base for all other skills to build on.
19
Physical development includes everything a child needs to survive:
20
• Active senses: the inside senses (body) and the outside senses (environment);
• Responsive reflex brain: The primitive brain can do only what is needed to survive
•
•
– heart beating, lungs breathing, temperature adjustment, eating, digesting (e.g. weeing, pooing) and sleeping. Sensing and breathing are not, in themselves, enough to
survive, so the brain uses primitive reflexes to activate the muscles into action. Each
primitive reflex guides the body to move in a different way, using different muscles.
When a child can move his or her own muscles, the primitive reflexes go to rest and
s/he starts to reach each motor milestone in a specific sequence (see the milestones
chart above).
The prime time, during which the brain and body develop the most, is between conception and 14 months of age. The brain and body continue to develop and change
throughout life, but not at the same rapid pace as it does in this period.
Strong muscles. (See LU 2, Physical development).
1.2.5.2 ‌Emotional development represents the walls of the house
• The walls are the emotional part of the brain. Early in life, touch, familiar smells, rocking,
•
•
sucking and moving are the main actions that keep the emotional brain happy. The
wall also includes energy levels, immunity, health, memory, self-worth, and confidence.
As the child develops, the walls turn into the selfish and demanding part of the house
when everything is about me: MY needs. MY wants. NOW. There is no concept of sharing, waiting or understanding. The walls are ME-MYSELF-AND-I. If it is not about ME
and what I am interested in, I do not pay attention. This is the transition and maturation
phase in child development from dependent to independent. This stage, although
it sounds selfish and negative, forms an important building block for integrated and
personality development.
Emotional development starts before birth, continues during bonding with mother,
father and extended family, and peaks between 14 months and three years. At age
two, emotional development peaks with temper tantrums. This is why babies and
toddlers need physical, but appropriate affection (e.g. hugs, kisses, and love) the most
when their behaviour is deserving thereof. The best emotional booster is to be loved
for who you are, not what you do: unconditional love and acceptance, regardless of
whether the child has physical or psychological challenges.
1.2.5.3 ‌Social development symbolises the windows and doors
The windows and doors represent shifting from ME to WE and with it comes a sense of
belonging.
21
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• If the child had enough opportunities to position him/herself in the world, with enough
•
“ME time” and security, the windows and doors can be added. This will enable the child
to “invite” others into the house; to reach out and connect spontaneously with friends.
The time when the brain is ready for social development happens around the third
birthday. Often children enter play school at this age. The windows and doors symbolise
a shift from ME to WE. The children show a readiness to engage socially with others
(e.g. talk, to wait, to share) and to play with friends of the same age. As you will come
to learn there are different types of play for different aged children, but nonetheless
social interaction and play is crucial for development. The ideal ratio for emotional
development is one adult to one baby, but in South Africa, the ratio is one adult to six
babies. This ratio flips the natural development of ME (emotional) before WE (social),
to the unnatural WE first and ME second.
1.2.5.4 ‌Cognitive development symbolises the roof of the house
Represents reasoning – spatial reasoning, non-verbal and verbal reasoning.
22
• The different levels of the brain house are connected by a lift that can only reach the
•
•
roof if the foundation and walls are solid. The lift symbolises the spine and “needs to
be straight” if the lift is to reach the roof. The roof symbolises the “clever part” of the
brain or neo-cortex that has a STOP button to control movement and emotions and
represents cognitive development. It coincides with language development because
only the “roof” holds words and the ability to reason and name things.
While the lower levels of the brain house tend to need multi or integrated sensory
experiences and real or concrete objects in order to learn, the roof brain is more comfortable with thinking and numerous concepts. These would include the following:
colours, shapes, numbers, days of the week, names for positions in space (such as “in
front” or “in between”), mathematical concepts such as “more” or “less”, “first” or “last”,
perceptions, and the names given to all the sensations that the skin, nose, mouth, ears
and eyes send the brain and enable him to say: “The yellow lemon is sour.”
The thinking brain is present long before birth, but it goes through an intense growth
spurt between the 4th and 11th birthdays. Children wire their “lift” and thinking brain
while engaging in motor development and integrating all their senses – like hopping
on one leg, running, and skipping with a rope. In so doing, the gross motor movement prepares them to have more control over their fine motor movement, making
them ready for more accurate drawings and paintings, stringing beads, picking up
small objects and various creative expressions. The before mentioned happens before
learning to write and read. Cognitive development grows rapidly once a child has
learnt to regulate sensory input, to STOP moving and concentrate for an age-related
time, and to speak clearly.
Just like building a house, brain development is a process that takes time, follows a
sequence and needs to consolidate to stand the test of time. Brain development cannot
be rushed (De Jager, 2014).
23
With the brain house in mind, the following table depicts warning signs that we will refer
to as SOS signals that may point to building blocks in the brain house that need support:
24
12
Table 1.2: SOS signals that point to brain house building blocks ‌(De Jager, 2008).
Physical SOS
Emotional SOS
Social SOS
Cognitive SOS
Clumsy
Overly emotional
Cannot wait or share
Poor language
development
Low muscle tone
Clingy
Battles to make
friends of own age
Avoids school and
school work – would
rather play or watch
TV
Poor coordination
Thumb-sucking beyond 3 years
Bully or is the victim
Problems with
perception
Cannot sit still
Bite nails
The clown in the class
Letter recognition &
formation
Battle to concentrate
Chew clothes or hair
Emotional outburst
Spelling
Dislike physical
games & sport
Bedwetting beyond
5 years
Throw tantrums beyond 2 years
Reading
Hyper- or hypoactive
Constantly need
reassurance
Poor self-regulation &
impulse control
Maths
Cannot tell left from
right
Poor impulse control
Memory
Problem with balance
Wants to play not
work
Concentration &
task completion
Eye-hand
coordination
Does not accept NO
Crossing midline
Pencil grip
Ball skills
Cutting
Writing
Task completion and
often complains of a
sore tummy before
school
Activity 1.1
Now that you are aware of the basic concept of child development, reflect on how
knowledge of child development in the different domains – physical, social, emotional
and cognitive – can benefit your practice as a foundation phase teacher.
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Activity 1.1: A case study
You are a foundation phase teacher and observe from four children in your class the
following SOS signs of developmental milestones that were not reached prior to
foundation phase.
Anna: starts crying easily
Bongani: tends to be a bully victim
Peter: does not like to take part in sport activities
Gonsie: struggles to concentrate and complete tasks.
To what part of the brain house would you link each of the SOS signs?
Enrichment:
Watch the YouTube video clip on child development
https://study.com/academy/lesson/history-of-early-childhood-education.html
Feedback on Activity 1.1
1
When answering the questions, see how you can integrate the following objectives in your
writing:
y What are the stages of development of a young child?
y Why is cognitive development important and can you think of contextual examples and
y
y
y
y
y
y
1.3
case studies?
Explain how teachers can recognise what children are capable of according to their level
of development.
How can knowledge of what to expect from differently aged children help with planning
activities, and predict what children may struggle with?
How does understanding “average” development lead to key aspects in identifying delays
or problems with development that may affect their learning abilities?
Reflect on how the development in one domain affects development in other domains.
Think of how teachers can support children’s development in all domains by, for example,
creating a positive classroom climate that supports emotional development, which will,
in turn, positively influence other developmental domains.
How can teachers’ understanding of children’s behaviour make classroom management
easier?
‌GENERAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CHILD
DEVELOPMENT
The theories and developmental milestones that will be discussed in this module are
mostly based on what is considered as average, typical, age appropriate and “normal”
development. However, there are several internal and external factors that may have
significant influences on children’s development. Staying informed of the factors that
are affecting the health and development of children will enable teachers to adjust their
25
14
teaching-learning approach (e.g. content, differentiation, pedagogy) according to each
individual child’s reality and experiences (Conkbayir & Pascal, 2014).
Since child development is both situated in, and influenced by cultural context, teachers
need to be able to understand and be sensitive to the unique abilities and needs of
children from various cultures. This is especially crucial in a culturally diverse country
such as South Africa. The cultural context a child grows up in has a complex array of
influences, which can be either positive or negative, on his/her development. In this
section, the cultural context will therefore be described first and separately from risk and
protective factors. Despite proven cultural differences, Louw, Louw, and Kail (2014) caution
that differences within one culture can often divide that specific culture more than only
general differences between cultures. This is due to various individual and contextual
risk and protective factors.
26
Unfortunately, a large number of children all over the world experience various factors
that may significantly hamper their development (Louw & Louw, 2014). According to
the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) “more than half of the world’s children are
suffering extreme deprivation that effectively denies them a childhood” (Louw & Louw,
2014, p.392). Exposure to hardship can have severely detrimental effects on all domains
of children’s development, especially during early childhood, when they are extremely
vulnerable to biological, social, and environmental risk factors (Department of Social
Development, 2015). Fortunately, not all the factors influencing children’s development
are harmful, and may even protect children from developmental difficulties. In addition,
challenges are an important part of life as they offer children the opportunity to acquire
coping skills, become adaptive and demonstrate resilience.
27
In this section, we will look at the importance of the cultural context of child development,
as well as risk and protective factors that influence it.
28
1.3.1
‌Cultural Context
For many years, child development was believed to follow the same pattern in children
of all countries and cultures. This is most probably because the Western countries where
developmental psychology originated focused only on the Western culture when
formulating their developmental theories. However, it is now commonly recognised
that the cultural context in which human development takes place cannot be discarded,
as cultural factors have been proven to play an important role in a child’s development.
Culture refers to “the beliefs, norms, customs, and general way of life of a specific group
of people, which are passed on from generation to generation” (Louw, Louw & Kail, 2014,
p.13).
29
Different cultures often have different expectations of their children (Brewer, 2014),
and aspects such as personal characteristics and cognitive styles of different cultural
groups therefore tend to differ greatly (Prinsloo, 2011). Culture influences development
by ensuring that children acquire the appropriate cognitive, communicative, motivational,
socio-emotional and spiritual attributes, as well as practical skills, which will make
them competent adults that can contribute to their own survival and progress, as well as
that of their people and society (Nsamenang, 2014). This means that human development
30
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can be seen as a “cultural process” (Louw, Louw & Kail, 2014, p.14). Therefore, it should
be taken into account that paths or patterns of development in one culture may differ
from that of other cultures.
In collectivistic cultures, which includes African cultures, children grow up in environments
where the needs of the group are valued above the needs of the individual. Children may
be expected to assume responsibilities such as performing general domestic chores,
running errands, and caring for their younger siblings (Brewer, 2014). These expectations
can have significant influences on their cognitive, social and emotional development.
Running errands, for example, may provide cognitive stimulation that children would not
have been likely to experience otherwise. It has also been found that children responsible
for taking care of younger siblings tend to show more nurturing behaviour than children
who spend more time with peers (Louw, Louw & Kail, 2014).
31
Children of individualistic cultures (usually referring to Western cultures) grow up in
environments where people are more concerned with their own needs (Louw, Louw &
Kail, 2014). In comparison to the expectations that parents of African children may have,
children of individualistic cultures may be expected to only play and perform simpler
chores such as cleaning up after themselves (Brewer, 2014). These children also display
more competitive and attention seeking behaviour, which may influence their cognitive
and social development (Smith, Cowie & Blades, 2014).
32
When teachers are aware of cultural differences and expectations in their children's
development, they will be able to plan culturally sensitive learning environments that
accommodate different characteristics and cognitive styles.
33
Activity 1.2: Article
Read the article titled “Child development in cultural contexts: Implications of cultural psychology for early childhood teacher education”, which may be found under e-reserves on
myUnisa under CDE3701. Refer to the section, “Implications of cultural developmentalism
for early childhood teachers”, to answer the following questions:
(1) Describe the terms “folk psychologies” and “folk pedagogies”.
(2) Explain why it is important for teachers to be aware of their own “folk theories” (including both folk psychologies and folk pedagogies).
(3) Evaluate your own folk theories and reflect on how they may influence you in the
classroom when working with multicultural children.
Feedback on Activity 1.2
2
(1) Both of these terms refer to cultural beliefs held by an individual about how the world
works according to that individual. A teacher’s “folk psychologies” are ideas about how
children learn and develop, that flow into their “folk pedagogies”. These are their ideas
about how to help children learn, which steer their teaching activities. Folk pedagogies
are seen as activities that are “deeply embedded in cultural beliefs about how children
learn and how teachers should teach”.
(2) A teacher’s folk theories create cultural contexts in the classroom, which can either support or hinder children's learning, depending on their own cultures.
16
When teachers are aware of the differences between cultural contexts, they can adapt
their methods and provide better support to children. It can help them identify the differences in goals of child development held by different cultures, which can broaden their
perspectives of child development and education.
(3) The response will depend on the student’s own culture. A possible example: their belief
that children are social beings, and learn the best through working with others, may cause
even children from primarily individualistic cultures to be expected to work together in
groups, which they may not be used to. This could result in competition and even conflict
between children that the teacher had not expected.
1.3.2
‌Risk factors
Various factors are commonly agreed upon by researchers to be risk factors in children’s
development. This means that these contextual situations, experiences, and individual
characteristics increase the likelihood of developmental delays or difficulties. Although
these factors are described separately, it is important to keep the influences that they
have on each other in mind. These risk factors include disruptions in family functioning,
poverty, malnutrition, health problems, abuse, violence in the community, disabilities,
and stress. The risk factors include the following:
34
Disruptions in family functioning: The role of the family in a child’s social, emotional and
cognitive development is essential (Louw & Louw, 2014). A stable, emotionally supportive
family is linked to positive developmental outcomes such as better achievement in school,
higher levels of self-esteem and self-confidence, lower levels of stress, fewer psychological
difficulties, and increased social competence. Disruptions in family life can thus have
detrimental effects on children’s overall development.
35
General family influences that are experienced by children all over the world, which may
have significant effects on their development, are divorce, single parent families, childheaded households, and homelessness. These disruptions of family life may lead to a
lack of love, acceptance, interpersonal communication and relationships, and sense of
belonging, which may then negatively influence their physical, cognitive, as well as social
and emotional development (Prinsloo, 2011).
36
An example of a disruption in family life, which is especially relevant in the South African
context, is urbanisation. It is taking place at an “unprecedented rate” (Louw & Louw, 2014,
p.394), and “escalating out of control in and around all major cities” (Prinsloo, 2011, p.31).
Urbanisation refers to people moving to cities in search of employment opportunities.
This can affect children in various ways, depending on whether the whole family moves
to an urban location together; or the household is broken up when only one parent
moves, leaving behind a single parent household; or when both parents move, often
leaving children with grandparents or other family members.
37
Urbanisation can result in poor quality living conditions in informal settlements near cities,
unstable family relationships, as well as dissolution of social networks, all of which can, in
turn, result in various health problems and social and emotional difficulties (Louw & Louw,
2014). High-density living threatens people’s health, as diseases may spread quickly and
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there is often a lack of proper sanitation. Nearby health services and education facilities are
also often placed under great strain by a large number of people requiring their services.
Poverty will be described next, as unplanned urbanisation and poverty go hand in hand
(Prinsloo, 2011).
39
Poverty: According to South Africa’s Department of Social Development (2015), poverty
is commonly referred to as a “root cause of poor child development” (p.19). Poverty
affects children in all aspects of their life. It affects their health, nutrition, housing, access
to various services, their education, their exposure to language and developmental
stimulation, and also their self-esteem and mental health (Louw & Louw, 2014). Poverty
can therefore also have adverse effects on all domains of children’s development. Limited
access to basic resources such as nutritious food and sanitation, in addition to limited
access to basic health care, affects children’s health and physical development. It has also
been suggested that persistent poverty can cause lower levels of cognitive functioning in
infants, especially regarding their verbal and communicative skills (Department of Social
Development, 2015). Children’s social and emotional development can also be affected,
as children who experience poverty are more likely to develop social and emotional
problems, such as low self-esteem and self-confidence, drug abuse, and mental disorders
such as depression (Louw & Louw, 2014).
40
Malnutrition: Is a broad term, including both undernutrition, which is characterised by
nutritional deficiencies and is commonly associated with poverty, and obesity, a form of
overnutrition where the person is excessively overweight (Shetty, 2003). When mothers
are malnourished during their pregnancy, significant structural damages may occur in the
development of the foetus. Malnutrition of infants and children can also lead to permanent
stunting and developmental delays (Department of Social Development, 2015). Stunting,
a form of chronic malnutrition, refers to children being short for their age, as well as delays
in brain development. Some malnourished children, especially those who are obese, are
also subject to emotional and social challenges and restriction to gross motor activities.
41
Health problems: Diseases such as tuberculosis, malaria, diabetes, hypertension, and
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immune deficiency syndrome
(AIDS) may negatively affect the physical and cognitive development of young children
(Department of Social Development, 2015). When their families are affected by diseases,
however, the effects may be experienced in all domains of development.
42
South Africa has one of the highest percentages of people with HIV/AIDS in the world.
In 2018, more than 7 million South Africans were HIV positive, which is approximately
13% of the total population (Stats SA, 2018). In 2014, it was estimated that about 450 000
South African children were living with HIV, making South Africa the country with the
highest number of children with HIV in the world (Louw & Louw, 2014; Prinsloo, 2011).
A third of all deaths of South African children under the age of five, is caused by HIV/
AIDS-related illnesses (UNICEF, 2019). HIV is a virus that damages the immune system. It
causes AIDS, which is the final stage of the HIV virus, characterised by different illnesses
and symptoms that are contracted because of a severely compromised immune system
(Louw & Louw, 2014).
43
18
HIV/AIDS has an extensive impact on children’s overall development, whether it is a
family member or they themselves who are living with it (Louw & Louw, 2014). The death
of parents, bereavement process, relocation, and financial hardship as a result of HIV
can cause changes in family composition. This can cause significant stress for children,
which can affect their physical and emotional development. Exposure to stigmatisation
can cause children living with HIV to stay away from school and avoid social interactions
that are crucial to their social development. Children who are orphaned due to AIDS tend
to suffer from emotional difficulties such as depression, anxiety disorders, and suicidal
behaviour (Louw & Louw, 2014).
44
Abuse: The maltreatment of children is commonly divided into the categories of neglect,
physical abuse, sexual abuse, and emotional abuse, although other forms of maltreatment
that do not fit clearly into these categories, such as racism, also exist (Louw & Louw, 2014).
Typical effects of abuse include low self-image, self-blame, violent behaviour, physical
damage including brain damage, and also emotional difficulties (Prinsloo, 2011).
45
Neglect refers to the failure to provide children’s basic physical, emotional, and educational
needs. Children who suffer neglect experience serious negative consequences in the
areas of cognitive development, academic achievement, and socialising.
46
Physical abuse refers to acts of physical aggression, and the emotional wounds left
behind are often worse than the physical ones (Louw & Louw, 2014). Childhood abuse is
associated with delays in cognitive development, academic problems, difficulties with
moral reasoning, aggressive behaviour, and poor social functioning, to name but a few
of the adverse effects.
47
Sexual abuse refers to any illegal sexual acts committed against a child. The effects of
sexual abuse on children, which could affect them in various developmental domains,
include fatigue, anxiety, depression, passivity, difficulty concentrating, and withdrawal from
their usual activities (Louw & Louw, 2014). In middle childhood, low self-esteem, feelings
of guilt, self-blame, eating disorders, and antisocial behaviour (such as drug abuse and
criminal behaviour) can also be experienced as a result of sexual abuse.
48
Emotional abuse includes verbal put-downs and humiliation, rejection, and lack of the
provision of children’s emotional needs of love, affection, and support. Emotional abuse
is usually also present during all other types of abuse and is the most common form of
child abuse (Louw & Louw, 2014). Many parents who would never harm their children
physically or sexually are emotionally abusive towards their children (Louw & Louw,
2014). They may be overly aggressive, by shouting and threatening, or more subtle, by
manipulating their children’s emotions or ignoring them. Emotionally abusive parents
often engage with their children to satisfy their own emotional needs, rather than realising
their responsibility to meet their children’s emotional needs. This also extends to teachers
who use verbal aggression as a means of discipline, by shouting, insulting, and humiliating
children. Emotional abuse may have significant negative effects on cognitive, emotional,
and social development, similar to that of physical and sexual abuse (Louw & Louw, 2014).
49
Racism refers to the discrimination against people because they belong to a certain
racial group, and is inherently a form of emotional abuse (Louw & Louw, 2014). Many
50
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South African children, especially those of colour, are still exposed to racial abuse on a
frequent basis, despite their right to protection against discrimination. Racism can cause
serious psychological harm, such as internalising negative messages that others inflict on
them. Children who have been subjected to racial abuse are susceptible to experiencing
emotional and behavioural difficulties, such as depression, hyperactivity and a lack of
concentration, hostility, and defiant behaviour towards others (Coker et al, as cited in
Louw & Louw, 2014).
Exposure to violence in the community: Apart from the obvious possible negative
effects of violence on children’s physical health and safety, being exposed to violent
situations in their families and communities can also be extremely detrimental to their
social-emotional development. It can lead to poor interpersonal relationships, low levels of
prosocial behaviour, increased aggressiveness, difficulties with regulating their emotions
and behaviour, depression, and anxiety disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD) (Department of Social Development, 2015). Community violence is also associated
with scholastic underachievement (Louw & Louw, 2014).
51
Disability is a broad term referring to impairments in functioning, which children are
born with, or that develop due to illness or trauma. It includes physical impairments,
visual and hearing impairments, and cognitive impairments. Disabilities can have major
impacts on all domains of children’s development, family interactions, and socialisation.
52
Physical impairments include spina bifida (an abnormality of the spinal column), paraplegia
and quadriplegia (inability to move, and absence of sensation in the lower limbs and all
four limbs respectively), brain injury, cerebral palsy (disorder of movement and posture
due to brain damage), and skeletal and muscular damage/impairments (Kruger & Smith,
2011). General characteristics of children with physical impairments include experiencing
challenges with mobility, as well as challenges regarding their self-concept, as others may
react strongly to visible impairments. The inability to control their bodies as they would
wish also leads to emotional and social challenges, as they often have limited autonomy
and need to rely heavily on others for physical support.
53
Children with visual impairments range from those who are completely blind to those who
have less severe challenges with vision, such as farsightedness or near-sightedness (Kruger
& Smith, 2011). Visually impaired children may experience delays in motor development
since they are not visually stimulated to move their body parts. For example, babies move
around to discover their environment, and most of their actions are results of sensory
stimuli, mostly visual stimuli. When a baby cannot see objects, they will not be motivated
to crawl towards these objects, affecting their gross motor development. They will not
pick up and manipulate objects with their hands, resulting in underdeveloped fine motor
muscles. Visually impaired children’s cognitive development may be negatively influenced
due to a lack of stimulation, and insufficient concrete experiences (Brenner, 2011). Their
social experiences and development will also be affected, depending on the degree of
impairment (Kruger & Smith, 2011).
54
Children with hearing impairments will not experience the same degree of impairment
in motor development as those who are visually impaired, as they can still rely on their
vision. However, deaf and hard-of-hearing children may experience especially detrimental
55
20
effects in their cognitive and socio-emotional development, due to the profound impact
on their ability to communicate with others (Kruger & Smith, 2011).
Cognitive impairments, also referred to as “intellectual impairment” or “intellectual
disability”, is a disability characterised by significant limitations in cognitive and adaptive
functioning, and includes disorders such as Down’s syndrome. Cognitively impaired
children not only experience challenges in their cognitive development, but also in social
development, as they may have poor interpersonal skills and may be dependent on others
for their care (Jooste & Jooste, 2011).
56
Stress: When children experience adverse situations such as those described above, in the
result is often toxic levels of emotional stress. A fair amount of stress is considered to be
a “normal” factor in the development of any child, and may even serve as a driving force
for development (e.g. a child experiences a degree of stress when they are confronted
with unfamiliar concepts, but this leads to learning). However, frequently experiencing
high levels of stress can lead to the production of “stress hormones” (known as cortisol)
in the body, which can be harmful to children’s health and development. Toxic stress can
cause damage in cognitive functioning, and make children vulnerable to physical illnesses
such as cardiovascular (heart) diseases, weight irregularities (e.g. obesity or emaciated),
sleep irregularities and diabetes, as well as mental health difficulties such as depression,
anxiety disorders, and substance abuse.
57
Furthermore, maternal depression (mothers with depression) – in particular – is a
significant risk to all domains of the development of infants and children, as it may result
in “unresponsive caregiving” (Department of Social Development, 2015, p.20).
58
Activity 1.3: A case study
Kagiso is a nine-year-old boy who is in grade 3. He attends the primary school close
to the informal settlement, where he lives with his mother, his aunt, and his two
older brothers. His father passed away when he was young, and his aunt has been
living with them ever since. There is often not enough food for everyone at home,
and although Kagiso gets one meal from the feeding scheme at his school every day,
he often feels hungry during most of the day and struggles to concentrate. In addition to this, he is also quite lonely at school, as he is very shy and struggles to make
friends. When his teacher arranges a meeting with his mother to discuss his poor
marks, his aunt comes along. After a short discussion between the teacher and his
family members, Kagiso’s aunt calls him into the office, tells him to remove his belt,
and starts beating him with it. She only stops when he is on the ground crying, and
the teacher is begging her to stop. All the while, the mother sits passively, ignoring
the scene in front of her.
After reading the case study, identify and name the primary risk factors in Kagiso’s life,
and critically discuss how these factors may have influenced his overall development.
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Feedback on Activity 3
3
When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of the learning unit:
y Identify factors influencing child development
y Critically discuss different contexts that influence children’s lives and their varying abilities
Keep the following in mind when answering the questions:
Risk factors:
y Disruptions in family functioning: Kagiso is living in a single parent household that seems
y
y
y
y
1.3.3
to lack love and acceptance, as his aunt behaves aggressively, and his mother does not
intervene. This could be a possible cause for Kagiso’s poor achievement in school, as well
as his low self-esteem and difficulties with socialisation, since all of these effects are linked
to unsupportive family environments.
The fact that they live in an informal settlement points to the fact that they have been affected by urbanisation, and probably also poverty. This could mean that they have limited
access to health services, which could affect Kagiso’s physical development, although it
is not yet evident. His poor academic performance could be due to cognitive delays, and
cognitive delays are often associated with poverty. This may be because of aspects such
as lack of stimulation.
Malnutrition: Kagiso may be undernourished. This affects his concentration, which may
further impede his academic performance and cognitive development.
Abuse: The behaviour of his aunt towards him may be classified as physical abuse, which
is also associated with delays in cognitive development, academic issues, and problems
with social functioning. As she has been living with them for some time, one can assume
that he has been exposed to this abuse for years, so it is very likely that it has significantly
influenced his development in the areas that have been described.
Stress: All of the factors mentioned are also likely to have caused toxic levels of stress for
Kagiso, which may further have impeded his cognitive functioning.
‌Protective factors
Despite being exposed to various adverse situations and experiences, many children
have the ability to recover from extremely difficult experiences, outperforming even
those who have grown up in much more favourable environments. This phenomenon
of overcoming the difficulty is referred to as resilience.
59
The South African Department of Social Development (2015) identifies the following basic
protective factors that support the healthy development of children, thus increasing their
ability to overcome difficulties:
60
• Good health and nutrition (of both mother and child)
• A clean environment free of pollutants, or hazardous material or surroundings
• Strong protective and stimulating relationships with parents or other primary caregivers
• Access to safe care and quality early learning opportunities
22
Specific protective factors that strengthen the resilience of children may be organised
into three broad categories, namely personal characteristics, family characteristics,
and community characteristics:
61
Table 1.3: Protective factors that strengthen the resilience of children (Masten et al,
2011).
Personal characteristics
Family characteristics
Community characteristics
express a wide range of
emotions in a regulated
manner
Ability to emphasise and
consider situations from
another’s perspective
− Good sibling
relationships
− Supportive connections with extended
family members
nities for parents and
teenagers
Good public health care
Access to emergency services (police, fire, medical)
Exposure to adult role
models and rule-abiding
peers
Protective child policies
(regarding child labour,
health care, and welfare)
Value and resources directed at education
Prevention and protection
from political oppression
and violence
Low acceptance of physical violence
• Good cognitive abilities • Parents involved in the • High neighbourhood
and problem-solving skills
child’s education
quality:
− Safe neighbourhood
• A positive outlook on life • Socioeconomic
− Low level of community
advantages
• Easy temperament in infancy; adaptable personFaith
and
religious
violence
•
ality later in development
affiliations
− Affordable housing
− Access to recreational
• Faith and a sense of
• Stable and supportive
meaning in life
home environment,
centres
especially:
− Clean air and water
• Talents valued by self and
society
− Positive family climate • Effective schools:
with low levels of pa− Well-trained and
• Good sense of humour
rental conflict
well-compensated
• General appeal or attractiveness to others
− A close relationteachers
ship with parents/
− After-school
• Sense of self-efficacy and
positive self-esteem
caregivers
programmes
− Positive parent− School recreation re• Sense of control over
one’s own life
ing style (high in
sources (sports, music,
warmth,
structure,
and
Achievement
orientated
art…)
•
expectations)
• Ability to experience and
• Employment opportu•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
According to Louw and Louw (2014), protective factors are often rooted in culture. Cultural
traditions, religious practices, and support services unique to culture may serve protective
functions. Cultural variations in child rearing may also affect children’s resilience. For
example, cultures that value positive affirmation and emotional support of children may
promote resilience and protection against developmental difficulties.
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Activity 1.4
Think of a few ways in which you as a foundation phase teacher can act as a protective
factor in the children's development, especially in social and emotional domains.
Feedback on Activity 1.4
4
When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of the learning unit:
y Explain the concept of child development.
y Identify factors influencing child development.
y Critically discuss different contexts that influence children’s lives and their varying abilities.
Keep the following in mind when answering the questions:
Foundation phase teachers can do this by doing the following:
y Providing plenty of opportunities to improve their problem-solving skills
y Creating a positive classroom atmosphere
y Helping children experience a sense of meaning
y Actively setting tasks that will improve their self-efficacy and self-esteem
y Fostering their autonomy
y Helping children set personal goals
y Helping them learn to regulate their emotions
y Teaching them to empathise with others and consider perspectives different from their own
Self-evaluation questions
Think of the environment in which you teach or live and list the risk factors that might
influence child development.
Reflect on how you will intervene as a teacher to support learners who are exposed to
those risk factors.
CAPS integration
Use the CAPS web link below to familiarise yourself with the life skills and reflect on how
you will integrate the awareness of risk factors in your daily class activities
https://www.uj.ac.za/faculties/facultyofeducation/eli/Documents/Foundation%20
Phase%20CAPS%20Guide.pdf
Before we address the theories that explain how child development takes place, we will
first have a look at Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, which emphasises the
crucial role of the context in which a child develops.
1.3.4
‌Theory on the importance of context in child development
Bronfenbrenner’s theory is based on the influence of the different interactions the child
has with everyone crossing his/her path. The interactions are both inside and outside of
the classroom between systems and individuals. An important aspect of the theory is
64
24
that what happens in one context has an influence on what will happen or what goes
on in the next context.
The following illustration points to the different layers or systems in society and how
individuals and their environments are interrelated with one another. As indicated in the
picture, see the micro-, meso-, exo-, and macrosystems in a society. The chronosystem
or time system cannot be visually displayed.
65
66
Figure 1.4: Influence of the different interactions the child has with everyone crossing
his/her path.
Source: https://www.topsimages.com/images/bronfenbrenner-model-20.html
1.3.4.1
‌The interaction depends strongly on two aspects
• Personal characteristics of all involved: the child’s self, teacher, friends, peers, and
parents;
• The context in which the interactions take place include home, childcare, parent’s
house, grandparents’ house, church and park.
To illustrate: a child who arrives hungry at school from the parent/grandparent/caregivers’
house will act and react differently towards their friends and teacher than a child who
arrives at school after having a balanced breakfast.
67
A child arriving at a school from a violent environment will act and react differently
towards their peers and teacher than a child who arrives at school from a safe and secure
environment.
68
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Children arriving at school from a house and community where parents or caregivers
invest time, interest, and energy in the child and his/her education, will be better prepared
than the child who does not have that privilege.
69
Children who speak the same language and share the same racial, ethnic and culture at
home and in school will find interaction much simpler than those for whom this is not
the case (Kail, Cavanaugh & Muller, 2019).
70
The above points to the importance of the interaction between the person and the
context. Bronfenbrenner refers to the “proximal process” that is process-person-contexttime (PPCT).
71
1.3.4.2 ‌Process-person-context-time (PPCT)
PPCT points to the argument that child development is inseparable from the environmental
context in which the child develops and grows up.
72
The proximal processes are the everyday activities and interactions in which people
engage. To Bronfenbrenner, this is the core of development and he calls it “engines of
development” (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006:798).
73
• The proximal processes can have a positive or negative effect
Positive: One child comes from a stable home (person in the context) and develops
(school) in a stable learning and socialising environment during a specific time in his/
her life (time/chronosystem).
74
The parent, peers, and teachers (persons) expect the child (person) to do well (context =
home and school). This means that the child will become competent (time/chronosystem)
in school activities and activities at home.
75
Negative: The second child comes from an unstable home (person in context), BUT the
teacher (person) in the class addresses the child (person) with respect. Therefore, she sees
that the child engages in positive school activities, for example, athletics and friendships
(context and time/chronosystem).
76
This means that the proximal process will protect and support the second child from
negative consequences that he/she might have experienced because of the environment
the child comes from.
77
• Person characteristics
Bronfenbrenner referred to the three characteristics of the person as demand, resource
and force.
78
Personal demand includes what the teacher and the child see, for example, on the first
day of school.
79
The teacher stands at the door, welcoming the children.
80
• She sees: diverse children, for example boys, girls, short, tall, fat, skinny, she hears different languages, and she becomes aware of different cultures.
26
• She sees: different personalities of children, for example, a child takes a book and
pages through it while another has an angry face.
• The initial impressions have an influence on the first interaction between the teacher
and the children. It might be positive or negative.
81
On the same account, each child has a personal demand of the teacher.
• They observe the teacher and think: Is she kind; does she remind me of my mom; will
I understand her? Will she understand me since I speak a different language or come
from a different background than she does?
Resource characteristics: points to the resources that the child and the teacher have on
prior learning experiences.
82
The child may enter the class negatively because of previous learning experiences.
Alternatively, the child may think that she will have a negative experience since the
teacher does not understand her culture or language. The teacher might surprise the
child by not being prejudiced towards culture or language and have a calming way to
put children at ease.
83
The proximal processes that might initially have been difficult, because of the child’s
wariness, become warm-hearted and open because of the teacher’s resource characteristics.
84
85
Force characteristics: temperament, motivation and persistence.
The child who is, for example, struggling in school, but wants to pass and make a success
of her life, will affect the proximal processes in which she will engage. She will take action
and involve friends, parents, and teachers to support her in the challenge. She will have
motivation, persistence, and a driven temperament. The child who is good in all subjects
does not have to put in much effort and will therefore not have much persistence because
school is not a challenge.
86
The above points to different degrees of motivation and persistence that have different
influences on the relevant proximal processes in which people are engaged.
87
The teachers’ force characteristics can also affect proximal processes. Motivated and
persistent teachers’ children will achieve better than those of the teacher who does not
face a challenge every day.
88
• Context
Based on the above it is evident that the proximal processes are influenced by a person’s
characteristics or motivation, but also by others who interact with the person. The context
where the proximal process takes place can also be influenced in the process.
89
The context consists of four elements: micro-, meso-, exo- and macrosystem. (The fifth
system – chrono or time – will follow later).
90
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• The microsystem is the immediate environment. It can be the house or the classroom.
It is in this context that the child has face-to-face interaction with others (teachers and
friends), and can be activated with objects or symbols for a specific period of time, for
example, the teaching and learning to happen in the classroom.
In the play centre, preschool or foundation phase, the microsystem is very important.
Different aspects will have an impact on the child. For example, the attitude of the
teacher; is it a structured classroom?; is it a calm environment? This will all influence the
way in which the children engage in activities and interact with both their friends and
the teacher. Thus, the microenvironment will influence proximal processes.
91
The microsystem can also be a safe place for a child. If the child comes from an unstable
home, the classroom can be a place of comfort.
92
Think of the atmosphere in the classroom – a teacher-centred classroom will feel strict
and inaccessible, where a child-centred classroom will have a relaxed atmosphere where
the children and the teacher can be themselves.
93
94
We all develop in more than one system.
• The term, mesosystem, describes the relations between two or more microsystems.
As indicated above, the home or the classroom can be the microsystem since the child
spends a good deal of time in both of these contexts. If the emotional experience of
the child in the very first experience of school is positive, the transition to the following
classes will be easy.
95
Children coming from a strict household, where the parents are authoritarian, will
struggle to adjust in a classroom where the atmosphere is authoritative or democratic
and vice versa. The systems of Bronfenbrenner will thus help the fact that teachers and
children are aware that different environments require different types of behaviour
and afford the learning of new roles and new ways of acting and interacting.
96
• The exosystem is a setting in which the child is not directly situated, but the specific
system has an influence on the child. For example, the teacher in the class is young and
studies further. She does not sleep well. The lack of sleep will influence her proximal
processes in the classroom. The following sentence summarises the PPCT. The process
(lack of sleep)-person (teacher and the children)-context (home and classroom) -time
(night and school hours).
97
This scenario has two sides:
98
If the focus is on the teacher as the developing individual, the focus is on the mesosystem.
99
If the focus is on the children as the developing individual, the focus is on the exosystem.
• The final aspect of the context is the macrosystem, which is the level of context in
which people share values, beliefs, practices, access to resources and a sense of common identity within a culture. These include race, ethnic, regional or socioeconomic
28
groups within a society. The macrosystem exercises its influence only within the microsystem via proximal processes.
100
A macrosystem undergoes change continually.
In South Africa, the 11 different ethnic groups can be differentiated in terms of values,
beliefs, practices, and a sense of identity. This all counts under different macrosystems
gathered in one microsystem.
101
It is thus important that a teacher understands the home experiences of children coming
from the various ethnic or racial groups different from her own. This will make the transition
between house and school, the mesosystem, easy, since the teacher can plan activities
and interactions in such a way that no child will feel excluded.
102
The “things” the teacher sees when children enter the play areas, like different skin colour,
hairstyles or clothes (demand characteristics), influence the proximal processes.
103
The resource characteristics, (part of the proximal process, including experience,
knowledge and skills) help the teacher to respect the values, beliefs, practices, and sense
of identity held by different racial or ethnic backgrounds.
104
The force characteristic, (motivation of the proximal process) will set the atmosphere
of the classroom.
105
One play area can accommodate numerous family structures, parenting styles,
temperaments of children, diverse cultures and contexts. It is therefore imperative that
the teacher equips herself with knowledge of the children and the context they derive
from. This will help her to plan her classroom activities.
106
Thus the teacher can control the play area as a microsystem in which the proximal
processes occur.
107
As all children and the teacher are exposed to variations in the microsystem, they might
start seeing issues such as different values, beliefs or practices from different perspectives,
and might adjust their own identity. The adjustments of the differences in the microsystem
reflect in the macrosystem.
108
Microsystem
Macrosystem
110
111
109
Figure 1.5:
Shows that the micro and macrosystems influence one another.
In this sense, the parent’s choice of the child’s care centre will stem from values and beliefs
shared by the cultural group of which the parent is a part, but also from the macrosystem,
meaning what kind of care they can afford.
112
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Thus, the macrosystem influences proximal processes in more than one way.
113
117
115
Parent
Teacher
Child
116
118
Peers
114
Figure 1.6:Shows how the parent interacts with the child. Different choices are made
with regard to the school the parents can afford and is suitable. The child
interacts with the teacher and peers and all have an influence on the
macrosystem.
• Time or chronosystem
119
The fourth aspect of the PPCT model, consists of two parts:
Cultural values, beliefs and changeable practices over time. Think of how the schooling
system in South Africa has changed over the past few years: the age that children go to
school (the year in which the child turns seven); how long they need to attend school
(grade 1 – grade 9, 15 years old); what the schooling system and society expect from a
child care centre (protect children’s rights to an education and develop their emotional,
social and physical potential); and how children are treated at school (with respect, to
protect and fulfil the child’s rights). All these aspects have an influence on the proximal
process (SA School Act, 1996; SAHRC, 2012).
120
The quality of teacher interaction during a proximal process includes: how children spend
their time being actively involved in learning and development with both the teacher
and their peers; and how the teacher plans her daily activities to interact and develop
the children and if she “pushes” them to the next level of development to support them
to make activities more complex.
121
Although we will discuss the theory of Vygotsky later in the unit, I want to make you aware of
the zone of proximal development (ZPD) that links with the previous paragraph.
122
ZPD is about the gap between what children can currently accomplish on their own
and what they are not yet ready to do by themselves. When the teacher challenges and
helps them with new activities or learning, they will be able to accomplish that activity.
The ZPD goes hand in hand with Bruner’s term, scaffolding, where the teacher gives
support to the child in learning the new activity. Scaffolding means that when learning
something new, the teacher at first gives a lot of support, and in time withdraws support
to enable the child to become more independent and to accomplish the new activities
all by themselves. For example, the child builds a tower of blocks that keep falling down.
The teacher can show how different objects can support the blocks until the child thinks
of alternative ways to make the block tower stay upright (Schaller & Crandall, 2014).
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Activity 1.5: Article
Watch the YouTube video clips that follow: the bioecological model that links with the
different layers or systems in society and how individuals and their environments are
interrelated with one another. These videos will give you a visual overview of what we
addressed above. After watching the videos, answer the questions.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HV4E05BnoI8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nULPGD0N6WM
Read the article titled “Children’s Development from a Cultural-Historical Approach: Children’s
Activity in Everyday Local Settings as Foundation for Their Development”, which can be found
under e-reserves on myUnisa under CDE3701 to help you understand the theory of the
ecological system when completing the activity.
• Using figure‌1.4 and write up a summary of a fictional child’s demographics including
the micro, meso, exo and macrosystems in a society and the chronosystem.
• After creating the summary, write 150-200 words (font: Arial, letter size: 12), under each
of the four aspects of the PPCT model in the discussion of your fictional child and what
possible impacts the original context of the child may have in his/her development.
By now, you are aware that child development has a long and rich history, as indicated
above, beginning with John Lock in 1632. In the following section, we will focus on different theories of child development.
1.4
‌THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
It is essential for early childcare practitioners and teachers to be able to interpret theories
of child development, and put them into practise in ways that are meaningful to their
children (Conkbayir & Pascal, 2014). A single theory does not address all aspects of
child development, and different theories may view the same aspects of development
from different perspectives. Therefore, the ability to integrate and apply these theories
can be invaluable to understand each child’s unique qualities and needs, and to
support them to reach their full potential. In order to provide quality care and learning
experiences, educational practitioners need to stay informed about theories and their
application in recent research (Conkbayir & Pascal, 2014). An overview will now be given
of the essential aspects of the theories of physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional
development that will be explored further in the upcoming learning units.
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1.4.1
‌Dimensions of physical development
Children’s physical and movement development can be studied empirically, as this domain
of development does not have the same number of theories as, for example, those of
cognitive and social-emotional development. The following theories by Bailey (2006),
Baltes (1987), Curtis (1982), and Datar and Sturm (2004) regarding physical development
has determined a few agreed upon dimensions/milestones of physical development:
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Table 1.4: Physical and movement development (Pienaar, 2002; Du Toit, 2015).
Dimension
The sequence of physical development
Description
• At first, the development of gross motor skills requires control of
large groups of muscles in the body, arms, and legs.
• Then, fine motor skills develop, which depend on the development
of small muscle coordination.
• As children progress, coordination of gross and fine motor movements improve.
Body growth
Body form
• Growth refers to the increase in height, weight, muscle mass, and
general size.
• Patterns of growth are determined by genetic factors, a maturing
brain and nervous system, and adequate nutrition.
• Exercise is essential for the healthy development of bones and
muscles.
• The average 6-year-old (foundation phase) child weighs about 20
kg and has an approximate height of 1,1m.
• Most children gain about 3,5kg and 5-8cm per year.
• There are three main body types that may influence physical growth
and development:
• Endomorphs: have more muscle and bone tissue, as well as a higher
•
•
Development of motor
skills
percentage of body fat. They tend to struggle with activities such
as running.
Mesomorphs: are well proportioned and muscular, and have low
body fat. They perform well in activities that require strength, speed,
and agility.
Ectomorphs: are thin and tall, with little muscle development. They
tend to be late developers and experience growth spurts. They
perform well in endurance activities such as running.
Phases of motor development:
Reflective movement phase (before birth-4 months): Baby has
a natural drive to move around, referred to as reflexes. Primitive
reflexes form the basis of later learning. Develops simultaneously
with the first phase of movement.
Rudimentary movement phase (birth-2 yrs): Development of
locomotor skills, such as crawling and walking, manipulation skills,
including reaching and grasping, and stability skills, such as control
over the neck, head and trunk while sitting or standing.
Fundamental movement phase (2-7 yrs): important advances in
gross and fine motor development. Locomotor and manipulation
skills that have emerged during the previous phase are refined.
Divided into three sub-stages:
Initial stage (2-3 yrs): Characterised by crude, uncoordinated
movements.
Elementary stage (4-5 yrs): Movements are more coordinated and
controlled, but lack fluidity.
Mature stage (6-7 yrs): Gross and fine motor movements are coordinated and efficient.
As soon as the fundament movement skills – locomotor skills, stability skills and manipulation skills – are mature, children are ready to
engage in specialised physical activities such as sports and dance.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
32
Dimension
Gross motor
development
Description
• Gross motor skills refer to the ability to engage the large muscles of
the body in a coordinated and controlled way.
• These muscles include the arm muscles, the legs and the trunk.
• Gross motor activities involve the whole body, such as sitting up,
walking, running, climbing and catching a ball.
• Gross motor skills are the foundation of school readiness skills, such
as handwriting, concentrating and following instructions.
• Important for children to engage in activities where they can move
freely so that they can develop these skills.
• Fine motor development is the ability to coordinate the smaller
Fine motor
development
•
muscles in the arms, hands and fingers that are necessary for drawing, writing, cutting with scissors, etc.
Develops more slowly than gross motor skills.
Activity 1.6
Apart from the clear implications that the physical development of foundation phase
children have for their participation in physical education activities, in which other ways
can their physical development affect them in the classroom?
Feedback on Activity 1.6
5
When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of the learning unit:
y Explain the concept of child development.
y Identify and explain theories underpinning child development.
Keep the following in mind when answering the questions:
y The most significant effect that gross motor development has on academic success is the
y
y
importance of fine motor skills for handwriting, which includes pencil grip.
Children with underdeveloped gross motor muscles, may, for example, have difficulties
sitting upright for a long time in class, hampering their concentration and involvement
in activities.
Also, children who have physical disabilities will need certain degrees of adaptations to
their physical environments, for example, children in wheelchairs.
The following section summarises the theories of cognitive development. The summary
might be overwhelming, but as you are exposed to the different modules, you will
understand the position of each theory in child development.
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1.4.2
‌Theoretical perspectives of cognitive development
Table 1.5: Cognitive development theories (Conkbayir & Pascal, 2014)
Theory
Piaget’s constructivism theory
Key aspects of the theory
• Children are naturally curious and learn by actively discovering their
environment.
• Four stages of cognitive development that show progression towards
logical thought:
− sensorimotor stage (0-2 yrs), where children learn via their senses
and movement, and object permanence emerges
− the preoperational stage (2-6 yrs), where language and symbols
begin to be used to represent concepts
− the concrete operational stage (7-11 yrs), where logical thought
emerges, but is limited to concrete objects
− the formal operational stage (12 yrs to adulthood), where children
are able to think abstractly
• New information gained from the environment, organised in schemas
(cognitive categories of relationships between concepts).
• When new information seems to be in conflict with existing schemas,
the process of adaptation takes place.
• Adaptation can be divided into the sub-processes, assimilation (fitting new information into existing schemas, whether accurate or
not), and accommodation (changing existing schemas, or creating
new schemas).
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
• Importance of social and cultural context in child development.
• “Cultural tools” provided by their cultures, such as language, memory
•
•
•
•
•
strategies, writing and numerical systems are essential for cognitive
development.
Zone of proximal development: Area between a child’s actual level
of development and skills, and the level of achievement they are able
to attain with the guidance and support of another.
Differentiation can be made between lower mental functions, which
is similar to Piaget’s sensorimotor reasoning, dependant on senses
and movement, and higher mental functions, such as language and
logical thinking, which develop out of lower mental functions.
During critical periods, which occur around the ages of 1, 3, and 6
years, children’s entire systems of mental functions undergo major
changes.
Concerning language development, Vygotsky believed social interaction is essential to language acquisition and development.
Language initially develops as a separate process from thought, and
they only later start mutually influencing each other.
34
Theory
Bruner’s constructivist theory of learning
Key aspects of the theory
• Also focused on social and cultural context.
• Described the concept of scaffolding: when others support children’s
•
•
thinking in accordance with their level of development, by motivating them, providing models, simplifying tasks or ideas, or identifying
important elements of a task, and then gradually decreasing the support as the children become more capable.
The spiral curriculum refers to aligning learning content with children’s
existing knowledge and providing opportunities to revisit previously
learnt topics in more depth to consolidate understanding.
Three modes of representation may be identified. These explain different ways in which children can store and process new information,
which emerges at various ages:
− Enactive representation (0-1 yr): information is stored through
hands-on experiences and experiences the real-life object or 3D
object
− Iconic representation (1-6 yrs): information is categorised as cognitive images and children can relate to a 2D representation
− Symbolic representation (from 7 yrs): child can think abstractly
and information can now be stored as symbols (e.g. language/
numbers)
• Language Acquisition Support System (LASS), consisting of mean-
ingful interaction with adults and peers, is crucial for language
development.
Information processing theory
• Likens human cognition to the functioning of a computer, with hard•
•
•
•
ware and software; an explanation of how people process and store
new information.
Mental hardware consists of components of varying capacity that
acquire, store and retrieve information
These components include the sensory memory, where information
is quickly recognised, the short-term memory, where information is
held for a limited time, and the long-term memory, where information
can be stored semi-permanently and even permanently.
Long-term memory is divided into episodic memory (memory of
events), semantic memory (memory of facts), procedural memory
(memory of how to perform certain tasks), implicit memory (habits
and routines one is largely unaware of), and explicit memory (knowledge actively acquired).
Mental software includes the following cognitive processes:
− Memory strategies, which are deliberate cognitive activities intended to improve the processing and storage of information,
including rehearsal, the conscious repetition of information the
individual wants to remember, and retrieval, the process of accessing information that has previously been cognitively represented
− Metacognition refers to the knowledge about and control over
one’s own cognitive processes
− Executive functioning refers to consciously controlling thoughts,
emotions, and behaviour to achieve a specific goal
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Theory
Key aspects of the theory
Gardner’s multiple
intelligence theory
This represents different intellectual abilities and goes along with different learning styles. The following are the different criteria for multiple
intelligence:
• Logical/mathematical: The highly logical mathematical children will
be interested in problem-solving and hypothesis-testing strategies
• Verbal/linguistic: Children with strong oral language abilities like to
read and to think out loud
• Spatial: Children who are visually/spatially strong learn best from
information that they see or read
• Bodily/kinaesthetic: Children who are highly bodily/kinaesthetic
enjoy learning while moving about freely and touching
• Interpersonal: Children enjoy engaging in learning experiences in
a social setting
• Intrapersonal (emotional): Children who are highly emotional, sensitive, enjoy solitude, like thinking and are happy to work alone
Activity 1.7: Article
Reflect on the possible implications each of the above mentioned theories of cognitive
development may have for your practice as a foundation phase teacher.
Read the article titled “Piaget, Vygotsky and the cultural development of the notions of
possibility and necessity: Experimental study among rural South African learners” under
e-reserves on myUnisa under CDE3701 to Enrich your understanding on the theories of
cognitive development.
Enrichment activity:
Watch the following YouTube video clips for more background on the different theories:
• Erikson
https://study.com/academy/lesson/erik-eriksons-eight-stages-of-psychosocial-development-conflicts-growth.html
• Jean Piaget
https://study.com/academy/lesson/piagets-theory-of-cognitive-development.html
https://study.com/academy/lesson/jean-piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development.html
• Lev Vygotsky
https://study.com/academy/lesson/lev-vygotskys-theory-of-cognitive-development.html
https://study.com/academy/lesson/zone-of-proximal-development-and-scaffolding-inthe-classroom.html
• Jerome Bruner
https://study.com/academy/lesson/jerome-bruner-scaffolding-and-constructivism-theories.html
• Howard Gardner
https://study.com/academy/lesson/howard-gardner-theory-impact-on-education.html
36
• Uri Bronfenbrenner
https://study.com/academy/lesson/bronfenbrenners-ecological-systems-theory-of-development-definition-examples.html
Feedback on Activity 1.7
6
When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of the learning unit:
y Identify and explain theories underpinning child development.
Keep the following in mind when answering the questions:
Piaget:
y Learning activities should be child-centred and allow children to engage in the active
discovery of concepts.
y Foundation phase children will likely be in the concrete operational stage of development,
which means that plenty of concrete materials should be provided to support learning.
y When relationships between concepts are conveyed, or organised into categories, it will
be easier for children to adapt to new information.
Vygotsky:
y Important to consider the cultural context of the child to plan appropriate learning
y
y
y
experiences.
Children will benefit from group work and learn from each other.
Essential to determine what children are currently able to do, so as to support them to
move to higher levels of achievement, within their ZPD.
Focus on the importance of language development.
Bruner:
y Children’s learning may be “scaffolded” by providing motivation, models, simplifying
y
y
y
ideas or tasks, etc.
As children may be on different levels of development, they may benefit from working in
groups with similar needs, and who receive similar amounts of scaffolding.
To incorporate the spiral curriculum, teachers need to plan teaching experiences that will
revisit concepts, rather than dealing with a topic only once.
Foundation phase children will have developed all three modes of representation, therefore learning experiences can include a variety of experiences where children can process
information through actions, visual resources, and more abstractly via language and
numbers.
Information processing theory:
y Activities that enhance the development of memory can be incorporated into the classy
room daily.
Children can be supported to develop their memory strategies, metacognition, and
executive functioning.
The following section will summarise the theories of social-emotional development. The
summary might be overwhelming, but as you are exposed to the different modules, you
will understand the position of each theory in child development.
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1.4.3
‌Theories of socio-emotional development
Table 1.6: Social-emotional development theories (Conkbayir & Pascal, 2014)
Theory
Erikson’s psychosocial theory
Key aspects of the theory
• Identified eight stages of socio-emotional development, characterised
•
by various developmental challenges that need to be overcome, in order
to reach the next stage.
The first four of these stages are applicable to children of birth to 9 years:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Kohlberg’s theory
of moral reasoning
Basic trust vs mistrust (birth-1 yr): to develop a sense that the world
is a safe and good place
Autonomy vs shame and doubt (1-3 yrs): To realise that they are
independent and can make own decisions
Initiative vs guilt (3-6 yrs): To develop a willingness to try new things
and to cope with failure
Industry vs inferiority (6 yrs to adolescence): To learn basic skills
and to work with others
• Believed that moral development is based on cognitive development
and relevant social experiences.
• Perspective taking is essential.
• Identified three levels of moral development: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional.
• The pre-conventional level applies to children up to middle childhood,
and is further divided into two stages:
− Stage 1–Punishment and obedience orientation:
The child decides what is right based on whether the action will be
punished or rewarded, and is still unable to consider the perspectives and interests of others.
− Stage 2 – Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange:
The child follows rules when they serve their own needs or interests.
The child is now aware of the interests of others, and that these may
conflict with their own.
Bowlby's theory of
attachment
Advocates that children are born into the world biologically pre-programmed
to form attachments with others. The following four attachments helps a
child to survive:
Safe haven: the child can rely on his caregiver for comfort at times
whenever he feels threatened, frightened or in danger.
Secure base serves as a good and reliable foundation to the child as he
goes on learning and sorting out things by himself.
Proximity maintenance indicates that the child aims to explore the
world, but still tries to stay close to his caregiver.
Separation distress indicates that the child becomes unhappy and
sorrowful when he becomes separated from his caregiver.
•
•
•
•
Bandura’s theory of
social learning
Advocates that people learn from one another via observation, imitation,
and modelling. The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviourist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention,
memory, and motivation.
38
Theory
Key aspects of the theory
Goleman's theory of emotional
intelligence
The following are the five key elements of emotional intelligence:
Self-awareness: The child understands his/her emotions and they do not
let their feelings rule them. They know their strengths and weaknesses,
and they work on these areas so they can perform better.
Self-regulation: The child has the ability to control his/her emotions
and impulses. They do not allow themselves to become too angry or
jealous, and they do not make impulsive or careless decisions, thus they
think before they act.
Motivation: Points to children who are willing to accept immediate
results for long-term success. They are highly productive, love a challenge, and are effective in whatever they do.
Empathy: Points to children who have the ability to identify with and
understand the wants, needs, and viewpoints of those around you.
Empathetic children avoid stereotyping and judging too quickly, and
they live their lives in an open, honest way.
Social skills: Points to children with strong social skills who are team players. Rather than focusing on their own success, these children help others
to develop and shine. They can manage disputes, are excellent communicators, and are masters at building and maintaining relationships.
•
•
•
•
•
Activity 1.8: Article
Self-reflection activity:
Being a teacher is an enormous responsibility with an enormous impact on the lives of
children. You will shape children’s lives and therefore you need to provide the children
with a joyful experience.
Read through the socio-emotional and cognitive development theories, and analyse
yourself in an essay of 350 words. Use all the different key elements of all the different
theories when describing yourself.
After analysing yourself, rationalise action that you plan on doing or did in the classroom.
Emphasise the importance of what you did against the theories so that you can analyse
the reasons behind your actions.
1.5
‌CONCLUSION
In this learning unit, you examined various theories of child development, and examined
personal and contextual factors that influence child development.
5
1.6
REFERENCES
Arnet , J. L. & Jensen, A. J., 2018. Child Development Worldwide: A cultural approach.
New York : Pearson
Brewer, J. (2014). Introduction to early childhood education: Preschool through primary grades
(6th ed.). Essex: Pearson.
Conkbayir, M. & Pascal, C. (2014). Early Childhood theories and contemporary issues: An
introduction. London: Bloomsbury.
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De Jager, M. (2013). Brain development milestones and learning. Cape Town: Metz Press
Publishing.
Department of Social Development. (2015). National Integrated Child Development Policy.
Pretoria: Government Printers.
Jooste, C. & Jooste, M. (2011). Intellectual impairment. In E. Landsberg, D. Kruger & E.
Swart (eds.). Addressing barriers to learning: A South African perspective (2nd ed., pp.
418–443). Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Kruger, D. & Smith, R. (2011). Physical impairment. In E. Landsberg, D. Kruger & E. Swart
(eds.). Addressing barriers to learning: A South African perspective (2nd ed., pp. 288–303).
Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Louw, D.A. & Louw, A.E. (2014). Child and Adolescent Development (2nd ed.). Bloemfontein:
Psychology Publications.
Louw, D., Louw, A. & Kail, R. (2014). Basic Concepts of Child and Adolescent Development.
In D. Louw & A. Louw. Child and Adolescent Development. Bloemfontein: Psychology
Publications.
Oppong K.A. (2011). What is Successful Development? An Overview of Old and New
Theoretical Perspectives. Journal of Arts, Science & Commerce 2(3): 131–134.
Oppong, S., K. Oppong Asante & S.K. Kumaku, (2014). History, Development and Current
Status of Psychology in Ghana. In Contemporary Psychology: Readings from Ghana,
ed. C.S. Akotia and C.C. Mate-Kole, 1–17. Accra: Digibooks Ghana Ltd.
Prinsloo, E. (2011). Socio-economic barriers to learning in contemporary society. In E.
Landsberg, D. Kruger & E. Swart (eds.). Addressing barriers to learning: A South African
perspective (2nd ed., pp. 29–47). Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Ramokgopa, I.M. (2001). Developmental stages of an African child and their psychological
implications: A comparative study. PhD study unpublished, RAU.
Stats SA. (2018). Mid-year population estimates.
Shetty, P. (2003). Malnutrition and undernutrition. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1357303906004786 Accessed: 16 March 2019.
Smith, P.K., Cowie, H. & Blades, M. (2011). Understanding children’s development (5th ed).
Chichester, West Sussex, England: Wiley.
UNICEF. (2019). Children and Aids. Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/southafrica/
survival_devlop_6648.html Accessed: 16 March 2019.
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Learning unit 2
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN FOUNDATION PHASE
Aim of learning unit
In this study unit, you will examine the physical development of young children. An
overview of gross and fine motor development will be given along with factors that
influence physical development.
Learning outcomes
After the completion of this learning unit, you should be able to do the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
2.1
Explain and contextualise concepts related to physical development.
Outline stages of physical development of a young child.
Discuss the importance of physical development through contextual examples and
case studies.
Unpack relevant aspects related to the physical development of young children.
Reflect on implications of physical development for own practise.
Apply specific outcome to CAPS.
‌INTRODUCTION
Developmental psychologists divide human development into three areas: physical,
cognitive and psychosocial development.
6
In this unit, we will focus on the physical development of the child and explain how the
different development areas are integrated with one another. It is important to keep in mind
that cultural variations do have an influence on development. A typical Western perspective
on child development emphasises independence as a developmental milestone, whereas
an African perspective values a spirit of interdependence and altruism. (Oppong Asante,
2011; Oppong, 2015; Baltes, 1987).
7
Physical development or movement development, which includes genetic foundations
for development, is a continual, ongoing and progressive process of gross and perceptualmotor components by means of a variety of appropriate movement activities for the child.
Physical development involves changes in bone thickness, size, weight, gross motor, fine
motor, vision, hearing, and perceptual development. Although the pace of development
varies from individual to individual, development lasts as long as life itself (Erikson, 1960).
8
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2.2 ‌CONCEPT CLARIFICATION
2.2.1
‌Types of movement skills
Perceptual-motor skills
Skills in which an awareness of aspects of the body,
and of the body with regard to the environment
through the perceptual senses, is gained, e.g. body
awareness, awareness of form, spatial awareness
Locomotor skills
Propellant (cause to move forward) skills, e.g. run,
jump, crabwalk
Non-locomotor skills
Static skills, e.g. balancing
Manipulation skills
Where objects are manipulated, e.g. ball skills
2.2.2 C
‌ omponents of movement development (perceptual-motor
abilities)
Component
Definition
Coordination
Ability to integrate muscle actions to perform a specific or series of movements in the most effective way.
Total coordination
Hand-eye coordination
Foot-eye coordination
Coordination of large muscle groups for total body
movement
Ability to use hands and eyes simultaneously to
perform a task
Ability to use feet and eyes simultaneously to complete a task
The ability of the eye to perceive and understand
objects within the environment in relation to the
body
Balance
Ability to take a body stance against gravity and maintain equilibrium.
Dynamic balance
Static balance
To maintain equilibrium in propulsion
To maintain equilibrium in static position/on small
or unstable base of support
Awareness
Of the body, space, laterality.
Body awareness
Basic knowledge of the body and the parts thereof,
consisting of:
physical structure
movements and functions
position and relation to each other and other
objects
Preferring to use one hand or side of the body, i.e.
either right or left dominant
•
•
•
Dominance
42
Component
Spatial awareness Position in space
• Spatial relations
• Figure-ground perception
Laterality
• Bilateral integration
• Unilaterality
• Cross-laterality/crossing the midline
Fine motor development
Definition
Awareness of the body in space
Ability to choose a point of reference to place an
object or a person in the correct relation to the
child’s own body in space
Ability to place two or more objects/persons in
the correct relation to each other and the child’s
own body
Being able to focus attention on a specific object
or aspect while ignoring all other stimuli. The object of the attention is therefore in the foreground
of the perceptual field while all the rest is in the
background, e.g. being able to read one word in
a sentence
The internal awareness of left and right and the
ability to control the two sides of the body together or separately
Ability to integrate two sides of the body in the execution of a movement. Three dimensions, namely
front/back, above/under, left/right
Involve one side of the body/one limb
Use different limbs of both sides crosswise
Being able to work across the vertical midline of
the body, e.g. being able to draw a line from one
side of the page to the other without changing
the tool from one hand to the other
Development of the fine muscles of the body:
write, bead stringing
Optimal gross motor development is the basis for
good fine motor development
2.2.3 ‌Perception
Visual
Visual perception
Visual discrimination
Visual memory
Acquiring and interpreting information through the
eyes – accurate visual perception enables the child
to read, write and do mathematics;
The ability to see similarities, differences, and details
of objects accurately
The ability to remember what the eyes have seen
and the correct sequence in which things have
been perceived
Auditory
Auditory perception
Auditory discrimination
Acquiring and interpreting information through
the ears – accurate auditory perception enables the
child to give meaning to what is heard
The ability to hear similarities and differences in
sounds
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Visual
Auditory memory
Form perception
The ability to remember what the ears have heard
and the correct sequence in which sounds have
been perceived
The ability to recognise forms, shapes, symbols,
letters, etc. regardless of position, size, background,
e.g. can recognise a circle because of its unique
shape
2.2.4 ‌More perceptual-motor abilities (underlying the above)
Table 2.1: Concepts relate to movement development (Gallahue & Cleland-Donnelly,
2003; DBE, 2011; DuToit,2015)
Kinesthetic awareness
The awareness of muscle movement while the
body performs a movement
Proprioception
The awareness of muscle movement and body
position in space
Vestibular function
The awareness of the position of the head in space,
by means of the vestibular system in the ears
2.3 ‌PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOUNDATION PHASE
CHILD
2.3.1
‌General characteristics of the foundation phase child
Pienaar (2000) points to a few general traits of the foundation phase (6-9 years old) child
that might have an influence on the composition of a movement development programme.
9
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
There is not a large difference with regard to physical and motor development between boys and girls of this age.
Structural growth and maturity take place at a slow but constant tempo; there is
also a proportional increase of weight and muscle mass, which leads to a general
increase in arm and leg muscle power.
The arms and legs become longer in proportion to the rest of the body. Because of
this, seven-year-olds appear thinner. An important element of body growth in the
bones’ growth plates. The body’s long bones, like the thighbone, grow at each end.
The length and shape of the mature bone are determined by the growth plate. It is
the last part of the bone to harden and is thus easily fractured. Not until ages 18-20
years are all parts of the bone hard.
The so-called baby teeth are lost and the permanent teeth come in.
A gradual increase in muscle control. Eye focus of children in this age is not yet precise,
as the shape of the eye and its size still develops until about 8 years of age. For this
reason, spatial estimation is not yet sufficiently developed. Hand-eye coordination
and reaction time will, therefore, be relatively slow and inaccurate.
The heart and lungs are small in comparison to body weight. Children of this age,
therefore, tire easily. They do recover easily though. For this reason, activity in lessons should not take too long and rest periods should be built in.
44
7.
They enjoy all forms of expressive movement, are very interested in rhythmical
activities, and are very creative and imaginative.
8. In general, they are “without fear”, very active, and show a high sense of adventure.
9. This is also known as the age of conflict, as a child can, in one moment, be selfconfident and independent, and the next moment willing to share.
10. Six and seven-year-olds still have a higher need for recognition and are also very
sensitive to criticism. Both the tallest and shortest children are often victims of teasing.
11. Children of this age have a dominant interest in organised group games where they
function as members of a group. They, however, start to develop a sense of personal
goal achievement and a will to acquire specific skills.
12. Attention span increases with age: at 6 and 7 years the attention span alternates
between 15 and 25 minutes at a time; 8 and 9 years between 20 and 40 minutes.
Table 2.2 and figure 2.1 underline the fact that physical development focuses on increasing
the skill and performance of the body. As indicated, the different developmental areas
are closely linked, especially during the early years of child development. When a child
does not reach specific milestones as indicated in the table above, the child may have
some learning difficulties later in life. Physical development can be divided into gross
and fine motor skills. Throughout the foundation phase, children acquire and develop
physical skills in different ways.
10
Physical skills, body and spatial awareness contribute to a child’s personal and social
development by enhancing confidence and self-esteem. Young children are active children
who enjoy learning through play and physical activities. During play, children engage in
learning experiences that require them to use a range of physical skills, whether playing
indoors or outdoors. The idea is that physical activities are integrated into all areas of
learning. Utilising a hands-on approach to teaching-learning can range from rhymes,
actions, music, expeditions, or games, which can be applied to teaching various concepts
and content in mathematics, life skills or language lessons.
11
The development of a child’s physical skills is a holistic process. Gallahue and Cleland
Donnelly (2003) and Insel and Roth (2006) point to the following holistic aspects of a
child’s total development:
12
Table 2.2: Value for the total development of the young child (Du Toit, 2015).
Physical
Maintains and improves physical cardiovascular fitness, stimulates physical development, mastering of physical skills, prevention and improvement of behavioural
disorders, posture consciousness, physical conditioning (muscle power, flexibility,
muscle endurance, body composition)
Health
Good health habits, interest in and respect for their own body, knowledge of health
Emotional
Emotional stability, for example, self-control, self-confidence, self-discipline, selfdiscovery, responsibility and management of stress
Social
Healthy interpersonal relationships, for example, group relationships, recreational
activities and sportsmanship
Cognitive
To apply and evaluate knowledge, for example, physiology, anatomy, components
of fitness, good health habits and advanced quality of life
Normative
The healthy value system, for example, a social sense of responsibility, properness
and correct behaviour, and human values
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Foundation phase children need suitable space to develop their physical movements
both in and outdoors. They need to use their bodies actively to gain spatial awareness
and experiment with movement without any restrictions. The children need to have
access to both large and small pieces of equipment, inside and outside of the classroom,
to use independently and in a creative way, but by the same token engage with a teacher
to develop their instructional and experimental learning. All forms of physical activity
require time for children to develop and practise skills. Physical development aligns with
Erikson’s theory of human development where children have opportunities to work alone
or in groups, play and compete with others, do activities at their own pace, practise and
merge their skills, challenge their skills, take achievements seriously, and make connections
between skills acquired in and outdoors. As indicated, children do not develop at the
same pace; therefore, educators need to be aware that some children are physically more
advanced for their chronological age than others.
13
Physical development happens in a sequence that involves the following:
14
• At first, the developing of gross motor skills that require control of large muscles in
the body, arms, and legs.
• This is followed by the development of fine manipulative skills, which depend on
•
small muscle coordination.
As children progress and become more confident, improvement in coordination of
gross and fine movements will continue to develop and new skills will be learnt.
Children cannot learn a new skill until the muscles are sufficiently developed, and the
activities and resources provided should be suitable for their developmental needs. Most
children will progress through the same stages of development at their own rate and the
timing of this development can depend on different influencing factors such as eating
habits, emotional development, and confidence in undertaking new activities.
15
During the foundation phase, the child grows steadily; one can say the biological clock
of the child ticks. The nervous system develops, maturation changes take place, and their
motor skills continue to improve because of a large number of learning opportunities.
The nervous system, which includes the brain along with the nerves that pass messages
around the body, does not fully mature until early adulthood. Therefore, the more
movements and skills the child is exposed to, the better the range of experience they
acquire. Krog (2017) explains that if a child had little experience, for example, to throw and
catch a ball in the early years, they will struggle to throw a javelin or catch a netball later
in life because of a lack of motor and coordination skills (which also affects their academic
success). Therefore, it is important that children be exposed to basic gross motor activities
like running, catching, jumping and throwing as early as possible.
16
Activity 2.1: Physical development of the foundation phase child
(1) Read through section 2.3.
(2) Indicate on the existing physical movement lesson plan (appendix 2.1) whether the
physical, health, emotional, social, cognitive and normative development aspects of
table 2.2 are indeed accommodated.
(3) If not, indicate where you will interweave these aspects.
46
(4) Based on the lesson plan, indicate how you would organise group games in which
children function as members of a group.
(5) Evaluate whether the activities adhere to the attention span of the specific age group.
Feedback on Activity 2.1
7
When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of the learning unit:
y Think about your teaching lesson, and reflect on whether you keep the holistic developy
ment of the child in mind. Answer to yourself whether you expect too much or too little
from the children in the class.
The following section focuses on the growth of the body of the foundation phase child.
2.3.2 ‌Growth of the body
Physical development is the increase of a child’s overall structural or body size, whereas
growth relates to the increase of height, weight, and muscle mass. Our growth patterns
are controlled by our genetic makeup in which maturation patterns are common in most
children. Growth and development depend on the requirements of suitable nutrition,
such as drinking enough water and following a balanced diet to develop control and
coordination of the body, a maturing brain, nervous system, strong bones and muscles,
which go along with exercises and physical activities.
17
2.3.2.1 ‌Growth of the foundation phase child
Figure 2.1 illustrates that the average child of 6 years weighs about 20 kg and is 1.1 m
tall. Most children gain about 3.5 kg and 5-8 cm per year. Children thus tend to outgrow
shoes and trousers more rapidly than jerseys, shirts, and jackets because the increase in
height comes from the legs rather than from the trunk. Boys and girls are usually similar in
size in the foundation phase. They need, on average, about 2 400 calories each day. This
depends on the child’s age and size and can range anywhere from about 1 700–3 300
calories per day. The foundation phase child should eat a well-balanced diet consisting
of the major food groups like grains, vegetables, fruit, milk, meat, and beans. Important
for the child is to start the day with breakfast. Breakfast should provide about one-fourth
of a child’s daily calories. Typically what happens in South Africa, is that children skip
breakfast because of early transport to be taken to school. They then consume empty
calories from sweets with little or no nutritional value from a tuck shop. When children
are well fed, they are better able to pay attention in the classroom (Littlecott, Moore,
Moore, Lyons & Murphy, 2015).
18
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19
Figure 2.1:
Height and weight increase of the child (Kail, Cavanaugh & Muller, 2019).
2.3.2.2 ‌Body form
As mentioned, children develop at their own rate and timing according to their own
physique or somatotype. Pangrazi and Beignle (2014) point to the following three main
body types:
20
Endomorphs have a less well-defined body outline. They carry more muscle and bone
tissue, thus a higher percentage of body weight than fat tissue. Their physical performance
is poor in running, and aerobic and anaerobic activities.
21
Mesomorphs are well proportioned and muscular. Their bodies comprising mostly muscles,
bone, and connective tissue. They perform well in strength, speed and agility activities.
22
Ectomorphs tend to be thin and tall, with little muscle development. They are less proficient
in activities that require strength and power, but better in aerobic endurance like jogging
and cross-country running. The ectomorphs are late developers and experience growth
spurts in the elementary years.
23
24
Figure 2.2:‌Physique of the foundation phase child.
Source: ( https://www.google.com/search?q=endomorph+mesomorph+ectomorph+childr
en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiP3dqm4bHjAhVMTRUIHcVMCl
4Q_AUIECgB&biw=916&bih=755)
48
From the illustrations, it is clear that the distribution of fat and muscles gives the body
its characteristic bodily form. A mesomorph naturally has more muscle mass than the
ectomorph of the same height and is not necessarily overweight even though such a
scale will indicate the opposite. For a child who is a natural endomorph, a healthy diet
and regular exercise are of cardinal importance, as such a child tends to put on body
weight easily.
25
Activity 2.2: YouTube video clip on different body forms
Watch the video clip and, with the different body types in mind, think of different movements that you can integrate into the lesson plan (Appendix 2.1) in the back of the learning
unit. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dD9HeWOYvA8.
Feedback on Activity 2.2
8
When explaining different body types, keep in mind that the foundation phase child (6 and
7-year-olds) still have a higher need for recognition from others and acceptance that they “fit
in”, thus children are also very sensitive to criticism.
2.3.2.3 ‌Development of motor skills
26
Enrichment activity: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iUBHbftrTYw.
See the above mentioned YouTube video on different motor skills, which indicates what can
be done inside or outside of the classroom.
27
Effective gross- and perceptual-motor development contributes to the following important
skills that children need in order to be successful at school:
28
•
•
•
•
•
•
Preparatory skills: Visual, auditory and tactile.
Listening skills: Rhythm of speech sounds.
Reading skills: Above-below, left-right, distance, size, shape and direction.
Writing skills: Big muscle groups of the arm, hand and finger muscles, start and
stop actions, ability to sit up straight, ability to keep head in an upright position,
able to identify a start, and then to commence writing.
Language skills: Knowledge of the parts of the body, opposites and action words.
Self-concept: Improved through self-confidence.
The teacher should be informed of the phases of motor development from birth to
adulthood when planning physical activities for the children. Gallahue and Ozmun (2006)
classify motor development in different stages and phases as the reflective movement
phase, rudimentary movement phase, and the fundamental movement phase.
29
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30
Figure 2.3:
Phases and stages of motor development
Source: Adjusted by Pienaar, 2018.
• The reflexive movement phase
This is the prenatal phase and continues after birth. The baby is born with a natural
drive to move and the natural movements are referred to as reflexes. A baby’s early
development is orderly and structured, and driven by a set of primitive reflexes that
form the foundation of later learning. The phase develops simultaneously with the first
movement phase. During this phase, the baby develops neck, head and trunk control
that enables them to roll over, sit, crawl and stand up. Each of the milestones is reached
in sequence within a time frame.
31
• The rudimentary movement phase
This phase lasts from birth to 2 years. Locomotor skills like crawling, walking and
manipulation – including reaching and grasping, and stability skills, which include control
over the neck, head, and trunk during sitting and standing – develop during this phase.
At this stage, the baby has hardly any control over fine motor skills.
32
The fundamental movement phase
33
The time span between 2 and 7 years is important for motor skills development. During
this phase, the basic posture, locomotor and manipulation skills that developed during
the first two years are being refined and further development happens.
34
The fundamental movement phase consists of three stages:
35
50
Table 2.3: ‌Fundamental movement phases and stages (Pienaar,2018)
Phase
Name
Characteristics
Age
One
Initial stage
Characterised by relatively crude, uncoordinated
movements
2-3 years
Two
Elementary stage
Coordination and rhythmical performance increase with greater control, but the fluidity of
movement is still lacking
4-5 years
Three
Mature stage
Skill is characterised as a well-coordinated, mechanically correct and efficient act
6-7 years
Maturation plays an important role in both the rudiment and fundamental movement
phases to refine the movements. As soon as the fundamental skill possess all the
characteristics of a mature skill, it develops into a sport specific skill. If the development
does not happen, it will hamper the development of the specialised skills later in the
child’s life. Pienaar (2018) points out that the fundamental skills of many children in
South Africa do not develop to the level of specialised skills due to physical education
that is often neglected in schools, safety, stranger danger, and the technological nature
of modern societies.
36
The fundamental skills are further classified as:
37
Table 2.4: Fundamental skills (Pienaar, 2018).
Stability skills:
Emphasis is placed on balancing (body control)
Bending, stretching, turning, swinging, rolling,
maintaining a position (like standing on the toes),
starting, stopping, avoiding and balancing
Locomotor skills:
Continuing in an upward or forward direction
Walking, running, jumping, hopping (basic) galloping, skipping, sliding, climbing (combinations)
Manipulation skills:
Throwing, kicking, hitting, bouncing, dribble (initiate), catching, preventing/ stopping (absorb)
During the foundation phase, children’s greater size and strength contribute to improving
motor skills. They start to run faster, jump further and throw a ball further. By age 11, a
child can throw a ball three times further than they could at the age of 6. Their fine motor
skills also improve. They gain greater control over their fingers and hands. Their skills are
evident in a variety of activities ranging from writing to drawing, building puzzles, typing,
playing of musical instruments or building model cars.
38
39
Reflection on learning
With the above in mind, we can agree that as a foundation phase teacher, we will plan
our activities around the fundamental movement phase.
40
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41
Activity 2.3
Read the following case study and complete the activity:
In the school where you are teaching, the foundation phase teachers are complaining about children struggling to focus and concentrate in the classroom. You decide
to compile an A4/5 chart for each teacher with stability activities that can be done in
the classroom between different learning activities to enhance focus and concentration during classroom activities.
• Use table 2.4 on fundamental skills as your guide and develop short and quick stability
activities – not more than five – for inside the classroom between learning activities.
• Take some pictures of a child or a group (remember no faces) as they demonstrate
the different activities that can serve as demonstrations for the teacher and children.
The following section will focus on gross and fine motor skills of the foundation phase child.
2.3.2.4 ‌Gross motor skills
Enrichment activity: see the following YouTube videos on gross motor skills:
42
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-are-gross-motor-skills-in-children-developmentdefinition-examples.html
43
44
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j23LG9NMiGw
Gross motor skills refer to engaging the large muscles of the body in a coordinated
and controlled way. Gross motor actions will include movements of the whole arm, the
whole leg and the trunk. These activities will include catching a ball, balancing, climbing,
jumping on a trampoline, playing tag, running races, rolling over, sitting up, crawling
and just walking. Gross motor skills lay the foundation for school readiness skills such
as handwriting, concentrating, following instructions, sports skills, and teamwork. It is
therefore important that children be exposed to diverse activities to move freely and
experiment with different apparatus and resources to develop their gross motor skills.
These skills develop through practise and repetition. This is why a baby takes weeks to
perfect rolling, sitting or crawling and a child takes a whole season to learn to catch a
ball while running.
45
The following box displays the typical gross motor skills of the foundation phase child:
46
Table 2.5: Gross motor skills in the foundation phase (Marotz & Allen, 2016)
Six-year-old
Seven-year-old
Eight-year-old
Wants to move and has a hard
time sitting still. Their muscle
strength increases
Has seemingly endless energy
Has seemingly endless energy
52
Six-year-old
Seven-year-old
Eight-year-old
Can display precise and deliberate movements
Can balance on either foot
Enjoys activities like dancing,
rollerblading, swimming, wrestling, riding a bike or flying a
kite
Increased body awareness
Continues to maintain the body
in space while bending, stretching, twisting and turning
Gets into team activities and
games like soccer, netball,
rugby
Increase spatial awareness (direction & location)
Runs up and down stairs with
alternating feet
Can combine various ways of
moving and traveling in various ways
Enjoys and performs vigorous
physical activities like running,
jumping, climbing, catching &
throwing
Can change from one movement to another, like hopping
to skipping
Can catch a tennis ball, walk
across a balance beam and hit
a ball with a bat
Can throw various objects underhand at a target like a bean
bag through a hoop
Throws and catches smaller
balls
Can throw a ball overhead using two hands to a friend or a
target
Can catch objects of various
kinds below the waist using
two hands
Can kick a static ball with either foot to a friend or a larger
target
Can catch different objects using two hands above and below the waist
Can jump forward without
control
While moving, can bounce a
ball with either hand
Can hit a moving object like a
ball or balloon towards a friend
or target
Can dribble a ball with their
feet over a short distance
Can jump over low objects
Can jump and land safely
Can move body under, over,
through and around equipment
Can balance both on and off
equipment while still or moving
Practises new motor skills until
mastered and move on to the
next one
2.3.2.5 ‌Fine motor skills
47
Enrichment activity: see the following YouTube video on fine motor skills:
48
https://cobbschool.com/programs/primary/
Fine motor development is the ability to coordinate the smaller muscles in the arms,
hands and fingers that allows a child to perform fine motor skills like cutting with scissors
and drawing, tying shoelaces, building puzzles or moulding clay. Fine motor skills also
include the small muscles of the face and mouth (like the tongue) and feet, although we
usually refer to the use of the small muscles only in the hands and fingers. These skills
develop more slowly than gross motor skills, but not in isolation from the other skills. Fine
motor skills are integral for a child’s development for self-care such as tying shoelaces and
using a knife, spoon and fork when eating. Children who struggle with motor activities
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in general often feel frustrated and their self-esteem suffers when they cannot keep up
with their friends. Once formal schooling starts, decent fine motor control in the hands
and fingers will enable the child to learn handwriting with a minimum of effort. When
a child has to concentrate on holding a pencil, there is less brainpower to devote to the
actual writing skill, which can hamper the child from reaching his/her potential in school
(Charlesworth, 2017).
50
The following box displays the fine motor skills in the foundation phase:
Table: 2.6: Fine motor skills in the foundation phase (Marotz & Allen, 2016).
Six-years-olds
Seven-years-old
Eight-years-old
Enjoy creative projects such as
arts and construction work
Uses knives, spoons and forks,
but inconsistently
Increasing accuracy in copying
words and numbers from the
blackboard
Write numbers and letters with
varying degrees of precision
and interest; may reverse or
confuse some letters: b/d; p/g;
g/q; t/f
Holds a pencil in tight grasp
near tip; rests head on forearms, lowers head almost to the
table top when doing penciland-paper tasks
Good eye-hand coordination;
may begin to learn cursive
writing
Traces around the hand and
other objects
Produces letters and numbers
in a deliberate and confident
fashion
Draws representative figures in
pictures with increasing detail
Folds and cuts paper into simple shapes
Written characters and increasingly uniform in size and shape;
may run out of space on the
lined page
Can easily accomplish six- and
seven-year-old skills
Most can tie shoelaces
Draws representative figures in
pictures with increasing detail
Draws representative figures
in pictures
Can easily accomplish six-yearold skills
There is currently a worldwide concern that increased technology can hamper handwriting skills.
2.4 ‌ACTIVITIES FOR GROSS AND FINE MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
The primary goal of physical education at a school is to provide opportunities for all
children to have competence in gross motor skills that will result in the competence of
fine motor skills. It is important that children participate in physical activities for at least
15 minutes or more per day. Many children will participate in physical activities without
planning, like having fun on the playground, but some children will stand around and
talk on the playground rather than be active. For the inactive children, it is important
that the teacher plans activities to get them moving and participating in a variety of
activities that will foster motor development and develop a positive attitude towards
an active movement experience. The movement class is further an ideal learning space
for children to be exposed to and learn about the rich African cultures of their friends.
Through movement, the teacher can draw from Africa’s rich natural resources for creating
diverse gross and fine development activities. Awopegba, Oduolowu and Nsamenang
51
54
(2013) state that the teacher must keep the living environment in mind when planning
movement activities. Make use of objects from the environment to make children aware
of nature and objects they can relate to it. For example, when living in a coastal area,
incorporate objects like sea sand or shells in fine motor activities (see tactile perception)
or, if living in a desert area, plants and stones or rocks from there. The movement class is
ideal to embrace indigenous knowledge and skills and indigenous games from diverse
cultures. Here children, as well as the teacher, can learn from one another through games,
drama, dance, and songs.
The teacher should take note of the following guidelines when planning and presenting
successful and enjoyable physical education programmes (Pienaar, 2000; Awopegba,
Oduolowu & Nsamenang, 2013).
52
2.4.1
‌Teacher planning and preparation of physical movement activities
The teacher needs to keep the following in mind when planning and preparing lesson
activities:
53
• Know the children’s names and cultural background, environment, beliefs, and practices, and incorporate these in the movement activities.
• Be informed that the African child is more prone to cooperate than to compete.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Achievements are regarded as a group achievement and not necessarily personalised,
thus a sense of “ubuntu” or togetherness.
Know the level of all the children’s motor development.
Have an interest in the development of all the child’s full potential.
Be enthusiastic and lead from a positive point of view. Children learn by doing. More
action and less speaking. When the teacher shows enjoyment in the activities, the
children react spontaneous and are eager to take part.
Empower yourself with appropriate knowledge and understanding of the growth
and development of foundation phase children. It is important to have knowledge
of apparatus and their possibilities for use, as well as adaptations that would have to
be made to suit the child’s size and level of development.
Be able to observe, analyse and make recommendations. Thus, reflect on your lesson.
Give children choices and encourage them to experiment and to be creative.
Plan the activities and know your goals. Make sure your lessons include self-exploration
as well as specific skills that are to be learnt.
All apparatus that are to be used during a lesson should be ready beforehand.
Where possible, keep small groups of about 5-8 children with the same level of development together. This will depend on the activity. With small groups, each child
can get a turn to take part.
Remember your lesson should improve the child’s self-image, cognitive skills, affections
and emotions along with their physical development (Gallahue & Cleland Donnelly,
2003; Du Toit, 2015; Mbiti, 1989).
Pate and Hohn (1994) and Hopple (1995) suggest the following principles be kept in
mind when preparing a lesson:
54
• Before proceeding, evaluate the level of motor development of each child. This is to
prevent injuries and failures of the lesson.
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• The lesson should include all possible movement skills that the child needs to develop
•
•
•
•
and improve motor development. Therefore, the programme should suit the expected
movement experiences that are desired at its age as well as suit the child’s specific
level of development.
Skills should build on each other, that is, start with basic, easier activities and make it
more complicated once the child has succeeded, for example, walking, running and
skipping.
Plan for enjoyment and success. Keep the attention span of the children in mind: at 6
and 7 years the attention span alternates between 15 and 25 minutes at a time; 8 and
9 years between 20 and 40 minutes.
Children should be occupied for the full duration of the lesson and waiting to get a
turn must be limited. A great variety of activities should thus be used in one lesson.
When children have to line up for something like a balancing beam, use closed circular
tracks where children continually move through a structured field and do not have
to stand still and wait.
Activities must be planned and presented in such a way that they will appeal to the
children who will participate enthusiastically.
This implies that:
55
1.
2.
3.
Activities should be success orientated, that is, be easy enough for each child to
succeed with ease, and then gradually become more complicated. Attention must
also be paid to the individual who has perhaps not developed as well as the next
one – activities must be within their ability range. When a child is ahead of the others as far as development is concerned, that child must also be challenged and be
given slightly more difficult activities, but which are still within their ability range.
This means that differentiation is important in a lesson.
Create opportunities for the handling of and experimenting with a variety of apparatus to discover the potential of such apparatus and to practise such activities
at home.
It is important to instruct and to practise the correct techniques with certain movements and activities. For example:
−
−
−
−
forward roll or handstands.
the over-hand throw (a): where the children have to step forward with the opposite leg in front, aim with one arm and throw the ball or bean bag with the
other arm from behind the ear.
the over-hand throw (b): step forward with the opposite leg and swing the ball
from behind with a straight arm.
striking activities: see the correct grip on the bat.
The above gives you an overview of planning for your movement classes.
56
56
57
Activity 2.4
Reflect on how you go about motivating the children to be positive about physical activities. Keep the following in mind when completing the activity:
Are your activities fun, are they age and developmentally appropriate, do you accommodate different cultural activities, do you plan the activities ahead, are you a role model
with a positive attitude of physical activities, are you enthusiastic during movement
activities, and are you perhaps overdoing it?
Let us look at methods to present a positive movement class.
2.4.2 ‌Methods of presentation
When presenting a motor development lesson, two methods are applicable: the direct
or formal and indirect or informal approach (SAGF, 2002). You might have come across
the words, pedagogy, didactics or teaching approach – these all indicate how you instil
knowledge, skills, and values during a lesson.
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2.4.2.1
Direct method
The teacher tells the children exactly what to do and they follow the instructions. The
importance of this method is that the teacher informs or demonstrates exactly what is
expected of them. The teacher, or a child who understands the activity, can demonstrate
the correct technique. It is important to make sure all children can see and understand the
movement while using keywords to emphasise the correct movements, for example, “we
gallop or crawl or tumble”. This method has the advantage that it emphasises the correct
technique used in activities and makes it easier to maintain a disciplined atmosphere. The
disadvantage is that this method does not stimulate the same measure of the development
of creativity and problem solving as the indirect method.
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2.4.2.2 ‌Indirect method
The foundation phase child enjoys the indirect method. The teacher asks leading and
stimulating questions to guide the children to explore other movements that might, for
example, exercise the same muscles or other movements to complete the same activity.
For example, the teacher says: “We have jumped forward into the hoop. What other
jumping moves can we use to get out of the hoop?” or “How many different exercises
can we do to exercise the tummy?” The children should not be forced into preconceived
ideas of how they should move, but rather be allowed to move in their own way and
explore. They must also know that mistakes are acceptable. The most important thing is
not the end result, but the experience they gain.
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2.4.2.3 ‌Lesson content
The physical movement lesson needs to focus on the learning process of the child. The
lesson should include activities that address all the main components of movement
development, which are body awareness, locomotor skills/total body coordination, static
balance, dynamic balance, hand-eye coordination, foot-eye coordination, and spatial
orientation. When the lesson content of the foundation phase is analysed, it basically comes
down to three movement themes, namely sport and games, gymnastics activities, and
dance activities. In sport and games in grade 1, the emphasis is on manipulation skills and
games, such as games with throwing and striking, while in grades 2-3 the requirement
is set such that the games have to be played with a partner or team. The games section
in grade 2 further requires the inclusion of indigenous games.
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Foundation phase children are naturally active and learn best when they enjoy what they
are doing, therefore play type activities form the core of the content in which they can
cooperate with their friends. The types of activities and movement must give the child the
opportunity to explore and try out new moves. They must express themselves through
movement and continue to develop skills of verbal communication. In the movements,
the child begins to lay the foundations for the following:
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• Body management, body awareness, and spatial orientation.
• Fundamental skills, with attention to laterality, directionality, balance, and coordination.
• Hand-eye and foot-eye coordination through simple manipulative activities.
• Their fitness needs are taken care of within their own movement abilities.
The foundation phase movement lessons must embrace the four areas already
mentioned, but the emphasis is shifted to the apparatus and tumbling areas:
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• Locomotor skills are of prime importance.
• Manipulative skills are stressed because the foundations for the important play skills
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of throwing and catching are being laid, and because of the influence of hand-eye
coordination on the fine motor coordination like writing and drawing.
Attention is given to good body mechanics and posture, with specific attention to
the development of the arm-shoulder girdle and core area. Rhythmic activities and
their creative aspects are stressed, especially action songs and creative rhythms.
For the grade 3s, the application of rhythm to apparatus like balls, bean bags or ropes
is important. The lessons need to focus on balance, strength and coordination in a wide
variety of movements. The child must now use reasonable techniques to roll, kick, bat,
dribble, throw and catch, and focus on detailed sport skills in netball, soccer, rugby or
basketball. Fitness tests should be done and, where possible, swimming activities can
be introduced.
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2.4.2.4 ‌Planning and preparation of a physical movement lesson
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CAPS integration
See a great variety of activities that address every category, as set out in the CAPSdocument: (file:///C:/Users/12689866/Documents/Documents/CAPS_FP/Foundation%20
Phase%20CAPS%20Guide.pdf).
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It is recommended that you compile a list of activities from these categories. On the web
or in the library there is a wide variety of simple games, including indigenous games and
dance activities, which can be used.
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Introductory phase: link with the child’s prior knowledge, and explain the goal of the
lesson. Try to integrate the movements with the current theme in classroom work.
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Start with some warm-up movements – locomotor/rhythmic activities/games followed
by a few stretches, which can also serve as body awareness activities.
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The main phase of the lesson will depend on the developmental level, grade, and number
of children in the class, along with the lesson outcome. The outcome should consist of,
for example, between two and five different activity stations, each consisting of its own
movement activities. Divide the class into their groups according to the number of stations.
Each group then does its own circuit, which has been planned and arranged before the
lesson, and in which two or more components of movement development are being
addressed for about five minutes each. The teachers give a signal and the children rotate
to the next station until all the children have visited all the different stations. The teacher
will be situated at the station with difficult activities or where the activity is assessed.
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Activities can, for example, be one-leg hopping around bean bags, walking like a crab,
rolling or throwing a ball or bouncing a ball to a friend or into a basket or monkey-walking
through ropes.
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The conclusion and assessment is a summary or summative assessment in the form of
a few questions such as the following:
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• Which activities were the easiest/most enjoyable/most difficult?
• What did you learn in the lesson?
• Demonstrate the one-leg hopping again.
In conclusion, a body awareness/laterality/spatial orientation activity can be done again,
or can be an activity done in the lesson that the child can practise for homework or play
as a simple game.
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The final part of the conclusion is to calm the children down. They can lie on their backs
and relax with closed eyes.
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Homework should be given in the form of an activity or skill that the children need to
practise at home, like hopping on one leg and keeping their balance for 20 hops, or
showing the bunny hop to their mother at home and asking her if she can do it.
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Assessment is done during the lesson in the form of formative assessment. The teacher
decides beforehand on one activity or skill to be assessed. Each child needs to be observed
during the lesson. The teacher needs to support and correct the activities during the
course of the lesson.
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The above gave you an overview of the different stages of planning a movement lesson.
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Activity 2.5
To understand the role and importance of physical education in the curriculum, read the
article titled “The effect of a 10-week Zulu stick fighting intervention programme…” found
under e-reserves on myUnisa under CDE3701, and write a 250-300 word essay on the role
and value of physical education.
Enrichment activity: see the YouTube video on Zulu stick fighting
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cqfFkzEk1vA
See the YouTube video on Xhosa stick fighting
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M-US1S7Z0fk
See the YouTube video on step-by-step stick fighting
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UNprw2XetSI
The following section includes a variety of different activities to be used when compiling
a lesson on gross and/or fine motor development.
2.4.3 ‌Activities to promote gross motor development
Gross motor development includes using whole-body movements, coordination, and
balance. The following gross motor skills are important in formal school:
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2.4.3.1
T‌ o sit in the correct position at a desk to write requires a child to have physical
endurance and concentrate for at least 15-40 minutes
Exercises to develop a motor skill:
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Tummy exercises
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Apparatus: the body
Divide children into two groups. One group does the tummy exercises and the other
group counts or sings a song.
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The starting position of one group:
• They lie on their backs
• Knees bent, feet flat on the ground
• Put a bean bag between the knees to keep them together
• Hands are resting on the thighs
Let the child "curl up" by raising the head, then the neck, then the shoulder blades while
sliding the hands up to the knees. They hold the position until the other group gives the
signal (counting or singing) to go back down slowly.
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The movements must be slow!
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Tightrope walking
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Apparatus: rope or chalk; bean bag
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Let the children walk along a rope line (or a drawn line) while balancing a bean bag on
the head.
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Make it fun by saying there may be crocodiles (or any animal from their context) in the
water, so do not step off the rope!
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• Make it harder by telling the children to stop, and bend over to touch their knees or
toes or the ground without letting the bean bag drop.
If the children are comfortable with the first exercise, try the following one:
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• Walking heel to toe is harder and requires more core stability.
Encourage the children to WALK SLOWLY; this will require more core muscle control.
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If they keep losing their balance in this activity, then show them where their tummy
muscles are and ask them to pull them tight while they walk.
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They can try pulling their belly button in towards their spine to activate their core muscles.
Some children just do not use their core muscles unless we remind them.
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Leopard crawl
Apparatus: the body
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Children lie on their tummies and pull themselves along with the forearms. They must
not spread the arms too wide, or use the legs too much–the leopard crawl should work
the upper body the most.
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This is a great obstacle course or follow-my-leader activity (especially if an adult is involved).
Doing it under tables and chairs is great motivation, and as an outdoor activity, it lends
itself well to a jungle or army theme.
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Crab walk
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Apparatus: the body
Crabs actually walk sideways, but this is really tricky for children, so start by asking
them to walk backwards for a short distance, keeping the back and tummy straight and
bottom off the ground. Doing the crab walk actually works the core muscles as well as
the shoulder girdle muscles. Children struggle to hold the position at first. The crab walk
is quite demanding, so set a short distance (2-3 metres) for their first endeavour. They
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can play follow-my-leader and later, when they are stronger, the teacher can include an
obstacle course game. As the children’s endurance increases, the distance can increase.
Push the wall, or push my friend or my teacher
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Apparatus: the body
Tell the children the wall is falling down, and they must push against it to keep it up.
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Let them push for a count of 5 or 10 seconds, run around the garden or the classroom,
and then come back for another push.
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Make sure only the hands are on the wall (no forearms, trunk or shoulders), and try to
keep elbows slightly bent.
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For the friend push, have both pushers put their hands together with both pushers
keeping elbows slightly bent.
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Stand with one foot behind the other and on the count of three, PUSH each other as hard
as possible until one of you moves backwards.
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Please take note when conducting this activity:
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Pair the same size children together to minimise the chance of injuries. Consider keeping
boys with boys and girls with girls, and be cautious of children who are prone to bullying
other children during this activity.
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Hand pushes
Apparatus: the body
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The child places his/her palms together, with elbows out and forearms held horizontally.
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Let the child push their hands together as hard as possible and hold for 5 seconds.
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Repeat a few times.
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Chair push-ups
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Apparatus: a chair
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Let the child place his/her hands on either side of the chair and PUSH until their bottom
rises off the chair.
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Hold for 3–5 counts.
As their endurance increases, they can try to lift their feet off the floor and hold them off
while doing the push-ups with their hands on the chair.
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2.4.3.2 ‌To develop good handwriting skills
The child needs to be able to use the hands and eyes well together. The eyes need to guide
the hands in controlling the pencil to form correct shapes and lines to create the letters.
One can say that communication between the eyes and the hands must be good so that
the child can copy, draw or write what they see. Children who struggle to integrate or
coordinate their visual systems and their motor systems may struggle with handwriting as
well as with other school activities.
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Visual-motor integration (VMI): the ability to correctly perceive a form from, for example,
the board and correctly replicate it on paper. Children with poor VMI often struggle to
form letters well and struggle to copy drawings.
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Eye-hand coordination: requires the eyes to visually guide the movement. It does not
usually involve visual perception. Children with poor eye-hand coordination may struggle
to start and stop the pencil in the space given and may miss or overshoot the lines.
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Exercises to develop eye-hand coordination through gross motor games:
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Once the child has had lots of practise catching and hitting a suspended ball, you can
try a ball-wall throw.
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Ball-wall throw
Apparatus: ball
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• Let the children throw the ball against a wall and catch it again.
• The teacher will need to experiment to find the most effective distance from the wall
•
– it depends on the type of ball, and how forcefully the child throws it, but encourage
the child to start with a gentle throw.
See how many times the child can catch before missing and keep a running record of
the best score. Encourage the child to better the score each time.
Diketo
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Apparatus: small pebbles or any small hard objects; small hole in the ground
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• The child throws the object in the air and the moment the object is in the air; the
child’s other hand scoops out an additional object from the hole. The child throws the
object in the air again and at the same time, puts the other object back in the hole.
Threading and lacing
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Apparatus: beads or macaroni, and laces
Threading beads is a fine motor activity that can be used inside or outside the classroom.
Use chunky beads and laces if the child struggles, or have them thread beads onto a pipe
cleaner or string macaroni.
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2.4.3.3 F‌ or the correct spacing of written work on the page, the child needs to have
midline crossing, directionality, spatial perception, and planning skills
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Exercises to work on these areas are as follows:
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The “Lazy-8” has long been a popular way to help a child to cross the midline.
Apparatus: rope or chalk to form or draw a lazy-8.
It can be drawn on the board or in the sand, and the child can hop, skip and jump in the
lines.
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The rope song
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Apparatus: rope and a song
The children stand in a circle and hold on to a rope. Three children hold two ropes that
have been joined together to make a longer one.
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Start clapping a beat or singing a song and have the children move the rope hand over
hand around the circle in a rhythmical way.
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They should be crossing the midline as they reach from side to side.
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Catching a ball/bean bag
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Apparatus: ball or bean bag
One child is the thrower and stands slightly to the side, so the catcher must turn the
upper body to catch and throw the ball. Do the activity on both sides of the body, and
gradually increase the angle from which the ball is thrown to increase the amount of
midline crossing.
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Simple relays
Apparatus: any object
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Any object could be used, as long as the child passes and receives the object with both
hands. Make sure that they are sitting either cross-legged or are on their knees.
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Ball passing
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Apparatus: ball or bean bag
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Two children sit back to back and pass the ball around to each other. They do it five times in
each direction as a warm-up for other gross motor activities, or as a break from desk tasks
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Throwing at a target
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Name of the activity: Stable trunk
Apparatus: ball or bean bag
In this game, the child is seated and throws across the midline to a target with the
dominant hand. Care must be taken not to rotate the trunk because then the child does
not cross the midline. The child’s hips and legs must stay facing forward and only the
upper body turns.
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2.4.3.4 F‌ or a child to learn to read well, they need good visual tracking and focusing
skills. Hand-eye coordination can help the child with visual tracking and to
catch a ball in sports
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Name of the activity: Catch the bag
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Apparatus: bean bag or ball
In this game, the child can throw a bean bag or ball and catch it again. Alternatively, a
friend can throw the object for the child to catch. Groups of five can stand in a circle with
one child in the middle. The child in the middle throws the ball or bean bag randomly to
any other child. This requires all the children to be alert throughout the game.
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Object relays
Can be played indoors or outdoors and the whole family can take part.
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Works on: bilateral as well as hand-eye coordination.
Name of the activity: Relay on the go
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Apparatus: any relay object
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Rules of the game:
• The children stand in a line and pass the ball/object to the child behind them.
• Do it overhead, then between the legs.
• Encourage the kids to use both hands together.
• Make it more fun by having a bucket of objects at the front that has to be transferred
to an empty bucket at the back.
• You can do this in fireman relay style, where everyone keeps their place, or have the
last kid run to the front after placing the object in the bucket at the back, that way
they all get a turn to be in front.
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Hang a ball in a net (or any object)
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Name of the activity: Hanging ball
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Apparatus: ball in a fruit or veggie bag, rope, anchor to hang the ball in the bag from, bat.
• Use a net bag (the kind that you get fruit and veggies in)
• Pop a ball in and knot it
• Tie it to a length of rope
• The rope needs to be long enough to get the ball level with the child’s chest
• Hang the ball from any horizontal pole or even from a hook in a doorway
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Push and Catch:
The child needs to watch the ball carefully to catch it again with both hands together,
and not let it bang against the body.
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Bat and Ball:
Use a bat and have the child practise hitting the ball with the bat. Use a variety of bats
to increase the challenge for the child.
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Older kids can use smaller balls (e.g. tennis balls) to increase the challenge. Remind the
child not to hit the ball too forcefully to avoid being hit in the face with a rebound!
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As an extra challenge, ask the child to clap or twirl between pushing the ball away and
catching it again.
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2.4.3.5 B
‌ asic maths skills involve rhythmic counting, which can help the child to internalise number sequences
Name of the activity: (depends on the apparatus). “Hop in the hoops” or “hopscotch” or
“aim for the target”.
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Apparatus: Hoops; a target; chalk to draw a hopscotch diagram
During informal games, encourage the children to count their jumps or throws. Alternatively,
include number recognition in games like hopscotch or target throwing. Introduce skip
counting in 2s or 7s or 9s to exercise times tables and motor skills.
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2.4.3.6 Dance activities
Music and dance together offer social, mental and physical enjoyment and development.
To integrate music and dance helps children to build motor skills and allows them to
express themselves. Foundation phase children must concentrate on the movements
and on the rhythm to strengthen their memory skills. The children further socialise, and
develop language movement and rhythm. Dance further develops laterality and space
orientation when they change directions while moving and changing the body shape
and size of movement space.
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When playing music in the physical development classroom, a climate for relaxing,
expressing feelings and excitement is created. A good choice of music can contribute
to the enhancement of movement without children realising it.
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McGreevy-Nichols, Scheff and Sprague (2005) underline the fact that it is important to
establish the basic rhythm of the music to fit the movements that are planned. Thus, the
teacher needs to keep the following in mind:
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• What is the goal of the lesson and how can the music enhance it? This means that the
music and the movements must fit.
• The choice of music must fit the age group.
• Songs can be repeated, but not too many times since, it can become monotonous.
• Alternate the music and rhythm for the different components of the activities.
• The choice of music should be such that it would motivate participants and stimulate
them to want to move.
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Through dance, children can be exposed to different cultures.
2.4.4 ‌Teacher preparation for promoting fine motor development
The development of children’s fine motor skills begins within the centre of their bodies and
moves outwards. Poor core stability, weak shoulder girdle muscles, weak hand muscles,
and poor coordination skills can all affect the child's ability to use the hand and finger
muscles effectively. Through appropriate development, children will, in the long run, be
able to undertake fine and intricate movements. Fine manipulation skills include using
finger movements and hand-eye coordination.
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OT Mom Learning Activities (2017) explains fine motor development as a four-legged
chair in which each leg represents one of the bases for fine motor skills. If one of those
legs is missing or crooked, the chair will wobble and fall over. Thus, each of the four legs
is important for the chair to be stable.
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Leg one:
postural control and stability
The big muscles of the shoulder girdle and core needs to be strong and stable for the
smaller muscles of the arms and hands to move freely and in a controlled way. When a
child lacks stability in the shoulder girdle and trunk, they may hold the pencil too tightly
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since they try to get more control over it, or they may press too hard on the paper also to
control the pencil. This results in tension in the shoulders during these fine motor tasks.
Trying to use a pencil or scissors without adequate stability of the large shoulder girdle
and trunk muscles is like trying to sit on a three-legged chair. It takes a lot of effort and
it is tiring.
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The following exercises will help to strengthen the shoulder girdle and core:
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Making bridges
Name of the activity: Body bridges
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Apparatus: the body
Let the child keep his/her knees and feet together while lifting the bottom off the ground
with the arms. This exercise strengthens the muscles around the hips and back, which
are all part of the core. The child must hold the bridge position for a few seconds. In time,
increase the duration of holding the bridge and the number of repetitions.
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To make it fun, a friend can push toy vehicles under the body bridge.
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Leg lifts
Name of the activity: Flamingo
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Apparatus: the body
Let the child stand behind the chair so the left hand is resting lightly on the back of the
chair. Slowly lift the left leg, keeping the knee bent until the hip is bent 90 degrees.
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The tricky part is to hold it and slowly lower the leg ALMOST to the ground, but do not
touch the ground. Raise the leg again and repeat the exercise a few times. Remember
to turn around and to repeat the exercise with the right leg. In time, let the child move
away from the chair and keep their balance while lifting one leg.
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If the child keeps losing his/her balance, then show them where the tummy muscles
are and ask them to pull them tight while lifting the leg. They can try pulling their belly
button in towards their spine to activate their core muscles.
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*See activities under f‌ or more core exercises
Leg two:
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tactile perception
Tactile perception, or touch perception, is the brain’s ability to understand or perceive
information coming through the skin. Leg two focuses on the skin on the hands. The
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hand’s duty is to register sensory information and the brain then uses this information
to guide the hands during an activity.
If the fingers do not give good tactile or touch feedback to the brain, it is difficult for the
brain to process the information accurately. Poor tactile or touch feedback is like wearing
gloves; one cannot really feel the objects and the hands are clumsy. Children with poor
tactile perception tend to drop small items and let things slip out of their grasp. They
tend to hold items or objects with too much force, so they can "feel" it properly.
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The following exercises will help to improve tactile perception:
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Touching objects in a feel bag
Name of the activity: Bag surprises
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Apparatus: hands; a bag (can be an old handbag or a cloth bag); bucket with sand; bucket
with rice; a box with holes for the hands and arms; objects such as plastic forks, dice and
Lego blocks.
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Hide a few objects in the bag or bucket with sand or rice. The child needs to feel and find
an object and describe what it is. You can hide matching objects that the child needs to
find.
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For more fun, ask the child to find a specific object. Another game is for a friend who
knows what is in the bag to describe an object that the child must find in the bag.
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One can also put different shapes or plastic animals in a bag and ask the child to find a
specific shape or animal.
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Leg three:
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hand function
Hand function is significant for fine motor development. The hand and finger muscles need
to work well together in order to control pencils and other small objects and tools.
The wrist and forearm are also important since they steer the hand into the best position
to control fine motor tools.
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Teaching a child to use scissors
Learning to cut involves two different skills:
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• Mastering the grasp-release motion of the scissors.
• Mastering the art of cutting on a line. (Make sure your left-handed child uses lefthanded scissors – this is very important).
Mastering the grasp-release motion of the scissors is to enable a child to open and close
the scissors. Use a spray bottle to exercise the squeezing and releasing of the trigger. This
will help the child to get the feeling of a repetitive grasp-release motion with the whole
hand. Give the child the assignment to water some plants in the classroom or outside.
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Another exercise is to use washing pegs.
Activity:
• Use washing pegs to pick up bits of crumpled paper or other objects and transfer
them into a container.
• Let the child place washing pegs around an empty egg carton.
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Mastering cutting. Make sure the child uses an appropriate scissor grasp.
• Thumb in one hole, and middle finger through the other.
• The index finger can rest on the outside of the scissors, or be in the same hole as the
middle finger if the whole is big enough.
• Encourage the child to hold the paper off the table with the assistant hand. Thumb
on top and fingers underneath is the best position for the assistant hand.
• Encourage the child to cut around shapes the correct way. Right-handers should cut to
•
•
the right of the shape, and left-handers should cut to the left of the shape. Cutting
around shapes in the correct direction will help the child to get the blade of the scissors
to stay on the line more effectively and should help the child to cut more smoothly.
Encourage the child to start cutting lines on the line furthest from the holding hand.
This will encourage more efficient cutting as the child will not need to keep picking
up the cut-off piece in order to keep cutting.
Start with thick and straight lines. Then move on to cutting circles and spirals. This
will help the child to understand the need to move the paper with the assistant hand
while cutting. (See “Free cutting templates” of OT Mom’s attached at the back of the
learning unit).
Now that the child has mastered the scissors, the following activities can be done for
effective hand function:
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Apparatus: Scissors; paper; playdough
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Cutting with scissors is a good option to help a child develop good hand function.
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Playdough is an old time favourite. The child can squash, squeeze, roll and pound the
playdough.
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Tripod fingers
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Apparatus: fingers; small pieces of paper
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The child holds a small piece of paper under the ring and little fingers. By keeping the ring
and little finger tucked away, a distal transverse metacarpal arch (DTM arch) forms. This
is an arch that forms across the hand by the knuckles. This arch is important as it gives
stability to the joints and muscles of the hands while the tripod fingers are moving and
thus reduces fatigue during handwriting.
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Finger ball walk
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Apparatus: fingers; small ball
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With the thumb, pointer finger and middle fingers “walk” a ball up and down the leg,
Walking DOWN the leg takes more control than walking up. Once they have mastered
walking their fingers, isolate the tripod fingers as explained above and try again.
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Vary the size and type of ball used. If the child has a "lazy thumb", try using just the thumb
and index fingers to walk the ball.
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Playdough finger gym
Apparatus: fingers; playdough
Use the tripod fingers to roll out small balls with a rolling movement of the fingers
and small sausages with a back and forth movement of the fingers. Sausages can be
easier than balls at first. The child can cut the sausages with scissors and then roll it back
into a ball or sausage.
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Another finger gym activity is to make a pinch pot with playdough. Make tripod fingers
by popping a piece of dough under the ring and little fingers of the dominant hand.
Take a ball of playdough, insert the thumb in the centre of a ball, and use the index and
middle fingers to pinch the outside of the pot.
231
Roll small balls to put in the pinch pot. Again, isolate the tripod fingers and then those
three fingers work together to roll small balls to put in the pot. This activity of rolling
small balls with three fingers can be very tricky for a child who has poor fine motor skills,
so give lots of encouragement and praise.
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Leg four:
234
bilateral coordination
The two hands need to work well together for fine motor tasks to be effective.
• Eating with a knife, spoon, and fork
• Holding a piece of paper while cutting
• Tying shoelaces
• Playing with construction toys, nuts, and bolts
• Knitting and crocheting are fine motor activities that need both hands to work together in a coordinated way
Children with poor bilateral coordination skills may end up avoiding these fine motor
activities, which hampers the development of their fine motor skills.
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Some creative ideas for some more fine motor activities:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PC6vKh3bhTI
2.4.5 ‌Parent involvement for promoting physical development
Although physical education provides children with a variety of activities and movements,
time is not sufficient in the curriculum for promoting an active lifestyle. For children to
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develop an active lifestyle, it is imperative they receive these messages from home. Epstein
(2011) advocate that parents be the first teachers of their children who model culturally
relevant skills for their children at home before they begin formal education. Epstein
further encompasses six types of parent involvement in schools: (1) parenting support
and education, (2) school and home communication, (3) volunteering, (4) learning at home,
(5) decision-making, and (6) collaborating with the community. The teacher needs to
recognise and enhance these roles by making an effort to involve parents and caregivers
in the child’s physical development. To develop partnerships to foster parent involvement,
the teacher can, for example, ask parents to share their cultural indigenous knowledge,
skills, and behaviours with the children, which can include cultural or traditional dances,
music or games to play in the movement classroom.
Eccles and Harold (1991) refer to the four values that can influence physical activity in
children from the side of the parents or caregivers:
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Parental encouragement refers to clear verbal or non-verbal forms of inspiration for
children to be active. For example, the parent makes a direct effort to get the child to play
outside, or an indirect effort to encourage the child to develop an interest in being active.
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Parental involvement refers to direct assistance or involvement in the child's activity.
For example, by walking or jogging with the child, playing ball, or practising any form of
physical skills. Although the activity has physical benefits, the parent-child engagement
has more emotional benefits.
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Parental facilitation refers to a parent’s efforts to encourage children to take part in
physical activities by obtaining the necessary equipment for them. This can include a
pair of running shoes, soccer clothes or a hockey stick. Facilitation further includes taking
responsibility for taking children to extramural activities or to a safe environment to be
active in for example, a play park.
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Parent role model refers to a parent modelling an active lifestyle for their child. The child
observes, from the behaviour of the parent, that exercise is important and valued in the
home. The active lifestyle can include structured sports programmes or healthy activity
patterns like walking to the store or working in the garden.
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Activity 2.6
The above underlined the importance of parental involvement. Do some research and,
based on Epstein’s six types of parent involvement in schools – (1) parenting support
and education, (2) school and home communication, (3) volunteering, (4) learning at home,
(5) decision-making, and (6) collaborating with the community – work out an action plan,
which includes the six above mentioned types of parents’ or caregivers’ involvement into
your movement education.
Enrichment articles
Joyce, H. Involving parents in schools (2017). https://oxfordre.com/socialwork/
view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199975839.001.0001/acrefore-9780199975839-e-1233
Graham, E. 10 Ideas for Engaging Parents (2019).
Educators share their best ideas for communicating and partnering with parents.
http://www.nea.org/tools/56945.htm
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To learn more about the parent-teacher relationship, read the article titled “Parent-teacher
relationships across community types,” which can be found under e-reserves on myUnisa
under CDE3701, and answer these questions:
(1) From the article, what is your opinion regarding parental involvement in rural, suburban and urban communities?
(2) With your context in mind, how involved are parents in the school and give a reason
for your answer?
(3) Why do you think that parental involvement differs between communities?
2.5 ‌FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
2.5.1
‌The effects of nutrition and obesity on physical development
Obesity is usually the result of excessive calorie intake and low physical activity rates that
cause a child to be well over the normal or healthy weight for his/her age and height. Eating
behaviour that influences excess weight gain usually includes a diet of high calories, low
nutrient foods, and beverages. The Heart and Stroke Foundation of South Africa (2018)
states that 14.2% of primary school children are overweight, of which 30% is girls living
in urban areas. In South Africa, cultural beliefs and inadequate nutrition knowledge lull
parents into inaction. For parents and children who are not exposed to environments
that support healthy food habits, the choices to follow a balanced diet will be difficult.
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If an infant is overweight, the risk of being an overweight child, adolescent, and adult
increases. Children of overweight parents and children subjected to malnutrition during
pregnancy or infancy are likely to become obese later in life. Health risks of children as young
as three years that are associated with obesity include hypertension, diabetes, respiratory
illnesses, and posture related deviances like flat feet and genu valgum (knock-knees).
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Du Toit (2015) states that various studies found a relationship exists between obesity and
insufficient gross motor skills development of children, since obese children are apt to
avoid physical activity like fundamental locomotor skills, running, hopping, jumping and
dynamic balance and catching exercises.
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2.5.1.1
‌What is the role of the physical education teacher?
• Educate the children and the parents on healthy nutrition and the risks of obesity. Es•
•
•
•
tablish with the parents the reason for their child’s obesity. Inform them about calorie
imbalance, gland dysfunction or emotional problems – all possible reasons for obesity.
Build the child’s self-worth, self-confidence, and self-concept.
With the child’s ability level and weight in mind, start working on their gross motor skills.
Where possible, consult a dietician along with the parents to develop a healthy eating
plan and exercise programme with short and long-term goals in which the child can
to lose ‌0.5 kg per week.
If that is not possible, encourage the parents and child to develop an active lifestyle
at home.
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2.5.2 ‌The effects of genes and environment on physical development
Read this part along with the socioecological theory of Bronfenbrenner (LU1).
247
Every child has a different pattern of behaviour and personality. Heredity factors (nature),
as well as the environment (nurture), play an important role in the development of the
child’s personality and other qualities (Erikson, 1950). A child cannot be born without
genes and heredity cannot develop without a decent environment. A child’s genes are
present from the moment of conception and environmental conditions influence the child
holistically from the beginning. A child (that includes all of us) carries physiological and
psychological uniqueness coming from the 23 pairs of chromosomes, of which one will
be the sex-determining chromosome. These factors determine the physical characteristics
like height, weight, the colour of the eyes and skin, and social and intellectual behaviour.
The “X” chromosome of the mother plus an “X” chromosome of the father will result in a
girl (XX = homogametic) and an “X” chromosome of the mother and a “Y” chromosome
of the father result in a boy (XY = heterogametic).
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The environment is the surroundings in which the child grows up and is divided into
the natural and the social. Natural surroundings are things like the house, buildings in
the neighbourhood, school building, trees and roads. The social environment is the
consciousness of the society the child grows up in. This will include things like language,
culture, customs, traditions, family, social groups, friends, children, and teachers in the
school. This social environment has the biggest influence on a child’s behaviour and
personality.
249
It is thus clear that genes and environment cannot be viewed in isolation. Both have
a great influence on the development of the child. The school and teachers have the
responsibility to develop a healthy educational pattern and learning environment for the
children. Knowledge of both the heredity and environmental issues of the children is of
utmost importance to the teachers, administrators and educational planners, because
with this knowledge educators can really understand and support children according to
their needs. The following principles need to be considered by the teacher:
250
• Knowledge of the heredity and environment issues of the child might help the teacher
•
to understand and address the different needs and abilities of the children. With this
knowledge, the teacher can accommodate both the gifted children and support other
children.
It will further help the teacher to provide a better learning environment for the children, meaning he/she will be able to organise various curricular and co-curricular
programmes to the benefit of the different children.
With the above in mind, one can come to the conclusion that if a child is exposed to a
healthy and active home and school environment in which he/she gets support and
encouragement to be active, the child will demonstrate a positive association with a healthy
lifestyle (Beets, Cardinal & Alderman, 2010; Lindqvist, Kostenius, Gard and Rutberg, 2015).
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2.5.3 ‌The effect of cultural practices on physical development
The developing of positive attitudes towards one’s own culture is important and should
be developed to enable children to become increasingly aware and appreciative of the
value of the diversity of cultures and languages that exist in South Africa. During physical
activities, the cultural identity of all children must be cherished to help children recognise
and gain a positive awareness of their own and other cultures. For example, games
and activities should keep the collective consciousness of cooperation of the African
child in mind. The child sees him/herself as a part or as being at one with others, and
self-identity is external and inclusive. The Zulu saying of “umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu”
– meaning “a person is a person through others” – is applicable since sharing fosters a
spirit of cooperation. It happens from time to time that conflict arises during movement
activities. The African cultures view conflict through the spirit of collective responsibility
or sociocentrism. Collective responsibility leads to a greater sense of group cohesiveness
and altruism. The Western culture, on the other hand, will view conflict as the responsibility
of the individual or egocentrism of those are involved (Mbiti, 1989; Ndaba, 1994).
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2.5.4 ‌The effect of gender differences on physical development
The physiques of boys and girls in the foundation phase are remarkably similar when
viewed from a posterior position, since their gross motor skills develop at almost the
same rate. As a group, both genders jump, run, and throw a ball with about equal ease,
although there are significant differences among individual boys and girls. Boys and girls
have similar amounts of muscle and bone mass, and both genders show a gradual decrease
in fatty tissue as they progress through the phase. The boys might be slightly taller and
heavier than the girls are and tend to be more active. Similarly, boys and girls can be
restless if they need to be still for a long time. Boys can be more prone to being physically
aggressive when frustrated. Both genders have their slow and fast developers. Therefore,
a child’s maturation versus chronological age needs to be considered during physical
development and movement activities. Maturation refers to the process of becoming
mature, and chronological age is the number of years the child has lived. Chronological
age provides a rough index of development levels and although development is age
related, it is not age dependent. Gallahue and Donnelly (2003) further indicate that girls’
skeletal development is normally quicker than that of boys and the difference increases
with age. Thus, the fat-bone relation increases in girls as they grow older, while the
opposite happens with boys.
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The head sizes of both genders changes from a relation of 1:3 during birth to that of 1:5
with regard to total body length. Leg length increases fivefold (with boys completed at
approximately 15 years and girls at approximately 13 years), arm length fourfold, and the
trunk, threefold. The trunk’s final growth takes place only after the leg length’s growth
phase has been completed. The limbs grow proportionally more than the rest of the body,
which can, therefore, lead to temporary uncoordinated movements during these growth
phases. From approximately 10 years of age, girls develop broader hips and boys broader
shoulders. The point of gravity moves lower in girls and this leads to greater stability and
balance, which proves to be an advantage for girls in balancing acts. Lateral growth in
the hips and shoulders give boys an advantage in arm actions and running activities. The
sensory apparatus of both genders are still developing and, by age 12, their eyeballs reach
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full size. The macula of the retina is not completely developed until the age of 6 years
and young child are generally farsighted. This is an important reason why these children
have difficulty fixating on and intercepting moving objects (Du Toit, 2002).
2.5.5 ‌The effect of illness and accident injuries on physical development
The following are some guidelines for the teacher to keep in mind for children with
handicaps or medical conditions:
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2.5.5.1 ‌Diabetes
Diabetes mellitus is a condition that occurs when the pancreas does not make enough
insulin (type 1 diabetes) or the body cannot respond normally to the insulin that is made
(type 2 diabetes). This reaction causes glucose levels in the blood to rise, which results in
symptoms like increased urination, extreme thirst, and unexplained weight loss. Insulin
is a hormone that controls the glucose levels in the blood and glucose is the main source
of energy in the body cells that are responsible for body functioning.
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Tips for the teacher:
• Let the child eat something before starting the activities
• Drink enough water, before, during and after the activities
• Warm up and give relaxing exercises afterward
• Always keep something to eat at hand
• Be alert to the following signs:
Table: 2.7: Hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia
Hypoglycemia
Hyperglycemia
Shakiness
Increased thirst
Dizziness
Headaches
Sweating
Trouble concentrating
Extreme hunger
Blurred vision
Irritability
Frequent urination
Moodiness
Fatigue
Anxiety
Weight loss
Nervousness
Blood sugar more than 180 mg/dl
Headache
2.5.5.2 Epilepsy
Epilepsy is a disorder of the brain’s electrical system. Abnormal electrical impulses cause
brief changes in movement, behaviour, sensation, or awareness. These interruptions, known
as seizures, may last from a few seconds to a few minutes. Children who experienced
two or more seizures are considered to have epilepsy. Epilepsy is best known for causing
convulsions. However, seizures can trigger a wide range of symptoms, from staring to fall
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to fumbling with clothes. Doctors classify seizures into several types depending on how
the brain is affected. Each type has different symptoms.
259
The two broad groupings of epilepsy
• General seizures:
−
−
Convulsive; and
Non-convulsive.
• Partial seizures.
They usually begin with a stiffening of the arms and legs, followed by jerking motions.
The convulsions last up to 3 minutes, after which the child may be tired and confused.
This type of seizure involves abnormal electrical activity involving both sides of the brain.
260
Absence seizures: Absence seizures are often described as staring spells. The child stops
what he/she is doing and stares vacantly for a few seconds, then continues as if nothing
happened. This type of seizure is more common in children and usually starts between
ages 4 and 12. Some children experience up to 100 absence seizures in a day.
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262
Symptoms/characteristics of a grand mal seizure:
• Breathing stops
• Muscles will become stiff and rigid; wrists contract
• Eyes are half open, but eyelids are stiff
• The child may cry, groan or grunt and fall to the ground
• The child will have convulsions where the arms and legs will jerk
• Will turn blue due to a lack of oxygen
• Will have foam at the mouth
• May bite the tongue or inside of the mouth
• Could lose control over the bladder and wet him/herself
• Fall into a deep unconsciousness
• After a few minutes, the seizure will cease
• The child will now be disorientated and sleepy
Symptoms of a petit mal seizure: There is no seizure.
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The child will:
264
• Stare for a few seconds due to a short period of unconsciousness
• Twitch or blink
• Chew
• It may seem as if the child is daydreaming
Tips for the teacher:
265
• Be aware that the child may become very tired
• Avoid quick changes from one activity to the next
• Attacks usually occur straight after exercising, thus be aware during cooling down
exercises
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Table: 2.8: Tips for the teacher
If a child gets an attack
Let him/her lie on the floor
Remove any objects close by that might hurt the
child
Loosen tight clothing, like a belt or a shirt
button
If the child has difficulty in breathing, lift the head
backwards to open up the airway
After the attack, cover the child with a blanket
or a towel if there was loss of bladder control
Let the child rest
Inform the parents/caregivers
266
Asthma
This is a chronic lung disease that is characterised by temporary airway obstruction
through narrowing, inflammation and increased reaction to a variety of stimuli.
267
Tips for the teacher:
268
• Child should warm up sufficiently
• Let the child rest often and enough
• Make sure the child has his/her asthma medication close by during exercises
• Always end the class with sufficient relaxation activities
2.5.5.3 ‌Cerebral palsy
Cerebral palsy (CP) is a form of paralysis caused by damage or injuries to parts of the brain
that control the ability to use some muscles. The muscles can also be only too weak to use
or to control, resulting in the muscle tone being too loose, too light, or a combination of
both. Muscle tone is what keeps the body in a certain position. Changing the muscle tone
enables us to move, for example, walking, or moving our head up, down or sideways. When
bending an arm, the tone in the muscle increases to support the arm to bend (shorten
it), or when stretching the arm again, the tone decreases. The muscle tone controls this
movement so that it is a smooth movement. Children with CP cannot change muscle
tone smoothly and this results in jerky movements.
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Tips for the teacher:
270
• Adapt to the child’s individual abilities
• Warm up with quite a few stretching exercises
• Include several body awareness activities
• Include activities that focus on locomotor, balance and rhythmical skills
• Let the child rest often
• Cool down with enough relaxation exercises
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2.5.5.4 ‌Muscle dystrophy
This is a progressive illness of the muscle system that is characterised by weakness and
atrophy of the muscles in the body.
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272
Tips for the teacher:
• Warm up with sufficient stretching exercises
• Adapt to the child’s abilities
• Rest often
• Keep in mind that the child’s balance is affected and that they might fall
• Choose a “buddy” for each lesson who moves with the child and helps with movements such as walking, getting up and balancing
• Cool down with relaxing exercises
2.5.5.5 Auditory impairments
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Children with hearing impairments may be hard of hearing or deaf.
Deafness means the child cannot hear.
Hard of hearing means the child can hear, but some loss of hearing is experienced. The
severity of the hearing loss differs from child to child. This means there are different levels
of hearing loss.
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276
Tips for the teacher:
• Develop motor skills with the help of rhythmical games and music
• Specifically, concentrate on balance activities
• Let the auditory impaired child stand close to the teacher or the music source
• Do activities where children work together in pairs
• Make use of a shrill whistle, or lights (if possible) when giving instructions
2.5.5.6 Visual impairment
Visual impairment includes various visual problems ranging from low vision (partial sight)
to blindness (total loss of vision). Children who are totally blind are usually placed in a
special school.
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Blindness refers to a child with no vision or children who can, to some extent, distinguish
between light and dark.
278
Partial sight or low vision children can see, but have significant loss of vision.
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280
Blind or partial sight is measured based on visual acuity.
Characteristics of motor development of blind children include behavioural deviations,
deficits in all perceptual-motor skills, weak body-motor skills, and weak body awareness
and balance problems.
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Tips for the teacher:
282
• Use sound or vibration where possible during movement activities, for example, balls
•
•
•
with bells inside, whistles, mats to feel where and how to stand, or put up a rope to
indicate where the child must run.
Make sure the environment is safe
Make the child aware of any changes in the classroom
Teach movement with lots of physical contact and guidance
2.5.5.7 ‌Movement activities for children with physical handicaps
Each child has his/her individual needs. The following are general guidelines that can
apply to children with similar needs.
283
Tips for the teacher:
284
Rules, prompts & clues
285
• Demonstrate/modify activity
• Use “buddies” as partners
• Modify time limits
• Oral prompts
• Provide more/different space between students
• Eliminate outs/strike-outs
• Allow a ball to remain still
• Allow a batter to sit in a chair
• Place children with a disability close to the teacher
Equipment
286
• Differently sized and weighted bats (e.g. larger and lighter)
• Scoops for catching
• Use of Velcro to easier catch balls with material (e.g. tennis ball)
• Adjust the height and size of the goal/target (e.g. lower/higher or smaller/larger)
• Mark positions on playing field
• Varying balls or equipment (size, weight, colour, texture)
Boundary/playing field
287
• Decrease distance
• Use well-defined boundaries
• Adapt play area (smaller; obstacles removed)
• Simplify patterns
Actions
288
• Change locomotor patterns
• Modify body positions
• Modify grasps
80
• Reduce the number of actions
• Provide frequent rest periods
Time
289
• Vary the tempo
• Lengthen or shorten the time
• Slow the activity pace
• Provide frequent rest periods
Activity 2.7: Article
Read the article titled “When Teachers’ and Parents’ Values Differ: Teachers’ Ratings of Academic Competence in Children from Low-Income Families” under e-reserves on myUnisa
under CDE3701 and complete the following activity.
When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of the learning unit:
• Explain and contextualise concepts related to physical development
• Discuss the importance of physical development through contextual examples and
case studies
• Reflect on implications of physical development for own practise:
(1) Reflect on your own attitude regarding children from a low socioeconomic
background
(2) Are your expectations the same for children from different socioeconomic
backgrounds?
(3) How do you perceive the parents of children from a low socioeconomic background?
(4) Are your (school’s) perspectives and values on raising children aligned with that
of the parents from diverse contexts?
(5) What measures can the school and you as the teacher take to become familiar with
the range of cultural scripts and underlying belief systems from diverse cultural
groups in one classroom?
2.6 ‌CONCLUSION
In this learning unit, you examined the importance of the physical development of the
young child’s body growth, how a teacher can present motor development in a creative
way and accommodate cultural diversity in the classroom, how to involve parents, and
lastly, we focused on factors that influence physical development.
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293
Skills: Throw to target, 3-legged walk
Values: Taking turns
Knowledge: Traffic rules, left and right
Activity
Lesson Outcomes:
Time
Body awareness
Locomotor skills
5
min.
Static balance
Total body
coordination
the waist, balances on one leg
10 sec., L&R, O&C eyes
Rope skipping with hoop
•
• Each child holds hoop around
Middle phase/lesson body
8
min.
Introduction
waists and move within the
rope track – hop forward, backwards, L+R, hop on two feet
and skip. Look L+R, stay on L
side of the road, stop at stop
signs
Road safety
Theme
Number of children
Grade/age
Assessment
• Hoops
stop signs)
Apparatus
30
6 years
Class set-up/organisation
Formative: Traffic rules, 3-legged walk
Summative: Throw to target
Perceptual-motor, laterality, rhythm, locomotor
16 May 2019
flat tire”), L+R, hop on two feet
(“over bumps”), skip. Look L+R,
stay on L side of the road, stop
at stop signs
Story
Components
Date
OOOOOOOO
OOOOOOO
O
sticker
• Each child with a hoop on a
• Linking with prior knowledge – • “We are a snowman that is melt- • 16 hoops • Each child in a hoop on a
traffic rules; stop at a stop sign;
ing; first his fingers, then his hand • 16 stickers
sticker
drive on the left
...”
OOOOOOOO
• 8 ropes
Children
stretch
up,
then
relax
“Who
touches
something
green
cones,
stop
•
•
•
OOOOOOO
one limb at a time until they fall
first with you ... e.g.”
signs (Stop
O
to the floor
• Drive with “cars” in the road – signs = cones • Track
• Children hold hoops around hop forward, backwards (“one with paper ropes (road) laid out with
Physical Education
Topic
Component
Life Skills
Subject
Movement development lesson for foundation phase children
Appendix 2.1
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CDE3701/1
Component
2
min.
Sum. assessment
Homework
Relaxing/body
awareness
Conclusion
Foot-eye
coordination
Hand-eye
coordination
5
min.
3
min.
Dynamic balance,
spatial orientation
5
min.
Introduction
Time
Apparatus
———— ———- O
OO
OO
OO
 O  O
Class set-up/organisation
bed and sleeps”
rolling wheel?”
• Bean bags
bags
• Assessment: children do the 3-leg- • “What do we do at a stop sign? • Hoops
ged walk
On which side of the road do we
• Children walk a few steps on drive?”
one foot and two hands
• “Who can show me again how a
monkey with a sore leg walks? Go
• Give homework
• Stretch out, lie in a bundle in and practise it at home!”
the hoop
• “Kitten gets sleepy, curls up in
kick
• Place bb on foot, kick up and
catch bb
• Hold bb by its seam, drop and
•
•
in the hoop (stand further each
time)
Throw bb underhand in the
hoop
Teacher rolls one hoop in
front of the children, throw bb
through the hoop
Children in hoops on stickers
OOOOOOOO
OOOOOOO
O
Children on stickers
........
.......
from hoops
........
OOOOOOOO
.......
OOOOOOO
• Throw bean bag (bb) over-hand • “Who can throw and hit the car’s • Hoops, bean Children stand on stickers, 2m
sore leg (one leg and 2 hands)
on ropes, two-legged hop with
½ turn in each hoop, crab walk
between cones (2-3 times)
Story
• Circuit 1: Heel-toe walk on • “Don’t fall off the bridge, there are 12 Hoops, 4
• 2 ropes in a straight line, then
ropes, monkey walk in hoops
crocodiles in the water!”
ropes, 12 cones
hoop placed in line, then 6
(don’t touch), one leg hop be- • “The poor monkey has stepped
cones in a line
tween cones (2-3 times)
(2 identical circuits)
on a thorn!”
____a____ b
• Circuit 2: Monkey walk with a
————
———O
Activity
2.7 REFERENCES
Anderson, P. & Butcher, K. (2006). Childhood obesity: Trends and potential causes. The
Future of Children, 16(1), 19–45.
Awopegba, P.O., Oduolowu, E.A. & Nsamenang, A.B. (2013). Fundamentals of Teacher Education Development. Indigenous Early Childhood Care and Education (IECCE) Curriculum
Framework for Africa: A Focus on Context and Contents. UNESCO: International Institute
for Capacity Building in Africa, Addis Ababa.
Bailey, R. (2006). Physical education and sport in schools: A review of benefits and outcomes.
Journal of School Health, 76(8), 397–401.
Baltes, P.B. (1987). Theoretical propositions of lifespan developmental psychology: On
the dynamics between growth and decline. Developmental Psychology (23), 611–626.
Curtis, S. (1982). The joy of movement. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Datar, A. & Sturm, R. (2004). Physical education in elementary school and body mass
index: Evidence from the early childhood longitudinal study. American Journal of
Public Health, 94(9), 1501–1506. Retrieved from Wilsonweb Journal Directory database.
Datar, A., Sturm, R. & Magnabosco, J.L. (2004). Childhood overweight and academic performance: National study of kindergartners and first-graders. Obesity Research, 12(1),
58-68. Retrieved from http://www.nature.com/oby/journal/v12/n1/pdf/ oby20049a.
pdf. Accessed: 3 March 2019.
Eccles, J. & Harold, R.D. (1991). Gender differences in sport involvement: Applying the Eccles'
expectancy-value model. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, (3), 7–35.
Erikson, E.H. (1959). Identity and life cycle. New York: International University Press.
Healthy eating habits: www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/obesity/defining.htm www.choosemyplate.gov, http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/public/heart/obesity/wecan_mats/toolkit.
pdf, http://www.nature.com/oby/journal/v12/n1/pdf/oby20049a.pdf. Accessed:10
March 2019.
Littlecott, H.J., Moore, G.F., Moore, L., Lyons, R.A. & Murphy, S. (2015). Association between
breakfast consumption and educational outcomes in 9–11-year-old children. Public
Health Nutrition, (pp. 1–8). doi:10.1017/S1368980015002669
Marotz, L.R. & Allen, K.E. (2016). Developmental profiles: Pre-birth through adolescence. (8th
ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Mbiti, J.S. (1989). African religions and philosophy. London, England: Heinemann.
McGreevy-Nichols, S., Scheff, H. & Sprague, M. (2005). Building Dances. A guide to putting
movements together. Champaign, Ill: Human Kinetics.
Ndaba, W.J. (1994). Ubuntu in Comparison to Western Philosophies. Pretoria: University
of Pretoria.
Pienaar, A.E. (2000). Perseptueel-motoriese Leer. Teorie en Praktyk. Potchefstroom.
Ramokgopa, I.M. (2001). Developmental stages of an African child and their psychological
implications: A Comparative study. PhD study unpublished, RAU.
Websites for teachers’ music and early childhood development: http://www.amc-music.com/maecf.ht Accessed: 15 March 2019.
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Learning unit 3
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF THE YOUNG
CHILDREN
Aim of learning unit
In this learning unit, you will examine the cognitive development of young children. An
overview of some general milestones of cognitive development will be given, and major
theories of cognitive development will be discussed, namely Piaget, Vygotsky, Bruner,
and the Information Processing Theory.
Learning outcomes
When you have completed this module, you should be able to do the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
3.1
Explain and contextualise concepts related to cognitive development
Outline stages of development of a young child
Discuss the importance of cognitive development through contextual examples
and case studies
Unpack relevant theories related to the cognitive development of young children
Reflect on implications of cognitive development for own practise
Apply specific outcomes to CAPS
‌INTRODUCTION
Most teachers are likely to find themselves, at some point in their careers, wondering why
some children are able to grasp difficult concepts with ease, whereas others struggle with
the most “simple” of concepts no matter how much effort the teacher puts in. Differing
levels of cognitive development is one possibility that can account for differences in
children’s abilities. With the current focus on inclusivity in South African classrooms,
understanding these differences can be a powerful tool for teachers to ensure that every
child is receiving instruction that they can truly benefit from.
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In a nutshell, according to Piaget (1896-1980), cognitive development refers to children’s
thinking and how it becomes more integrated and complex over time. The first two years
of life is filled with major developmental accomplishments in how babies understand and
interact with the world around them, from starting to use objects constructively, to their
first words. The thinking of preschool children becomes more sophisticated, organised,
and less vague than that of babies. They are constantly expanding their knowledge of the
physical and social world. However, their thinking is still quite illogical. The research done
on cognitive development during middle childhood is considerably less than that done
on early childhood, but that does not make this phase any less crucial, as the cognitive
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patterns and habits that individuals develop during this time have lasting effects on their
cognitive functioning for the rest of their lives (Louw & Louw, 2014).
In this learning unit, an overview will be given of some general milestones of cognitive
development, and major theories of cognitive development will be discussed, namely
Piaget, Vygotsky, Bruner, Gardner and Information Processing Theory. Considering
the complex relationship that cognitive development has with both language and with
mathematical thought, children’s development in both of these areas will also be discussed
in separate sections.
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3.2 ‌THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CULTURAL CONTEXT
Before addressing the theoretical aspects of cognitive development, it is crucial to reflect
on the importance of the cultural context of the child. Most well-known developmental
theories are based on Western culture. Considering the cultural diversity of South African
schools, having extensive knowledge about cognitive development will not necessarily
enable teachers to include all their children if they do not have insight into children’s
individual cultural contexts. You are advised to keep this in mind as you progress through
the whole module.
297
One factor influencing children’s cognitive development in different cultural contexts is
the problems that they are expected to solve. In more modern communities, a young
child who, for example, is able to complete a structured pattern matching activity more
quickly than a peer, may be considered “intelligent”; whereas a young child in a more
rural community would be considered intelligent if they can retell a story in the correct
sequence (Dawes & Biersteker, 2011).
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Most African children seem to experience both modern and traditional cultural
influences. According to Nsamenang (2011), the cognitive abilities, technical skills, and
local cultural competencies of African children develop side by side. For example, early
mathematical concepts are developed as children in rural areas learn how to count
objects from their environment; motor skills develop while assisting with domestic tasks
and financial concepts are transferred as children learn from parents’ businesses. Young
children are expected to run errands, which fosters the development of self-regulation,
attention, and memory (Nsamenang, 2011). In the African context, it is also more common
for other children, rather than for adults, to play with young children and to provide them
with developmental stimulus. Serpel (2011) cautions that children’s skillsets that are the
product of local African approaches to learning and development, may not always be
aligned with the skill sets expected of children by modern schools.
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Activity 3.1
Think of a few general strategies to accommodate and include foundation phase children,
age 6-9, and their skillsets from the different cultural contexts in which their cognitive
development is taking place. See the table that follows as guidance when completing
the activity.
86
Feedback on Activity 3.1
9
When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of the learning unit:
y Provide learning activities that make use of real-life or contextual scenarios
y Make sure that there are both opportunities for working together collaboratively, as well
y
as engaging in friendly competition
Make sure there is a balance between important academic skills and real-life competencies
3.3 ‌GENERAL MILESTONES IN COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
The following table provides an overview of general milestones of children’s cognitive
development:
300
Table 3.1: General milestones in cognitive development (Brewer, 2014)
Birth-3 years
• Predominantly
•
•
•
•
sensorimotor investigation of the
environment
The rapid development of
concepts
Develops object
permanence
Develops
language
May use words
without understanding them
3-4 years
5-6 years
7-8 years
• Follows the
• Can follow
• Transition to con-
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
instructions of
two commands
Impulsive and
makes frequent
mistakes
The rapid development of
vocabulary
Uses numbers without
understanding
Has difficulty
differentiating
between fantasy
and reality
Begins to classify
objects, especially
by function
Begins to use
abstract words
Constant “Why?”
questions
Egocentric
thinking
•
•
•
•
•
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three unrelated commands
Displays growing
attention span
Can arrange
objects
Can categorise
objects
Thinking is more
deliberate
Differentiates
between fantasy
and reality
Can use language
to categorise
Is aware that
words and pictures represent
real objects
Interested in numbers and letters
Does not spontaneously use
rehearsal in
memory tasks
Begins to conserve number and
length of objects
•
•
•
•
crete operational
thinking (logical
thought when
they have access
to concrete objects to help them
think)
Enjoys engaging
in discussions
Is able to plan
Can sustain
interest over long
periods of time
Begins to understand cause and
effect
Develops a growing understanding of time
Understands and
uses more abstract terms
Expresses more
awareness of
their community
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Activity 3.2: A case study
Sello is at the beginning of his grade R year, and he has just turned 6 years old. He is
always well-behaved, and is the first to follow his teacher’s instructions, even if she
gives a few in a row. When she asks a question, he never shouts out and first considers his answer carefully before raising his hand. He does very well in activities where
they need to sort objects and can even sort objects verbally by describing their
characteristics. However, when he has to solve addition and subtraction problems,
he is unable to do so, even if the teacher gives him blocks to help him. He usually
then just starts writing random numbers down just for the fun of it.
After reading the case study, refer to the milestones of cognitive development in the
table above, and answer the following questions:
• Identify the cognitive milestones that Sello seems to have achieved; are these in line
with his age?
• Which cognitive milestones does he still need to achieve before he can do all that his
teacher is expecting of him?
• Should the teacher be concerned that he is struggling with mathematical problems?
• How do you think knowledge of children's cognitive developmental milestones can
help you in your own lesson planning and student teaching practice?
Feedback on Activity 3.2
10
When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of the learning unit:
(1) Can Sello follow a few unrelated commands?
y thinking is more deliberate
y can categorise objects, and also use language to do so. Sello is 6 years old – these
milestones are in line with 5-6-year-olds
(2) He still needs a transition to concrete operational thinking, where he can use objects to
think logically (in line with 7-8-year-olds).
(3) NOT YET, as what he can do is appropriate for his age. The teacher will need to monitor
how his thinking develops over the year, before having to be concerned.
(4) Possible responses:
y Knowing what to expect from children
y Planning activities that they will be able to do, and benefit from
y Helping them move to higher levels of cognitive development may be possible if you
know where they need to go
3.4
‌MOST INFLUENTIAL THEORIES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Some of the most well-known theories of cognitive development are Piaget’s constructivist
theory, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, Bruner’s theory, and Information Processing
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Theory, which has been described by multiple theorists. We will now examine all of these
theories in detail.
3.4.1
‌Piaget’s constructivism theory
As stated in LU1, the different theories will be discussed to enhance your knowledge of child
development.
302
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) formulated one of the best-known theories of cognitive
development. He believed that children are naturally curious and construct their knowledge
and understanding of the world around them as a result of active engagement with the
environment (Waite-Stupianksi, 2017).
303
By acting like scientists, they form intuitive theories about how the physical and social
world works, and these theories are then tested by experience (Louw & Louw, 2014). For
example, a baby drops her bottle and it falls to the floor. She then forms the theory that
things fall to the floor when she lets go of them. When she then drops a teddy to the floor,
her theory is strengthened. When she lets go of a helium balloon, however, this may cause
her to “question” her theory when the balloon does not drop to the floor as expected.
304
Piaget believed that there are four stages in a child’s cognitive development, around
ages two, seven, and twelve, where their way of thinking and forming theories change
radically. This implies four distinct stages of cognitive development, each with a more
sophisticated level of reasoning than the last. These stages are the sensorimotor stage,
the preoperational stage, the concrete operational stage, and the formal operational
stage. Understanding Piaget’s concept “operations”, on which most of the names of the
stages are based, is essential to understanding the stages themselves. Operations are
actions or mental representations achieved through logical thinking (Waite-Stupiansky,
2017). Preoperational thought thus implies the absence of logic, concrete operational
thought includes the ability of logical thinking by using concrete materials, and formal
operational thought then refers to abstract logical thought. Look at the table below to
understand each stage and their cognitive characteristics.
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3.4.2 ‌Overview of piaget’s stages of cognitive development
Table 3.2: Overview of Piaget's stages of cognitive development (Louw & Louw, 2014).
Stage
Sensorimotor
Approximate age
Birth to 2 yrs
Cognitive characteristics
• Understanding of the world constructed
•
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through senses (e.g. looking, tasting,
touching) and movement.
Object permanence develops i.e. knows
that if an object is out of sight, it still
exists.
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Stage
Preoperational
Approximate age
2 to 6 yrs
Cognitive characteristics
• Language and symbols (e.g. drawing
•
•
Concrete operational
Formal operational
pictures) are used to represent ideas
and objects.
Animism: thinks lifeless things can think
and feel (e.g. baby thinks her doll is cold).
Egocentric thinking: finds it difficult to
see things from others’ perspectives.
7 to 11 yrs
• Development of logical thinking, still
12 to adulthood
•
• Able to think abstractly: can speculate
rooted in concrete objects (e.g. solves
the mathematical problem with help
of counters).
Abstract thinking mostly absent.
about hypothetical situations and reason deductively.
To describe how children’s understanding of the world develops throughout these
stages, Piaget used the concept of schemas – cognitive/mental structures that organise
information gained from experiences, based on prior experiences and memory. In other
words, schemas are mental categories of related information.
306
These schemas develop through the processes of organisation and adaptation. Organisation
refers to cognitive processes becoming not only more complex, but also more systematic
and coherent (Louw & Louw, 2014).
307
Adaptation occurs when children are confronted with new experiences and have to
deal with information that seems to be in conflict with what they already know (i.e. their
existing cognitive schemas). Adaptation includes two processes, namely assimilation and
accommodation:
308
Assimilation – Interpreting new experiences in terms of an existing schema. This essentially
entails making new experiences “fit” into existing schemas. For example, if a child who is
familiar with horses (i.e. has a cognitive scheme for the concept of horses) sees a donkey
for the first time, he might think it is also a horse.
309
If someone corrects him by calling it a donkey, and he then sees that there is a difference,
he will have to create a new cognitive schema for donkeys. This process is called
accommodation – when a cognitive schema is changed or extended to include new
information.
310
Piaget observes that there is a constant process of striving for balance between including
new experiences into existing cognitive schemas (assimilation) and changing schemas to
accommodate new information (accommodation) as equilibration (Louw & Louw, 2014).
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3.4.3 ‌Discussion of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
Although Piaget cautioned against the rigid interpretation of these stages, emphasising
the fact that earlier ways of thinking often reappear at later ages, (Waite-Stupiansky,
2017), the analysis of each of his stages still provides valuable insights into the progressive
nature of cognitive development.
312
3.4.3.1 ‌Sensorimotor stage
The term “sensorimotor” refers to babies obtaining information through their senses and
motor activities (movement). Piaget believed that early cognitive development occurs
through a process called circular reaction: when a baby learns to repeat interesting
or pleasurable situations that were discovered by chance. This repetition leads to the
consolidation of new schemas.
313
Piaget further divided this stage into six sub-stages that show advances in cognitive
abilities:
314
Table 3.3: Sub-stages that show advances in cognitive abilities (Waite-Stupiansky, 2017).
Sub-stage
1. Reflexes
Approximate
age
Birth-1 month
Cognitive characteristics
• Newborns are aware of only the present and respond
to stimuli available in the moment.
• Actions are mostly reflexive, such as grasping and
sucking reflexes.
• Do not appear to plan their actions or remember
events or things.
2. P
rimary circular
reactions
1-4 months
• Beginning of coordination between listening and
•
3. Secondary circular reactions
4-8 months
4. Coordination
of secondary
reactions
8-12 months
looking, looking and reaching, and reaching and
sucking – actions that help them explore their
surroundings.
This coordination is achieved because of primary circular reactions: intentionally repeating actions related
to own body after discovering them, e.g. accidentally
sucking his/her thumb, finding it pleasurable and then
intentionally sucking their thumb again later.
• Interested in manipulating objects.
• Actions that trigger responses in their environment
are repeated intentionally, e.g. shaking a rattle to hear
the sound it makes again and again.
• Actions are purposeful and experienced as a means
•
•
to an end, e.g. pushing something out of their way
or crawling towards something they see.
They begin to understand cause and effect.
The emergence of object permanence: realises that
objects still exist if they cannot be seen, but object
permanence is incomplete, e.g. if a baby repeatedly
discovers a toy when opening a specific container, and
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Sub-stage
Approximate
age
Cognitive characteristics
•
5. T ertiary circular
reactions
12-18 months
• Different circular reactions are used to find new ways
•
•
6. Mental
representation
18-24 months
the baby sees someone putting that toy somewhere
else, they will continue searching for the toy in the
first container.
Starts to imitate others’ behaviour, i.e. they are able
to form a mental image of something they have perceived, e.g. imitating their mothers’ facial expression.
of dealing with challenges, e.g. trying different sounds
to get his or her mother’s attention.
Shows originality in solving problems, and uses trial
and error to reach goals, e.g. opening various containers until they find a toy.
Object permanence further developed: babies still
have problems with aspects of object permanence,
e.g. if they see a toy in someone’s hand, and that
person places the toy under a pillow, they will not
think of the possibility that the toy was transferred,
and will continue looking in the hand.
• Develops the ability to use mental symbols such as
•
•
•
words, numbers, or pictures to represent objects,
events, and actions.
Mental planning is used, instead of trial and error approach, e.g. a two-year-old who wants a specific toy,
will know which container to open to get it.
Object permanence fully developed: will search for
objects even if they did not see it being hidden.
Deferred imitation: is able to imitate behaviour a
while after they have seen it, e.g. sees their mother
speaking on the phone, and then picking it up and
repeating her behaviour the next day.
3.4.3.2 ‌Preoperational stage
As mentioned earlier in this section, preoperational thinking means that children are not
yet able to engage in logical mental operations. This stage is further subdivided into two
sub-stages: the symbolic/pre-conceptual period (2-4 years) and the intuitive period (4-7
years). During the symbolic period, children’s use of symbols/mental representations,
that is, words, numbers, or pictures to which the child attaches meaning, becomes
increasingly complex. The intuitive period is characterised by endless “why?” questions, as
they begin to use primitive reasoning to develop ideas about how the world works. They
are also very sure about their ideas, although the ideas are generally simple and irrational.
315
Cognitive advances that may be identified during the preoperational stage involve
symbolic/mental representation. There are a few basic types of symbolic representation,
including deferred imitation, symbolic/pretend play, and spoken language. Deferred
imitation, which has already developed during the sensorimotor stage, is continued
and becomes more complex; for example, they will imitate their preschool teacher and
pretend to teach their toys. Symbolic play involves substituting imaginary situations for
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92
real ones or representing actual objects/events by using other objects or acting them
out, for example, pretending that a box is a car and that they are driving around in it.
Spoken language is the most apparent development in this stage (Louw & Louw, 2014). It
enables children to think by means of mental representation of actions, rather than simply
through actions alone as occurs during the sensorimotor stage. This statement conveys
Piaget’s belief that children’s ability to think develops before their ability to use language.
Immature aspects of young children’s thinking, that Piaget claimed deter the development
of logical/ operational thought, are perceptual centration, irreversibility, egocentrism,
animism, and transductive reasoning.
317
Perceptual centration refers to their tendency to pay attention to only one aspect or
attribute of an observed situation while ignoring other relevant aspects. For example,
they may think that if you take a certain amount of cookies, and then spread them out,
there are suddenly more cookies because they are only paying attention to the size of
the surface area the cookies are taking up, rather than the actual quantity. This is due
to a lack of understanding of conservation: the insight that the appearance of matter
can change, without changes in quantity. Piaget identified three well-known problems
with conservation during the preoperational stage: conservation of number, (see above
example of cookies); conservation of liquid quantity, for example, thinking that if
juice is poured from a normal glass to a taller glass, there is suddenly more juice; and
conservation of mass, for example, thinking that if a ball of clay is stretched out, there
is suddenly more clay.
318
Irreversibility refers to the inability to mentally reverse an operation, for example, they
cannot imagine moving cookies, which have been spread out, closer together again.
This also has implications for the mathematical abilities of young children, for example,
they may not be able to make the logical conclusion that 1 + 2 = 3, and therefore 3-2 = 1.
319
The term, egocentrism, as used by Piaget, refers to the tendency to view the world from
their own perspective, and the lack of realisation that others may see things from different
perspectives. For example, they may think that it becomes dark because it is their bedtime,
that everyone else is hungry because they are, or that not everyone in their household
enjoys listening to the same song repeatedly.
320
Animistic thinking refers to the assumption that non-living things have thoughts, feelings,
and motives just as they do, for example, thinking that rain means that the sky is crying.
321
Transductive reasoning is when children do not yet understand the relationship between
cause and effect, causing them to think that one event that occurred close to another,
caused that event, whether it is logical or not, for example, thinking that their father came
home because the dog started barking (Louw & Louw, 2014).
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3.4.3.3 ‌Concrete operational stage
During this stage, spanning from approximately 7 to 11 years, children start using mental
operations to reason logically and to solve problems. All of these operations reflect
some kind of general rule about objects and the relationships between objects. Some
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of them apply to numbers, such as the mathematical operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. Other mental operations apply to categorise objects according
to different characteristics, and others apply to spatial relations between objects (e.g.
reading a map or orienting oneself in an unfamiliar place).
Piaget believed that one of the most critical operations is reversibility – the understanding
that both physical actions and mental operations can be reversed (Louw & Louw, 2014).
In other words, each operation has an inverse that will undo or reverse its effects. For
example, if you have 5 and add 3 to it to get 8 (5 + 3 = 8), the inverse operation would be
to subtract 3 from 8 to get 5 again, thereby reversing the operation.
324
Reversible mental operations enable children to perform conservation tasks that children
were unable to perform during early childhood, such as reasoning that when the juice is
poured into a taller glass, the transformation could be reversed (i.e. pouring the juice back
into the original glass), showing that the quantity of juice remains the same. However,
it is important to note that children do not master all kinds of conservation at the same
time (number, liquid quantity, and mass).
325
In contrast to preoperational children, who think egocentrically and often confuse the
appearance of things with reality, concrete operational thinkers become increasingly
able to understand the perspective of others, even when different to their own. They
learn that problems may have many facets – a process referred to as decentring – and
that appearance can be deceptive, and therefore start paying attention to more than
one facet of a situation.
326
Despite its advances, concrete operational thinking remains limited to that which can
be observed or manipulated – the tangible and real. Abstract or hypothetical thought is
thus not yet within the capabilities of children in this stage.
327
328
Based on the above information, read the case study and answer the following questions.
Activity 3.3: A case study
Palesa is in grade 2 and experiences difficulties with mathematics. When her teacher
hands out a sheet of addition and subtraction sums, Palesa tries only the first few.
She then goes up to her teacher and asks if she may go fetch her blocks because the
work is too difficult. The teacher immediately starts scolding her and says that she is
too old to play with blocks and that she should count in her head to get the answers,
like the other children. Palesa goes back to her table and starts drawing pictures on
the back of her paper, discouraged.
(1) What could you say to Palesa’s teacher about Palesa’s level of cognitive development,
according to Piaget’s theory?
(2) Do you think that her behaviour towards Palesa is helpful to Palesa’s cognitive
development?
(3) What advice would you give her teacher?
94
Feedback on Activity 3.3
11
(1) Palesa is most likely in Piaget’s stage of concrete operational thinking, as she is approximately 8 years old, and seems to need concrete objects to help her perform the logical
operations of addition and subtraction.
(2) No, because if Palesa realises that she still needs concrete objects, but she may not use
them, this may keep her from moving to the formal operational stage of thinking.
(3) Possible responses:
y Palesa is not yet at a level of cognitive development where she can think abstractly
y
y
3.4.4
about mathematical operations.
If she is allowed to use blocks until she is ready to mentally perform the operations
without them, she will then be able to do it well and with a true understanding.
Children develop at different rates and expecting all of them to be able to do the same
things at the same time, is not fair.
‌Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was one of the first psychologists who emphasised the cultural
context of children’s development, and he criticised Piaget for neglecting to do so. He
believed that the fundamental aim of all societies is to transfer essential values and skills
to their children and that all aspects of child development should thus be considered
with their context in mind. The biggest difference between Piaget and Vygotsky is that
Piaget believed age precedes development, while Vygotsky believed that readiness
precedes development. Thus, he did not believe children should be a certain age to think
in a certain way.
329
Vygotsky acknowledged the importance of children’s inherent curiosity and creativity in
their development, as was studied by Piaget (Louw & Louw, 2014). However, he believed
that children need cognitive tools provided by their cultures, such as language, memory
aids, writing, numerical systems, and scientific concepts, to develop their minds fully.
He referred to these tools as “cultural tools” and stated that they extend one’s mental
abilities in the same way that physical tools extend one’s physical abilities (Bodrova &
Leong, 2017). Since he recognised a mutual influence that cognition and language have
on each other, his primary focus was language-based tools (Bodrova & Leong, 2017). His
views on language and the development thereof will be discussed in more detail at the
end of this section.
330
Vygotsky emphasised the culture-specific nature of cultural tools, believing that children
learn how to use them from older members of their society (Bodrova & Leong, 2017). In
attempting to explain exactly how these tools are acquired, Vygotsky made valuable
conceptual contributions regarding cognitive development, such as the Zone of Proximal
Development.
331
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3.4.4.1
‌Zone of Proximal Development
Vygotsky described the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) as an area between an
individual’s actual developmental level of problem solving, and the developmental level
that they are able to achieve with the guidance or collaboration of more capable adults
or peers (Bodrova & Leong, 2017). In other words, it is the difference between what the
child can achieve while working independently, and what the child can achieve when
working with a more skilled other. Therefore, if a child is unable to master a skill or concept,
even with a great amount of assistance, the task is most likely above the child’s ZPD at
the present time.
332
333
Figure 3.1:
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development
The skills and competencies within the child’s ZPD do not convey the child’s current level of
development, but rather their potential for development, as it may go unrealised without
a more competent other’s intervention. If they are able to realise this potential, a new
level of development is attained. Others can help them achieve this by using prompts,
clues, modelling, explanation, leading questions, discussions and encouragement (Louw
& Louw, 2014). As children progress from needing assistance, to being able to accomplish
tasks independently, the skills and competencies within their ZPD become more complex.
334
Activity 3.4
Critically discuss how Vygotsky’s ZPD can be used by teachers to the benefits of children
with developmental delays or who come from educationally impoverished backgrounds.
96
Feedback on Activity 3.4
12
Possible responses:
y Children who have experienced delays in their development will not have the same abiliy
y
y
ties as other children. By providing additional support, however, they may be raised from
the level of things they can achieve by themselves, to a higher level of achievement – in
their ZPD.
Especially in inclusive classrooms, this is very useful in providing equal and fair opportunities to all children. This can be extremely useful in assessment in particular, as it will
help children show what their potential for achievement is, rather than only what they
can do at that time.
Children from impoverished backgrounds are likely not to have had the same stimulus and
access to quality early childhood development services, as more financially advantaged
children. This could mean that they are not used to environments with as many educational materials, such as books.
When these children enter primary school, they can be at a severe disadvantage, as they
are not used to the same educational materials, and did not have the same educational
opportunities during early childhood. Providing support and assistance, and helping
them bridge the gap between what they can do and their true potential (ZPD), will help
such children overcome educational barriers.
When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of the learning unit:
y Think of the importance of cognitive development
y Reflect on relevant theories related to cognitive development
y Reflect on implications of cognitive development for own practise
The following section will focus on cultural tools during the learning process.
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3.4.4.2 ‌Higher and lower mental functions
As children learn an increasing number of cultural tools through processes such as
scaffolding, a new category of mental functions develop, referred to as higher mental
functions (Bodrova & Leong, 2017). Higher mental functions include using language,
focused attention, remembering things deliberately, and logical thinking. All higher
mental functions are acquired in a culturally specific way, affecting their development
through a system of cultural practices associated with these tools (e.g. think of how
language development will be affected by cultural practices such as singing or storytelling).
Vygotsky identified three characteristics shared by all higher mental functions. They are
deliberate (controlled by the person and not their environment), mediated (the use of
tools to make deliberate actions possible), and internalised (no longer relying on physical
actions or tangible objects).
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The main difference between higher and lower mental functions is that only higher mental
functions are dependent on cultural tools. Vygotsky described lower mental functions
as innate and dependent on maturation, not on culture, to develop. Examples of lower
mental functions are using one’s senses, reactively shifting one’s attention to new stimuli
in the environment (e.g. responding to a loud and sudden noise), associative memory
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(e.g. seeing an item of familiar food and then mentally associating it with a good taste),
and sensorimotor intelligence (as described by Piaget). As they develop before higher
mental functions, the lower mental functions may be restructured and integrated with
the higher mental functions (Bodrova & Leong, 2017).
3.4.4.3 ‌Critical periods
According to Bodrova and Leong (2017), Vygotsky did not complete his theory on child
development during his lifetime, although he appeared to believe that development
occurs in a succession of stable periods followed by critical periods. During the stable
periods, children develop their existing competencies and quantitative changes occur
in the number of things they can remember and process. During the critical periods,
their entire system of mental functions is restructured, resulting in the emergence
of cognitive and social-emotional developmental accomplishments. Externally, the
critical periods are accompanied by changes in behaviour, which are often perceived as
oppositional or defiant by adults. Vygotsky explained that these changes were a result
of a child’s emerging cognitive needs being constrained by their social context and that
overcoming these constraints propels them to the next level of development (Bodrova
& Leong, 2017). Vygotsky identified the typical ages associated with these critical periods
as 1, 3 and 7 years old.
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3.4.4.4 ‌Vygotsky on language development
In contrast to Piaget who believed that thought develops first, in turn enabling language
development, Vygotsky insisted that thought and language initially develop separately
and independently (Palaiologou, 2010). Around the age of two years, language and
thought begin to influence each other mutually, as thought takes on verbal characteristics,
and language becomes an expressive outlet for thought. He also suggested that the
development of logical thought results from internalising speech routines acquired from
older children or adults in their social context. Vygotsky stated that a language is a cultural
tool, learnt from others, which enables children to structure their thoughts (Louw & Louw,
2014). Social interaction is therefore central to his theory of language development.
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Activity 3.5
Compare Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s views on language development, and explain how
both can be utilised, but in different educational scenarios, when teaching language in
the foundation phase classroom.
CAPS integration
Use the CAPS web link below on language development and reflect on how you will integrate Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s views on language development in your daily class activities
https://www.uj.ac.za/faculties/facultyofeducation/eli/Documents/Foundation%20
Phase%20CAPS%20Guide.pdf
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Feedback on Activity 3.5
13
When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of the learning unit:
Aspects of these theories that may be compared:
y When language and thought develop
y The relationship between language and thought
3.4.5 ‌Bruner’s theory of cognitive and language development
Jerome Bruner’s most notable theoretical contributions towards the understanding
of cognitive and language development are built on Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
(Conkbayir & Pascal, 2014). He too focused on the social and cultural context in which
learning and development take place. Some of these contributions are the concepts of
scaffolding, the spiral curriculum, and the three modes of representation.
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Scaffolding a task entails revealing only the parts of a task that the child will be able to
do, thus allowing the child to achieve higher levels of cognitive development (Conkbayir &
Pascal, 2014). This process usually comes quite naturally to those working with children, such
as teachers and parents, without having to give it much thought. Different ways in which
children’s thinking can be scaffolded include motivation and encouragement, providing
models to imitate, simplifying a task or idea, and highlighting errors or important elements
of a task. Because of the similarity between scaffolding, and the processes described by
Vygotsky in explaining how children can move to higher levels of accomplishment with
assistance (in their Zone of Proximal Development), the term, scaffolding, is commonly
used in association with Vygotsky’s theory.
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An essential aspect of the spiral curriculum is the belief that any learning content needs
to be taught in line with what the child already knows and can do. The child is said to
benefit from learning experiences that can be revisited continuously in more depth in
the future, as it results in the consolidation of their understanding (Conkbayir & Pascal,
2014). This gives children the opportunity to reflect on learning experiences and build
on their existing knowledge, and thereby enhances their ability to meet new learning
experiences with creativity.
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Bruner suggested three modes of representation that explain how a child stores
and processes information at different ages, namely enactive representation, iconic
representation, and symbolic representation:
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Table 3.4: Three modes of representation of how a child stores and processes
information (Conkbayir & Pascal, 2014).
Mode of representation
Enactive representation (action
based)
Characteristics
• Babies store information through 0-1 year
•
Iconic representation (image
based)
Approximate
age that mode
develops
hands-on experiences: learning through their movement and
actions.
Knowledge is stored as “motor
memory”.
• A child is limited to understanding 1-6 years
concrete experiences.
• Information about objects in their
environment is stored and categorised as images in their mind.
Cannot yet think abstractly.
Symbolic representation (language based)
•
• A child can think in abstract terms, 7 years and
and no longer depends on images. onwards
• Language has increased influence
on thought.
• Information can now be stored
as symbols (i.e. language and
numbers).
Although these modes develop sequentially, they are not referred to as stages, seeing that
children do not replace earlier modes of representation when they attain more complex
ones, but continue using them, (Conkbayir & Pascal, 2014). For example, not only babies
can learn through the hands-on manipulation of objects, but as indicated in the table,
children of 6-9 years old also benefit from visual and/or touchable resources when learning
new things.
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Activity 3.6: A case study
You are a foundation phase teacher with culturally diverse learners in your classroom.
You are also challenged with intellectually diverse learners. Think of creative ways to
assimilate scaffolding, the spiral curriculum, and the three modes of representation,
for example, enactive representation (action based) iconic representation (image
based) and symbolic representation (language based), in your lessons to accommodate all learners
How would you incorporate scaffolding, the spiral curriculum, and the modes of representation in a culturally diverse grade 1 classroom, to ensure that every child gets ample
opportunity for cognitive development, despite their educational backgrounds?
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14
Feedback on Activity 3.6
When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of the learning unit:
y Scaffolding: Providing additional support to children, and lessening it as they improve.
y As this could be difficult to implement in a large classroom, teachers could divide children
y
y
y
into groups by ability, without doing it so in a discriminatory manner. As children will
have different needs in different learning areas, these groups will likely differ depending
on the subject being taught.
Spiral curriculum: Lesson planning will need to be done in a way that topic is revisited
more than once. The same topic may also be explored in different learning areas, integrating their learning.
Modes of representation: Children in grade one are likely to either have reached the symbolic mode of representation or be very close to it, still only having achieved the iconic
mode of representation. Children should thus be exposed to learning activities that are
still at a concrete level, as well as those requiring more abstract thought.
All activities should be sensitive towards the expectations of the cultures of all the children
in the class.
3.4.5.1 ‌Bruner's theory on language development
Bruner believes that children have a proactive role in their own language development,
as their mastery of language depends on their realising that interactions between
themselves and others are intentional (Conkbayir & Pascal, 2014). In addition to this, he
also acknowledges that language development is influenced by children’s biological
maturation to some extent, although his primary focus is on the importance of the child’s
social network.
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By providing age appropriate opportunities for play, as well as meaningful interactions,
a child’s family, friends, and teachers act as a Language Acquisition Support System.
This enables the child to understand the rules and customs of their language, thereby
learning it with ease.
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Activity 3.7
Compare the theories of Bruner and Piaget of cognitive development and identify a few
similarities and differences. Motivate in which teaching scenario a specific theory will be
applicable.
15
Feedback on Activity 3.7
When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of the learning unit:
y Explain and contextualise concepts related to cognitive development
y Outline the stages of development of a young child
y Discuss the importance of cognitive development
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The following section will focus on the processing of new information.
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3.4.6
‌Information processing theory
The information processing theory attempts to explain exactly how new information
is processed in order for the person to gain meaning from it, rather than describing
a sequence of developmental stages. It is likened to the way people think about the
functioning of a computer and suggests that human cognition consists of mental hardware
and mental software, just like that of a computer. Mental hardware refers to cognitive
structures such as memories, where information is stored. Mental software refers to an
organised set of processes that enable one to perform specific tasks, such as reading a
sentence or hitting a ball.
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This theory explains that cognitive development occurs as children’s mental hardware
and software become more sophisticated, like upgrading the hardware and software of
a computer (Louw & Louw, 2014). Their memory (mental hardware) increases in capacity,
and their mental processes (mental software) become faster and more complex over time,
due to increased processing speed and growing bases of knowledge.
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3.4.6.1
‌Mental hardware
Memory is an important aspect of cognitive development. The information processing
theory states that the memory system (mental hardware) consists of several components
that acquire, store, and retrieve information, including sensory memory, short-term
memory, and long-term memory. Sensory memory is where information is recognised,
but also quickly forgotten if not attended to, for example, when meeting someone, and
not being able to remember their name a few minutes later.
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The short-term memory is where immediate information is stored temporarily, and its
limited capacity means that it can hold information only that has been actively processed
in some way, for example, remembering a phone number for a short while after repeating
it a few times. Short-term memory includes working memory, where information is
processed to enable learning.
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The long-term memory is where information is stored permanently or semi-permanently
and is almost unlimited in capacity. It includes:
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• Episodic memory, referring to the memories of events
• Semantic memory, which refers to remembering facts and general knowledge
• Procedural memory, which includes one’s memory of how to do certain things
• Implicit memory, referring to memories of which one is not necessarily aware, but
can influence daily functioning, such as habits and routines
• Explicit memory, which is knowledge acquired through conscious efforts such as
words and concepts (Louw & Louw, 2014).
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Activity 3.8: Article
To learn more about working memory, read the article titled “The role of working memory
in child education”, which can be found under e-reserves on myUnisa under CDE3701, and
answer these questions:
(1) Refer to the section about the importance of working memory for childhood learning
and education, and then create a mind map or diagram that depicts components
and processes involved in working memory.
(2) How can an understanding of working memory benefit you as a teacher?
(3) Refer to the section on whether working memory can be improved, and then think
of a few practical strategies that you would implement in your classroom to improve
the working memory of the children.
Feedback on Activity 3.8
16
When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of the learning unit:
y Reflect on relevant theories related to cognitive development
y Reflect on implications of cognitive development for own practise.
Keep the following in mind when answering the questions:
(1) See 1.4.2, theoretical perspective of cognitive development, to make sure you have
included all the components of the information processing theory, namely: mental
hardware; sensory memory; short-term memory; long-term memory that includes the
episodic, semantic, procedural, implicit and explicit memory and the mental software;
memory strategies, including rehearsal, retrieval and metacognition; and lastly the
executive functioning.
(2) Knowing how children process new information in their working memory will help teachers structure activities in such a way that help the children transfer new information to
their long-term memories more easily.
(3) Possible answers:
− Teaching memory strategies, such as rehearsing new information or making
associations
− Providing appealing visuospatial or verbal tasks, such as completing complex patterns, or remembering and repeating longs lists that will implicitly strengthen working memory
− Providing tasks that do not place too much of a strain on their working memory
3.4.6.2 ‌Mental software
Examples of mental software, described by information processing theorists, are memory
strategies, metacognition, and executive functioning:
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• Memory strategies consist of deliberate mental activities that are intended to im-
prove the processing and storing of information. Two of the most researched memory
strategies are a rehearsal – where the information the individual wants to remember
is repeated – and retrieval, the process of accessing information that is mentally
represented.
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The change that takes place in children’s cognitive processing during their development
may largely be ascribed to changes in their memory strategies, as these strategies
become more complex as the children get older. Children older than five are more
likely than younger children to use rehearsal, resulting in them in holding information
in their short-term memory more effectively than younger children.
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Older children also have an improved ability to access and retrieve information from
memory storage. Two common forms of retrieval are recognition, referring to the
type of memory that identifies similarities between current and past stimuli; and
recall, the ability to remember a stimulus that is no longer present. An example of
recognition is recognising someone’s face that looks familiar. The recall involves the
ability to mentally represent a past stimulus; therefore, younger children also tend to
have weaker recall memory.
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• Metacognition refers to knowledge about and control over one’s thought processes.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
For example, a child listening to a story may realise that they have forgotten the name
of the main character, and ask the reader to repeat the name. This implies that the
child is considering the information that they have stored, and evaluating whether it is
sufficient for the task at hand, that is, listening to the story with comprehension. Both
knowing that they have forgotten a character’s name, and knowing that remembering the name of the character will make the story easier to understand, are instances
of metacognition at work. Furthermore, metacognition enables children to generate
strategies, such as asking for information to be repeated, to solve problems that they
have identified.
Executive functioning entails the conscious control of thoughts, feelings, and behaviour in order to accomplish goals or solve problems. It enables children to plan and use
their thoughts in a goal-directed way. It seems to develop just before 12 months of
age, and becomes increasingly complex between the ages of two and five, as young
children start to create and use complex rules for solving problems (Louw & Louw,
2014). Executive functioning consists of 11 different types:
Response inhibition: is the ability to evaluate a situation and how someone’s behaviour might be affected
Working memory: is the ability to hold information in mind while performing complex tasks
Emotional control: is the ability to manage emotions to help regulate and guide
behaviour
Flexibility: is the ability to revise plans in the face of obstacles, setbacks, new information, or mistakes
Sustained attention: is the capacity to attend to a situation or task in spite of distraction, fatigue, or boredom
Task initiation: is the ability to begin a task without undue procrastination in a timely
fashion
Planning and prioritising: is to make decisions about what’s important to focus on
and what is not important
Organisation: is the ability to create and maintain a system for arranging or keeping
track of important details and items
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• Time management: is the ability to estimate how much time is available to complete
a task
• Goal-directed persistence: is the ability to establish a goal and follow through on
achieving it
• Metacognition: is the ability to self-monitor when performing a task
https://www.accentgroupsolutions.com/blog/the-11-types-of-executive-function-skillsand-how-an-executive-function-planner-develops-them/
357
3.4.6.3 ‌General age-related advances in memory
Although information-processing theorists did not intentionally describe a sequence of
stages, some age-related advances in memory development can still be identified:
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Table 3.5: Age-related advances in memory development (Berger, 2012).
Approximate age
Memory capabilities
Under 2 years
Babies remember actions and routines involving them.
Memory is implicit and is triggered by sights or sounds.
2-5 yrs
Words are used to encode (mentally represent) and retrieve memories.
Beginning of explicit memory, although memory strategies are not
yet used.
Children can remember things, such as parents’ phone numbers or
nursery rhymes, without truly understanding them.
5-7 yrs
Children begin to realise that some things need to be remembered,
and they begin to use simple memory strategies, primarily rehearsal
(also described below).
7-9 yrs
Children can use new strategies that are taught to them.
Information organised into categories can now be of great benefit in
helping children remember things.
9-11 yrs
Memory becomes more adaptive and strategic as children learn
more complex memory techniques.
They are able to develop their own memory aids, such as categorising
information or material.
Activity 3.9: A case study
You are teaching in an under resourced school and want to improve the children’s
memory. Based on the table above, assimilate the key concepts in every age group
to create memory games for the foundation phase children in your classroom.
What are the implications of foundation phase children's memory capabilities for their
teachers?
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Feedback on Activity 3.9
17
When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of the learning unit:
y Reflect on implications of cognitive development for own practise.
Keep the following in mind when answering the question:
Foundation phase children (ages 7-9) will need to be taught memory strategies explicitly to
help them deal with all of the new information that they will be taking in as they start school.
Referring to prior knowledge, and providing an overview of how all of the concepts they have
already learnt and are yet to learn fit together. For example, putting up a mind map of new
concepts that they have learnt at the end of a lesson may help the children to integrate what
they have learnt into their long-term memories.
The following section will focus on the stages of language development.
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3.5 ‌L ANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
3.5.1
‌Language development of babies
Acquiring a language is one of the most significant and complex aspects of cognitive
development. Receptive language (understanding language) starts to develop before
productive language (speaking).
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Babies know quite a lot of words by the time they start talking at approximately 12 months.
Babies as young as nine months already have an elementary receptive vocabulary
(words that are understood, but cannot necessarily be spoken yet). A vocabulary spurt
usually occurs between 16 and 24 months, as babies start learning words more rapidly,
progressing from knowing approximately 50 words at the age of 16 months, to knowing
approximately 320 words at 24 months. During this time, children are able to learn new
words without many repetitions. The vocabulary learnt firstly tends to relate to the naming
of objects and people, then to social interactions (e.g. “bye”), while learning the words
for actions takes place a little later (Louw & Louw, 2014).
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The first few phases of speech development that occur before the child starts to speak are
referred to as prelinguistic speech. This is followed by phases that indicate the emergence
of increasingly comprehensible language use:
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Table 3.6: Phases of speech development (Louw & Louw, 2014).
The phase
of speech
development
Undifferentiated
crying
Approximate age
Birth-1 month
Characteristics
Crying is used to signal needs and there
aren’t different cries for different needs for
the listener to distinguish between
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The phase
of speech
development
Approximate age
Characteristics
Differentiated
crying
2 months
• Babies use various pitches and pat-
Cooing
(Also from about 2 months)
•
Babbling
5 months
Simple repetition of consonant/vowel
sounds, e.g. “ma-ma-ma-ma-ma” or
“da-da-da-da-da”
Lallation
7-8 months
Sounds or words that they have heard are
repeated, usually incorrectly
Echolalia
9-10 months
Sounds or words are repeated more deliberately and correctly
Single-word
sentences
1 year
terns of sound to indicate different
needs, making it easier for the listener
to distinguish between them
Squealing/gurgling sounds are made
to indicate happiness or satisfaction
• Intelligible words are spoken to communicate with others
• Single words are used to convey
more complex meanings, e.g. “mama”
can either mean “I want to be picked
up” or “I want my mama” or “I am
hungry”
Full sentences
• Progression from single words to full
sentences
• Develops from two-word utterances to
21 months onwards
increasingly sophisticated sentences
3.5.2 ‌Language development during early childhood
Areas of young children’s language development:
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• Vocabulary: similar to babies’ vocabulary spurt that takes place between 16 and 24
months, further rapid expansion occurs between three and six years of age. Threeyear-olds know and can use approximately 1 000 words, and by the age of six, most
children have a receptive (understood) and expressive (speaking) vocabulary of about
10 000 to 20 000 words, implying that a few new words are learnt per day.
Although their vocabulary is much larger than it used to be, several immaturities may
still be observed. Underextensions may take place, referring to the tendency to restrict
the meaning of a word. For example, using the word “juice” to refer to only apple juice,
not other juices. Overextensions may also occur when a child uses a word to refer to
a wider variety of objects that is correct, for example, using the word “cat” to refer to
a lion (August & Shanahan, 2006; Jordaan, 2015).
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• Phonology and morphology: Phonology refers to the sounds in a language. By the
age of three, most children are able to produce all of the vowel sounds and most of
the consonant sounds of their language. Morphology refers to the smallest unit of
language/sound that carries meaning, such as adding –s to a word to indicate the
plural form or adding –ed to indicate a past experience. When children start using
more words in sentences, their knowledge of morphology rules becomes apparent.
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They start to use the plural and possessive forms (two cats/ the cat’s food), their use
of the correct verb form improves (I ate yesterday), and they begin to use prepositions
(on/around) and articles (a /the).
However, some of the morphological rules are still overgeneralised, for example, saying
“foots” instead of “feet” (Carr & Honeybone, 2007).
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• Grammar and syntax: The grammar (the general rules of a language) and syntax
(an aspect of grammar referring to combining words into meaningful phrases and
sentences, according to grammatical rules) of preschool children become increasingly complex. Three-year-olds begin to use past tense sentences and are able to ask
what and where questions (how and why questions are more complex and develop
a bit later). However, their sentences are still mostly quite short and declarative, for
example, “I want milk”.
Between the ages of four and five, they are able to use more complex types of
sentences, such as negatives, exclamations, and compound sentences (e.g. sentences
linked by but/because). They also enjoy telling long stories, by lining sentences with
“and then… and then”.
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Between the ages of five and seven, children’s speech becomes similar to that of
adults, and they are able to have an effective conversation or tell a story effectively.
Their sentences are longer, more complex, and grammatically correct, and they mostly
speak fluently. They are able to use conjunctions, prepositions, and multiple clauses.
However, they have not yet mastered all aspects of language development, such as
passive voice (e.g. “The sandwich was eaten by me”) or conditional sentences (e.g. “If
I had R10, I would buy sweets.”) (Probyn, 2009).
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• The pragmatic use of language: Pragmatic language represents the social aspect
of language, as it entails the rules for using language effectively and appropriately in
social contexts, and according to social conventions. Young children learn to use language to communicate, while learning about social etiquette, such as saying “please”
and “thank you”, addressing people correctly depending on the context (e.g. asking
for a favour of giving a command), and changing the content and intonation of their
speech according to the identity of the listener (e.g. addressing younger siblings in a
different way than they would address a parent or a teacher). It thus becomes easier
for the listener to have a two-way conversation with them.
Three-year-olds tend to be quite talkative and are able to pay attention to how their
words affect others, for example, they will provide more information if realise that they
are not being understood. Most four-year-olds will use a higher pitch when talking
to younger children, as parents often do. Five-year-olds will adapt what they say to
the listener’s perspective, for example, using more formal language when addressing
adults than when addressing friends. They are also able to resolve disputes with words
and can stick to a topic of conversation if it interests them (Berko Gleason, 2005).
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• Emergent literacy: This refers to the development of skills needed to understand the
printed word. In order to achieve a functional level of literacy, that is, to learn to read
a write, the following sequence of skills need to develop:
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The ability to recognise letters.
Linking letters to the correct sounds (grapheme-phoneme correspondence). Some
languages are easier to decode from letters to sounds than others are. For example,
both Zulu and Afrikaans are quite simple, whereas the letter-to-sound rules in English
are often quite unpredictable.
The ability to recognise whole words, that is, “sight words”.
Recognising the meanings of words.
The ability to comprehend and interpret sentences, which is reliant on the automatic
recognition of words, a large vocabulary, working memory, and general knowledge
of the world (Anthony, Williams, McDonald & Francis, 2007).
3.5.3 ‌General language development during middle childhood
Although language develops at a slower pace after the age of about five, significant
language development and refinements still take place. Their sentences become even
longer and more complex, and the use of grammatical forms such as the passive voice are
mastered during primary school. Their vocabulary increases and they become comfortable
with the fact that words may have multiple meanings. Around eight or nine years, children
start to understand sarcasm, irony, as well as figurative language. The older children get,
the more they enjoy humour based on wordplay or double-meanings.
369
Another significant improvement is the understanding and increased use of facial
expressions and gestures to emphasise meaning. Furthermore, primary school children
show also show an improved ability to adapt their style of language according to the
social context. They also begin to value speaking correctly, as they tend to correct others’
language mistakes or even laugh at them (Louw & Louw, 2014).
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3.5.3.1 ‌Bilingualism
In South Africa, most children speak at least two languages. Children acquire bilingualism
through either simultaneous learning of the languages, or consecutively (one language
after the other). Researchers’ opinions on which approach is better varies. Most of them
agree that children who have learnt two languages from infancy have no issues with
language development, as each language is developed in its own right. When a second
language is acquired successively, children will initially apply the syntactical rules and
phonetic structures of their home language to their second language.
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For language proficiency to develop to such an extent that it may be used to learn other
subject matter – that is, to be used as an effective language of teaching and learning –
generally takes from six to eight years.
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Concerning the benefits of bilingualism or even multilingualism (the ability to speak
three or more languages), children who are able to speak more than one language often
outperform monolingual children in tests based on analytical reasoning, verbal- and
non-verbal creativity, concept formation, and cognitive flexibility (Louw & Louw, 2014).
Therefore, the conclusion can be made that learning more than one language advances
children’s cognitive development in several ways.
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Activity 3.10: Article
Both Vygotsky and Bruner emphasised the importance of the social and cultural environment in the language development of children. The article titled “The facilitative
role of adults in the language development of Afrikaans- and Sesotho- speaking preschool
children”, which can be found under e-reserves on myUnisa under CDE3701, provides
valuable insight into South African children’s language development in two different
sociocultural contexts.
After reading the article, refer to the “discussion and interpretation” section in order to
answer the following questions:
(1) What are the roles that Sesotho and Afrikaans parents play in interacting with their
children, according to the authors?
(2) Discuss how adults scaffold their children’s language development.
(3) Compare the social contexts and roles of the adults of the two language groups, and
reflect on the effect the differences could have in a multicultural foundation phase
classroom.
Feedback on Activity 3.10
18
When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of the learning unit:
y Explain and contextualise concepts related to cognitive development
y Reflect on implications of cognitive development for own practise
Keep the following in mind when answering the questions:
(1) Role of the mothers was especially important in both cultures
Grandmothers were also often involved, in both cultures
Fathers more involved in Afrikaans environments
Older children and other adults more often involved in Sotho environments
The adults of both cultures encouraged language production by asking questions
or making requests
− Playing is seen as an opportunity for interaction by both cultures
−
−
−
−
(2) Mothers of both cultures raised the levels of language development in their children
− Mothers of younger children tended to ask many “why” questions, supporting the
learning of the names of people and things, and the production of sentences
− They also expanded the responses of their children, which is a great example of
scaffolding
− Older children were scaffolded to improve their use of adverbs to make their language
more cohesive
− Out of all of the participating adults, mothers were found to be the most systematic
and effective in their scaffolding
(3) Role of the mothers was very similar in both cultures, in that they set the framework for
interaction, and that they extended their children’s sentences.
− The main difference in the topics of discussion: Sotho children and their parents were
more likely to talk about people, and the social setting would likely contain several
people. This reflects the belief of Sotho mothers that a child’s language development
is the responsibility of the community.
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− In the Afrikaans culture, the conversation is more object orientated, and books are
highly valued.
− Also, in some Sotho households, the TV seems to have taken over the role of traditional storytelling.
3.6
‌THE DEVELOPMENT OF MATHEMATICAL THOUGHT
Children engage with mathematical concepts on a daily basis, whether they are aware
of it or not. In order to apply the basic mathematical knowledge they have acquired to
more complicated situations, as is often required by the mathematical curriculum, several
cognitive (mental) processes need to develop (Dednam et al, 2011). These processes include
problem-solving, reasoning and proving arguments, communicating their mathematical
ideas to others, making connections between mathematical concepts, and visually
presenting mathematical ideas.
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Children also need to reach certain levels of development before they are able to achieve
success in formal mathematics instruction (Underhill, as cited in Dednam, 2011):
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• Content level: They need a developed number sense, as well as a conceptual understanding of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division operations
• Educational level: When children are able to relate pictures to mathematical computa•
•
•
tions, they are also able to relate mathematical concepts to real-world mathematical
problems
Cognitive level: The ability to actively work with mathematical concepts, which is
often linked to the use of concrete materials
Emotional level: Children need to develop a positive attitude towards mathematics
and thus be motivated to work with the concepts
Contextual level: Children should realise the value that mathematics can have in their
everyday lives
CAPS integration
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Use the CAPS web link below and assimilate the content, educational, cognitive, emotional
and contextual levels with a lesson plan.
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https://www.uj.ac.za/faculties/facultyofeducation/eli/Documents/Foundation%20
Phase%20CAPS%20Guide.pdf
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Activity 3.11
Reflect on how you can keep children’s social context in mind while teaching mathematics.
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19
Feedback on Activity 3.11
When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of the learning unit:
y Reflect on implications of cognitive development for own practise.
Keep the following in mind when answering the questions:
y Provide a variety of real-life problems, in real-life contexts, where mathematics may be
y
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used to solve the problem
Children can be asked to come up with their own contexts for problems, which they can
then share with one other, to see the value of mathematics in a variety of situations.
The following section will focus on the cognitive skills for mastering mathematical concepts.
3.6.1
‌Cognitive prerequisites for mathematical thought
Cognitive skills, as stated by Piaget, which enable children to master lower level mathematical
concepts and processes, consist of classification, seriation, and conservation:
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• Classification of objects according to characteristics such as function, form, colour,
shape, and size.
• Seriation of objects by arranging them in a logical way, such as from big to small.
• Conservation of liquid quantity (e.g. realising that juice poured into a taller, narrower
glass remains the same), number (e.g. number of objects in a row remains the same
after being spread out), form (e.g. objects of different sizes can both be round), and
mass (e.g. a ball of clay does not become lighter when flattened).
Higher levels of cognitive skills become necessary as children progress through school,
as they are often exposed to increasingly complex mathematical concepts and processes
(Lansberg, Kruger & Swart, 2011). They will benefit from becoming aware of strategies
that may be used to solve mathematical problems. The use of metacognition regarding
their mathematical knowledge thus becomes increasingly important.
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Mathematical knowledge furthermore develops from a concrete level to a semi-concrete
level, then to an abstract level (Lansberg et al, 2011). When engaging with new mathematical
concepts, children progress through the following phases:
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1.
2.
3.
4.
The first impression of a new concept: intuitive, vague, and unanalysed
When encountering similar experiences, their understanding of the concept improves
Systematic exploration of the concept results in improved understanding
In-depth understanding of the concept: can be described in precise mathematical
terms.
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Enrichment
Watch the following YouTube video clip to obtain some ideas to embed maths competencies
in the daily classroom.
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BMoF-hiH3J8
Activity 3.12: Article
Read the article titled “Early numerical abilities and cognitive skills in kindergarten children”,
which can be found under e-reserves on myUnisa under CDE3701. After analysing the
“discussion section”, think about the most recent primary school mathematics class that
you have observed, and evaluate whether the class teacher actively fostered the development of those cognitive abilities associated with success in mathematics, as identified
by the authors.
Feedback on Activity 3.12
20
When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of the learning unit:
y Outline the cognitive ability stages of mathematical development of a foundation phase
child
Keep the following in mind when answering the questions:
Cognitive abilities associated with success in mathematics:
y processing speed
y phonological abilities
y verbal intelligence
You have to decide whether the teacher actively provided activities to support the development of these abilities.
3.7
‌CONCLUSION
In this learning unit, you have examined the cognitive development of children from
the perspective of general milestones, as well as from the cognitive theories of Piaget,
Vygotsky, Bruner, and Information Processing Theory. You have also had an overview of
the development of language and mathematical thought.
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3.8 REFERENCES
Anthony, J.L., Williams, J.M., McDonald, R. & Francis, D.J. (2007). Phonological processing
and emergent literacy in younger and older preschool children. Annals of Dyslexia,
57(2), 113–137.
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August, D. & Shanahan, T. (2008). Developing Reading and Writing in Second Language
Learners. Lessons from the report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority
Children and Youth. Taylor & Francis.
Berko Gleason, J. (2005). The development of language (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson
Education, Inc.
Bodrova, E. & Leong, D.J. (2017). The Vygotskian and post-Vygotskian approach: Focusing on “the Future Child”. In L.E. Cohen & S. Waite-Stupiansky (eds.), Theories of Early
Childhood Education: Developmental, Behaviourist, and Critical (pp. 58-70). New York:
Routledge.
Brewer, J. (2014). Introduction to early childhood education: Preschool through primary grades
(6th ed.). Essex: Pearson.
Carr, P. & Honeybone, P. 2007. English Phonology and linguistic theory: an introduction
to issues, and to “Issues in English Phonology”. Language Sciences, 29(2), 117–153.
Conkbayir, M. & Pascal, C. (2014). Early Childhood theories and contemporary issues: An
introduction. London: Bloomsbury.
Dawes, A. & Biersteker, L. (2011). Early child development. In A.B. Nsamenang & T.M.S.
Tchombe (eds.), Handbook of African educational theories and practices: A generative
teacher education curriculum (pp. 111–122).
Dednam, A. (2011). Difficulties in mathematics: Mathematical literacy and numeracy. In E.
Landsberg, D. Kruger & E. Swart (eds.), Addressing barriers to learning: A South African
perspective (2nd ed., pp. 211–228). Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Landsberg, E., Krüger, D. & Swart, E. (2011). Addressing Barriers to Learning: A South African
Perspective (2nd ed.). Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers.
Louw, D.A. & Louw, A.E. (2014). Child and Adolescent Development (2nd ed.). Bloemfontein:
Psychology Publications.
Jordaan, H. (2015). Chapter 1. In C. Nel, M. Nel, A. Adam, R.H. Good & R.
Kaminski (eds.), How to Support English Second Language Learners; Foundation and Intermediate Phase (pp. 1-13). Van Schaik: Pretoria.
Palaiologou, I. (2010). Communication, language, and literacy. In I. Palaiologou (ed.). The
early years: Foundation stage theory and practice (pp. 246–252). SAGE.
Probyn, M. (2009). Smuggling the vernacular into the classroom: conflicts and tensions in
classroom code-switching in township/rural schools in South Africa.
International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 12(2), 123–136.
Waite-Stupiansky, S. (2017). Jean Piaget’s Constructivist theory of learning. In L.E. Cohen
& S. Waite-Stupiansky (eds.), Theories of Early Childhood Education: Developmental,
Behaviourist, and Critical (pp. 3–17). New York: Routledge.
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Learning unit 4
THE SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE
FOUNDATION PHASE CHILD
Aim of learning unit
In this learning unit, you will examine the socio-emotional development of the young
child. An overview of some general social and emotional milestones will be given and
how the teacher and parent can support the child in the development.
Learning outcomes
After studying this unit, you will be able to do the following:
•
•
•
•
•
4.1
Explain and contextualise concepts related to socio-emotional development
Identify factors influencing socio-emotional development
Identify and explain theories underpinning socio-emotional development
Critically discuss the importance of socio-emotional development in the foundation
phase
Reflect on and record the implications of socio-emotional development later in the
child’s life
‌INTRODUCTION
Entering the foundation phase brings many changes to the child’s life. They are now
in contact with the larger world. At this stage, the child can function independently by
dressing themselves, catch a ball by using only the hands and tie their own shoelaces.
They become independent from their parents and caregivers as friendships become
important where they interact and socialise with others. Their physical, mental and
social skills develop, and teachers, parents, and caregivers can see the changes as they
move from playing alone to having many friends and social groups. Although friendships
become more important, the child is still fond of their parents and likes being part of a
family. The foundation phase is a critical time for the children to develop confidence in
all areas of life.
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Every child is further unique with its own identity, temperament, and personality. In this
learning unit, we will focus on theories of social and emotional development, the role of
the culture, gender, family, friends, and intelligence.
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4.2 ‌CONCEPT CLARIFICATION
4.2.1
‌Social development
Refers to the behaviour of the child influenced by other children or adults. Social
development includes the attachment between a mother and a child, interpersonal
contact with other people, modelling behaviour, and development of gender cultural
and moral roles.
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4.2.2 ‌Emotional development
Refers to the ability to express, manage and identify positive or negative affections for
the self and others.
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4.3 ‌DEFINITIONS OF SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Social and emotional development refers to the child’s ability to react and interact
with their social environment. Emotional development is the child’s ability to recognise
and express feelings and social development concomitant around self-expression and
interaction with others. Both social and emotional development start to develop at infancy,
are complex and include different areas of growth and development like emotional bonds
and attachments between a child and another person, self-perception, esteem, personality,
and character. Social and emotional development, along with behaviour, are initially
influenced by the home environment through parental or caregiver interaction, especially
with the mother (Louw & Louw, 2014; Charlesworth, 2017; De Witt, 2017). Nsamenang
(1992) points out, however, that mother-child interaction among, for example, the Gusii
in Kenya, is forbidden and that emotional support for the child is the responsibility of
siblings or caregivers. Marope and Kaga refer to it as the child-to-child (CtC) approach.
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In this learning unit, we will not focus on the CtC approach, but you can see some
enrichment articles under Enrichment at the end of the learning unit.
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4.4
‌THE IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
Children by themselves cannot set up their own socio-emotional foundation. It requires
attuned adults to provide the child with responsive and sensitive care. Children growing
up in a healthy, attentive and nurturing environment will develop the life skills of making
their own choices and being autonomous. These critical skills are central for school
readiness since it motivates children to communicate and connect with others, pay
attention, finish tasks, resolve conflict, show kindness and empathy, be able to manage
encounters, follow instructions, and not be disruptive. The child needs to develop a sense
of how their actions and emotions impact their own behaviour and the people around
them. Without these cognitive, socio-emotional skills in the classroom, learning cannot
take place (Nsamenang, 2004; Louw & Louw, 2014; Charlesworth, 2017; De Witt, 2017).
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4.5 ‌COMPONENTS THAT SHAPE SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
As mentioned above, children cannot set up their own socio-emotional foundation. They
are constantly observing the way their friends, parents, caregivers or teachers interact
with them and with others. Bandura (1977) points out that social behaviour is “caught and
not taught”, meaning that children mirror the modelling of what they experience and see.
The importance of the role of the parent in social-emotional development is undeniable,
but their substantial research has been done on the importance of the teacher-child
relationship in the beginning school years over all the socioeconomic spectrums (Fan &
Willams, 2010). The risk associated with poor teacher-child relationships points to school
dropouts, low self-efficacy, and low self-confidence. A positive teacher-child relationship,
on the other hand, can impact both social and academic achievements. Muller, (2001) refers
to it as “social capital”. Children with high self-esteem are more likely to be self-efficient
and set higher goals for themselves, resulting in competence as a pattern of effective
adaptation to their environment. Within the teacher-child relationship, the teacher plays
an important role in developing the personality and character of the child to become a
socially competent person.
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Emotions of the self, resembling guilt, shame, and pride, develop by the end of the third
year. If the environment is not conducive to a positive self-awareness, a negative feeling
of the self will develop and is difficult to adjust into a positive self. For this reason, it is
better to pay more attention to positive than negative behaviour. Try to model positive
behaviour by addressing the child respectfully. Use words like “please” or “thank you” or
lend a helping hand where necessary, show empathy, look the child in the eyes when
talking to them, or use their names in a sentence. In time, the child will start acting that
way (Hughes, 2002; Orth, Robins & Widaman, 2012).
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In the following section, we will look at components that can shape socio-emotional
development:
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4.5.1
‌The influence of the components on children’s social development
Social skills for children entail positive attitudes, interest in peers, being kind, managing
aggression and having the ability to play with others. Social development further includes
prosocial attitudes and skills. This begins in the very early experiences of the baby where an
adult shows kindness, gentle touch, affection and even simple turn-taking conversations.
All this will install the skill to notice when someone needs to be comforted, helped or
defended. Prosocial attitudes further include a smile to show “I like you”. Playing with
friends is a skill that needs to be developed and encouraged. This includes the ability to
engage in activities with friends, to play with toys, and to know how to interact in games.
It is important for the teacher and the parent to develop a positive and balanced desire in
a child to interact and socialise with people. When children interact with one another, the
teacher or parents must make an effort to use the children’s names so they can become
familiar with the sounds. The cultural differences of the children need to be taken into
account. For example, the individualist vs the collectivist environment.
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In a collectivist environment, children are accustomed to functioning among lots of
people; therefore, the goals of the group are put ahead of that of personal goals. The
child can thus share more and be more tolerant of his/her friends (Gumbo & Msila, 2017).
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The child from an individualist environment puts personal goals ahead of group goals,
thus the child can be more self-driven (Weiten, 2017). Families address conflict situations
differently. Some families prefer to see children resolve their conflict independently and
others prefer to intervene. The teacher needs to be aware of the different preferences and
address the situation accordingly (Papalia & Feldman, 2011; Brewer, 2014; Kail, Cavanaugh
& Muller, 2019).
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Foundation phase children are aware of who they are and begin to develop a self-concept.
They make logical connections between different aspects of the self and others. Piaget refers
to it as representational mapping (Case, 1992; Harter, 1996; Kail, Cavanaugh & Muller, 2019).
The child’s self-perception, on how they behave, their physical appearance, competencies,
and acceptance by others are positive, although not necessarily based on reality. They
will say things like, “I am pretty, or strong, or fast”. They cannot visualise themselves as
not being good or the best in something.
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To build positive self-esteem at this age, it is important to encourage the children’s
independence, stimulate their interest in new skills and help them develop the confidence
to try out new challenges. Not all the new skills and activities will end in success. Children
may view this failure as an indictment of their own worth that can result in helplessness,
withdrawal, or unwillingness to re-try after failure. This can develop a feeling of “I will never
make it” and they might give up. On the other side, the child might lash out and blame
someone else for their failure, like blame shift. It is therefore important for the teacher
to try different strategies to encourage the child to achieve. The teacher cannot act as if
the failure did not happen, they need to sympathise with the failure by saying something
like: “I can see that you are upset and angry and it is okay to have these emotions, but
you can try again and it will become easier every time till you achieve.”
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Children with positive self-esteem generally come from a positive environment where
constructive criticism is given. These children will have independent self-esteem and
therefore project their failures extrinsically or encourage themselves intrinsically to try
harder. They will persevere and try out new strategies (Kail, Cavanaugh & Muller, 2019).
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In the following section, we will focus on the influence of different components on
children’s social development.
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4.5.1.1
‌Social development of the foundation phase child
The social development of the foundation phase child involves changes in their interactions
and connections with others. Family structures and relations play an important and
influential role in the development of the child. Although the child is not that attached to
his/her family anymore, they still struggling to establish total independence and therefore
often seeks parental comfort (Phatudi, 2007). Bowlby (1988) refers to the goal-corrected
partnership. The child still has a goal to be in contact with his/her parents, but it does
not need to be constant.
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Cultural awareness is important to form a child’s general identity. It promotes independence
and encourages reflection about the self. This means the child can think about “Who
am I?” or “Do I have a place in society?” and “Will I make it?” (Margetts & Phatudi, 2013).
Children growing up in collectivistic cultures, like African and Asian cultures, have a narrow
social structure and are interdependent. The family, culture and religious institution
often come before the individual and the interests of the individual are put second.
The self forms part of a bigger group and is not viewed independently. See the macro
system (Bronfenbrenner, LU1). The macro system includes beliefs, values, and ideologies
inherent in a community and culture that again has an influence on the exo-, meso- and
microsystems of the holistic development of the child.
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When the teacher plans activities, he/she needs to consider the child’s cultural perception.
Diverse physical and cultural aspects need to be addressed because children between
5 and 9 years are curious about the self. They are in the process of constructing “Who
am I? What is my name? What kind of personality do I have and why?” They think about
their social identity formed by interacting with issues such as race, ethnicity and gender.
During this time, children can develop a sense of pre-prejudice when being exposed to
negative attitudes and stereotypes about various characteristics of diversity.
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Based on the above, let us focus on race and cultural awareness of the foundation phase
child.
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4.5.1.2
‌Race and cultural awareness
For the young child who observes different behaviour, the transmission of culture, ethnicity,
and race is an important component of their gathering of information. In a diverse
country like South Africa, children need to be informed about racial self-concepts and
ethnic identity in alignment with the development of the self, self-identity, and gender
identity. Njoroge, Benton, Lewis and Njoroge (2009) clarify race and ethnicity as follows:
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• Race as a socio-political construct to describe observable characteristics associated
•
•
with a specific race. In other words, similarities prior to differences in people like we
all have skin and hair, but that might differ in colour or hair types. In other words, a
person from a white race will typically have light skin and smooth hair. A person from
a black race will have dark skin and curly hair.
Gender refers to a being male or female and plays an important role in defining the
boy or the girl’s self-concept.
Ethnicity describes a person’s cultural background, which they associate with a common national or specific language, religion, or tradition within a homogenous group.
A person can be a German, Xhosa or an Italian, regardless of race. This means that
a person can have more than one ethnicity; the mother can be a German and the
father a Xhosa, but the child can have only one race, even if it is "mixed race". Siegler,
DeLoache and Eisenberg, (2001) explain that children identify themselves according
to their ethnic group between the ages of 5 and 8 years old.
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They further indicate that children develop their ethnic identity according to the
following five concepts:
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• Children are aware that their ethnic group has different characteristics that distinguish
•
•
•
•
them from other ethnics groups. For example, ethnic groups behave differently, and
have different values, customs, languages and physical traits.
Children have their own ethnic self-identification and therefore categorise themselves
as members of that ethnic group.
Children understand that their ethnicity is constant and will not change in time or
place and they will always be a member of that ethnic group.
Children are aware that they have a specific role and behaviour in their specific ethnic
group.
Children feel that they belong to a specific ethnic group and its members and they
prefer that characteristics above others that distinguish the group.
It is important that the teacher embrace diversity in the classroom. In the following section,
we will focus on some considerations.
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4.5.1.3
‌How can the teacher embrace diversity?
Before we can start with embracing diversity, we first need to understand the norms and
values that are embedded in all cultures. Norm refers to attitudes and behaviours that are
considered normal, typical or average within a specific group of people of culture, and
all societies have cultural norms. Even though norms influence every facet of our lives,
including things that we value, or our attitudes, or how we behave, we are most often
unaware that we are valuing these things in our lives (Louw & Louw, 2016). Therefore,
culturally responsive teaching is less about using racial pride as a motivator and more
about mimicking children’s norms, values, and cultural learning styles. Diverse cultures
in the classroom are part of the children’s daily experiences; therefore, the teacher can
first learn about the different cultures in the classroom and do the following from there
onwards:
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• Plan purposeful activities that form part of the ongoing teaching and require children
•
•
•
to engage in thinking of cultures’ similarities prior to what differs from their own. Introduce activities that start with what all the children have in common before focusing
on what sets them apart, and keep in mind that the focus should always be to achieve
unity, respect, and tolerance among one another.
The teacher can focus, for example, on specific topics to be discussed in which the
children must use a language (only words in the beginning) of a culture different from
theirs. These topics can include traditions, history or family structures to name but a few.
The teacher can show pictures of that topic, or involve a family member of a child in
the class to talk about or demonstrate the topic.
Children learn content more effectively if they create a coherent narrative about the
topic or process presented or group activities in which children need to rely on each
other, before they can build on diverse communal orientation.
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Activity 4.1
Watch the YouTube video clip: “Court interpreter in South Africa” and answer the questions.
https://www.dw.com/en/should-african-schools-teach-more-local-languages/a-45446876
(1) Reflect on the importance of understanding different cultures in a rainbow nation
like South Africa.
(2) What forms of respect will you instil in your classroom to accommodate diversity?
(3) From the video, try to identify the differences to be kept in mind when teaching in a
diverse classroom or school to accommodate the children and staff members.
(4) Plan a cultural day at your school where each child presents something unique from
his/her culture.
Case study
As a teacher in a school with diverse cultures, beliefs and values, the principal gave
you an assignment to firstly make the learners aware of their similarities, and then
of their differences, and in the process embrace attitudes, expected behaviour, and
values that impact positively on the whole school.
Follow these steps to successfully complete the assignment:
Establish the culture of your school by answering the following questions:
What core set of beliefs underlines the school’s culture?
What do the staff discuss at school meetings?
What kind of teaching techniques are used in the classrooms?
Is the staff amenable to change to accommodate cultural diversity in the school?
What is the school’s view on staff development to accommodate cultural diversity?
•
•
•
•
•
See the link to Enrichment when planning the activity:
https://schoolleadersnow.weareteachers.com/8-ways-build-positive-school-culturenow/
21
Feedback on Activity 4.1
When watching the video, listen to the different interpretations and views of words and traditions. Reflect on your own cultural and language adjustment to function in a diverse country
like South Africa.
When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of the learning unit:
y Contextualise concepts related to socio-emotional development
y Factors influencing socio-emotional development
y Importance of socio-emotional development in the foundation phase
Over and above cultural diversity, the foundation phase child becomes aware of gender diversity.
In the following section, we will look into gender roles.
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4.5.1.4
‌Become aware of gender roles
Before we address gender roles, let us first understand the difference between gender
and sex. In general terms, sex refers to the biological differences between males and
females, such as the genitalia and genetic differences. Gender is more difficult to define,
but it can refer to the role of a male or female in society, known as a gender role, or an
individual's concept of themselves, or gender identity.
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Because of the self-perception of the child, they establish an idea about gender roles.
Before age six, children think that boys can become mothers or girls can become boys
if they cut their hair or wear boy’s clothes. After age six, gender stereotypes develop
more strongly as gender constancy forms and is regarded as the absolute rule. A little
girl will state, “I am a girl and do not want to sit on a blue chair” or “boys are tough and
girls are gentle” or “maths is for boys and reading for girls”. During this stage gender
type behaviour also appears when girls play only with girls and boys with boys. (Kail,
Cavanaugh & Muller, 2019).
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Kohlberg (1966) proposed that children’s gender capturing develops after they acquire
an awareness of their own sex as a boy or a girl. As soon as they typify themselves, they
organise their world according to their gender. For example, the girl’s room will be pink
and the boy’s room blue. The girl will be a princess and the boy a superhero. Although
we say, “I am a girl, therefore I will do and behave like a girl”, the social learning theory
and psychoanalytic theory state that the sequence is just the opposite of, “I am treated
like a girl, therefore I am a girl.”
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Let us look at Kohlberg’s explanation of the sequence of the opposite:
Kohlberg builds his theory on two assumptions by the indication that the child must first
understand gender before they can be influenced by social experience, and secondly
that the child is actively involved in their own socialisation and not passive recipients of
social influences. He further states that children progress through three developmental
stages, happening in all cultures, in which they should gain specific knowledge before
they can develop an understanding of what it means to be a boy or a girl:
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1.
2.
3.
Gender identity is established between 2 and 3 years old. The child identifies him/
herself as a boy or a girl.
Gender stability means that the child’s knowledge of gender stays stable at around
4 years. For example, the little girl believes she will grow into a woman and the boy
believes he will grow into a man.
Gender constancy points to a little girl’s (age between 5 and 7 years) knowledge
that her sex is stable. For example, a girl does not change into a boy when she cuts
her hair short.
Activity 4.2
Watch YouTube video clips on gender equality. Thereafter answer the questions based
on the videos.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4viXOGvvu0Y
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http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2016/3/arab-states-video-what-ifwe-switched-roles
(1) In a paragraph of 250 words (Font: Arial, letter size: 12), reflect on gender norms that
you are exposed to in your culture, school, and community you live in. Do you agree
with the roles you are exposed to?
(2) Plan two creative activities in which you demonstrate how you will address gender
roles in your classroom.
Feedback on Activity 4.2
22
Think about how you will make the children aware of equity between genders. Keep the
cultural beliefs of the children and families in your class in mind. Be very diplomatic when
addressing the matter.
When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of the learning unit:
y Identify and explain theories underpinning gender development
y Reflect on the implications of gender awareness later in the child’s life
In the following section, we will focus on the conditions of friendships of the foundation
phase child.
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4.5.1.5
‌Conditions of friendship
Friendships are social and emotional resources for children to have fun and to feel
emotionally nurtured. It is further a cognitive resource for problem-solving and
knowledge acquisition. Essential in a friendship of young children are concrete reciprocity
and commitment between children who see themselves as equals. Children’s friendships
progress through the following three phases:
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Play-based friendships develop during ages 3-7 years old. Play-based friendships are the
most common for these children. They are good friends when they spend a lot of play
time together, sharing toys and enjoy the same games and activities.
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Loyal and faithful friendships develop during ages 8-11 years old. Loyalty, faithfulness,
and generosity define close friendships during middle childhood.
425
Intimate friendships develop during adolescence and beyond. These friends share their
most personal feelings and thoughts. They trust each other to keep their secrets safe
and use friendship as a safe base for exploring issues and problems that they may not
discuss with others.
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The foundation phase child makes a large emotional investment in their friends and their
relationships are fairly enduring. Although they do not use words like empathy or intimacy
to describe their friends, in their minds, these constructs distinguish friends from other
children (Rubin, Bukowski & Parker, 2006).
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Children learn from one another to function in the following key varieties:
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•
•
•
•
Peer tutoring is moral communication between children
Cooperative learning is when children engage in problem-solving and sharing
rewards
Peer collaboration is when they work together on tasks that neither can do on their
own
Peer modelling is when one learns from the other through imitation
We see thus that friendships are situations in which basic social skills like communication,
cooperation, and group access skills are learnt. The foundation phase child is still in the
process of learning how to process and regulate their social skills and emotions, and
therefore will have challenges to overcome.
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We can conclude by saying friendships are forerunners of later relationships in which
older children view friendships with mutual understanding, loyalty, and trust.
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Children want to be accepted in a wider group of friends, but in any social situation some
children are more liked than others; consequently, some children are more popular than
others (Rubin, Bukowski & Parker, 2006).
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The following section focuses on the so-called sociometric principles where some children
are more liked than others.
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4.5.1.6
‌Sociometric techniques
The sociometric principles (Cillessen, Swartz & Mayeux, 2011) consist of the following five
groups of children:
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• Popular children are children who are liked by most children. They are physically at•
•
•
•
tractive and intelligent. Children enjoy children who interact skilfully, have good ideas
and avoid conflict by controlling their emotions. The popular children normally have
secure parental relationships, therefore, are socially competent;
Average children are evenly liked and disliked by other children;
Controversial children are liked by many children, but are disliked by many too. This
group of children can act differently from the rest and therefore are pushed out of
the group;
Neglected children are invisible to the rest of the group. These children tend to be
shy and play alone, thus the group does not notice them;
Rejected children are more disliked than liked by the group. These children can be
aggressive, bullies, disruptive, pushy, and annoying.
With the above in mind, it is important for the teacher and the parent or any other adult
to cooperate and develop positive social skills and friendships between children. The
foundation phase child’s social and emotional development are intertwined since they
understand and control their emotions and feeling as they play and interact individually
and in a group. For comprehension purposes, we need to be clear on what emotions
and feeling entail. Feelings are the next thing that happens after having an emotion.
They involve cognitive input, usually subconsciously, and cannot be measured precisely.
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A feeling is thus a mental idea of what is going on in the body when having an emotion, and
is the by-product of the brain perceiving and assigning meaning to that specific emotion
(Louw & Louw, 2016). During the ages 6-9 years old, the children start to become aware
of when their socio-emotional skills are out of control or they do not follow the rules
in a game, because their social interactions will be jeopardised. Therefore, the children
become less bossy, egocentric and defiant. They realise that to be accepted as part of a
game they need to follow directions from others, initiate play and exchange information
(Sigelman & Rider, 2018).
Activity 4.3
(1) Plan activities in which you mix the wider group of children to give all the opportunity
to interact with one another and pay attention to the social and emotional aspects
of child development.
Feedback on Activity 4.3
23
When answering the questions, think of the following objective of the learning unit:
y Identify and explain theories underpinning socio-emotional development
y Critically discuss the importance of friendship and sociometric principles in socio-emotional
development of the child
Children display leadership between different friendships. The following section focuses
on leadership traits and how the foundation phase teacher and the parent, individually
or in cooperation, can instil these qualities into the children.
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4.5.1.7
‌Leadership qualities
Some children display leadership traits from an early age and for others, it takes longer
to develop the necessary skills. Leadership cannot be taught; it is inborn. The child who
possesses leadership abilities from a young age has an edge over those who have yet to
realise their leadership potential since they can develop their qualities from an early age
(Lumpkin, 2013; Spearman & Harrison, 2013).
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438
John F Kennedy said, "Leadership and learning are indispensable to each other."
Imparting leadership skills from a young age will make the child independent, responsible
and diplomatic in the long run. There is a close link between leadership traits and emotional
intelligence (EQ), but you can see some discussions about this topic in the listed articles
under Enrichment at the end of the learning unit.
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Lumpkin (2013), along with Spearman and Harrison (2013), point to the following leadership
traits:
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• A born leader is self-motivated and filled with a desire to achieve impossible things.
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The foundation phase teacher and parents (adults) can support the child by encouraging
them not to give up. When things are challenging, the adult can coach the child through
the process, by praising not only the end product, but also the process and hard work
that went into it. This assists the child further in gaining problem-solving skills while
developing a sense of confidence and self-worth.
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• A born leader has the integrity that deals with honesty and morality.
The adults in the child’s life can model integrity by simply living an honest and moral life.
Try not to do things that you would be embarrassed to do if the children see you doing
it. Playing games or sport is a great way to learn to respect others and to face the reality
of cheating.
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To underline the importance of integrity and morality, see the following YouTube video
clips on teaching moral character in the classroom along with Kholberg’s article under
Enrichment at the back of the learning unit.
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The following video clip focuses on some tips
on teaching morality in the classroom
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
fjofs5A6doQ
The following video clip focuses on decisions
that may impact a child’s life: a person sees
money falling out of the pocket of another person; what decision will the child make? Will the
child ignore it, pick it up, give it to the person,
or keep it?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
ilzmBMKZe8Y
• A born leader is a humble person.
There are numerous ways for the adults to teach children to put the needs of the
followers before that of their own, or that no job is too small for them to do.
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• A born leader shows the ability to forge new relationships.
Leaders enjoy associating with people and friends. They further have the ability to
create new friendships and help their friends with a sense of principles.
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The adults can model the following life lesson: “Do unto others as you would have
others do unto you.”
446
The following video captures the notion about networking and connecting in a unique
way:
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See the video clip on the importance of connecting with people
https://www.edutopia.org/video/power-relationships-schools
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• Effective communication is a critical part of a leader.
The adults can help the children to learn and master basic communication. He/she
can point out that listening is the first step in communication skills. Thus, teach the
children to listen first so that they know what other children are talking about before
they answer or speak. Remind the children that communication is not all verbal. Make
the children aware of basic body language.
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The following video captures the notion of body language:
449
See the YouTube clip on body language.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nmp_-JByPaY
• A strong sense of reasoning comes naturally to a child with born leadership skills, and
to be able to work with others in a team is a leadership trait.
Adults can encourage teamwork and point out that many hands make the load lighter.
In teamwork activities, the children will appreciate and utilise the different abilities
and experiences of different children in the team. Teamwork aims to achieve a singular
goal. To accomplish the goal the children need to plan strategically, which is an asset
of a leader and it builds children’s self-esteem. The adults can teach the children to
plan the action, right down to the smallest detail. A large task can be overwhelming;
therefore, they need to be taught how to break it into sections.
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• A leader can make his/her own decisions, irrespective of the consequences, and takes
charge in solving a problem.
The adults must be cautious to give the child only age appropriate responsibilities
in which he/she needs to make decisions. To make decisions and solve problems,
children need to have a vision. This can be acquired by adults who introduce them to
past and/or current achievers on different terrains in life.
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The following enrichment ideas can be used in the classroom to capture the notion
of leadership in general in a unique way:
452
The teacher can read books or show movies of:
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454
455
President Nelson Mandela:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yjYm78K6aNI
Yvonne Chaka-Chaka – a musician:
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457
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8y27ZbCjLjs
Felicia Mabuza-Suttle, who owns her own marketing business:
458
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8sRD3P0McMs
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461
Albertina Sisulu, “Mama Sisulu”, a freedom fighter:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3tLasqr7HlU
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Leaders are readers!
To pique children to develop social skills in the foundation phase, the following games
can be played in the classroom or at home.
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Games to play in the classroom or at home:
The statue game: to teach self-control
Material: enough space to wiggle
Participants: one leader and the rest of the group
Game: There are different variants of the game – the initiator of the game can be creative.
The leader has his/her back to the group and tell all to wiggle/jump/laugh, etc.
At a certain point, the leader yells “STATUE”; all children must freeze without making a sound.
The one who moves or makes a sound is out of the game.
The positive remarks game: to seek and find positive comments
Material: crayons/paint/markers/glitter/glue/paper/scissors
Participants: different groups
Game: decide on a theme and allow children to create a picture. Once the picture is completed, the different groups “positively judge” the pictures. The groups are allowed to say
any 5–7 things positive and inspiring about each other’s pictures.
The communication game: listening to instructions
Material: crayons/paint/markers/glitter/glue/paper/scissors/ blocks/play dough or anything
that will allow building or creating something.
Participants: different groups with one master builder
Game: The participants face away from the master builder to avoid peaking. The master builder
constructs an object using the planned on materials. As the master builder constructs the
object, he/she talks the groups through the different steps of construction and they have to
follow the instructions to the “T” (or each one in the group gets a chance to follow a specific
instruction of the master builder).
Once the master builder finished the construction, he/she repeats all the steps and the group
can evaluate how similar to the masterpiece their construction is.
Thus, the children had to rely on listening skills, without any interruptions, and the master
builder had to make sure he/she gave clear instructions.
See the YouTube video clip for more team building ideas in the classroom
https://www.weareteachers.com/team-building-games-and-activities/
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Activity 4.4
(1) Plan a humbling experience for your foundation phase children.
Think of activities where children can provide a service to someone or to the community
(the school can be a community) without any form of reward. This can include things like
raking leaves, picking up trash at a park or on the playgrounds, donating toys to a play
school or singing songs at an old age home.
Write out your plan in detail. This must include the objective of the activity, who will be
involved, apparatus, preparation, time allocated for practising, and consent forms from
the principal and parents if the children will leave the school premises.
Feedback on Activity 4.4
24
When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of the learning unit:
y Contextualise concepts related to socio-emotional development
y Different factors that might influence socio-emotional development. Think of issues such
y
as morality, honesty, values and norms
The importance of leadership as a socio-emotional development in the foundation phase
In the following section, we will focus on the influence of these components on children’s
emotional development
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4.5.2 T
‌ he influence of the components on children’s emotional
development
Most foundation phase teachers will agree that children’s emotional wellbeing contributes
greatly to their social and intellectual development. Research has shown that children’s
negative emotions must not be suppressed since they resurface and cause problems
later in life. Children who are taught to identify, express and cope positively with their
feelings, develop useful life skills. Children experience a variety of emotions that cannot
be categorised as right or wrong, but it is important to teach children how to handle their
feelings. As mentioned, children learn by observing what is modelled in their lives. Adults
who honestly express their feelings in constructive ways will foster children’s emotional
growth. When both parents and teachers demonstrate self-understanding and emotional
maturity, children are most likely to do the same (Wayne, 2017).
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The following are some indicators of how parents and teachers can enhance children’s
emotional development:
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Table 4.1: Indicators of how parents and teachers can enhance children’s emotional
development (Wonderly, 2009; Lerner, Lewin-Bizan & Warren, 2011).
Parents
Teachers
Help children to gain an understanding of their
feelings by using books, games, puppets, interactive storytelling or role-play
Teach children to identify and verbalise their
feelings as well as to read the emotional signals
from other children and adults
Watching a child’s facial expressions, posture,
play or artwork for signs that they might experience a negative emotion
Accepting the emotional response from a child
as reasonable, even if you do not approve of the
behaviour that the feeling produces
Communicate understanding and empathy by
reflecting the observed emotion. The adult can
use sentences like “I can see you are upset”; if
the child confirms and begins to talk, be quiet
and listen
Take note of the child’s non-verbal behaviour
Try to avoid negative statements, like “Can’t
you do anything right?” since it discourages
open communication and suggests that when
a child does not behave perfectly, he/she is bad
Avoid:
Moralising like “This is wrong of you!”
Humiliating like “I cannot believe you did
this!”
Lecturing “You should have known better”
Denying “you will be okay”
Pitying: “Poor you, it is not your fault”
Rescuing: “I will take care if it”
•
•
•
•
•
•
Rather listen patiently and nod your head
appropriately.
Asking questions might lead the child away
from the real problem or cause the child to
stop talking.
Solving problems together along with the child
by encouraging him/her to think of options and
decide what constructive action to take
Keep communication lines open between the
child and you
Activity 4.5
With table 4.1 and leadership qualities in mind, write a scenario in which you did not
enhance the emotional development of a child or children. After familiarising yourself
with the above ways, re-wright the scenario and indicate how you would perform in the
situation.
Temperaments are the inherent and characteristic way in which a child reacts to social
and emotional stimuli. In the following section, we will focus on the different temperament traits and how they influence the child holistically.
4.5.2.1 ‌Different temperament traits
According to Thomas and Chess (1977), emotion and behaviour are based on the child’s
developmental stages and temperaments. Temperament traits have been regarded as
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130
the core of personality, although are not synonymous to personalities. Every child has
an individual temperament, therefore, children behave differently in different situations,
and because children are born with their own temperaments, behaviour modification
strategies do not always work because temperaments are enduring. Some children may
be cheerful and adaptable and respond positively to new situations, while other children
are not as adaptable and may have great irregularities in their routine. These children
tend to respond negatively to new situations and some children respond somewhere in
between. We use the words “easy” and “difficult”. Children with difficult temperaments
are likely to develop learning difficulties if their temperament difficulties are not carefully
considered in the classroom or at home.
In the following section, we will focus on the three main areas of temperament differences
that might affect children:
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Task orientation is concerned with the way in which children are likely to approach a
school task. Task orientation can be divided into three categories.
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These are persistence, distractibility, and activity.
Table 4.2: Task orientation (Thomas and Chess, 1977; Van Zyl, 2007).
Persistence
Distractibility
Activity
• Persistence relates to the • Distractibility means how • Activity refers to how much
length of time that a child
well a child can stay focused
a child moves physically.
will spend on trying to comon a task despite distrac- • A child with low activity
plete a task.
tions in the environment.
will be able to sit quietly for
• Some children are very per- • There are usually many dis- long periods, while a child
•
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sistent and will not give up,
even with a very difficult
task.
Other children, as soon as
they believe a task is too difficult for them, will simply
stop trying.
tractions in a classroom like
noise and movement and
things happening outside.
Children with low levels of
distractibility are able to
ignore these disturbances,
while a child with a high
level of distractibility will
be easily disturbed and interrupted by environmental
distractions.
with high activity levels
will be constantly moving
around. Even when they are
sitting down, their bodies
remain in constant motion.
Either their feet tap, their
legs bounce up and down,
or they fiddle with things
on their desks.
Personal and social flexibility
Personal and social flexibility refers to the way in which children are likely to interact with
friends in their environment. Personal and social flexibility can also be divided into three
categories: adaptability, approach/withdrawal, and positive mood.
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Table 4.3: Personal and social flexibility (Thomas & Chess, 1977; Van Zyl, 2007).
Adaptability
Approach/withdrawal
Positive mood
• Adaptability comes from • Approach/withdrawal • Positive mood simply
•
the word “adapt” and
means the ability to adapt
to change in order to adjust
to a new situation.
Some children accept and
adapt to new situations
very easily, while others
cannot bear a change in
their routine and therefore react negatively to all
changes.
•
means whether a child will
happily and easily move
into a new situation or
whether a child will withdraw from a new situation.
Some children leap happily into different and new
situations while others hold
back and prefer to watch
the activity from the side
lines rather than participate
in the activity.
means whether a child is
usually in a good mood and
seems happy within his/her
environment.
Reactivity refers to the way in which a child responds to his/her environment. The three
categories within this temperament characteristic are intensity, the threshold of response
and negative mood.
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Table 4.4: Reactivity (Thomas & Chess, 1977; Van Zyl, 2007)
Intensity
Threshold of response
Negative mood
• Intensity means how seri- • The threshold of response • Negative mood refers to
•
ously a child responds to
the environment.
Some children appear “happy-go-lucky” and less serious, while others take life
very seriously. They are very
intense and feel passionate
about many things.
•
means how much stimulus
a child needs in order to respond to a situation.
A child with a low threshold
of response is slow to get
angry or excited. Children
with high thresholds of response lose their temper at
the slightest provocation.
children who always seem
to be in a bad mood and
who appear constantly
frustrated and irritable with
their environment.
• Easy or difficult children
The following tables give an indication of how the temperament of children can influence
behaviour in the classroom. It is, however, important to know that temperament difficulty
could be a serious barrier to learning, which not only affects the child with a difficult
temperament, but also the other children in the class as well as the teaching and learning
process in general.
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Table 4.5: Temperamentally difficult children (Thomas & Chess, 1977; Van Zyl, 2007).
Temperamentally difficult children
Temperamental characteristic
Response in the classroom
• High threshold of response
• Gets angry easily
• High intensity/negative mood
• Remains angry for a long time
• Low adaptability, withdrawal from new situ- • Does not adjust well to changes
ations, views change negatively
• Fidgety and restless
• High activity and high distractibility
• Un-cooperative and bad-tempered
• Negative mood
Table 4.6: Temperamentally easy children (Thomas & Chess, 1977; Van Zyl, 2007).
Temperamentally easy children
Temperamental characteristic
Response in the classroom
• Low threshold of response
• Does not anger easily
• Low intensity
• Gets over anger easily
High
adaptability,
approaches
new
situations
•
• Enjoys and adjust well to changes
with confidence
• Focused and usually finishes all work
• Low activity and low distractibility
• Cooperative and happy
• Positive mood
The most important aspect of differences in temperament involves not so much the
child with the difference, but the teacher’s attitude towards children with temperamental
differences.
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The following section will focus on the teacher’s attitude to different temperaments and
the effect thereof on the child’s competence. Drawn from the following researchers:
Karevold, Roysamb, Ystorm & Mathiesen (2009) as well as Bates, Schermerhorn and
Goodnight (2010).
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4.5.2.2 ‌Teacher’s attitude and the child’s emotional and then scholastic competence
Temperaments may influence the teacher’s judgement of children's academic competence,
their evaluation of the child’s performance, and decisions about assessment feedback.
Teachers have higher academic expectations of the “easy” child and tend to spend more
time with them. Teachers respond more positively to easy children and on the whole, are
more encouraging towards them. Teachers also tend to provide easy children with more
interpersonal support. The easy child, therefore, feels more liked and understood by the
teacher and is inclined to feel happy and confident in the classroom. Their self-confidence,
in turn, boosts their motivation and, although they are usually “good workers” to begin
with, they feel spurred on to achieve even higher levels of success.
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On the other hand, teachers tend to dislike “difficult” children. In general, teachers struggle
to get on with them and sometimes even dislike the child. Teachers furthermore tend
to have low expectations of difficult children and do not consider spending time with
them as worthwhile. Not only do teachers spend less time with difficult children, but
also they sometimes ignore them completely, and interaction often involves shouting
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or punishing them in some way. It is seldom that difficult children receive adequate
interpersonal support from either educator or friends. Because teachers are normally
more negative in their feedback to these children, the feedback results in the already
difficult child feeling unhappy and misunderstood at school. They often feel worthless
and different when comparing themselves to “easy” children. This effects their self-esteem
and confidence. Furthermore, a combination of poor working habits together with a
lack of understanding and support, as well as poor self-image, result in very low levels
of motivation. Difficult children may therefore eventually stop trying to learn and their
schoolwork will deteriorate over time
In conclusion, differences in temperament, while frequently ignored or misunderstood,
make a powerful contribution to children’s academic success or failure. It is therefore very
important that the teacher be aware of the effects of temperamental differences and tries
to interact with difficult children in a way that will make schooling easier and less stressful.
Because every child is different, there is no blueprint for supporting difficult children in
the classroom. It is up to the teacher to recognise temperament differences and then to
look for opportunities and ways of supporting them, for example:
484
• Difficult children need more of your time, not less. Try not to reject or ignore them.
•
•
•
•
Their behaviour will probably become worse if you do.
Where possible, try to ignore their wrongdoings and give them credit for what they
do well.
Remember at all times that you are the adult in the classroom and so need to model
maturity and understanding at all times.
Try at all times to treat difficult children as you would like to be treated. This means
with understanding, concern, and fairness.
Never allow your personal feelings towards difficult children to influence the way you
assess or evaluate their performance.
Activity 4.6
Watch the YouTube video clips on child temperaments. Thereafter, answer the questions
based on the videos.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OFXjQdqoqNA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IIQSkjDTOQ4
(1) Based on the above, see if you can identify your own temperament. Reflect on how
teachers and friends reacted to your temperament in the classroom (see the URL link
hereunder to identify your own temperament: https://www.academia.edu/30419500/
Personality_Temperament_Test_SCORING_SHEET).
(2) If you were aware of your temperament during the school years, would that have
changed the choices you have made in life?
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485
25
Feedback on Activity 4.6
When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of the learning unit:
y Reflect on the implications and the importance of temperament awareness in the child’s life.
y Explain and contextualise concepts related to temperament awareness in socio-emotional
development of the child.
You are aware of the uniqueness of yourself and children. The uniqueness does not stop
here; every person has a unique intelligence. In the following section, we will focus on
eight different forms of intelligence.
y
4.5.3 ‌Learning styles and multiple intelligence
Howard Gardner developed the theory of multiple intelligences, which advocates that
people possess at least eight different forms of intelligence to a greater and/or lesser
degree. These eight different types of intelligence are not subject specific and can be
related to many different learning areas. Educators should be aware of the different
multiple intelligences that children bring to the classroom and be able to identify them.
This intelligence is of utmost importance in guiding the choice of appropriate teaching
and learning strategies (Gardner, 1983; 1999; 2006).
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The following video captures the notion of multiple intelligence:
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See the YouTube video clip to explain the below in a visual way:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s2EdujrM0vA
You can open the URL for some more information on multiple intelligences:
https://www.wikihow.com/Find-out-Your-Multiple-Intelligences
With the following diagram and table, we will focus on how to identify the way in which
the different types of intelligence process information and how we link them to different
learning styles.
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489
Figure 4.1: Eight different types of intelligence
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The following table gives examples of six of the eight different types of intelligence, how
they link to different learning styles, and how to support children accordingly.
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Table 4.7: Multiple intelligence (Gardner, 1983; 1999; 2006)
492
Intelligence
Logical/
mathematical
Recognised by
• Strong at maths and • The highly logi•
•
Verbal/
linguistic
problem-solving
skills
Ability to discern
logical or numerical
patterns
Ability to pursue
extended lines of
logic and reasoning.
Asks “why” & “how”
questions, wants
to reason things
out, wants to know
“what’s coming up
next” – sequential
thinking
• Use of core operations of language
• Sensitive to the
•
•
•
meaning, sound,
inflection, and order
of words
Loves language –
reads and loves to
talk
A good memory for
dates and names,
and likes to tell and
listen to stories
Likes a variety of
voices and remember jokes
Ways to reach all
children
Learning style
cal mathematical
children will be interested in problem-solving and
hypothesis-testing
strategies
• Mathematical
•
•
•
• Children with
strong oral language abilities like
to read and to think
out loud
• Provide opportuni-
•
136
difficulties should
relate to social and
environmental
situations
Ensure that difficulties presented
are varied in terms
of complexity to address the difference
in abilities
All barriers to learning should be taken
into consideration
and the necessary
support provided
Tactile shapes could
be used for some
children, word
problems for others,
etc.
ties for presentations, speeches,
role-play, dialogue,
interactive games,
group work, doing
reports, discussion,
listening to tapes
and reading
Ensure that topics/
activities do not
exclude some children on the basis of
certain barriers to
learning
Intelligence
Spatial
Recognised by
Learning style
• Strong visual im-
• Children who are
•
•
•
ages and other
spatial abilities
Likes to design,
draw, read graphics,
etc.
Needs pictures to
understand, likes
puzzles, mazes,
objects, etc.
Has the ability to
mentally manipulate forms, objects
or people in space
or transfer them to
other locations, or
to recognise forms,
shapes and how
they relate and interact with another
•
visually/spatially
strong learn best
from information
that they see or
read
They have strong
visual imaginations
and are inclined
to be involved in
spatial activities
Ways to reach all
children
• Provide children
•
•
•
•
•
Bodily/
kinaesthetic
• Ability to handle
•
•
objects skillfully,
either fine or gross
motor movements
Also the ability to
own movements
for function or
expression
The constant
movement; wants
to move around
tap, touch, fiddle
with things and do
things
with opportunities
to visualise and
sketch as they read
Integrate painting
or any other visual
art form with learning experiences
Unfamiliar words
may be explained
by drawing pictures or by finding
relevant images
in other books or
magazines
Children should be
allowed to illustrate
their writing by
drawings
Allow children to
highlight any component of the text
Other activities
could include art,
changing locations,
stacking objects,
putting pieces
together, sports,
trying things from
a different angle,
movement, mind
mapping, etc.
• Children who are
• Allow children to
•
•
highly bodily/kinaesthetic enjoy
learning while moving about freely and
touching
They also learn best
from handling materials, writing and
drawing
•
•
137
read standing up
or any other posture as long as it
is comfortable for
the child
Children should be
allowed to use their
hands and fingers
while they read
Touching the words
that they read increases their kinaesthetic connection to
the material
Where possible children should be
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Intelligence
Recognised by
Ways to reach all
children
Learning style
•
•
Interpersonal
• Strong people skills • Highly interpersonal • Provide opportunities to read out loud
• Ability to make
• Children enjoy
and think out loud
distinctions among
engaging in learnothers in terms
ing experiences in a • Allow group dis-
•
•
Intrapersonal
(emotional)
allowed to write in
the books they are
reading from
The use of pens
and pencils, as well
as the use of paper
that has interesting textures and
surfaces, provide
tactile stimulation
Physical exercise
designed for relaxation may precede or
follow reading and
writing exercises
of their moods,
feelings, biases,
thoughts, and values. It’s the ability
to act appropriately
using knowledge of
others
Loves to talk and influence others, usually a group leader;
an organiser
Communicates well,
good at conflict
resolution, listening,
negotiating and
persuasion
• Has a good un•
•
•
derstanding of
own strengths and
weaknesses
Able to exercise
self-control
Good at goal setting and is comfortable being alone
Make choices in
favour of long-term
benefits
social setting
•
•
• Children who are
highly emotional,
sensitive, enjoy solitude, like thinking
and are happy to
work alone
138
cussions. Ensure
that the topic for
discussion doesn’t
disadvantage some
on the basis of their
socioeconomic
background
Allow children to
create text directly
from their spoken
language
Promote activities
such as interactive
games, teams, oneon-one discussions,
peer teaching,
group work, collaboration, etc.
• Allow children
•
to correspond
with others to
improve personal
relationships
Promote writing
contexts and other
events where the
children’s writing
will be read in a
public setting
Intelligence
Recognised by
Ways to reach all
children
Learning style
• The ability to
• Children should be
develop new behaviours based on
self-knowledge
•
•
given the freedom
to choose their
books or texts, and
they should, where
possible, own these
books
Children should
be provided with
opportunities for
unstructured writing in diaries, etc.
where they can
record their dreams,
poems, and reflections of their inner
lives
Encourage activities that promote
thinking and relaxation, journal writing, learning about
one’s self, focusing
and concentration
exercises, self-assessment, etc.
Activity 4.7: A case study
As a teacher in the foundation phase, you want the children to form a well-balanced
self-concept that will encourage them to be the best they can be. Be creative and
plan an activity in which you will help the children to identify their intelligence and
their unique temperament. Display the findings to the class to enable all children to
understand and accommodate their friends in class.
(1) See Appendix ‌4.1 in the back of LU4 to identifying your own multiple intelligence.
(2) Think of creative ways to structure your lessons to accommodate children’s multiple
intelligences.
(3) Prepare a PowerPoint presentation of not more than 15 slides, which you can present
at a parents’ evening on the eight multiple intelligences and different temperaments.
Keep the context of the parents in mind when constructing the presentation.
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26
Feedback on Activity 4.7
When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of the learning unit:
(1) Identify and explain theories underpinning multiple intelligence
(2) Explain and contextualise concepts related to multiple intelligence
(3) Reflect on the disparagement of multiple intelligences and how that may impact on the
socio-emotional development of the child.
4.6
‌THEORY OF SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
MILESTONES
As stated in LU1 the different theories will be discussed to enhance your knowledge of child
development.
494
A child develops through different stages, from infancy to old age. These stages are
influenced by the environment (LU1 Bronfenbrenner), biological growth, people, media
and many other factors. As teachers and parents, it is important that we understand the
need to support the social and interactional goals or milestones necessary for social and
emotional progression in life (Erikson in Papalia & Feldman, 2011).
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4.6.1
Erik Erikson’s theory of social development
Erikson (1956) emphasised the fact that the socio-emotional process consists of the “eight
stages of man”. Erikson formulated the eight stages through wide-ranging experience in
psychotherapy that included widespread experience with children and adolescents from
low, upper and middle social classes. He regarded each stage as a “psychosocial crisis”
that arises and demands resolution before the next stage can be satisfactorily negotiated.
The stages are further conceived in an almost architectural sense, like the foundation of
a house: the first floor is essential to support the second story, and so on.
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4.6.1.1
‌Trust vs mistrust (oral/hope) starts at birth
When the child is well-handled nurtured and loved, he/she will develop trust, security and
a basic optimism. On the other hand, if the child is not well-handled he/she can become
insecure and distrustful. By the age of 5-9, a child favours one of the two attitudes, but
it is not resolved once and for all during this age; it arises again at each successive stage
of development. There is both optimism and risk in this stage. The child who enters
school with a sense of mistrust may come to trust when they can, for example, trust the
teacher. The child may overcome the early mistrust. On the other hand, the child with a
vital sense of trust can still have their sense of mistrust activated at a later stage if, say,
the parents are divorced, have passed away, or are separated under sad circumstances.
It is therefore vital that the adult encourages trust between her/himself and the children
as well as among the children themselves.
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4.6.1.2
‌Autonomy vs shame or doubt (anal stage/will)
Occurs during early childhood, between 18 months and 4 years when autonomy develops
upon the child’s motor and mental abilities. During this stage, the child can start to walk
independently, climb, open and close doors, push and pull, hold and let go. When the
child has been cuddled, played with, talked to and handled with respect, he/she will
emerge from this stage being sure of themselves, excited by their newfound control,
and being proud rather than ashamed. If parents, caregivers and teachers recognise the
young child’s need to do what they are capable of doing at their own pace and own time,
the child develops a sense of control over their muscles, impulses, themselves and their
environment, thus a sense of autonomy. When the adults are impatient and rather do the
child’s duties for them, they reinforce a sense of shame and doubt. This is also a time when
toilet training takes place. During this time, the child becomes aware of holding back or
letting go. This self-assertion and self-control relates to the drive to become independent
by expressing a choice “no, yes, mine, I”. Erikson in Papalia and Feldman (2011). continues
that children from an authoritarian household, in which own choices are limited, may
feel shame and self-doubt, which results in low self-esteem, being rebellious, trying to
get away with things and might develop forms of compulsive behaviour. Therefore the
adult needs to expose the children to choices and own decisions. Keep in mind that too
much autonomy can be as harmful as too little.
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4.6.1.3
I‌ nitiative vs guilt (third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development.)
The child is 4-5 years of age and is pretty much the master of his/her own body. They
have satisfactory language ability, can ride a tricycle, run, cut and hit a ball. They show
initiative and rich imagination when planning a game and carry it out on their own or in
cooperation with others. They become aware of their power and control over actions. If
an initiative results in a mistake, say someone got hurt, the child can feel guilty. In such
an event, the adult needs to be mindful of avoiding a negative outcome. The adult must
rather explain and support the child. When the child moves successfully through this
stage, they develop a sense of purpose, realise that they can take decisions and that all
the actions can be achieved. The child can further realise that not all plans have a positive
ending, but it is worth trying. Children developing in an environment of guilt, will be
fearful, will not feel part of a group, will keep on depending on adults (competence), and
are restricted in developing skills and a rich imagination.
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4.6.1.4
‌Industry vs inferiority (latency phase/competence)
Starts around the age of 6-11 years. During this time the child’s love for the parent of the
opposite sex and rivalry with the same-sexed parent are quiescent. During this stage, the
child becomes capable of logical reasoning, and mastering formal skills that need selfdiscipline and perseverance to carry out. These activities can include teamwork, group
activities that require rules like “take turns”, or homework. This points to the progression
from free play to that of rules and self-discipline. If this phase passes successfully, the child
progresses in self-competence, self-trust, and independence. The child who is mistrustful
will doubt the future, feel ashamed, guilty, and will experience defeat and inferiority.
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4.6.1.5
‌Learning identity versus identity diffusion (fidelity)
Starts around adolescence, from about 13-18/20. During this stage, the adolescent answers
the question of “Who am I?” and encounters a reawakening of the family-romance problem
of early childhood. To resolve the problem, the adolescent seeks a romantic partner of
his/her own generation. They mature mentally and physiological and with these new
feelings – sensations and desires in their own body – they develop a multitude of new
ways of interpreting the world. The adolescent further thinks about others’ opinions about
themselves and think of ideal families, religion and societies with which they compare
their own imperfect familiarities. During this stage, they may experience some role identity
diffusion like minor wrongdoing, being rebellious, and experiencing self-doubt.
501
Erikson believes that the new interpersonal dimension that emerges during this period
has to do with a sense of ego identity at the positive end, and a sense of role confusion at
the negative end.
502
Table 4.8: Ego identity and role confusion (Erikson in Papalia & Feldman, 2011).
Successful early adolescence
Unsuccessful early adolescence
• Self-certainty
• Negative identity like delinquency
• Constructive
• “Paralysed” by feelings of inferiority or by
an inadequate time perspective
• Achievement, and achieves
Clear
sexual
identity
of
manhood
or
•
womanhood
• The adolescent seeks leadership (someone
to inspire him)
• Develops a set of ideas (socially congruent
and desirable, in the case of the successful
adolescent)
4.6.1.6
Learning intimacy versus isolation (love)
During this stage the young adult, 19-40 years of age, starts to experience true intimacy.
This kind of intimacy makes for a possible good marriage, or genuine and enduring
friendship.
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4.6.1.7
‌Learning generativist versus self-absorption (care)
The psychosocial crisis demands generatively, both in the sense of marriage and parenthood,
and in the sense of working productively and creatively. This stage is referred to as middle
adulthood around 40-65 years of age.
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4.6.1.8
‌Integrity versus despair (wisdom)
If the other seven psychosocial crises have been successfully resolved, the mature adult,
ages 65+, develops the peak of adjustment and integrity. They are able to trust, are
independent and dare to venture into the new. This does not make sense. They can work
505
142
hard, have found a well-defined role in life, and have developed a self-concept with which
they are content. They can be intimate without strain, guilt, regret, or lack of realism and
are proud of what they achieved in their children, their work, or their hobbies. If one or
more of the earlier psychosocial crises have not been resolved, the person may view him
or herself and their life with disgust and despair.
These eight stages of man, or the psychosocial crises, are insightful descriptions of how
personality develops, but at present, they are descriptions only. We possess at best
rudimentary and tentative knowledge of just what sort of environment will result, for
example, in traits of trust versus distrust, or clear personal identity versus diffusion. Helping
the child through the various stages and the positive learning that should accompany
them is a complex and difficult task, as any worried parent or teacher knows. Search for
the best ways of accomplishing this task accounts for much of the research in the field
of child development.
506
Socialisation is a learning and teaching process. If successful, the child moves to its ideal
adult state of sensible conformity coupled with independent creativity.
507
Activity 4.8
(1) To learn more about the theory, read the article titled “A proposed model of psychodynamic psychotherapy linked to Erik Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development”,
which can be found under e-reserves on myUnisa under CDE3701, and answer these
questions:
(2) Create a simple mind map of Erikson’s first four stages of emotional development,
which is applicable in the foundation phase. On your mind map, reflect on different
strategies that you will implement in your lessons and teaching in which you can
support the children to move from one stage to the next successfully.
(3) Write a 250-word paragraph (Font: Arial, letter size: 12), on the impact, positive or negative, that Erikson’s theory has on your view of a child’s socio-emotional development.
Feedback on Activity 4.8
27
When answering the questions think of the following objectives of the learning unit:
y Explain Erikson’s theories underpinning socio-emotional development of the foundation
y
y
phase child
Reflect on the implications of socio-emotional development of the child when criticising
Erikson’s theory.
Identify factors influencing Erikson’s theory in your teaching context
The following section focuses on the milestones necessary for social and emotional
progression in life.
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4.7
‌SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES
Social and emotional milestones are often harder to pinpoint than those of physical
development milestones. The social and emotional areas emphasise many skills that
increase self-awareness and self-regulation. Research shows that social skills and emotional
development are reflected in the ability to pay attention, make transitions from one activity
to another, and cooperate with others – an important part of school readiness. At this age,
children are more aware of themselves as individuals (Charlesworth, 2017; Wayne, 2017).
509
The following social development milestones point to the statement that children are
more aware of themselves as individuals:
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4.7.1
‌Social development milestones
Table 4.9: Social development milestones (Charlesworth, 2017; Wayne, 2017).
Social development milestones
• Understand the concepts of right and wrong
• Start to think about the future
• Start to understand more about their place in the world
• Rules relied upon to guide behaviour and play, and provide the child with structure and security
• 5–6 years: believe rules can be changed
• 7–8 years: have a strict adherence to rules
• 9–10 years: rules can be negotiated
• Begin to understand social roles and regard them as inflexible; can adapt behaviour to fit different situations; practise social roles
• Pays more attention to friendships and teamwork
• Wants to be liked and accepted by friends
• Takes on more responsibilities at home
• Morality: tries to avoid punishment, self-interested exchanges
4.7.2
‌Emotional milestones
Research points out that children’s emotional wellbeing contributes greatly to their social
and intellectual development. Adults can sometimes deny children’s feelings by not
allowing them to “feel” emotional. Negating children’s emotions can result in fearfulness,
confusion, shame, and resentment, as indicated in the box below, and resurface as a
barrier to their learning and emotional development. Children who are taught to identify,
express and cope positively with their feelings, develop useful life skills (Charlesworth,
2017; Wayne, 2017).
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512
Children experience a variety of emotions that can be categorised as right or wrong.
144
Table 4.10: Emotional development milestones (Charlesworth, 2017; Wayne, 2017).
Emotional milestones
Possible effects of maltreatment
• Self-esteem is based on the ability to per- • Poor social/academic adjustment in school:
form and produce
preoccupied, easily frustrated, emotional out• Alternative strategies for dealing with frus- bursts, difficulty concentrating, can be overly
tration and expressing emotions
reliant on teachers; academic challenges are
• Sensitive to other’s opinion about threatening, cause anxiety
themselves
• Little impulse control, immediate gratifica6-9
years
have
questions
about
pregnancy,
tion, inadequate coping skills, anxiety, easily
•
frustrated, may feel out of control
intercourse, sex, swearing, looking for nude
pictures in different media sources
• Extremes of emotions, emotional numbing;
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
older children may “self-medicate” to avoid
negative emotions
Act out frustration, anger, anxiety with hitting, fighting, lying, stealing, breaking objects,
verbal outbursts, swearing
Extreme reaction to perceived danger (i.e.,
“fight, flight, freeze” response)
May be mistrustful of adults, or overly solicitous, manipulative
May speak in unrealistically glowing terms
about his parents
Difficulties in peer relationships; feel inadequate around peers; over-controlling. Unable to initiate, participate in, or complete
activities, give up quickly
Attachment problems: may not be able to
trust, tests commitment of foster and adoptive parent with negative behaviours
Role reversal to please parents, and take care
of a parent and younger siblings
Emotional disturbances: depression, anxiety,
post-traumatic stress disorder, attachment
problems, conduct disorders
The foundation phase teacher can play a crucial role in helping the child to understand
and develop social and emotional behaviours since the teacher plays an important role
in shaping a child’s personality and character.
513
The following section will focus on how the teacher can help the child to develop into a
socially competent person who can express his/her own feelings, empathise with other’s
feelings, and be cooperative, generous and kind.
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4.8 ‌THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER
As teachers, we often forget how important imitation is to children (Bandura, 1977). We
must strive to model the behaviour we wish to encourage in children rather than only
talking about it. When and how we respond to the child’s behaviour is part of something
we call “active teaching”.
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Active teaching is to give attention and praise to the child in ways that enhance their
sense of satisfaction from within. It further means providing good examples and role
models for the children (Nabavi, 2012).
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The foundation phase teacher must strive to exude a social attractiveness in the classroom
that is based on the principle of “let us all share from the heart”. This will include actions
of a cheerful disposition, friendliness, sincerity and other qualities that indicate good
mental health and personal adjustments.
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4.8.1
‌ here does the foundation phase teacher begin to teach all these
W
principles?
It is challenging a foundation phase teacher to decide where to start teaching concepts
of social and emotional development. Drawing on the self-compassion theory of Neff and
Germer (2017), the following can act as some general guidelines to the teacher. The teacher
needs to model (Bandura, 1977) self-kindness in which he/she display supportiveness
and sympathy towards the self and others, and self-compassion where he/she expresses
a positive internal dialogue that is benevolent and encouraging rather than disparaging.
This behaviour of self-acceptance and honesty will encourage the children to be warm
and honest towards themselves and others, and inspire them to develop compassion
towards other children who act and look different from them. The teacher can begin to
talk about kindness in the classroom. The teacher can point out that to be kind to other
children who do not look or act like you can make other children or people feel happy
and makes the giver feel good about the self. The teacher can then encourage acts of
kindness throughout the day like sharing resources, food, stories, smiles, etc. Empathy
goes hand in hand with kindness. Explain what empathy means to the children by roleplay, dialogue, or by helping them to express their feelings and encourage them to listen
to other children’s feelings. Try to remind children of how they felt on a certain day or in
a specific situation.
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To help the foundation phase child to feel good about themselves and others is one of
our prime goals in teaching them social competency. The teacher can accelerate the
process by incorporating the value of helping and being kind to others into our daily
lesson plans. There are numerous ways in which the children can support and assist
their friends in the classroom. Make the children aware of it and in no time, a climate of
kindness and generosity will develop in the classroom.
519
The teacher needs to be aware of the fine distinction between cooperation and competition.
When children compete, only one can win and all the rest lose. The child will have plenty
of opportunities to express their competitive spirit later in school but fewer chances for
learning to care for and get along with others. The teacher can model cooperation by
working along with the children, for example, help in an art project, and compromise in
a non-violent way on say using of colours in the picture, or the clean the class or when
the teacher experience some or other problem and all work together on a solution.
520
The following table displays some qualities that the teacher can keep in mind to enhance
self-compassion in the children:
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146
Table 4.11: Teacher qualities to enhance self-compassion in children (Bezuidenhout,
2008; Neff & Germer 2017).
The teacher can show:
A clear understanding of their role as a teacher
and be comfortable acting in the role. This will
enable the teacher to explain coherently to the
foundation phase child what is expected from
them
Show realistic perceptions of the self and of the
children who do not allow views or opinions to
be that of guilt, hostility or anxiety
Inner strength and self-confidence that allows
the children to feel calm and maintain a problemsolving attitude
Friendliness to the children, but do not become
familiar
Be comfortable with the group without becoming a group member
That he/she enjoys the children in the class and
the teaching
Acceptance of the individual though not necessarily all their behaviour, and make this attitude
clear to the children
Firm but flexible limits based on clear expectations, keeping rules to a minimum and liberalising
them as the children become more independent
and responsible over time
As mentioned throughout the learning unit, social development begins in the early
years. It is therefore appropriate that foundation phase teachers evaluate the children’s
progress in an informal and general way since children’s behaviour changes and differs
in certain situations.
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4.8.2 ‌Informal general evaluation of social competence
Katz and McClellan (1991) present a set of qualifiers based on elements of social competence
that the teacher can examine, for example, every three months. The involved teachers can
observe the children in various situations, assess their social development, and monitor
interactions among the children. The teacher needs to keep a few aspects in mind when
assessing the children: any child can have a bad day, but if the bad days become a pattern,
intervention is required; personalities and temperaments differ; family structures differ, for
example, relationships in a nuclear and extended family (see 4.8) affect social behaviour;
to some children quality friendships are more important than quantity; and some children
are too shy to socialise. Cultural differences can result in different socialisations. What may
be regarded as appropriate social behaviour in one culture may be less effective in another
culture. The foundation phase child from a different cultural and family background may
thus be helped to bridge the differences and find ways from which they can learn and
enjoy the company of others. If a child appears to be doing well on most of the attributes
and characteristics in the checklist, then it is reasonable to assume that occasional social
difficulties will be outgrown without intervention. On the other hand, if a child seems to
be doing poorly on many of the items listed, the teacher responsible for the child can
implement strategies that will help the child to overcome and outgrow social difficulties.
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The following checklist can serve as an informal, not scientific, general guide for the
teacher in the social development of the child.
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It is important to note that this checklist needs to be viewed from a broad perspective and
that it can be adjusted according to the age, context, and circumstances of the children.
525
Table 4.12: Checklist to guide the teacher in the social development of the child (Katz
& McClellan, 1991).
Social attributes checklist
The name of the child

Is usually in a positive mood
Is not excessively dependent on the teacher
Willing to take part in activities
Copes with rejection
Shows empathy
Has positive relationships with friends
Shows awareness and interest in friends and miss them when they are absent
Displays a capacity for humour
Does not seem to be lonely when temporarily alone
Social skills attribute
Approaches other people positively
Expresses wishes and preferences clearly and gives reasons for actions and
positions
Asserts his/her own rights and needs appropriately
Is not easily intimidated by bullies
Expresses frustrations and anger effectively and without harming others or
property
Gains access to ongoing groups at play and work
Enters ongoing discussion on topics
Makes relevant contributions to ongoing activities
Takes turns fairly easy
Shows interest in others
Exchanges information with and requests information from others appropriately
Negotiates and compromises with others appropriately
Does not draw inappropriate attention to him or herself
Accepts and enjoys peers and adults of ethnic groups other than his or her own
Interacts non-verbally with other children with smiles, waves nods, etc.
Peer relationship attributes
The child is:
usually accepted instead of neglected or rejected by other children
sometimes invited by other children to join them in play, friendship or work
4.8.3 ‌The shy child
Because of diversity in the classroom, some children may show symptoms of shyness or
withdrawal because of the lack of vocabulary, insufficient conversational skills, knowledge
of a new culture, or other environmental causes. Children might further have a form
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148
of school phobia (fear of the unknown) or social anxiety because of repeated failure,
mistreatment or rejection by others (Wayne, 2017).
527
The following strategies can be implemented for coping with shy children:
• The teacher can change the social set-up in the class by seating the child among
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
friendly classmates, someone from the same culture, or assigning them to a “buddy”
or to a small group
Encourage increased responsiveness
Minimise stress or embarrassment
Engage the shy child in special activities
Involve them in frequent one-on-one talks with a friend or the teacher. Make an effort
to listen and respond to what they tell you
Use interest inventories to determine the interests of the shy child and then follow up
by using these interests as bases for conversations or learning activities
Display the child’s work for others to see
Engage them with a popular classmate to complete an activity
Help the child to set social development goals and assist them by providing training
in assertiveness, initiating interactions with friends or other social skills
Assign them with a designated role that will give them something to do and cause
them to interact with others in social situations in which they might otherwise become
shy and retreat to the fringes of the group
Shy children may need direct instructions in social skills, therefore teach them social
“door openers” for greeting others and speaking to them in person, especially assertive requests like "Can I play too?”
Research indicates that twice as many children are bullied in the school environment
than in any other location and shy children are easy victims for a bully.
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529
In the following section, we will focus on bullying (Pondering Panda, 2012).
4.8.4 ‌Bullying
Why do children bully? The following might be a reason for the foundation phase child
becoming a bully:
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The child may not have received warmth, love and care from the mother or the foundation
phase teacher. Environmental factors can initiate bullying as children identify with “heroes”
who are bullies, or they see bullying as standing up for themselves. It happens that bullying
is ignored or unnoticed in the school environment as supervision is often inadequate.
Crowded conditions, such as playgrounds, encourage bullying (Gordon, 2018).
531
Bullying can take different forms, such as physical, verbal, or psychological, or a combination
of the different forms. Let us look at a few examples:
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• Name-calling is a common technique utilised in bullying and in racial bullying. Ethnic
minority children are sometimes at risk of racial bullying. Rather than being part of
the bigger child body as a whole, they cluster together in smaller groups similar to
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
their own culture. Individual taunts like fatty, carrot head or four-eyes are directed
towards a particular child, but individual taunts can also be directed to a specific
family or ethnic group.
Say or write inappropriate things about another child
Deliberately exclude a child from activities or games
Ignore a child
Threaten a child with bodily harm
Taking or demanding the possessions of a child
Hitting or kicking a child
Making a child do things he/she does not want to do
Teasing a child
The following are the two types of bullies that Mayo Clinic (2001) addresses:
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Aggressive bullies are children who are fearless, confident, tough and impulsive. These
children have a low tolerance for frustration coupled with a stronger inclination towards
violence than other children do.
534
Passive bullies rarely provoke others or take the initiative in a bully incident but their
body language or actions is that of a bully. They lash out at another person in a subtle or
puzzling way. For example, give a child the silent treatment, ignore specific children in a
group or use passive violence like slamming the door. The child on the receiving side has
no idea why this behaviour is happening because the passive bully denies that he/she
is angry. The passive bully rarely takes responsibility for actions. They blame everyone
around them but themselves. The passive bully prey on children who are afraid of conflict
or who have a pleasing personality. They sabotage others when no one is watching and
then act innocent.
535
The irony is that beneath a bully lies low self-esteem, feelings of insecurity and inadequacy
and an inability to express anger in a healthy way.
536
4.8.4.1 ‌How can the teacher address bullying?
The teacher can start in the classroom and it can circle out to the whole school.
537
Introduce a code of conduct in the classroom with a clear set of rules that should make
it possible for all children in the class to work together to ban all forms of bullying in the
classroom. The code of conduct should state clearly what good and bad behaviour is, what
respect towards others entails, and establish an awareness of different forms of bullying
both inside and outside of the classroom. This can be done in the form of stories, hand
puppetry role-play, dialogue or dramas. It may also include training of the children on
how to resolve conflict or how to solve different problems. It takes a lot of perseverance
from the side of the teacher to develop the ability to control feelings and to consider
the rights of others. Conflict resolution defuses the problem and allows all participants
a chance to express their feelings in a controlled manner.
538
150
Encourage the children to report bullying in an anonymous way. The teacher can further
be creative and develop a watch programme in the classroom by training children to
watch out for and report instances of bullying.
539
Activity 4.9
Read through the above material and answer the following questions.
Read the article titled “Learner-centered education and cultural translation”, which can
be found under e-reserves on myUnisa under CDE3701, and refer to the adjustment of
pedagogy and adapted approach to diversity in the classroom and school when answering these questions:
(1) What do you think are the key elements for enhancing social development in the
children?
(2) Reflect on how you will incorporate Active Teaching in your classroom.
(3) Think of different creative strategies to involve the shy child in your teaching and
social activities in the classroom.
(4) Analyse the different friendship functions and describe the meaning of each function in detail.
(5) Write a play/puppet show in which you demonstrate fairness in cooperation to the
children.
A case study
Read the following and come to the fore with a solution:
As a teacher, you are aware of racial bullying that already began in the Gr R class and
the bullying is transmitted to your classroom. How will you go about to address this
issue at parents evening to rather create a class atmosphere in which the parents and
children of all ethnic and minority groups can feel welcome?
Feedback on Activity 4.9
28
When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of the learning unit:
y Identify factors influencing socio-emotional development
y Critically discuss the importance of socio-emotional development in the foundation phase
Teacher and parents have a common goal of wanting to support and assist children to reach
their full potential in life. Throughout the learning unit, we focused on different aspects of the
teacher’s role in the socio-emotional development of the child that can apply to the parent.
The benefit of teacher-parent cooperation is strongly supported by researchers like Henderson
and Berla (1994); Henderson and Mapp (2002); Epstein (2001) (under Enrichment at the end
of the learning unit).
The following section focuses on the role of the parent and the family on the socioemotional development of the child.
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4.9
‌THE ROLE OF THE PARENTS
Attachment and parenting styles are important because caring adults and parents help
the child to construct a positive sense of the self and a respectful view of others. Sibling
relationships continue to influence the social relationships of the child. Supportive
relationships in the family structure are the core of all early intervention models (Louw
& Louw, 2016; Pfeiffer, 2016; De Witt, 2017).
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In the following section, we will look at different family structures and the influences on the
child. This can be read along with Parent involvement for promoting physical development
of Epstein 2.4.3.
542
4.9.1
‌Different family structures
• Nuclear family
The nuclear family is the traditional type of family structure that consists of two parents
(normally a mother and a father) and the children. Children in nuclear families receive
strength and stability from the two-parent structure and generally have more opportunities
due to the financial ease of two adults.
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• Single parent family
The single parent family consists of one parent raising one or more children on his/her
own. Quite often single parent families struggle financially because of there being only one
breadwinner. The limited income can result in limited educational opportunities. Single
parent families are generally close and find ways to work together to solve problems,
such as dividing household chores.
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• Extended family
The extended family structure consists of two or more adults who are related, either as
a family (cousins, aunts, uncles, and grandparents) or through marriage. They live in one
house and work towards common goals, for example, raising the children and keeping
up with the household duties.
545
• Stepfamily
546
Because of death or divorce, two separate families merge into one new family unit.
• Grandparent family
Grandparents raising their grandchildren is quite common in South Africa. This implies
that the biological parents are not present in the child's life. This can impact the child
both negatively and/or positively, depending on the circumstances.
547
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4.9.2
‌Parents in the family structure
General parenting styles refer to how a parent acts around their children. This might differ
depending on the circumstances. Parents have different parenting styles because they
have different personalities and come from different backgrounds. A specific parenting
style is not determined by an individual event, but by a pattern and the behaviour in which
the parent engages with their children (Louw & Louw, 2016; Pfeiffer, 2016; De Witt, 2017).
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4.9.2.1
‌Family law in South Africa
South Africa has a complex and diverse history regarding lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender,
and queer (LGBTQ) rights. The current constitution of South Africa's was the first in the
world to outlaw discrimination based on sexual orientation and South Africa was the
fifth country in the world, and the first in Africa, to legalise same-sex marriages. Samesex couples can also adopt children jointly, and also arrange in vitro fertilisation (IVF) and
surrogacy treatments.
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In the following section, we will focus on different parenting styles.
• Authoritarian parenting
These parents are dominant and highly demanding and commanding, but not approachable.
They dominate and control the child and put a high emphasis on obedience with strict
family rules, so they can feel secure and better about themselves. Authoritarian parents
are in general more concerned about the child obeying them than a loving relationship.
Children “should be seen and not heard”. The dominant parent wants to “break” the
will of the child so he/she can reform the child to his/her projection they have for the
child. The parent makes decisions on behalf of the child without consulting or listening
to the child’s desires, opinions, or problems. When his/her dominance works, they feel
proud because their soldiers obey. There is no warmth or playfulness in the parentchild relationship. There is no communication between the child and the parent. The
only communication is negative critique, lack of understanding, or pointing out mistakes.
Because they dominate the child, they interfere too much in the child’s actions and
restrict the child from becoming independent. This implies that the child cannot develop
independence and will take no social responsibility, because “mom or dad will sort it
out”. The parent sets very high demands and expectations. This implies that no giveand-take relationship develops. It is rather an “I order and you obey without question.”
They further tend to control their children through shaming them, withdrawing love,
or punishing them. Children of dominant parents tend to abstain from silly behaviours
because of fear of their parents, and they have poor self-concepts and feel helpless and
inferior. Children further can be achievement orientated. They may be very successful and
well-behaved, but at the expense of a sense of self, their creativity and independence.
The children can rebel against authority, normally in their teens, or be overly submissive.
As adults, they may find themselves in relationships with a controlling partner or they
become controlling (Maccoby & Msrtin, 1983).
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• Permissive parenting
The permissive parent may be seen as uncaring or distant and the child arranges his/
her own activities without the parent. They have rules, but they do not follow through
with the necessary consequences. The children have too much freedom. They say “no”
but eventually the “no” vanishes into thin air. The parent does not see him/herself as a
teacher with direct responsibility for the child’s actions. The parent has a few demands
for school achievements, but does not take action if it is not achieved. The parents do not
demand socially responsible behaviour, but also do not reward positive behaviour. The
permissive parent asks the children’s opinions, rather than making decisions as parents.
The children are free to explore, to express their feelings and opinions, and make their
own decisions. This leads to spoiling the children and creates little negotiators, which
makes the parent proud when referring to the child, as “he/she will grow up to become
a lawyer”. The children have a tendency to demand more and more from their parents
and do not show respect. The children of permissive parents are very self-centred, bossy,
controlling, demanding, and attention seeking. They are egocentric and selfish. This
can lead to poor relationships. They are poorly prepared for disappointment. Thus, as
they grow older, they are at risk of depression, substance abuse or lack of independence
because of their need for love, guidance, and authority (Maccoby & Martin, 1983).
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• Neglecting parenting
The parent is hands-off with regard to their children’s development and needs. It is normally
a result of their own feelings of rejection and they are often too overwhelmed by their own
problems, wants and needs to deal with their children. The communication between the
parent and the child is that of blame, suspicion, criticism, or threats. Neglecting parents
typically do not have time, expectations, or demands with regard to the behaviour of
their children; therefore, they do not show interest in their children’s achievements or
praise them. They show little warmth, love, and affection towards their children. They
can be unfair by comparing siblings or friends to their children’s achievements and be
cruel or physically punish them if they do not feel satisfied. The primary needs of their
children are not taken into consideration. Because the parents distances themselves from
their children, the children have absolute freedom and “run wild.” Often these children
have responsibilities by filling the parental role for younger siblings. This implies that
the children “miss out on childhood”. The parents do not give sympathetic guidance to
the children because the parent is selfish and irresponsible. When punishment must be
given, the parents withdraws. The “us” relationship is inadequate and does not fulfil the
needs of the child. Some may neglect the child’s health, physical and emotional needs,
clothing and education, while some do provide basic needs like food and shelter, but
are uninvolved in their children's lives. Children of the neglecting parent have negative
self-concepts and are often at risk of discipline problems because of a lack of external
structure that results in a lack of internal structure. They further lack external exposure
of warm love and thus seek it from whatever source crosses their path. It further results
in difficulty in establishing healthy relationships in adulthood (Maccoby & Martin, 1983).
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• Authoritative parenting
Authoritative parenting is about setting limits, reasoning with children, and being
responsive to their emotional needs. It is a more moderate approach that emphasises
setting high standards, being nurturing and responsive, and showing respect for children
as independent, rational human beings. The authoritative parent expects maturity and
cooperation and offers children lots of emotional support. This is the healthiest and most
balanced approach to parenting. The parent sets limits, but also considers the child’s point
of view. This is a common middle-class approach throughout the world. The parent enforces
principles with respect and without being overly harsh. Their children have a voice and an
opinion. When the children make mistakes or misbehave, they reason with the children
and explain the consequences of good and bad behaviour. They are all partners in the
relationship who need to come up with ideas and solutions to problems. Therefore, the
authoritative parent will not control their children through harsh or arbitrary punishment,
shaming them or withdrawing love. By nature, it is a middle ground between granting
too much freedom and being too strict. This results in children who are independent,
self-reliant, socially accepted, academically successful, and well-behaved. It is because
there is a balance between permissive and authoritarian parenting styles. The balance
can be explained as follows: unlike the authoritarian parent, authoritative parents show
high levels of warmth and emphasise the reasons for rules and, unlike the permissive
parent, authoritative parents do not let their kids get away with bad behaviour (Maccoby
& Martin, 1983).
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4.9.2.2 ‌Why do children of authoritative parents tend to turn out well?
• These parents provide a secure and protected developing area; therefore, the children
are protected from internalising their problems.
• The parents enforce limits in a democratic way and children growing up in these cir•
•
•
•
•
cumstances are less likely to engage in drug and alcohol abuse, juvenile delinquency
or other antisocial behaviours.
Because they talk and interact with their children, they strengthen the thoughts and
feelings of their children.
Because the parent encourages independence in the children, they are more selfreliant, better problem solvers and are emotionally healthy.
The parenting style helps to prevent aggression and reduce peer problems in school.
The children are helpful, kind, and popular because they are independent and show
warmth.
Because these children are attuned with their parents, they are less influenced by their
peers (Choe, Olson & Sameroff, 2013).
4.9.3
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‌Positive parenting guidelines
The following are some guidelines for the parent (and the teacher) to keep in mind:
• Show affection for your child.
• Recognise his/her accomplishments.
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• Help your child develop a sense of responsibility by asking him/her to help with
household tasks, such as setting the table.
• Talk with the child about school, friends, and things he/she looks forward to in the
future.
• Talk with the child about respecting others. Encourage him/her to help people in need.
• Help the child to plan achievable goals. This will encourage them to take pride in
themselves and rely less on approval or reward from others.
• Help the child to learn patience by letting others go first or by finishing a task before
going out to play. Encourage them to think about possible consequences before acting.
• Set clear rules and stick to them, such as how long to watch TV before going to bed.
Be clear about what behaviour is acceptable and what is not.
• Do fun things together as a family, such as playing games, reading, and going to
events in your community.
• Get involved with the child’s school. Meet the teachers and staff and get to understand
their learning goals and how to cooperate with the school to help the child in the end.
• Continue reading to the child. As your child learns to read, take turns reading to each
other.
• Use discipline to guide and protect the child, rather than punishment to make him/
•
•
•
her feel bad about themselves. Follow up any discussion about what not to do with
a discussion of what to do instead.
Praise the child for good behaviour. It is best to focus praise more on what the child
does, like “you worked hard to figure this out”, than on traits he/she cannot change
like “you are smart”.
Support the child in taking on new challenges. Encourage him/her to solve problems,
such as a disagreement with another child, on their own.
Encourage the child to join school and community groups, like team sports, or to take
advantage of volunteer opportunities (Choe, Olson & Sameroff, 2013).
Activity 4.10
Read through the above material and answer the following questions:
(1) What do you understand regarding the terms “family” and “parent”?
(2) Describe the family as the primary child-rearing institution.
(3) Describe your own family and parenting situation. Reflect on the positive and the
negative that you experienced when you grew up.
(4) Make a summary of the different family and parent types in your classroom.
4.10 CONCLUSION
In this learning unit, you have examined the importance of socio-emotional development
of the young child from the perspective of general milestones as well as from the view
of Erikson’s stages of development. We further focused on the important role of the
teacher and the parent.
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4.11 ENRICHMENT ARTICLES
Child-to-Child approach (CtC)
Serpell, R. (2008). Participatory appropriation and the cultivation of nurturance: a case study of African primary
health science curriculum development.
In Dasenm P.R., and Akkari, A. (eds). Educational Theories and Practices from the
Majority World. New Delhi, India, Sage.
CtC Trust (n.d.) http://www.child-to-child.
org
•
•
Emotional intelligence (EI)
https://www.managementcentre.co.uk /
emotional-intelligence-leadership/
Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R. & McKee, A. (2002).
Primal Leadership: Realizing the Power of Emotional Intelligence. Boston, MA: Harvard Business
School Press.
Hejase, H.J., Hamdar, B., Noureddin, M., Hejase,
A.J. & Nsouli, F. (2017). Assessment of the Relationship between Managers’ Emotional Intelligence and Employees’ Motivation. The Journal of
Middle East and North Africa Sciences, 3(4), 27-47.
https://w w w.researchgate.net/publication/228768797_EMOTIONAL_INTELLIGENCE_
AND_LEADERSHIP
•
•
•
•
Moral development
Kohlberg, L. (1981). Essays on moral development: Vol. 1. The philosophy of moral
development. San Francisco, CA: Harper
& Row.
Overview
See the YouTube clip; it is an overview of the
learning units, but has interesting information
on parenting, nutrition, and obesity.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/lifespandevelopment2/chapter/
lecture-middle-childhood/
Multiple intelligence
McClellan, J.A. & Conti, G.J. (2008).
Identifying the multiple intelligences of
your students. Journal of Adult Education, 37(1).
ht tps://f iles.eric.ed.gov/fulltex t /
EJ891071.pdf
Parent-teacher cooperation
Henderson, A. & Berla, N. (Eds). (1994). A new
generation of evidence: the family is critical to
student achievement. Columbia: National Committee for Citizens in Education.
Henderson, A.T. & Mapp, K. (2002). A new wave
of evidence: the impact of the school, family,
and community connections on student achievement. Austin: Southwest Education Laboratory.
Epstein, J.L. (2001). School, family and community
partnership: preparing educators and improving
schools. Boulder: Westview.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
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APPENDIX 4.1
ASSESSMENT: IDENTIFYING YOUR MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
For each scenario, rank the seven options by putting a 1 next to the option you like the
most, a 2 by your next choice, and so forth.
557
1. planning a summer trip
As you plan a summer trip with your friends, you are asked to be responsible for one of the following:
A. ___ Calling all your friends to tell them of the group’s plans.
B. ___ Running the errands needed to prepare for the trip.
C. ___ Keeping a trip diary recording your thoughts and feelings.
D. ___ Figuring out the distance to your destination.
E. ___ Preparing songs to sing on the trip.
F. ___ Writing a story about your trip for the newspaper.
G. ___ Mapping the group’s journey.
2. what would your friends say about you?
What would your friends say is true about you?
A. ___ You are happiest when you are talking to other people.
B. ___ You like to dance or play sports.
C. ___ You are in touch with your thoughts and feelings.
D. ___ You have fun working on computers or with numbers.
E. ___ You like to sing, rap, or tap out rhythms.
F. ___ You enjoy writing notes or letters.
G. ___ You draw, sketch, or paint well.
3. pick your favourite electives
Which of the following electives would you most prefer?
A. ___ Peer Counselling
B. ___ Drama
C. ___ Psychology or Comparative Religions
D. ___ Architectural Design, Auto Shop, or Computer Literacy
E. ___ Band or Chorus
F. ___ Creative Writing or Journalism
G. ___ Art
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4. pick your favourite extracurricular activities
Rank your preferences for the following extracurricular activities:
A. ___ Working as a tutor or joining a team.
B. ___ Taking part in the school play, a dance production, or a martial arts class.
C. ___ Dealings with feelings or personal issues with a group of peers.
D. ___ Designing the set for a play, joining the chess team, or joining the math club.
E. ___ Joining a musical group such as a jazz band, a chorus, or a rap group.
F. ___ Working as a writer for the school newspaper or joining the debate team.
G. ___ Painting murals on the school’s walls.
5. what would you like to do in the future?
What would you most like to be when you get older?
A. ___ A counsellor, social worker or teacher.
B. ___ A dancer, actor, builder or athlete.
C. ___ A psychologist or poet.
D. ___ A scientist, computer programmer or banker.
E. ___ A singer, songwriter or musician.
F. ___ A lawyer, writer or journalist.
G. ___ A cartoonist, painter or graphic artist.
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SCORING YOUR MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
Copy the rankings you recorded into the boxes below, and then add up the rankings for
each letter.
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1
2
3
4
5
Intelligence Type
A
=
Interpersonal
B
=
Body-Kinesthetic
C
=
Intrapersonal
D
=
Logical-Mathematical
E
=
Musical-Rhythmic
F
=
Verbal-Linguistic
G
=
Visual-Spatial
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4.12 REFERENCES
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. https://www.
researchgate.net/publication/267750204_Bandura's_Social_Learning_Theory_Social_Cognitive_Learning_Theory
Bates, J.E., Schermerhorn, A.C. & Goodnight, J.A. (2010). Temperament and personality
through the life span. In R. Lerner, M. Lamb, & A. Freund (eds.), The handbook of
lifespan development: Social and emotional development (Vol. 2). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Epstein, J.L. (2011). School, family, and community partnerships: preparing educators and
improving schools (2nd ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Fan, W. & Williams, C.M. (2010). The effects of parental involvement on students’ academic
self-efficacy, engagement, and intrinsic motivation. Educational Psychology, 30(1),
53–74.
Fullan, M. (2007). The new meaning of educational change (4th ed.). New York: Teachers
College Press.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: the theory of multiple intelligence. New York, NY: Basic
Books.
Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligence for the 21st century. New York,
NY: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. (2006). Multiple intelligence: New horizon in theory and practice. New York, NY:
Basic Books.
Gordon, S. (2018). How to Cope With Passive Aggressive Bullies. https://www.verywellmind.com/subtle-bullies-coping-with-passive-aggressive-people-4018517 Accessed:
20 April 2019.
Hughes, L. (2002). Paving the pathways: Child and adolescent development. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth Thomas Learning.
Karevold, E., Roysamb, E., Ystorm, E. & Mathiesen, K.S. (2009). Predictors and pathways from
infancy to symptoms of anxiety and depression in early adolescence. Developmental
Psychology, 45(4), 1051–1060.
Lerner, R.M., Lewin-Bizan, S. & Warren, A.E.A. (2011). Concepts and theories of human
development. In M.H. Bornstein & M.E. Lamb (eds). Development science: An advancement textbook (6th ed.) (pp. 3–49). New York: Taylor & Francis.
Lumpkin, A. (2013). Teachers as Role Models; Teaching Character and Moral Virtues. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 79(2), 5–50, DOI:
10.1080/07303084.2008.10598134. To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/07
303084.2008.10598134.
Maccoby, E. Socialization in the context of the family: Parent-child interaction. In E.M.
Hetherington (ed.). Handbook of child psychology: Social, emotional and personality
development. New York, NY: Wiley.
Marope, P.T.M. & Kaga, Y. (2015). Investing against Evidence: The Global State of Early
Childhood Care and Education (PDF). Paris, UNESCO. pp. 231–237.
Muller, C. (2001). The role of caring in the teacher-student relationship for at-risk students.
Sociological Inquiry, 71(2), 241–255. doi:10.1111/j.1475-682X.2001.tb01110.x.
Nabavi, R.T. (2012). Bandura’s Social Learning Theory & Social Cognitive Learning Theory.
Neff, K.D. & Germer, C. (2017). Self-Compassion and Psychological Wellbeing. In J. Doty
(ed.) Oxford Handbook of Compassion Science, Chapter 27. Oxford University Press.
Nsamenang, A.B. (1992). Human Development in Cultural Context. Newbury Park, CA, Sage.
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Nsamenang, A.B. (2004), Cultures of human development and education: Challenges to
growing up African, Nova, New York.
Orth, U., Robins, R.W. & Widaman, K.F. (2012). Life-span development of self-esteem and
its effects on important life outcomes. Journal of personality and social psychology,
102(6), 1271.
Pondering Panda. (2012). Bullying in South African schools. Stellenbosch, South Africa:
Market Research.
Rubin, K.H., Bukowski, W.M. & Parker, J. (2006). Peer interactions, relationships and groups.
In N. Eisenberg, W. Damon, & R.M. Lerner (eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Social,
emotional and personality development (6th ed., Vol.3). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
Thomas, R.M. & Chess, S. (1977). Temperament and development. New York, NY: Brunner/
Mazel.
Wayne, W. (2017). Psychology; Themes and variations. (Ed 10). Cengage. USA.
Wonderly, M. (2009). Children’s film as an instrument of moral education. Journal of Moral
Education, 38(1): 1–15.
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Learning unit 5
MORAL DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
AIM OF LEARNING UNIT
In this learning unit, you will address the moral development of the young child. The
concept sense belonging will be explained.
LEARNING UNIT OUTCOMES
After the completion of this learning unit, you should be able to do the following:
•
•
•
•
5.1
Demonstrate an understanding of the theories of moral development.
Explain the stages of moral development.
Develop an understanding on of moral development from infancy to middle childhood.
Gained knowledge and insight on the implications of morality and a sense of
belonging.
INTRODUCTION
In this learning unit, the focus is firstly on moral development with regard to children
from infancy period to middle childhood (1 to 9 years). Two well-known theorists of
moral development namely, Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg, will be discussed. The
main emphasis is to assist you as early childhood teachers to understand the concept
of morality, how it develops in children or learners and its application in their life world.
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Secondly, you will be introduced to the concept sense of belonging. The importance
of a sense of belonging in addressing diversity is highlighted. Finally, the implication of
morality and a sense of belonging will be discussed to enable you to create supportive
learning environment that allow children from all walks of life to perform according to
their potential.
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5.1.1
What is moral development?
Moral development centres on the emergence, change, and understanding of morality
from infancy, through adulthood which develops across lifetime and is influenced by an
individual’s morality experiences and their behaviour when faced with moral issues
through different periods of physical, cognitive, social and emotional development.
Furthermore, moral development is a practise through which children develop attitudes
and behaviour toward other people in society, based on social and cultural norms, rules
and laws (McLeod 2013).
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5.2 STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
5.2.1
Piaget’s theory of moral development
Piaget, a well-known theorist on cognitive development, contributed knowledge on moral
development that is in line with his theory of cognitive development. Unlike Kohlberg’s
six stages of moral development, Piaget developed three stages of moral development
though he emphasised two stages. Piaget views moral development as generally being
influenced by the values of cultural societies in which they are reared, but also reflect
the orderly unfolding of cognitive processes. He maintains that moral development is
preceded by cognitive development. This means that cognitive structures and abilities
develop first. Cognitive abilities then determine children’s abilities to reason with regard
to social situations, whereby moral reasoning then takes place. Piaget indicated that
moral development progresses in predictable stages (McLeod 2015).
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During his study of moral development, Piaget was not interested in what children do
(i.e. whether they break the rules or not), but was interested in what they think. As such,
he was interested in children’s moral reasoning. Children’s ideas regarding rules, moral
judgement and punishment tend to change as they grow older. He suggested two main
types of moral thinking, namely heteronomous morality (5 to 9 years), also known as
moral realism, and autonomous morality, also known as moral relativism (10 years
and upward). McLeod (2015) indicates that though Piaget emphasised these two stages
of moral development, he identified the first stage of moral development as pre-moral
(0 to 5 years). The three stages of moral development are discussed below.
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5.2.1.1
Piaget’s stages of moral development
Stage 1: Pre-moral (0-5 years)
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McLeod (2015) points out that Piaget named this stage the pre-moral stage since children
are still at a sensorimotor and preoperational stage of cognitive development, therefore
they cannot carry out complex mental operations because they have little understanding
of rules. Behaviour of children at this stage is mostly regulated from outside, for example,
by parents or caregivers. Since moral development unfolds gradually, like cognitive
development, the second and the third stages build on the pre-moral stage.
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Stage 2: Heteronomous morality/ moral realism (5-9 years)
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Heteronomous morality refers to morals imposed outside or external of children.
Children morality is the obeying of other people’s rules and laws, which cannot be
changed. They accept that rules are made by some authority figure (parent, teachers,
God) and that breaking the rules will lead to immediate or speedy (imminent justice)
and severe punishment.
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Punishment is seen as a way to make the child feel guilty or to suffer for the wrong
he/she has done. Again, punishment should be related to the severity of wrong-doing
(explanatory punishment). The parent or teacher needs to explain why the child is being
punished.
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Behaviour is judged as “bad” in terms of observable consequences, regardless of the
intentions or reasons for that behaviour. During this stage, most accidental damage or
wrong doings are viewed as worse behaviour than a small amount of deliberate damage
(McLeod 2015).
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Stage 3: Autonomous morality/ moral relativism (10 years and upward)
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This stage is also known as relativism, meaning that morals are based on your own rules.
Children at this stage recognise that there is no absolute wrong and right, and that
morality depends on intentions, not on consequences. Piaget indicated that around
the age of 9 to 10, children’s understanding of moral issues undertake a fundamental
reorganisation. By now they are beginning to overcome the egocentrism of middle
childhood and have developed the ability to see moral rules from other people’s point
of view. “They see rules as the result of social agreement and as a response to human
needs rather than immutable laws” (Fein 1978, p353). A child who can decentre to take
other people’s intentions and circumstances into account, can move to making the more
independent moral judgements of the second stage. Children have now changed their
ideas on the nature of rules, on moral responsibility, and on punishment and justice, and
start to think like adults.
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Regarding the issue of blame and moral responsibility, older children don’t just take
consequences into account, they also consider motives (reasons behind). Children begin
to realise that if they behave in ways that are wrong, but have good intentions, they are
not going to necessarily be punished.
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Older children view lying in a different way than before. The seriousness of a lie is
judged in terms of betrayal of trust. They recognise that all lies are not the same and,
for example, you might tell a “white lie” in order to spare someone’s feelings.
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The view of punishment also changes in older children. The purpose of punishment
is not primarily to make the guilty suffer, but to put things right again. Punishment is
aimed at helping the offender understand the harm he/she has caused so that he/she
won’t be motivated to repeat the offence. In addition, wherever possible, punishment
should fit the crime, for example, when a vandal is required to make good to the damage
he/she has caused (McLeod 2015).
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Activity 5.1: Case study (Grade 3 learners)
Your younger brother is seriously ill and has been hospitalised for a year. His condition is
not improving. Your parents earn a low income and they cannot afford the medicine to
heal your brother. You heard that the clinic near your father’s work has the medicine that
can heal your brother. (Use the following questions to challenge your learners to come
up with answers on how to resolve this issue and check their moral reasoning.)
(1) What do you think you can do to help your brother?
(2) How can you get that medicine?
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Feedback on Activity 5.1
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y Learners will obviously give you different answers, but check their moral reasoning (i.e.
the stage of moral reasoning). Compare it with Piaget’s theory.
Activity 5.2
Prepare a story for Grade 3 learners on a naughty child committing various misdeeds
and provide an evaluation of how the child’s behaviour and its consequences are viewed
by the children in class. Elaborate how the moral of the story relates to life in general in
order for the learners to understand the importance of morality.
(1) What is the moral of the story?
(2) Grade 3 learners are at what stage of moral development?
Feedback on Activity 5.2
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Study stage 2, heteronomous morality, for your answer.
5.2.2 Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
Moral development has been studied from diverse psychological perspectives. Recent
studies of moral development have been influenced by the cognitive developmental
approach of Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg. Kohlberg believed that in order to
understand “moral” and “development”, one needs to understand moral realism
and moral neutrality. The term “moral” is defined from the two perspectives namely,
descriptive moral realism and ethical relativism. Ethical relativism insists that basic values
held in different cultures are equally right. On the other hand, descriptive relativism
holds the view that factual moral values held by people vary with culture. Kohlberg
argued that the form and structural aspects of morality are universal, while the content
of morality varies from one culture to another. Kohlberg identified two criteria for, or to
judge morality, namely universalisability and prescriptivity of principle. Universalisality
implies that the moral principles should be applicable to anywhere, anytime, and anyone
without morally relevant differences. Prescriptive principle implies that moral principles
should have an obligatory nature in contrast to preference statements. But Kohlberg
stood against both descriptive and ethical relativism in moral reasoning (Naito 2013).
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Kohlberg, a student of Piaget, proposed that all people in all cultures use the universal
concept of morality. The basic categories of morality include life, law, property, authority
and trust. People in all cultures are faced with conflict within these universal domains.
According to Kohlberg, moral issues and conflicts are universal and the moral stages of
individuals are measured by presenting dilemmas or problems that are supposed to be
resolved in any society. Moral reasoning develops according to a universal sequence
of stages.
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Regarding the concept of development, Kohlberg adopted Piaget’s cognitive development
theory. The developmental stages and processes of moral reasoning occur according to
the following criteria: (a) qualitative differences between the stages (each stage differs
in quality from each other); (b) a stage is a structured whole (stages are not just isolated
responses, but are general patterns of thought that will consistently show up across
many kinds of different issues); (c) an invariant (unaltered) sequence of stages (sequence
of stages unfold in an unaltered way); (d) hierarchical integration from a previous stage
to the next stage (follow hierarchical order or build on another stage); and (e) universal
sequence (stage sequence is universal, meaning that is the same in all cultures) (Naito 2013)
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In summary, Kohlberg’s moral development occurs in stages. Each stage is different from
another stage. Every moral stage is a whole and not an isolated response, but patterns
of thoughts will always appear in many different kinds of issues. Moral developmental
stages follow a sequence that is orderly and cannot be altered, as children develop
from one stage to the other. These moral stages develop in a hierarchical integration.
By this, Kohlberg means that people do not lose the insight gained at the earlier stages,
but integrate them into new broader frameworks. This hierarchical sequence indicates
that the sequence is not wired into genes (heredity), but each stage provides improved
skills in dealing with moral issues. Kohlberg and other theorists maintain that his stages’
sequence is universal; it is the same in all cultures and cross sectional studies have
supported Kohlberg’s stages of development (Naito 2013).
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5.2.2.1 Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
Kohlberg identified three levels of moral development, namely pre-conventional,
conventional and post-conventional moral development. Each level has two stages of
development, hence they are known as the six stages of moral development.
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PRE-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL I
Stage 1: Obedience and punishment
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This stage is similar to Piaget’s first stage of moral thought. Children assume that authorities
or parents have fixed sets of rules, which they must obey. For example, “It is bad to steal”.
When the child is asked to explain why he/she must not steal, he/she will say “because I
will get punished”. Children see morality as something external to themselves, that is,
listening to authorities. Thus children think that doing right is obeying authorities and
avoiding punishment.
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Stage 2: Individualism and exchange
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At this stage children recognise that there is not just one right view handed down by
authorities, but different individuals have different viewpoints. Again the child at this
stage does not understand or care that other people can have similar wishes and desires
besides their own (Yilmaz 2019). The moral issue is seen in a relative way, meaning that
each person is free to pursue his/her individual interest. Children might think, “It is not
right to take drugs, but the druggist would not see it that way”. Children at this stage speak
as isolated individuals rather than as members of society. In addition, children are no
longer impressed by a single authority; they see that there are different sides of an issue.
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CONVENTIONAL LEVEL II
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Stage 3: Good interpersonal relationship
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Children who are now entering their teenage years see morality as more than a
simple deal. They believe that people should live up to the expectations of the family
or community and because it is a good way to behave. Good behaviour means having
good motives and interpersonal feelings such as love, empathy, trust and concern for
others. The main motivation at this level is to be accepted and socially approved of by
others and, in this situation, to fulfil the orders of those who are superior to them (Yilmaz,
2019). The emphasis at this stage is being a good person and having helpful motives
toward people close to one.
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Stage 4: Maintaining the social order
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At this stage, the person becomes more broadly concerned with society as a whole as
opposed to just the family. People define interpersonal relations through their place in
society (Yilmaz, 2019). Now the emphasis is on obeying laws, respecting authority and
performing ones’ duties so that the social order is maintained. It is about obeying
laws to maintain society as a whole.
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POST-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL III
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Stage 5: Social contract and individual rights
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At this stage, people are more concerned about society. For example, “What makes a
good society?” Firstly, people want basic rights such as freedom and life to be protected.
Secondly, they want some democratic procedures for changing unfair laws, and improving
society. At this stage people understand the welfare of all people and the need for the
protection of all people’s rights – a sense of contract between society and its people is
the basis of moral reasoning (Naito 2013).
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Stage 6: Universal principles
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This stage emanates from philosophers like Kant and Rawls as well as leaders like Gandhi
and Martin Luther King. According to these people, the principles of justice require us
to treat the rights of all parties in an impartial manner, respecting the basic dignity of all
people as individuals. According to Yilmaz (2019), the individual develops an autonomous
moral conception, while moral judgement often refers to a universal set of principles (such
as justice and fairness). The principles of justice are therefore universal; they apply to
all. Moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles and requires a sense of
personal commitment to internalise principles of justice (Naito 2013).
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5.2.2.2 Moral development from infancy to adulthood
Children during infancy (pre-conventional level) have not yet developed a sense of
morality, hence there is no difference between doing right and avoiding punishment.
The second stage of moral development is about self-interest. During the pre-school
period, children are more interested in rewards rather than punishment as they at
the egocentric stage.
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During stage 3 children are of a school going age and their moral sense is at a conventional
level where it is dominated by conformity and interpersonal relationships. At this stage
children want to gain approval from their significant others, hence they will obey the
rules and form good interpersonal relationships so that they can be called a “good boy/
girl” (McLeod 2015).
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As children develop cognitively, they also develop morally. At stage 4 (conventional level)
children are no longer concerned about gaining approval, but the purpose of morality
or moral rightness is obeying authority to maintain social order.
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Stage 5 marks the post-conventional level of moral development. Kohlberg indicates that
the level of moral development of teenagers is more concerned with social contract or
mutual benefit. Teenagers now understand that moral issues such as being morally right
and legally right are not always the same. Their moral reasoning at this stage is about
protecting life and people’s rights, which makes life better for all.
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The last post-conventional stage is stage 6. Kohlberg indicates that this is the adulthood
stage where the sense of morality has developed at a higher level as seen in the hierarchy
of moral development. Moral reasoning at this stage is based on universal ethical
principles that exceed mutual benefits or gains. Morality develops from infancy though
to adulthood. The stages of moral development concur or agree with Piaget’s cognitive
development theory (McLeod 2015).
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The development of morality from infancy to adulthood above indicates how Kohlberg
views moral development. For your studies you need to focus only on infancy, pre-school
and middle childhood (0 to 9 years). Moral development in early childhood is important,
just like a sense of belonging. All children from diverse contexts need to be accepted
as they are, where their dignity as individuals is upheld. Before discussing the concept,
sense of belonging, stop and watch the video and thereafter do the following activities:
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VIDEO on moral development
https://study.com/academy/lesson/kohlbergs-stages-of-moral-development.html
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Activity 5.3: Case study
Mpho in Grade 3 and his friend, George, were teasing David during break time. George
called David a nasty name, which caused him to cry. David reported the matter to his
teacher. The teacher called the two boys who were teasing David. She asked, “What have
you done to David?” They said, “Nothing. We were just playing.” Again the teacher insisted
and said, “What bad name did you call David?” Mpho, knowing that is was George who
called David a bad name, disclosed exactly what George had said. The teacher praised
Mpho for telling the truth and George had to sweep the whole classroom after school as
part of his punishment.
Answer the following questions:
(1) Indicate how you would handle this matter if it was reported to you?
(2) Why both boys lied at first?
(3) Why Mpho finally told the truth?
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(4) At what stage of Kohlberg’s moral development are the Grade 3 learners? Elaborate on
your answer.
(5) How do Grade 3 learners understand morality?
Feedback on Activity 5.3
31
(1) Follow Kohlberg’s theory to handle the matter in class.
(2) Not to appear as bad boys.
(3) Conformity and acceptance made him tell the truth. At this stage, children want approval
from the people in authority.
(4) At stage 3, conformity and interpersonal relationships.
(5) Morality or obeying the rules is about gaining approval from significant people and
forming good relationships so that people can say to them “good boy or good girl”.
Activity 5.4: Case study
There was a man who used to steal mealies on the farm. This man woke up every morning
carrying a bag to collect the mealies. He creeped under the wire fence and looked all
around to see if anyone was looking at him. Once he was convinced that no one saw
him, he started picking the mealies and putting them in his bag in order to feed his family,
since he was not working. His children did not know that their father provided them with
stolen mealies.
One day this man saw the owner of the mealie field. He approached the owner with fear
and asked for a job. To his surprise the owner of the mealie field granted him a job. After
working that day, the owner gave the man a few mealies to take home and said, “It is
good that you are no longer stealing now.”
(1) What is the moral of this story?
(2) What do you think the owner should have done when seeing the man? (Allow children
to brainstorm so that you can understand their moral reasoning).
Feedback on Activity 5.4
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(1) Stealing is wrong.
(2) Learners will obviously give different answers. But check their level of moral reasoning.
Learners will see that the owner was kind and the man wanted to conform by doing the
right thing and hence he is now a good man who earns a good living.
Stop and think
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Now that you have gained knowledge on moral development, reflect on how you can use
this knowledge to understand moral development in your learners.
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The next section is the discussion on the sense of belonging, which impacts children’s
moral development.
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5.3 A SENSE OF BELONGING
5.3.1
The concept of sense of belonging
A sense of belonging is a human need, just like the need for food and shelter (Hall 2014).
According to Reilly (2018), a sense of belonging is to be with people in a place where you
are accepted totally for who you are. There is no reason to hide part of yourself. Percival
(2016) indicates that humans are social creatures. We have an inherent need to belong; to
feel like we are part of a group and to be accepted by that group for who we really are.
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A sense of belonging is important in diverse contexts and classrooms, where children
from come from all walks of life, backgrounds and experiences. All children or learners
are equal and deserve inclusion and respect. Teachers need to give students a safe
and supportive space or environment that enables learning to take place effectively.
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According to the psychological perspective, a sense of belonging is so powerful that it can
create both value in life and the ability to learn healthy coping skills when experiencing
intense and painful emotions. The bottom line is that we all belong (Hall, 2014).
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5.3.2 The importance of a sense of belonging
The importance of belonging can be traced back to infancy, where researchers have
studied skin to skin contact with babies and their parents. They found that when this
contact is combined with a strong emotional engagement, a baby’s developmental
growth and its recognition of self increased significantly (Shetty, 2003).
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Lee (2019) indicates that a sense of belonging makes us feel like there is a community
behind us. It makes us feel relaxed and receptive and motivated. A sense of belonging has
a positive impact on many other areas of our lives. Intellectual levels, social skills, mental
health, motivation and academic performance have a direct correlation with feelings of
belonging, though this sense of belonging decreases in secondary schools.
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As learners come from different backgrounds, such as different ethnic groups or cultural
groups, a sense of belonging helps them to relate to the curriculum and take ownership
in learning, which ultimately improves academic achievement in a significant way.
Research has unveiled that a sense of belonging is core to academic success and teachers
need to pay attention and make sure that classrooms are inclusive in order to support
learning. When a sense of belonging is there, children throw themselves into the learning
environment and when that sense of belonging is not there, children will feel alienated;
they will disregard and will step back from engaging (Lee 2019). As such, it is important
that teachers address the lack of sense of belonging in classroom situations and also in
the school environment.
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As teachers, it is important to take note that cultural responsive teaching aims to address
these challenges such as being isolated or not accepted. It makes an effort to legitimise
all cultures. It encourages learners to take ownership of their cultural heritage. It also
show them the value of maintaining this heritage and to do so with pride (Shetty, 2003).
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5.3.3 Strategies of promoting a sense of belonging
• Make instructions and thereafter ensure that all learners understand what is expected of them. Get to know your learners’ or children’s names as soon as you can.
• Prioritise high-quality teacher-learner relationships. Arrange one-to-one meeting
•
•
•
•
•
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times, within or out of office hours. Ensure that you know your learners and allow them
space to discuss their individual needs with you.
Create a supportive and caring learning environment. Model vulnerability and
resilience. Talk about your own stories of failure and resilience. Commend learners’
strengths.
Be sensitive to learners’ needs and emotions. Not all learners learn at the same
pace. It may take some time for certain learners to learn to speak up in a group. Be
accommodative of every learner and embrace their uniqueness.
Set standards and expectations for dialogue. Accommodate diversity and ethnic
groups. Actively challenge stereotyping that learners might be internalising so that
they can learn to accept one another as they are.
Show interest in learners. This will make them feel accepted and recognised.
Foster a sense of community in the classroom by establishing classroom respect and
fair treatment. Encourage the voice of your learners (allow your learners to air their
views or opinions without any fear of intimidation). Invite your learners to brainstorm
on ground rules for your classroom. Watch the following video to see the importance
of creating a sense of belonging in children or learners.
Video sense of belonging
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https://www.psychologytoday.com/za/blog/pieces-mind/201403/create-sense-belongin
5.3.4 Implications of morality and a sense of belonging
5.3.4.1 Implications for the learner
Lack of a sense of belonging impacts negatively on the learner’s personal development
and academic achievement. Bay (2017) indicates that learners who feel unaccepted fail
to comply with the classroom rules laid down because they feel uncomfortable, hence
they tend to behave in a negative manner and resist new challenges and ideas. Learners
who feel unaccepted or as not belonging develop a low self-esteem, which makes them
feel insecure. This could impact how they relate to others. Again, such learners may be
afraid to take risks and tend to seek ways to avoid embarrassment due to fear of failure.
Sometimes learners come to school with issues at home that relate to their families or
peers. These could be secrets that are big and they find it difficult to talk about since they
probably impact on how they feel about themselves. If the child feels unaccepted, then
his/her problems may be exacerbated due to a lack of sense of belonging and being
unable to disclose the challenges that are experienced.
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Creating a culture of learning is about developing relationships based on trust and
respect. Each child needs to have a sense of belonging in the classroom community and
to feel that you and others in the class care about them before you jump right into the
school work (Bay, 2017). As a teacher, ensure that you build a supportive environment
in your class that will make learners feel comfortable and even feel able to relate their
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problems to you or their peers. Learners who come from different backgrounds and with
diverse experiences need to be accepted for who they are. A sense of belonging also
helps the child to develop a good sense of morality due to the good classroom culture
that you as a teacher have created.
5.3.4.2 Implications for the teacher
Lack of a sense of belonging also impacts the teacher’s teaching, relations with learners
and colleagues, as well as his/her personal development and growth. It is important
that the school management and teachers ensure a positive atmosphere prevails at the
school, specifically for their own wellbeing. As a teacher, you will need the support of
other teachers in handling certain sections of the curriculum or on how to assist a learner
experiencing a problem. A sense of belonging is vitally important for both teachers and
learners in order to flourish in the school environment. Diversity is addressed by the
manner in which people are being accepted. Read below how Mrs Molepo fostered a
sense of belonging in her class:
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Mrs Molepo truly believes that all human beings deserve respect and acceptance, and
she is committed to building a democratic community. She uses the following strategies
to build positive identities in her learners, and to teach the importance of morality and
justice, as well as a sense of belonging and interdependence and a sense of personal
uniqueness and agency (Engelbrecht & Green 2006).
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• She develops a classroom climate of respect and behaves respectfully herself to•
•
•
•
•
wards colleagues and learners. She takes a firm stand with learners who call out in
class. This is simply not allowed.
She teaches learners to respect, for example, by acknowledging and listening to each
other, and explains to them why respect is important.
She uses stories and role play activities to teach learners how to obey rules and the
importance of honesty. For example, learners act out situations they are likely to encounter and discuss the implications in responding in different ways.
She creates a sense of belonging in the class by involving everyone in some classroom
decisions and giving everyone some classroom responsibilities. She always emphasises our classroom, our way of doing things, our learning-function when she speaks
to learners. By so doing, learners feel that they are part of the class community and
are accepted as such.
She invites all learners to participate in making the rules of the classroom and the consequences of not obeying them. Every learner’s contribution is accepted and learners’
sense of belonging is enhanced.
She tries not to blame learners for unacceptable behaviour, but to make them aware
that if they break negotiated classroom rules, they have to live with certain consequences, because she wants to build a sense of individual responsibility (Engelbrecht
& Green 2006).
Creating a sense of belonging in your classroom goes a long way in developing the
children’s physical, intellectual, emotional and social wellbeing. For example, children
learn better in a supportive environment where they are not afraid to try out new things
or are afraid of making mistakes. Fair treatment of children is vitally important as they
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can see when some learners are treated better than others. Such treatment in class
may hamper your efforts in enhancing morality among learners and yourself. Ensure
that learners understand and follow the rules that are in place in the classroom. Do the
following activities:
Activity 5.5: Case study
Mavis is doing Grade 2 for the second time. She stays with her parents who are unemployed. Due to a lack of food at home she gets her breakfast at school, provided by the
government. Mavis struggles to read and is afraid to give answers in class. Ms Nkosi, her
class teacher, is friendly and accommodative to all learners. She always encourages Mavis
to take time to read and all the other learners in class know that no one must laugh at
any struggling leaner. Learners have been taught to respect each other and to take turns
when they speak. Mavis’ reading is improving and she is able to give her opinions during
group discussions. Most learners love Ms Nkosi and are even able to tell her their problems.
(1) Why has Mavis’ reading and class participation improved?
(2) Describe the learning atmosphere in Ms Nkosi’s classroom.
(3) What is the contributing factor to this learning environment?
Feedback on Activity 5.5
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(1) Ms Nkosi’s way of teaching and acceptance of Mavis improved her reading.
(2) Ms Nkosi created a supportive learning environment that enables learners to strive and
to venture out without any fear of failure or being ridiculed.
(3) The sense of belonging created by Ms Nkosi is the contributing factor to the positive
learning environment in this classroom.
Activity 5.6
Discuss strategies that you can use to promote a sense of belonging in your class.
Feedback on Activity 5.6
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Refer to 5.4.3 and 5.4.4 above.
5.4
CONCLUSION
In this learning unit, you were exposed to theories of moral development, stages of moral
development, and moral development in children. Furthermore, you have been introduced
to a concept sense of belonging and its importance in people and children specifically.
The importance of the promotion of a sense of belonging in class was emphasised in
addressing diversity and considering that all children are different and they need to be
accepted as they are in order to flourish. A sense of belonging in the classroom situation
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builds a positive and supportive atmosphere where learners are not afraid to venture out
into the unknown in order to learn.
5.5 REFERENCES
Engelbrecht, P. & Green, L., 2006 . Promoting learner development: Preventing working
with barriers of learning. Pretoria : Van Schaik Publishers .
Fein, G., 1978. Child Development. Engelwood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.
Hall, K., 2014. Create a sense of belonging. [Online] Available at: https://www.psychologytoday/blog/pieces-mind/201403/create-sense-belonging%famp [Accessed 12
April 2020].
Lee, C., 2019. 7 Ways to give your student a sense of belonging. [Online] Available at:
www.turnit.com/amp/articles/7-ways-to-give-your-students-a-sense-of-belonging
[Accessed 12 April 2020].
McLeod, S., 2015. Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development. [Online] Available at: https://www.
simplypsychology.org/piaget-moral.html/ [Accessed 13 April 2020].
Naito, T., 2013. Moral Development. In: K. D. Keith , ed. The Encyclopedia of Cross-Cultural
Psychology. New York: Wiley, pp. 881-897.
Parise, E. & Csibra , G., 2012. Electrophysical evidence for the understanding of material
speech by 9-month-old-infants. Psychological Science , 23(7), pp. 728-733.
Slide Player , 2020. Kohlberg’s Theor of Moral Development. [Online] Available at: htpps://
slideplayer.com/amp/9747139 [Accessed 12 April 2020].
Shetty, P., 2003. Malnutrition and Undernutrition. Medicine , 31(4), pp. 18-22.
Yilmaz, O., Bahçekapili , H. G. & Sevi, B., 2019. Theory of Moral Development: Encylopedia of
Evolutionary Psychological Science. [Online] Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/9783-319-16999-6_171-1 [Accessed 12 April 2020].
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Learning unit 6
CREATIVE DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
AIM OF THE LEARNING UNIT
In this learning unit, you will discuss the creative development of the young child. The
importance of play, imagination and creativity will also be explained.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After the completion of this learning unit, you will be able to do the following:
•
•
•
•
6.1
Define the concepts creativity and creative development.
Explain development of children’s development in young children.
Discuss the importance of imagination in relation to the creative development of
the young child
Design activities that will enhance creative development of children in diverse context
INTRODUCTION
In this learning unit, you will discover that all children are creative beings and that creativity
can be developed. You will also learn that creative development is a process and needs
to be nurtured in children. Play is an important aspect of creativity and the child benefits
intellectually, physically, emotionally and socially during play. The discussion also includes
creative methods and activities that you can learn to apply in the classroom situation in
order to support children in creative development. After studying about creativity and
imagination, you will be able to reflect on how you can apply this knowledge in the
classroom situation to enhance creativity among your learners.
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6.1.1
What is creativity?
Creativity is the open or freest form of self-expression. The ability to create something
from personal feelings and experiences can reflect and nurture children’s emotional
health. (Anon, n.d). Creativity can be referred to as the process of producing original
things (Dere 2019).
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6.1.2
What is creative development?
Creative development is a process of developing creative abilities through exploration,
decision making and expression. Experiences children have during their early years can
significantly enhance the development of their creativity. Children go through various
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stages of creative development. It is important to take into account children’s age when
developing creativity in children.
6.1.3
The importance of the creative process
Any creative act is the process of self-expression. Creative experiences can help children
express their feelings. A child’s creative activity can help teachers to learn more about
what the child may be thinking or feeling. Creativity also fosters mental growth in
children by providing opportunities for trying out new ideas, and new ways of thinking
and problem solving. Creative activities help acknowledge and celebrate children’s
uniqueness and diversity, as well as offer excellent opportunities to personalise teaching
and focus on each child. Children need plenty of opportunities for creative play and
creative thinking. The creative process is embedded in opportunities that children will
be given to be involved in creative activities. Offering children a variety of experiences
that are multi-ethnic and multi-cultural promotes creativity. Children need to be given
an opportunity to make their own choices during creative activities. Creative play is one
of the most important type of creative activities that young children can be involved in.
As indicated earlier, creativity can be developed. The next section focuses on creative
development in children.
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6.2 CREATIVE DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
Creativity can be developed through various ways by both parents and caregivers as
they interact with and respond to even young babies. These interactions may be seen in
the diverse ways a caregiver might use to calm, soothe, comfort, engage, amuse, delight,
charm, or even confuse or stun the child. Just as they develop language and balance,
young children also pass through phases in learning creative self-expression.
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6.2.1
Infancy period (0 to 2 years)
Creative development in children can begin as early as infancy. During this period creative
development generally occurs through play. Playing creatively with babies, even with
newborns, promotes many aspects of development. Singing, cuddling, and interacting
with babies are important ways to participate in play, but it is equally important to
encourage independent play time as well. For a young baby, they may move a toy by
using a foot (one of the first gross motor skills is control of kicking); that they can enjoy
without parental interaction. Such moments, built up over time, allow children to focus,
to be self-directed for periods, and allow a sense of curiosity and wonder to build. At
the age of two children start to scribble on anything when they have a pen or pencil.
Toddlers are generally ready for more when it comes to creative opportunities. These
creative opportunities are important for children as they are an expressive outlet for
their thoughts, feelings, wishes, and imaginings.
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6.2.2 Pre-school period (2 to 6 years)
At the age of 3 to 5 children are at the “pre-schematic stage”. By the age of three, children
have entered Piaget’s preoperational period, which is the ability to use symbols and
representational thought. For example, a picture of a horse represents the actual horse.
Three year olds begin to make up stories and to build with blocks. Their scribbling at this
stage has improved and resembles objects and they can draw basic shapes. Circles
are common shapes that children begin to draw. They also begin to use graphic symbols
and express emotions like joy or sadness symbolically with form and colour (Anon, n.d).
At age 5 to 6 children develop fine motor skills, which enable them to draw a straight
line or a circle with both intention and control. Realistic imagery also begins to emerge
at this stage. Furthermore, children begin to acquire a symbolic vocabulary around the
age of 6 where a square represents a house, and a circle represents the sun. Creativity
develops due to the child’s level of cognitive and physical development as well as the
opportunities that are created by caregivers or teachers. Supporting children’s creativity
during pre-school years sets the stage to foster its continued development in the years
to come (Dere 2019).
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Vygotsky maintains that when children interact with their parents or adults or even
peers, learning takes place at the zone of proximal development. Thus the children’s
interactions with adults or peers offer opportunities for creative development. Providing
children with a creative environment during their early years of development plays a critical
role in creative development. Children do not fear making mistakes and taking risks in a
creative atmosphere. Again, children’s ideas are respected and their brainstorming attempts
are reacted to positively. Therefore positive attitudes of pre-school teachers are other
factors that are important in creativity. Pre-school teachers should provide rich materials
that mobilise the imagination of children, and offer opportunities for children to dream,
to express ideas, appreciate their individuality and encourage different perspectives (Dere
2019). In the next section the focus is on development of creativity in middle childhood.
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6.2.3 Middle childhood period (6 to 9 years)
Though creativity tends to decline as children grow, it is important for teachers to create
opportunities for creativity in middle childhood. Middle childhood is a period of concrete
operations according to Piaget’s cognitive theory. The concrete operational stage (7 to
11) signifies the stage in which children start using mental operations to solve problems
and to reason. Concrete operational thinking is more advanced than the preoperational
stage, but it is limited to the tangible and the real, to the here and now.
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Researchers have found that children’s creative thinking ability tends to decline during
middle childhood. Factors underlying neural and behavioural factors that affect fluctuations
in children’s creative thinking ability remain uncharacterised (Saggar et al. 2019). According
to Vygotsky, creative imagination manifest in play during the early years of development
and goes through a process of integration and evolution following the development of
concepts and reasoning during adolescence (Ayman-Nolley 1992). Play during middle
childhood involves the improvement of physical skills like jumping, kicking or throwing
a ball, climbing trees, and playing games like Monopoly, morabara and dolls (Louw &
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Louw 2014). Play games can promote creativity in children as they develop creative skills
in mastering those games.
During middle childhood children are more developed in cognition and their reasoning
will be more advanced than the pre-school children. Creative children are divergent rather
than convergent thinkers. Convergent thinkers seek a single answer, while divergent
thinkers come up with a wide array of fresh and original possibilities. Children need only
a minimum of intelligence to be creative. Creative children are free thinkers and this
makes them unpopular with dogmatic teachers who expect children to operate within
predetermined limits. Creativity, just like giftedness, must be cultivated and nurtured
(Louw & Louw 2014).
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6.3 THE BENEFITS OF PLAY AND CREATIVE DEVELOPMENT
According to Vygotsky, play contains all developmental trends in a condensed form and
is itself a major source of development. Through play, children learn to regulate their
behaviour, lay the foundations for later learning, figure out the complex negotiations of
social relationships and build a repertoire for creative problem solving skills (White, 2012).
Whitebread et al. (2017) point out that researchers have revealed that play contributed
positively to children’s cognitive and academic achievement; social competence and
popularity; social status and dominance; as well as emotional awareness and self-regulation.
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Creative play is an important part of childhood and child development. Creative experiences
help a child develop these skills and enable them to share their thoughts, feelings and
ideas. Exposing children to creative opportunities contributes to, and furthers their
development. Through creative and imaginative play children can grow emotionally,
socially, intellectually, and even physically (Anon, 2017).
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Emotional Development: Creative play promotes social and emotional development
by integrating feelings with tasks. During play children can be asked to paint, draw, or
tell a story, about how they’re feeling. These types of activities help children, who are
not able to verbalise, to express their feelings through painting or drawing. By so doing,
children will learn how to express their feelings safely and creatively, allowing them to
integrate into social settings or contexts and adjust their behaviour more appropriately.
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Social Development: Children can grow and increase their social development when
given opportunities to play and interact with peers. Singing, dancing, dress-up, and other
forms of imaginative play are a few areas where children are able to grow and develop
basic communication and social interaction skills. Children can be exposed to different
kinds of play according to their own cultural backgrounds that can enhance their social
development.
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Intellectual Development: Through creative play, children can learn important problemsolving skills. Reading, for example, gives children the opportunity to express their
imagination and explore a world outside of their own, helping to improve both intellectual
and cognitive skills. This also forms the basis of reading comprehension and retention
and sets the tone for solving more complex problems as they grow and develop. Again,
activities like jigsaw puzzles also assist children to develop intellectually.
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Physical Development: Whether your children are dancing to the rhythm of their own
beat, or exploring the great outdoors, creative play helps to grow gross and fine motor
skills, coordination, and control. Building fine motor skills requires practice and sets
the stage for improving hand-eye coordination and muscle memory. Play and dancing
promote physical and creative development of children (Anon, 2017). Watch this video
to see the benefits of play in children.
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Video on play
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https://study.com/academy/lesson/sense-of-belonging-definition-theory-quiz.html
6.4
THE IMPORTANCE OF IMAGINATION AND CREATIVITY
Einstein said “Imagination is more important than knowledge” (Bright Horizon 2013).
Since children are generally creative, imaginative and spontaneous, it is important that
caregivers and teachers nurture this inborn instinct. Vygotsky (1930: 200) theorised a
relationship between creativity and imagination. He indicates that imagination serves as
an important drive of all human creativity. Imagination involves feelings that manifest
a person’s truthful experiences. However, the process of imagination is not only guided
by feelings, but also the context. It is because every person, even a genius, is a product
of his environment (Tsai 2012). Imagination is a higher mental function and as such, is
a consciously directed thought process (Smolucha & Smolucha 2012).
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Children should engage in creative, imaginative and expressive activities in art, craft,
design, music, dance, and movement. Such activities offer children individual ways of
representing their ideas, feelings and emotions imaginatively through various forms of
self-expression, like painting, model making, role playing, music, poetry, dance, writing
and developing empathy with peers (Adran et al. 2008).
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As teachers you are an important resource to facilitate learners’ learning experiences and
to release learner’s potential in the classroom. In order to maximise learners’ potential, it is
important to provide learners with opportunities to exercise their creative and imaginative
abilities. It is important to understand creative thinking and imagination.
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6.4.1
Creative thinking and imagination
Imagination is the door to numerous possibilities. It is where creativity, originality
and thinking outside the box begin for child development. In most cases, imagination
occurs through play in children. Through imagination and creative play children learn
about their world. During imaginative play children express themselves verbally and
non-verbally, act, interact, and also try different roles (Bright Horizons 2013). Therefore,
great opportunities open up for learning when children participate in creative play with
dolls, cars, wire cars, blocks, stones or boxes.
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When children are busy manipulating objects like dough, cars, dolls, art material and
splashing in puddles, they are thinking and this furthers their development. Imagination
fosters cognitive and social development. Everyone wants to raise children who reach
their highest intellectual and social or emotional potential. In early childhood education,
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critical thinking skills and creative problem solving abilities are goals for children’s
development. Imagination builds social-emotional development by allowing children
to contemplate different resolutions, thus boosting children’s confidence, which can
be used in interaction with others. Imagination and creativity are skills that children will
need when they join the work force in the future (Bright Horizon, 2013 ).
6.5 ENHANCING CREATIVITE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN IN
DIVERSE CONTEXT
Creativity in the early years flourishes best in an atmosphere of enthusiastic support. In
order to facilitate creative development in children, it is vital that supervising adults and
teachers should sit back and let young artists develop their own ideas. Creative thinking
develops as children make choices and solve simple logistical problems. Providing
children with a variety of creative opportunities will enhance creative development. The
next section focuses on strategies caregivers and teachers can use to facilitate creativity
in children (Bright Horizon, 2013).
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6.5.1
Strategies of stimulating creativity in children
6.5.1.1
Spend time outdoors with children (play)
The environment offers children an opportunity to engage with different types of material
that stimulate imagination and creativity. As teachers you need to plan outdoor activities
that stimulate children’s activity and enhance their learning opportunities. Outdoor
activities enhance aesthetic values in children (Kiewa & Veselack, 2016). The benefits
of outdoor activities are countless. It is because nature is ever changing and provides
numerous opportunities for discovery, creativity and problem solving skills for children.
For example, children can draw in the sand, make designs with twigs, build forts with
branches or simply lie on the ground and look up at the sky. Outdoor games and activities
stimulate children’s tactile senses when they feel the sand, as they touch it, or when
they take stones and write on the sand. These activities promote insight and effective
learning in children (Anon, 2020).
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6.5.1.2
Invent scenarios/situations
When the child invents scenarios or situations, he tries new things and organises his
thoughts while developing social and verbal skills. The scenario created enables the child
to think, and as he/she talks about the scenario his/her verbal skills also develop. Allow
children to create scenarios as a way of developing creativity in children.
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6.5.1.3
Verbal activities
Verbal activities such as rhymes, riddles, and silly sounds to phonics games such as “I spy”,
or made up lyrics to common tunes, verbal interface (boundary) activities, can inspire and
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nurture creative minds. Reciting poems and singing are other forms that can be used to
stimulate creativity in children.
6.5.1.4
Ask open-ended and thought-provoking questions
Asking questions that provoke imaginative and creative thinking, is an effective way to
invite the child to express his ideas and share his visions while giving him a message that
his ideas are important. Open-ended questions like this can be asked: “What do you think
will happen if …?” or “What is a difference between a dog and a cat?”
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6.5.1.5
Limit screen time (TV movies, computers, tablets, smart phones, video games)
Nurturing imagination and parenting can be tough during this technological age. Focusing
on the screen is a passive way of learning for children. It is important that digital devises
should be minimised in order to promote a kinaesthetic (movement) manner of learning
where children use their bodies and their five senses to learn actively. Active leaning
where physical activity is encouraged in children will also help in the development of
their gross motor skills, while imagination and creativity is enhanced.
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6.5.1.6
Encourage art activities
Art is a creative expression that nurtures imagination. Through painting, sculpture, collage,
clay, drawing, or any other medium, art is a way for children to work through emotions,
make decisions, and express ideas. Manipulation of art material provides a sense of freedom
yet also promotes focus and concentration. In addition, art activities build confidence
because children gain a sense of mastery over materials resulting in a new creation.
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6.5.1.7
Share library activities
Make reading time memorable and discuss other possible scenarios or endings of the
story by using your child’s imagination. Use make up stories with the children and
sometimes one of them as the main character. In other stories propose a moral dilemma
(Anon, 2020).
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6.5.1.8
Do not over control or over prescribe
Creativity is a form of self-expression that needs a free-flowing mind and imagination.
Telling children exactly how to do things makes them feel that any originality is a mistake
and any exploration is a waste of time. Allowing children to choose their interests and
supporting their preferences are less likely to destroy their natural curiosity than dictating
which activities they should engage in (Louw & Louw 2014).
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6.5.1.9
Encourage internal motivation
The excessive use of prizes, such as gold stars, money or toys, can stifle creativity by
undermining the intrinsic pleasure children derive from creative activities (Louw & Louw
2014).
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Video on creativity
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https://youtu.be/0GQyooXc3_k
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6.5.2 Important factors to consider when planning creative activities for
children
• Get enough rich material that you can use to stimulate creativity in children.
• Ensure that the material used is user friendly and there is enough variety for children
to choose from to do their activity.
• Certain activities can be done indoors while others can be done outdoors.
• Decide whether the activity is art work or play.
• Ensure that all children participate in that activity and that they have a choice.
• If the activity is on the story read in class, allow learners to say how the story ended.
By so doing, you will be stimulating their imagination.
• Praise every child for the effort and enthusiasm he/she has displayed during the activity.
This will encourage them to be creative.
Activity 6.1
(1) Plan a lesson for the Grade 2 learners where you want to give them an opportunity
to use their creativity.
(2) Decide whether it will be an indoor or outdoor activity.
(3) Indicate the material they will use during the activity.
(4) Instructions to be short and clear for learners to follow.
(5) If the activity is play, indicate what kind of play e.g. hide and seek or playing morabaraba
or monopoly etc.
(6) Indicate how the activity will benefit the learners.
Feedback on Activity 6.1
35
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
For example, I have planned that learners are going to draw a picture of their choice.
The activity will be indoors.
Material: Pencils, white blank sheets of paper, crayons, water colours, and paint brushes.
Instruction: Draw a picture of a person you like most.
Children will be allowed to choose the colours of pencils or water paints and paint brushes
to colour their picture. Go around and check their participation. Encourage and praise
their effort and dedication during the process of drawing and colouring.
(6) Learners are each allowed to talk about the person they have drawn and why they like
that person. The aim is to develop communication, to learn new words, and to enhance
social development as they communicate and share the material, which improves their
interpersonal relationships. To allow them to be imaginative and creative, which brings
fulfilment and achievement.
6.6 CONCLUSION
In this learning unit, you were firstly exposed to creativity and the process of creative
development in young children. Secondly, you have also learned about the importance
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of play and how it promotes imagination and thinking as well as how it benefits the
development of a child in totality. Lastly, you were empowered with regard to strategies
that you can use in stimulating or nurturing creativity in young children as it forms the
bases of their learning.
6.7
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