BENGUET HERITAGE
Lesson 1: Settlements and Territories
Benguet Geography
Prior to the arrival of the Spaniards, Benguet was a vast,
richly forested hunting ground with diverse flora and fauna, where
people lived in mountainous regions with an abundance of water
resources (Province of Benguet, 2021).
Major migration routes of different ethnolinguistic groups in
Benguet from the 1500s Bagasmaspad and Hamada- Pawid 2010):
a) The first migration route followed the tributaries of the
Aringay-Galiano rivers, moving
people to Chuyo and Tonglo in Tuba.
b) The second route went through the tributaries of the
Amburayan River, leading to
settlements in Darew in Barangay Gaswiling and Palaypay in
Kapangan.
c) The third route was along the Agno River, leading to the
establishment of settlements in
Imbose along the Agno River in Pacso, Kabayan, and
Amlimay in Kabayan and Buguias.
Social Institutions (Ibaloy, Kankanaey, and Ikalahans)
a. In the Ibaloy society, there is a distinct division into classes,
with the wealthy
(baknang) and the poor (abitug). The Kankanaey's society
is organized around
the 'ili' or village, which is their largest social unit.
For the Ikalahans, social
structures are based largely on kinship, forming bilateral
groups of kin for mutual
support (Cordillera Schools Group, 2003; Prill-Brett, 2015;
Rice, 1974).
b. Aduyon/Alluyon: This Ibaloy and Kankana-ey system of mutual
and reciprocal
work (Adonis, 2011).
c. Khamal/Kamal: This Batares practice involves gathering
neighbors to help with
heavy-labor projects, such as building a house or community
projects
d. Albubo: This Kankana-ey tradition represents communal unity,
helpfulness, and
cooperation (NCIP, 2021).
e. Dang-as/Da-ngah: This is the Kalanguya traditional practice of
voluntary service.
Literature
Cordillera literature, including that of the Benguet, is almost entirely
oral, often featuring themes of legends, myths, epics, riddles, and
proverbs. It is traditionally recited or sung during special occasions
like wakes, rituals, and festivities (Chan, 2018). Examples:
1. ad-dem is sung during the badjog ritual
2. 2. angba during the cho-ongas ritual
3. 3. agsangay during the tam-mo ritual
4. 4. tah-miyas during wakes
5. 5. ba'diw is used in various occasions or gatherings
(Santos, 2017)
6. 6. burburtia, are a form of entertainment and socialization,
particularly during wakes
Festivals
a) Adivay. This is an agro-tourism festival celebrated in Benguet
that focuses on rediscovering the
rich history, culture, arts, trades, and industries of the
province. It was conceptualized to bring
together all the tribes of Benguet to share their cultures,
traditions, and successes.
b) Kapi/Kapi Festival. This festival celebrates the coffee culture of
the province, highlighting the
importance of coffee in Benguet's economy.
c) Strawberry Festival (La Trinidad, Benguet). A celebration to
promote the region's
strawberries through a parade, street dancing, trade fair, and
strawberry picking.
d) Begnas (Kankanaey of Benguet). This is conducted to show
gratitude to the spirits for a
bountiful harvest and to ask for guidance and protection for the
next planting season.
Administration of Justice
The Ibaloy People's Council of Elders use their customary
justice system for conflict resolution, often settling disputes amicably
through elders (Buendia and Brillantes, 2015). The Kankana-ey
people, on the other hand, practice Sapata, where in the absence of
strong evidence or witnesses, the accused and the accuser swear to
adi-kaila (unseen, higher entities and let them decide the guilt
(Adonis, 2011).
Tongtong, a traditional dispute resolution practice, is used to settle
disputes within the community, including land boundary disputes
and other crimes. The practice involves a gathering of elders who
resolve the conflict, often resulting in penalties such as feeding the
arbiters or the community (Cordillera Schools Group, Inc., 2003).
Tongtong is used to resolve various cases, including relationship
conflicts, property matters, and behaviorrelated issues (Rice, 1974).
Common principles of the tongtong observed among ethnolinguistic
groups of Benguet include: immediate, final and executory judgment;
public hearings with everyone invited to express their opinions;
immediate restoration of broken relationships through community
celebrations; and involvement of the guilty party's kin in the
payment of fines (Province of Benguet, 2021). The tongtongan or
tavtaval aims to resolve conflicts through dialogue rather than
establishing guilt and severing relationships. Penalties are enforced
through customary methods such as the butchering of animals.
The conduct of tongtong includes: initiation by the offended party;
public narration of the case by both parties; presentation of opinions
by the elders leading to a consensus; finalization of the consensus
decision and immediate enforcement through community celebration
(Rice, 1974).
IFUGAO HERITAGE
Lesson 2. Land and Biodiversity and Natural Resource
Management
Land Use Management
The Ifugao Rice Terraces, which were included to UNESCO's
list of World Heritage Sites in 1995, are the best example of how the
Ifugaos have managed their use of land and water. The Ifugao were
skilled at sustainably managing and utilizing the land. Their
communities, forest areas, pond fields, and grasslands are used in
a way that sustains resources.
Following are some of the indigenous methods used by early Ifugaos
to manage their utilization of land and water (Alberto, Eheng &
Valdez, 2021, p. 31):
1. Bobleh/Pfuglay/Babluy (Village Settlement Area)
2. Payoh (Pond Fields)
3. Habal/umah (Swidden)
4. Muyung, alah, pinugu/pinuchu (Forest)
5. Pa’laban (pasture land)
6. Punbakiyan (Ritual site)
The significance of Muyung in the Ifugao ecosystem is embedded in
the Ifugaos. It holds water in reserve and releases it as needed. The
main function of the water from the creeks, streams, and rivers is to
water the rice terraces aside from the daily use in households. With
the direct connection between the forest and water production, the
Ifugaos see to it that the forests are sustained. The Ifugao realizes
that there is interconnectedness between the land and water and the
depletion of one will lead to consequences at his disadvantage. The
sustainability of the communal and private forests directly relates to
water production.
Other methods in water management:
1. The halop method
2. The use of pituk (Iron rod)
3. The use of Pinaad (Ay) (torch)/Pakad (Tu)
4. The use of Bunwit, Pfongguet
Indigenous Biodiversity Conservation Practices
Ifugao indigenous biodiversity conservation practices (Gonzales et
al, 2021, p. 105).
1. Muyung System
2. Rice terraces forest coupled agroforestry (Payohpinugo/hayyukung/hino-ub system)
3. Multi-storey Agroforestry System
POLITICAL FEATURE
Indigenous Governance and Laws
Accordingly, Ifugao law derives from two sources. The first is the
paniyo or taboo. Paniyo is the “evil way” or “bad way of doing”, which
largely concerns the individual and is based on “magic” (Barton, 1919
in NCCA, 2015). These taboos are ethical and religious in nature and
were occasionally created as superstitious beliefs; therefore, breaking
them may be the cause of some bad omens. The second is custom
laws that embrace the laws on property, individual rights, family
laws, and penal laws. (Martin, M & et al, 2021, p. 185).
Some of the Ifugao laws include property laws on inherited
properties, on the sale and purchase of properties especially land or
rice fields, and on other means of acquiring properties especially
when the owner is childless.
Administration of Justice
As mentioned, Ifugaos has prohibited acts and conduct of taboos or
Paniyo related to gender-family, religion-related, Property, Life and
Financial, and personhood related. It is expected of the Ifugao people
to follow the tugun di a-amod, and to keep the paniyo in mind when
interacting with family and the community. If someone breaks the
law or commits a crime, the proper punishment will be meted out
according to the gravity of the offense. Both minor and major offenses
have corresponding penalties, the customary law may be used to
define how the Ifugao people administer justice. Several instances
include Awwit/Bal-lo, Haliw (fines), and gibu.
For the settlements of crimes against persons, life, and properties,
both usually consult a nanomnoman (elder) in the community to
intervene in the settling of conflicts, disputes, grievances, and crimes
preferably in the presence of both parties.
Ifugao Territories
The province of Ifugao consists of eleven (11) municipalities. These
include Aguinaldo, Asipulo, Banaue, Hingyon, Hungduan, Kiangan,
Lagawe, Lamut, Alfonso Lista, Mayoyao, and Tinoc. Lagawe is the
capital of the province. Ifugao is rugged and mountainous except for
Lamut and Alfonso Lista which has large areas of rolling hills and
plains.
Ifugao is bounded by Mt. Province to the north and Nueva Vizcaya to
the south. The Magat River/Dam (Philippines’ biggest dam) separates
the province from Isabela on its eastern side and Mt Pulag
(Philippines’ 3rd highest mountain) separates the province from
Benguet on its western side (Campos, F, 2012).
Ifugao used to be a part of the previous Mountain Province until the
passage of Republic Act No. 4695 on June 18, 1966, also known as
the Division Law of Mountain Province. The law created four
independent provinces namely Mountain Province and the new
provinces of Ifugao, Benguet and Kalinga Apayao. Ifugao is popularly
believed to have emanated from the word ‘pugaw’ which is “earth” in
the cosmic belief or “hill”, hence, ipugaw, later modified to Ifugao,
means “from the hill”.
Ifugao Settlements
Early settlements in Ifugao are evident with the tangible marks that
they left in the areas they occupied. Hence, the most common
organized settlements that are very evidentare in communities with
Rice Terraces located in 8 municipalities collectively called now as
the Ifugao Rice Terraces (IRT). Built through indigenous knowledge
developed across generations, the IRT survived the test of time.
Cultural practices, beliefs, traditions and feasts are tailored at
keeping the symbiotic relationship of the Ifugaos and their
environment as demonstrated by the annual agriculture cycle. In
1995, UNESCO declared 5 IRT clusters as World Heritages
recognizing them as “a living cultural landscape” because of the
impeccable blending of people and the environment, one that must
be sustained and adopted.
While initial estimates placed the IRT as 2,000 years old, a recent
archeological study provided evidence that they must be 400-700
years old positing that the boost in land cultivation coincided with
the Spanish colonization (Acabado, 2017) furthered by waves of
migration toward the upland areas by the people who do not like to
be under the Spanish rule. The early settlements were concentrated
mostly in rice terraces areas in Kiangan, Hungduan, Banaue and
Mayoyao with arguably the so called Old Kiyyangan as the earliest
settlement. In the recent decades, migration and settlements by the
Ifugao people became common phenomenon inside and outside the
Ifugao province. Due to more economic opportunities in areas with
more plains and rolling hills, population is shifting and increasing
rapidly in Alfonso Lista and Lamut municipalities.
Oral Literature
Ifugao has a rich oral literature heritage that has been passed
down from generation to generation. Manuel (2005) stated that is a
progression in the development of the Ifugao oral literature from its
early beginning to its present types. Authorship to such literature is
also not identified. Accordingly, it is impossible to attribute
authorship of any piece to one particular person or group. The are
identified 4 types of the Ifugao oral literature:
1) Narratives. This includes folktales, legends, myths (bukad,
hudhud).
2) Chant (Ritual and Non-ritual Chants). Ritual chants include the
“Alim” and “Baltung” while non-ritual chants include the hudhud,
liwliwa/bonwe or ap-apnga.
3) Song. This usually include simple folk songs, ballads, palat
4) Rhyme. Although there is similarity as to types with western
literature, there are differences in terms of structure and manner of
delivery or performance.
Some specific Ifugao oral literature pieces:
1. Hudhud. This includes long narrations depicting the lives and
conquests of local heroes. They also portray the life of early
Ifugaos and their culture. This is evident in one of the oral
literatures called “Hudhud”, which consists of narrative chants
performed especially during harvest and wakes (elderly persons
who died a natural death). This Hudhud, an Ifugao oral
literature, is inscribed by UNESCO in 2008 as one of the World’s
Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
2. Alim. This is a ritual ballad that highlights the supposed
achievements of a hero. This is not as popular as the Hudhud
since the Alim cannot be performed by anyone and for anybody.
This is only performed during prestige rituals and the death of
a wealthy elder as they remove precious items from his body.
3. Liwliwa. This is a jovial parody and mostly contains mutual
criticism by males and females who are chanting alternately.
This usually happens during prestige feasts when people are
intoxicated by wine.
4. A-apo. These are usually short stories consisting of myths,
folktales, legends, and fables for entertainment and also in
teaching the children cultural values.
KALINGA HERITAGE
Symbols and Textiles
The southern Kalinga traditionally wear a G-string called baag,
a long, narrow red strip of cotton cloth with yellow stripes running
lengthwise at equal distances from one another. The rich wear baag
with broad patches of yellow designs at both ends, which may also
have fringes, tassels, or round white shells. Ornaments worn by the
men include C-shaped ear pendants, a broad collar necklace called
kulkul, big copper bracelets, armlets, and necklaces of trapezoidal
shells. The women wear the kain, a wraparound skirt or tapis, which
reaches below the knees and is worn below the abdomen in such a
way that one of the thighs is exposed as she walks. Traditionally,
women wore no upper garments, but today blouses and T-shirts are
used. The hair hangs loose or is gathered in a string of beads called
apungot, worn around the head. They tattoo their arms up to the
shoulders and collarbone. The women wear earrings similar to those
of the men, other earrings are made of strings of small beads and
large pieces of shells. For necklaces, large beads hanging loosely over
the breast sometimes reach the waist. Like the men, they may also
wear the kulkul. They wear bracelets made of strings of beads.
The northern Kalinga men and women wear the baag but with
a multicolored upper garment called silup. These blankets reach the
knees and are woven into various colors and designs, with red as the
dominant color. They carry a pouch of red cloth hanging from the
neck and a turban-like head cloth. On special occasions, they wear
a kerchief shaped like a triangle pointing to the waist, ornamented
with coins and pieces of metal. They wear their hair long, usually
knotted in a chignon, and tattoo their forearms and a part of their
upper arms. For earrings, they wear the same types used by the
southern Kalinga. They may wear necklaces over their breasts and
use the kulkul on special occasions. The women in the north paint
their faces red. At present, the Kalinga wear contemporary clothing
and wear traditional attire only for festivals and other special
occasions.
Arts and Crafts
Tattooing is more popular in the South than in the North, with
designs depending on a man's bravery during tribal wars. The
traditional tattoo instrument is made from buffalo horn, with
gambang or steel needles on the tip. Manwhatok (tattoo practitioners)
alternatively use parakuk id lubwhan (lemon thorns) to pierce the
skin. Ink is made from charcoal powder or soot from pots. Traditional
weapons and implements of the Kalinga include the sinawit, sawit or
gaman (head axe), the bolo (long knife), say-ang or tubay (spears),
and the kalasag (shield). Shields are painted with geometric designs
similar to tattoo motifs, which may be related to death, burial, social
position, or headhunting. These same designs also appear on lime
containers and textiles.
Symbols and Textiles:
Weaving Symbols
Just like other indigenous communities, the ethnolinguistic tribes in
Mountain Province are rich in textile designs. Napanoy (2019) posited
in his research that matmata, tiktiko, pagpag, tagtagkho, tufay,
kalasag, and uweg are all patterns often used in Bontoc backstrap
weaving, especially the traditional lufid also known as pitay. The
Bontoc people's way of life, customs, and surroundings are all shown
in these designs. You can refer to the articles provided as additional
readings for you the better understand the relation of symbols in the
textiles used in Mountain Province.
Tattoo Symbols
Tattooing is also a practice in Mountain Province. In the study
of Kisofen (2022), there are three classifications of the Bontoc fatek
(tattoo) namely chaklag, pong-o and faytong. He further discussed
that the chaklag was a sign of power for a young man because it
meant he had passed the test to become an adult and was ready to
be given his political, social, economic, and religious rights in the
community. It also represented bravery and manliness, as tribal
combat was a test of the Bontok man's bravery and virility. Only one
man in Bontoc is permitted to have this tattoo, as it is exclusive to
the recipient of the award.
On the other hand, faytong refers to any facial tattoo and was a
component of the chaklag, but it was not a prevalent practice. It is
also important to note that the faytong tattoo closely resembles the
moko face tattoo worn by Maori warriors (Aborigines of New Zealand).
Finally, the pong-o refers to the tattoos for women that proves
their femininity at the time of puberty. It was also a type of cosmetics
or body modification, as ladies with tattoos were deemed attractive.
Therefore, women received tattoos to improve their looks. Women got
tattoos on their arms so that they would have something lovely to
show off when dancing the sagni at feasts hosted by the ato.
Arts and Crafts
Agriculture is the main source of living in Mountain Province but they
are also creative and artistic as seen in their weaving and various
crafts such as the jars, baskets and other household items. The
following discussions present the tools developed and used by the
people of Mountain Province.
Lingling-o. Used as an earring or necklace, this pendant or amulet
is a sign of fertility with out of gold or bronze. In the olden times, the
kadangyan/kachangyan families are the ones who use the linglingo.
Sangi/Pasiking. Most of the municipalities of Mountain Province
maximize the use of rattan. They have their own design of the
sangi/pasiking, known as a backpack with lid. It has shoulder straps
made of woven rattan too, allowing the user to carry a heavier load.
Usually, men use this kind of bag.
Khiyag. Made of rattan as well, the khiyag is a small square-shaped,
basket-like craft commonly used as a plate during the olden times.
Until today, the khiyag is an important possession for every family
because it is used during rituals such as mang-mang.
Ullawan. Weaving is considered a craft. The ullawan is among the
traditional tools used in weaving and in craftworks. This is the frame
which acts as a reel where the thread is wound before it is starched.
In the olden times, cooked rice was used to starch the thread. Upon
drying, the thread is again wound into a thread ball and is then
loomed.
Rakem/Rekem/Lakem. Either way, this refers to a tool used to cut
the grain stalks of rice during harvest. It is known as the transverse
knife or finger-bladed knife that is also used in other parts of
Southeast Asia for many centuries but this tool is still widely used in
Mountain Province up to date.
Sakhad. This is a farming tool used to further break the mud or soil
during the plowing. It is usually used by men to evenly spread the
mud or soil and flatten the field bed before females will plant rice
seedlings into it. Sakhad or sagad are the names used to call this
tool. This tool is usually a long log with teeth that break chunks of
mud. Today, people are using steel material since it is lighter in
weight than the log or wood.
Tsaneg. This is a flexible bamboo strip prepared by farmers before
the harvest season. It is used to tie the harvested rice into bundles.
The procedure of preparing the tsaneg is called uwas wherein a small
curved knife is used to remove some parts of the bamboo until the
desired thinness of the bamboo fiber is achieved.
Parsi-it. The parsi-it is used to help farmers tighten the bamboo strip
used in bundling the rice harvested. This is simply made out of two
pieces of wood with a snout that looks like a plier. One end of the
bamboo strip is held by the snout of the parsi-it while the other end
is held by the farmer’s hand.