Name__________________________________________________
Class: ______________________
GOOD SHEPHERD SCHOOLS
*Creche *Nursery *Primary *Secondary.
(Professional International Educators)
Lagos State Campus: 3, OlayinkaStreet,Moroga, Meiran. Ogun State Campus I :38B FPF Avenue,
Dalemo, AlakukoOgun State Campus II: Hopetown, Along Idiroko Road, Ajegunle Village, Atan. Oyo
State Campus: FaweVillage,Odo-OnaKekere,Off Old Lagos Road, Oluyole LGA. E-mail:
goodshepherdschools@yahoo.com info@goodshepherdschools.ng
Web Site: www.goodshepherdschools.ng
FIRST TERM E-LEARNING NOTE
SUBJECT: AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
CLASS: JSS 2
SCHEME OF WORK
WEEK
TOPIC
1.
Revision of last year’s work briefly
2.
Farm Structures and Layouts of farm buildings
3.
Farm Structures and Maintenance of Farm
4.
Fishery: Definition and uses of fish products
5.
Fishery: Classification based on the habitat, Morphology
6.
Fishery: Establishment of a pond and risk factors associated with fish farming.
7.
Fishery: fish harvesting, preservation, processing and risk factors associated with fish farming
8.
Agricultural practices (Farming system)
9.
Agricultural practices (Cropping system)
10.
Crop propagation: Meaning of crop propagation, Methods of crop propagation, Advantages
and Disadvantages of crop propagation.
11.
Revision
12.
Examination
REFERENCE BOOKS
 Prescribed Agricultural Sciencefor Junior Secondary Schools Book 2 by S.A Omoruyi
 JuniorSecondary Agricultural for Nigerian Schools Book 2 by Anthony Yandeowei, B.K. Kaigama,
S.O Adesiyan, J.N Ogbazi, Terry Olowu.
WEEK ONE
TOPIC: REVISION AND GENERAL CLEANING
CONTENT
 Definition of crop
 Classification of crop
DEFINITION
A crop is a plant that is grown by man in order to harvest it at some point. The crops grown by the
farmer can be classified as follows;
1.
According to their uses
2.
According to life cycle
3.
According to the number of cotyledon
CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS ACCORDING TO THEIR USES
Crops in this category are classified or grouped according to the main food substances existing in them.
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They are as follows. (i) legumes (ii) cereal (iii) roots and tubers (iv) vegetables (v) fruits (vi) beverages
(vii) oil (viii) latex (ix) fibres(x) spices (xi) drugs (xii) forage Crops (xiii) nuts
EVALUATION
1.
What is a crop?
2.
Mention ten classification of crops based on their uses.
CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS ACCORDING TO THEIR LIFE CYCLE
On the bases of life cycle, crops are grouped into three. These are:
(A)
Annual Crops
(B)
Biennial Crops
(C)
Perennial Crops
(a) Annual Crops: These are crops that complete their life cycle in one year or planting season. The
crops are planted, grow and are harvested or will die within one year. This group of crops are Maize,
Rice, Millet, Yam, Tomato, Millet and Guinea Corn
(b) Biennial Crops: These are crops that complete their life cycle in two years. They use the first year to
grow and store food. Reproduction and maturity takes place in the second year. Examples are
pineapple, cocoyam, plantain, banana and sugar beet.
(c) Perennial Crops: This group of crop takes more than two years to their life cycle. They are mainly
tree crops. They include Rubber, Cocoa, Oil Palm and Orange.
ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF SEED-LEAF OR COTYLEDON
Crops can be classified according to the number of seed leaf or cotyledon.
They are
(A)
Monocotyledonous crops
(B)
Dicotyledonous crops
(a) Mono-cot crops: These are crops that have only one seed leaf or cotyledon. Examples are millet,
rice, maize and oil palm.
(b) Di-cot crops: These are crops that have two seed leaves or cotyledon. Examples are cowpea, melon,
mango, pumpkin and soya beans.
EVALUATION
1.
Define a crop
2.
Classify crop based on their life cycle with examples
3.
State three examples each of monocot and dicot
SUB-TOPIC- WEED
 Definition of Weed of Pest
 Types and Classification of pests
 Physical control, Chemical control and Biological control
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WEED
Weed is any plant which is not cultivated and grows where it is not wanted. Such a plant is therefore a
nuisance to the farmer. Examples are commelina, goat weed or the common water leaf (Talinum
triangulare) growing in a cassava field.
TYPES OF WEEDS
A.
Annual weed: They grow and complete their life cycle in one year.
B.
Perennial Weeds: They grow for more than one year.
PEST
A pest is any living organism, plant or animal, plant or animal, which can cause damage to cultivated
crops, farm animals and humans.
CLASSIFICATION OF PESTS
Pest can be classified as
i)
Insect Pest- Insect pests are animals without backbones and they belong to the group of
animals called arthropods. Arthropod is a very large group of animals which, in addition to
insects, includes crabs, shrimps, millipedes, spiders, centipedes and scorpions.
ii)
Non-insect pest- These are animals such as vertebrates like nematodes, mites, snails, slugs e.t.c.
and vertebrates like rats, squirrels, monkeys, glasscutters, birds, jackals that can cause damage
to crop.
EVALUATION
1.
What is a pest?
2.
Mention two classes of pests.
3.
What are weeds?
4.
List five examples of weeds and state three features of weeds.
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECT PESTS
Insect can be classified based on their mouth parts which are different in different insect groups.
1.
Biting and chewing Pests.
2.
Piercing and sucking Pests.
3.
Boring insects.
NATURE OF DAMAGE
1.
Destruction of crop tissues
2.
Stunted growth
3.
Weakened crop plant
4.
Pierced holes can be infested with harmful organism like fungi, bacteria and viruses
5.
Transfer of harmful organism from infected crop to the healthy one.
6.
It causes ill-health to man and livestock.
CONTROL MEASURES
(a)
Physical Control
(b)
Chemical Control
(c)
Biological Control
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SUB-TOPIC- Factors of Production
1.
Land: refers to where productive activities such as growing of crops, rearing of animals and
establishment of farmstead, e.t.c are carried out.
2.
Labour: includes all forms of productive human efforts put into or utilized in production. It also
refers to man’s mental and physical exertions generated in the process of production.
3.
Capital: includes all man-made productive assets which are used in production.
4.
Farm Management: refers to the person or group of persons who co-ordinate, organize and
control the use of other factors of production to produce goods and services.
Functions of Farm Manager
The functions of a farm manager can be grouped into five major headings:
(a)
Organization
(b)
Administration
(c)
Production
(d)
Marketing
(e)
Evaluation
GENERAL EVALUATION
1.
What is agriculture?
2.
State five examples of monocots.
3.
State five examples of dicots.
4.
Mention ten classifications of crops based on their uses.
5.
a. What is a weed? b. What is a pest?
6.
Describe four methods of controlling weeds.
7.
State two types of insect-pests with two examples of each.
8.
Mention five possible damage done by pest to crop.
READING ASSIGNMENT
Junior Secondary Agriculture for Nigerian Schools Bk 1 by A. Youdeowei, B.K . Kaigama, J.N. Ogbazi,
S.O. Adesiyan. Chapter 3, Page 23, 14 pages 76-81
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1.
Dicotyledonous plants have ____a. four cotyledons b. three cotyledons c. two cotyledons
d. one cotyledon
2.
Which of these is very difficult to use if the number of pest is high
a. chemical control b. physical control c. biological control d. cultural control
3.
____ involves the use of natural enemies of insect pests and weeds against them a. physical
control b. chemical control c. cultural control d. biological control
4.
Examples of crops that store food in their roots are these except ____
a. Cassava b. potato c. Carrot d. sugarcane
5.
Procurement of loan or capital for farming activity is one of ____ functions of a farm manager
A. administration B. production C. organization D. marketing
THEORY
1.
Define the following terms annuals, biennials and perennials.
2.
What is management?
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WEEK TWO
TOPIC: FARM STRUCTURES AND BUILDINGS
CONTENT
 Definition of farm structures
 Types of farm structures
 Types of farm building
FARM STRUCTURES
A farm structure can be defined as any construction on the farm site constructed to make certain
farming operations easier. It can also be said to be constructions made on a farm site to increase the
efficient operation of the farm. The type of farm structure on any farm depends on the type of farm
operated, the scope of operations, the condition prevailing on the site and the amount of money
available for the farming operations.
TYPES OF FARM STRUCTURES AND THEIR USES
The structures which may be found on any farm include:
1.
Silos: A silo is a tall circular or rectangular farm structure made of concrete, mud or stainless
steel. It is called elevators. Silos are structures preplanned mainly for the storage of grains and
silage. The humidity in modern silos is controlled and grains put in them can be stored in good
condition for a long time. They are expensive and difficult to maintain.
2.
Cribs: Cribs are simple grain storage structures made of wood and wire gauze on the sides and
floor with a thatch or zinc roof. Cribs are used for drying maize which is still on the cob. The
floor of the crib is raised well above the ground on wooden legs, which have rodent guards, to
prevent rats from eating the grains
3.
Rhumbus: These are round structures made from mud with a grass or thatch roof. They are
used for storing grain such as maize, sorghum, millet, cowpeas and groundnuts etc, they are
very common in the drier northern parts of Nigeria, especially Sokoto and Kano States.
4.
Feed mill: This is a structure constructed for the purpose of making animal feed. It is
economical for a large scale animal farmer to have a feed mill where the feed of his animals are
produced.
5.
Barns: These are temporary structures made on the farm for storing yam, cassava, grass or hay.
A barn can cheaply be constructed with sticks, mud and thatch.
6.
Abattoirs: These are special structures constructed for slaughtering and butchering of animals
(goats, sheep, pigs, cattle e.t.c). They are also called slaughter houses. An abattoir is made up of
a passageway through which an animal passes to the slab where it is held down and
slaughtered (slaughter slab).
7.
Animal Dips and Sprays: Dips and concrete bath or plastic vessels set on to the ground. It is
filled with water, then disinfectants are added e.g. acaricides for destroying ecto parasites as
the animals are made to pass through it. While a spray is an overhead tank containing
disinfectant and a sprinkler through which the disinfectant drips onto the animals and performs
the same function as the dip.
8.
Weighbridge: this is constructed for determining the weight of farm animals.
9.
Crushes: These are made of 2 wooden or metal narrow passageway found on animal farms,
used for restricting animals, for check-up or vaccination by veterinary officer.
10.
Water supply structures: These include dams, water tanks and irrigation channels or canals.
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a.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Dams: These are concrete or wooden barriers constructed across a river or stream so
that the flow of water is reduced. This accumulated water can be used to irrigate the
farm or for domestic water supply.
b.
Water tanks: These are constructed from galvanized metals, plastic materials or
reinforced concrete and are mostly raised on concrete or steel pillars. Water tanks are
used for storing water for domestic use and watering farm animals.
c.
Canals: These are used to carry water from rivers to the field for growing crops. This is
an irrigation canal while a drainage canal is constructed to remove excess water from
the farm.
Compost manure pits: They are pits dug for the collection of plant and animal remains or waste
which are allowed to decompose and turned to manure for soil fertilizer.
Electricity supply structures: These are electric poles, wires and connections for supplying
electric power to the farm.
Waste/Disposal pits: These are large pits dug on the outskirts of a farm for dumping all waste
and useless products of the farm. They are usually covered to prevent flies from carrying germs
to human food (vectors).
Fences: Fences are physical barriers specifically constructed around an area for the following
purposes.
a.
Prevention of unwanted person or animals into the farm
b.
Prevents animals from leaving the farm site
c.
Controls grazing in the pasture
d.
To protect crops from being damaged by animals.
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EVALUATION
1.
What is farm structure?
2.
Mention and explain eight types of farm structures
FARM BUILDINGS
Farm buildings are structures on the farm that are capable of accommodating man, plants and animals
and other valuables. Buildings are characterized by possessing coverings in form of roofs, entrance or
openings and windows or ventilation channels. The following structures are common buildings found
on most farms they are:
1.
Farm office
2.
Stores for farm supplies and harvests
3.
Workshops, generator house
4.
Living quarters for farm workers
5.
Animal houses e.g. cattle, sheep, goat, poultry
6.
Processing houses e.g. milking house.
USES/IMPORTANCE OF FARM BUILDINGS
Farm buildings are useful in the following ways:
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2.
3.
4.
5.
Class: ______________________
They protect animals and farm workers from the weather
They protect farm supplies farm supplies, products, animals and farm workers from thieves and
harmful animals.
They are convenient means for caring for the farm animals.
They provide hygienic system for processing and storing farm products.
They are needed for efficient administrative and farm progress purpose
TYPES OF FARM STRUCTURES
There are mainly two types of farm structures on the farm. They are:
1.
Temporary farm structures.
2.
Permanent farm structures.
TEMPORARY FARM STRUCTURES
These are simple structures constructed from cheap or locally available materials such as bamboo,
sorghum, stalks, wood (timber) or palm fronds, mud and corrugated iron sheet or asbestos. They are
usually inexpensive and farmers find it easy to leave or dismantle. They can be abandoned immediately
the farmer has completed using them. They are also called “make shift” structures and those
commonly constructed on farms include storage shed for keeping machines and equipment, nurseries
for raising seedlings, animal pens, construction sheds and garages for machines. Due to the nature of
the materials used to construct temporary structures, they need frequent care.
PERMANENT FARM STRUCTURES
These are solid structures normally constructed to last for a very long time. The walls and floors are
usually constructed with cement, sand and gravel, wood, corrugated iron sheets, aluminum or
asbestos are used for the roof. Permanent structures are expensive to construct but they do not
require frequent maintenance like the temporary structures. The roof should however be constantly
examined and mended when in bad shape.
EVALUATION
1.
Define farm structures and give two examples.
2.
Differentiate between temporary and permanent structures.
MAINTENANCE OF FARM STRUCTURES
Maintenance of farm structures refers to keeping the structures on the farm in a good condition for
continuous use. Farm structures are subject to wear and tear due to usage and exposure to adverse
weather conditions. Damage of wood by termites and of practically all forms of fabric by agrochemicals like fertilizers also makes their own contribution to wear and tear.
MAINTENANCE OF FARM STRUCTURES
1.
Silos should be cleaned and kept air tight; any leaks should be blocked immediately.
2.
Abattoirs should be cleaned and disinfected after each operation.
3.
Dips should be drained regularly.
4.
Nozzles of sprayers should be cleaned to ensure even distribution of chemicals during spraying.
5.
Water tanks should be cleaned regularly.
6.
Soak away and manure pits should be emptied when they are full.
7.
Drainage should be cleaned regularly with chemicals.
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8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Class: ______________________
Electric poles must be checked for breaks or damage and replaced immediately.
Fences should be checked regularly and all broken parts should be repaired.
Painting is a maintenance operation desirable for wooden and metal parts of farm buildings.
Parts exposed to rain should be treated with oil paint.
Damaged roofing sheets must be promptly replaced.
Cracks on walls should be patched.
Badly pitted cement floors should be resurfaced again.
Insect damage preventive chemicals e.g Solignum should be applied on wooden parts.
GENERAL EVALUATION
1.
Mention two factors that bring about wear and tear in farm structures and buildings.
2.
State the maintenance methods for the following:
a.
Silo.
b.
Farm office
3.
Mention farm building.
READING ASSIGNMENT
 Junior Secondary Agriculture for Nigerian Schools Bk 3 by A. Youdeowei, B.K . Kaigama, J.N.
Ogbazi, S.O. Adesiyan. Chapter 8, Page 32-33
 Prescribed Agricultural Science for Junior Secondary Schools. By S.A Omoruyi, U.X Orhue, A.A
Akerobo and C.I Aghimien. Pgs 253-254.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1.
Wooden and metal structures should be ____ to prevent waering away.
(a) Painted (b) coloured (c) Decorated (d) swept
2.
____ should be cleaned and disinfected after each operation.
(a) Silos (b) Poles (c) Abattoirs (d)Fences
3.
____ should be cleaned and kept air tight.
(a) silos (b) Poles (c) Abattoirs (d)Fences
4.
The chemical that can be used to prevent the activities of insects on wooden materials is
called (a) sodium hydroxide (b) solignum(c) potassium chloride (d) oxygen
5.
A round farm structures constructed from mud with a grass or thatch roof is
(a) Barns (b) Rhumbus (c) Barns (d) Silos
THEORY
1.
How can farm buildings be maintained?
2.
State three farm structures and state the ways of maintaining them.
WEEK THREE
TOPIC: FARM STRUCTURES AND LAYOUT OF FARM STRUCTURES
CONTENT
Factors guiding siting of farm structures
Factors guiding layout of farm structures and building
Importance of siting farm structures and buildings
A farm is a piece of land on which crops are grown and animals are raised. The school farm is the
practical site for students of Agricultural Science.
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FACTORS GUILDING THE SITING OF FARMS
1.
Availability of land: There can’t be a farm without a land, this is the first factor that must be
considered.
2.
Type of soil: A land with fertile soil should be selected, in order to reduce cost of applying
manure. Water logged soil should be avoided, so also, stony and over-used soils. Well drained
soils such as loamy, sandy-loam or clay-loam are preferable.
3.
Availability of water: The farm must be located close to good source of water supply. Water is
needed for irrigation, processing, drinking and cleaning of farm tools.
4.
Distance to market: This is closeness of the farm, it must be close enough in order to make
movement to and from the farm easy for both teachers and students to aid monitoring against
thieves and plots.
5.
Accessibility: This will ease movement, the farm should have good roads and paths. This aids
movements of inputs and outputs.
6.
Security: The farm must be secure enough, to prevent thieves from stealing farm produce and
tools.
7.
Topography/Slope of the land: A flat level land should be used, in order to reduce erosion and
cost of operation. The slope of the land will determine: (a) The direction of beds or ridges (b)
Type of erosion control to adapt.
8.
Aspect: The farm must not be surrounded by shades or tall trees, because they will hinder
sunlight penetration. The farm should be fully exposed to solar radiation.
EVALUATION
1.
What is a farm?
2.
Mention six factors guiding the siting of farm.
FACTORS GUIDING LAYOUT OF FARM STRUCTURE AND BUILDING
The following factors must be considered before constructing farm structures and building
1.
Fertility of the soil: structures should not be erected on fertile soil, this can rather be used for
planting. Farm buildings or structures should be located on the least fertile parts of the farm.
2.
Topography: Flat land should be used for construction to prevent erosion.
3.
Accessibility: farm buildings or structures should be linked with good roads for easy access,
should be constructed on easily accessible parts.
4.
Construction Materials: materials available for construction must also be considered during
farm layout, this is largely dependent on the financial status of the farmer e.g cement blocks,
bamboo or sawn planks
5.
Protection: Structures or buildings should be considered in areas where they will be protected
from excessive winds, erosion or fire hazards.
GENERAL EVALUATION
1.
What is a farm?
2.
Mention five factors guiding the layout of farm structures and buildings
3.
List seven factors guiding the sitting of farm
4.
Mention five importance of farm building
5.
Give two reasons why school farm is important.
READING ASSIGNMENT
Prescribed Agricultural Science for Junior Secondary Schools. By S.A Omoruyi et al. Pgs 253-254
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WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1.
The first factor that must be considered before siting a farm is
(a) nearness to market (b) accessibility (c) availability of land (d) security
2.
____ and ____ are the main ventures carried out on the farm
3.
A flat level land should be used for the school farm for the following reasons except
(a) to increase fertility of soil (b) to reduce erosion (c) to reduce the cost of production
(d) to promote drudgery
4.
The best soil type for farming is? (a) sandy soil (b) clayed soil (c) loamy soil (d) sand-clayed soil
5.
Monocotyledonous plants have _____a. four cotyledons b. three cotyledons c. two cotyledons
d. one cotyledon
THEORY
1.
State two reasons why distance to market should be considered before siting a farm.
2.
Mention four uses of water in the farm.
WEEK FOUR
FISHERY
CONTENT
 Definition
 Importance of Fish Farming
Fishery is the term used to describe science of growing fish and other aquatic animals in natural or
artificial water bodies, the processing and marketing of these organisms. Fish live in water bodies (e.g.
ponds, lakes, oceans, seas, rivers), respire with the gills and possess fins for swimming. They are cold
blooded animals because their body temperature changes with a change in the environment.
TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH FISH FARMING
Fingerling: young/growing fish
Fry: newly hatched fish
Pond: artificial body of water where fishes are reared. It could be in plastic tanks, concrete structures
or earthen structures.
Gears: equipment used for harvesting fish. It includes trawlers, nets, hooks, knifes, spear etc.
Spawning – the production or depositing of large quantities of eggs in water.
Fishing: the act of catching or harvesting fishes in natural water bodies.
Aquarium: this is a pond where fish are kept for entertainment, research or aesthetic purpose.
Aquaculture: this is the act of rearing selected aquatic organism (plant or animals) for food.
Pisciculture: this is the act of rearing selected aquatic animals under specific conditions in enclosed or
wild water bodies where they are grown, breed and harvested for consumption.
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Examples of fish are cat fish, tilapia, croacker, herring (shawa), mackerel (titus), horse mackerel (kote),
Alaska Pollock (stock fish/okporopo), argentina silus (ojuyobo), blue whiting (panla), etc. other aquatic
organism includes periwinkle, squid, oysters, prawn,
EVALUATION
1. Define fishery.
2. Mention five examples of cold blooded animals apart from fish.
IMPORTANCE OF FISH FARMING
1. They serve as source of food for man.
2. They are included in animal feed constituent.
3. Fish bones are used for manufacturing glues and fertilizers.
4. Shells of some aquatic organism are sometimes mixed with cement and sand to provide a
strong and attractive structure.
5. Oil obtained from some fish species are used as raw materials for manufacturing soap and
medicine e.g cod liver oil.
6. Scales of fish are used to make artificial pearl which can be worn as jewelries.
7. Skin of some cartilaginous fishes such as shark has been used to produce leather materials
called shagreen.
8. Dried fish skin are sometimes used as glass-paper for polishing surfaces
9. It serves as source of income to the farmer.
10. It provides employment opportunity directly and indirectly e.g drivers, cold store owners, petty
fish traders, aquarium owners etc.
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. What do you understand by fishery?
2. Differentiate between cold and warm blooded animals.
3. Mention eight importance of fish farming.
READING ASSIGNMENT
Junior secondary Agriculture Bk 3 By A. Youdeowei, B.kKaigama, J.N Ogbazi, S.O Adesiyanpgs 93 and
101, Essential Agricultural Science 398 – 399.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. ____ is a very popular item consumed by many as a food supplements.
A. Cod-liver oil B. Cod-bile oil C. liver oil D. Cod oil.
2. Fish eggs which are salted and prepared for eating are called
A. Shagreen B. Caviar C. Canivar D. Smoked egg.
3. Glues and fertilizers are produced by using ____
A. shells of oysters B. Fish bones C. Scales of fish D. Cod-liver oil.
4. ____ contains pearls which are polished and worn as jewellery.
A. Oysters B. Crocodile C. Turtle D. Lobsters.
5. The skin of sharks are dried and specially treated to produce very special leather called
A. Shannon B. Shagreen C. Shagrey D. Shy green
THEORY
1. What is fishery?
2. State and explain four importance of fish farming.
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WEEK FIVE
FISHERY: CLASSIFICATION
CONTENT
 Classification
 Adaptive features of fishes
CLASSIFICATION
Fish can be classified broadly into classes:
1. According to Habitat
2. According to morphology (body structure)
ACCORDING TO HABITAT
Habitat refers to the environment in which an organism lives. Fish lives in three types of water habitat:
A. Fresh water
B. Salt water
C. Estuarine or brackish water habitat
FRESH WATER
This is a type of water that does not contain salt e.g springs, rivers, ponds, lakes e.t.c. examples of fish
in this habitat are: electric fish, moon fish, cat fish, tilapia, crab e.t.c.
SALT WATER / MARINE HABITAT
A water body that has salt taste is called salt water. E.g oceans and sea, examples of salt water fish are:
Mackerels, sharks, herring, sardine, cod (stock) fish, salmon, whales etc.
ESTUARINE/ BRACKISH HABITAT
Estuaries are sections of rivers that meet the sea, a place where salt and fresh water mix. The salt
water of this habitat is in between that of fresh and marine water habitat. Fishes may not permanently
live in this habitat, they migrate from fresh or salt water into the estuaries. An example of fish in this
habitat is mudfish.
EVALUATION
1. What is a habitat?
2. Mention and explain the types of water habitat you know.
ACCORDING TO MORPHOLOGY
Body structure/nature of bone
Fish can be classified into 2 based on the nature of their bone:
1. Bony fishes: their skeleton is made up of bones e. g Tilapia, catfish, herring, mudfish, etc.
2. Cartilaginous fishes: their skeleton is made of cartilage e.g. shark, dogfish, dolphin, etc.
Other types of aquatic organisms
Aquatic animals are creatures that live in water. They include fishes and other aquatic animals which
are of two classes:
1. Invertebrates e.g.
a) Crustaceans e.g. shrimps, crayfish, crabs and lobsters.
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b) Molluscs e.g. clam, octopus, oysters, periwinkles, and squid.
2. Vertebrates e.g.
a) Mammals e.g. whales, dolphin.
b) Reptiles e.g. snakes, crocodile, turtle.
c) Amphibian e.g. frog, toad.
ADAPTIVE FEATURES OF FISHES
1. Streamlined body shape to move freely in water.
2. Possession of gills for gaseous exchange in water.
3. Possession of fins or swimming.
4. Possession of air filled sacs called swim bladder to maintain a level of buoyancy and stay at their
current water depth.
5. They are cold blooded.
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Classify fish according to habitat.
2. List two examples of aquatic invertebrates.
3. Mention five examples of aquatic vertebrates.
READING ASSIGNMENT
Junior secondary Agriculture Bk 3 By A. Youdeowei, B.kKaigama, J.N Ogbazi, S.O Adesiyan pages ,
Essential Agricultural Science by O. A. Iwena page 400.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Which of these is not an example of bony fish? a. shark b Tilapia c. Cat fish D. Mackerel
2. Classification of fish according to habitat is ____ and ____.
3. Newly hatched fish used in breeding adult fishes are called?
A. Fingerlings b. Prey C. Fry D. Tadpoles
4. The following are uses of fish and other aquatic animals except
A. food B. leather C. electronic devices D. polish
5. Which of the following is not a reptile? A. Lobster B. Crocodile C. Snake D. Turtle
THEORY
1. What are cartilaginous fishes?
2. Explain fresh water fishes and bony fishes.
WEEK SIX
TOPIC: FISHERY: ESTABLISHMENT OF FISH POND AND RISK FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH FISH
FARMING
CONTENT
 Definition and types of fish pond
 Features of a standard fish pond
 Factors to be considered before the establishment of fish pond
A fish pond is an artificial body of water in which fishes are reared for commercial purposes. It is a
confined body of water where fishes are raised under controlled conditions. Fish can also be raised in
plastics, fiber stars and wooden rafts.
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There are three types of pond:
1. Earthen pond
2. Concrete pond
3. Plastic pond
EARTHEN POND
This involves digging the soil usually clay (25 %clay) to a depth ranging from 0.5 - 1.0 m at shallow end
and 1.5 - 2.0m at the drain end to raise fish. Pond can be of any shape as long as it is well constructed.
However rectangular or square shapes are considered the best. This is usually practicable in swamping
environment. This rule away the problem of water maintenance as there is natural flow in and out of
water in the pond
CONCRETE POND
Here, 4-5 coaches of blocks are used to construct the pond above the ground level, using cement, sand
and gravel in ratio 1:2:4 respectively with water. The pond floor should be well concreted to a
thickness between 7.5cm- 10cm. Wall should be plastered to a thickness of 5cm. Water tap should be
well connected to allow free flow in and out of water. This particular type has the advantage of you
monitoring the hygiene of your fishes.
3. PLASTIC POND
Pond construction is expensive and this has led many entrants to fish farming in Nigeria to build
concrete tanks or to buy plastic tanks as production units. These are smaller units but are believed to
be easier to manage as production units. Nigerian farmers have limited land and tank fish farming
adapts well to their conditions than larger, more expensive earthen ponds. It is also noted that the
quantity of fish harvested from such smaller production units is more easily marketed than harvests
from large fish ponds. There are different shapes and sizes of tanks used, as shown below:
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FEATURES OF A STANDARD FISH POND
A standard fish pond should possess the following structures. These structures includes
1. Dam
2. Core trench (barrier to foreign materials)
3. Distribution channel
4. Spillway (passage of water flow over and around a dam)
5. Monk (water inlet)
6. Board (to regulate flow of water)
7. Screen (stop move of fishes into or out of the pond)
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED BEFORE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF FISH POND
1. Adequate water supply water could be from boreholes, streams or lakes. Gravity flow water is
cheapest and best source. The water must be unpolluted, uncontaminated. Borehole waters
can be excellent, but may costly to pump and may require conditioning to remove carbon
dioxide and improve oxygen content and temperature levels. Open waters from canals and
streams may be polluted or be contaminated from runoff from farm lands or towns.
2. Soil in the area: Soil with enough clay content to hold water. Clay and silty clays are excellent
soils for holding water because they stop water from seeping through. Clay should make up at
least 20-25% of the soil. The soil should be checked for residual chemicals from previous farm
activities which could have effect on the fish health.
3. Vegetation of the area
4. Topography of the area: Topography that allows for economical construction. It directly affects
building costs and pond management. Pond should be constructed where enough water can be
impounded with the least amount of earth fill. Areas with large shallow water should be
avoided because they become too shallow to use during the dry season.
5. Availability of fast growing fish species
6. Availability of supplementary feedstuff
7. Nearness to market: There should be a fish market near-by to allow for high capacity of sale of
fish from pond harvests. The market requirement is the first requirement for locating a fish
farm. This will further help address issues relating to transportation of the fish to the market.
STEPS IN ESTABLISHING FISH POND
1. Site selection
2. Clearing and stumping of site
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3. Construction of dam
4. Construction of core trench
5. Construction of spill way
6. Impoundment of pond
7. Liming
8. Pond fertilization
9. Pond inoculation
10. Stocking of pond
EVALUATION
1. Define the following:
a. Pond stocking
b. Pond inoculation
2. a. Which soil is best used for dam construction?
b. State four properties of the soil
EVALUATION
1. a. Mention four factors that should be considered when siting a fish pond
b. Explain six ways of maintaining a fish pond.
2. Describe the construction of a fish pond.
3. State three factors that influences the choice of suitable site for fish.
MAINTENANCE OF FISH POND
To ensure the continuous availability of fish in a pond or to maintain high yield of fish, the following
activities should be carried out:1. Regular feeding: The fish should be fed twice daily from a selected point. Supplementary feeds
should be given in sufficient quantity to ensure rapid growth and early maturity of the fish.
2. Constant water supply: The pond should be supplied with water to the fullest. The water should
be clean and free of odour.
3. Deweeding: Weeds should be removed from the pond. This allows the dissolution of oxygen,
penetration of sunlight to the bottom of the pond for the use of the planktons and preventing
the buildup of pests and diseases in the pond.
4. Aeration: Adequate aeration should be provided as it enables oxygen to dissolve in water which
is required by fish for respiration. Fish normally comes to the surface due to little or no oxygen
in the water in some ponds.
5. Desilting: This is the removal or prevention of silt from entering the water. Desilting promotes
easy movement of water, makes the water to be clean and prevent pollution of the water.
6. Control of predators: Predators like snakes or birds should not be given access to the pond as
they could eat up the fishes on the pond surface.
7. Disease prevention: Disease should be prevented by adequate feeding, stocking, weeding,
manuring of the pond. Sticking to these measures will prevent the attack of diseases.
8. Application of fertilizers: Fertilizers should be applied once in a month as this promotes the
growth of planktons in the pond.
9. Regular Harvesting: Fish should be harvested regularly to prevent over population, outbreak of
disease and cannibalism.
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EVALUATION
1. Explain the following terms: a. Site selection b. General survey
2. Which soil is best used for dam construction?
3. State four properties of the soil
READING ASSIGNMENT
Junior Secondary Agriculture Bk 3 By A. Youdeowei et al, pgs 88, Essential Agricultural Science 254-259.
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. What are the factors to be considered before establishment of fish pond?
2. Explain any five mentioned above.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. This addition of limestone or calcium carbonate powder to the sides and bottom of the pond to
seal pores and prevent water loss is called a. pond fertilization b. pond inoculation c. liming d.
limming.
2. Baby fish are otherwise known as a. planktons b. tadpoles c. fingerlings d. diatoms
3. The best preferred soil used in dam construction is known as a. loamy b. clay c. sandy
d.none of the above.
4. A wood and wire-meshed screen is use to construct a. core trench b. spill way c. dam d. spill
trench.
5. N:P:K means a. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium B. Nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus C.
Nitrate, phosphate and potash D. Neon, potassium and phosphorus.
THEORY
1. Differentiate between pond fertilization and Pond inoculation
2. Mention five examples of bony fishes.
WEEK SEVEN
TOPIC: FISHERY: FISH HARVESTING, PRESERVATION, PROCESSING AND RISK FACTORS ASSOCIATED
WITH FISH FARMING
CONTENT
 FISH HARVESTING
 PRESERVATION OF FISH
 PROCESSING OF FISH
 RISK FACTORS IN WATER AND FISH FARMING
FISH HARVESTING
Fishing methods involves the use of different techniques or equipments use in harvesting fishes.
Harvesting is the collection of fish from a pond for consumption, preservation or for sale.
Methods of Fish Harvesting
Fishing methods involves the use of different techniques or equipments use in harvesting fishes.
1. Netting: This involves the use of nets to catch fish. Examples of nets include gill nets, clap net,
trawl net, scoop net, beach seines, drag net, drifting or floating nets, cast nets etc. Nets are
woven to various sizes and thickness and are thrown into water to catch fish. Each type is used
differently. Nets: These are made from fine cotton or nylon, the thread is lowered into the
water. Small weight made of lead is attached to the edges of the net which help them to sink to
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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
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bottom of the water. When net is pulled up, it encloses many fishes which are then caught
between the holes called mesh of the net.
Trapping: This is setting of traps to catch fish. Gears made from ropes or raffia are woven into
various sizes for capturing fishes. The traps are set along water courses and any fish that comes
into them is trapped. There are many types of fish traps which can be made either from
bamboo, canes, raffia, oil palm or coconut palm fronds or wire and wire mesh.
Hooks and Lines: This involves the use of hooks tied to strings then set along water course. The
hooks are baited with food to attract the fish.
Use of Ultrasonic: This is an instrument that makes sound in the water to attract fishes. Other
means of harvesting like net can later be used to pack them.
Electro fishing: This is the use of electric field connected to the water to make the fishes
become electrocuted. It can only be used for total harvesting of fish.
Impaling: This involves the use of spears or harpoons or any sharp objects (wounding
equipment) to attack and catch big fishes e.g. shark.
Pots and Gourds: Some fishermen who fish in ponds and shallow lake, place clay pot and gourds
in water to caught the fish when fish enter them.
Screen or barriers: Screens made with bamboo, raffia or oil palm fronts are used to enclose
portions of shallow water. When fish enters the trap/enclosed areas at high tide, it cannot
escape at low tide when water is reduced, hence they are collected.
Fishing without equipment: Some aquatic animals can be caught without any kind of fishing
equipment. They are picked up by hand having driving to the mud and plants on which they are
attached by water current. Examples are periwinkles, oysters, and clams.
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PRESERVATION OF FISH
This process involves keeping harvested fish long enough to ensure they maintain a very level of
freshness before consumption. Preservation prevents spoilage, injury or destruction and this keeps the
fish in edible condition for a long time. Harvested fish if not well stored will get spoilt and cause great
loss to the farmer hence the need to elongate its shelf life. Preservation can be carried out in any of
the following ways:
1. Salting/Curing: Application of salt in the fish which prevents the growth of spoilage organisms
should be practiced. Well salted fish can stay long without spoilage provided the fish was
originally fresh.
2. Smoking: This is the drying of fish over fire. This reduces the moisture content and improves the
taste and flavour of the fish. It also gives colour to the fish. It is necessary that the fish be
constantly reheated and aerated and kept away from flies to make it fit for consumption.
3. Canning: This involves the storage of the processed and consumable fish in cans under special
conditions for future consumption and sealing the cans so that air cannot pass into them. For
example Geisha, Sardine etc.
4. Sun Drying: This involves the drying of fish using the direct heat from sun called solar energy.
Here, the fish can only be stored for a short time. It is common in the Northern Nigeria. It is
simple and slow. It is not easily practiced in Southern part because of high humidity.
5. Freezing/Refrigeration: This is called chilling. This involves the use of cold storage like deep
freezers and refrigerators to store fish over a long time at very low temperature, where
bacteria become inactive until the fish are needed. Storage can be done as long as possible
provided the system is on.
6. Conversion to feed meal: Parts of fish (especially parts that are damaged or not good for human
consumption) are dried and ground into powder known as fish meal. This is used as essential
ingredients of livestock feeds. Fish meal is useful to farmers in raising livestock.
7. Roasting: this involves burning fish over naked fire for a short moment.
8. Icing: this involves lacing ice block over harvested fish in a container this method is temporary.
9. Steam cooking: this involves cooking harvested fish over hot steam.
10. Irradiation: this involves the treatment of fish non harmful dosage of ionizing radiation this
helps to slow down or halt spoilage by retarding enzymatic action and or destroying microbes.
Some of the aim of preservation is:
1. To retain the quality and quantity of fish.
2. To increase the shelf life of the food.
3. To develop different types of fish food.
4. To maintain all season supplies.
5. To avoid spoilage caused by micro-organism.
PROCESSING OF FISH
Processing is the changing of food material fish from one form to another. It involves the removal of
inedible part and changing the fish from one form into a preservable form. These are examples of
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things removed during processing gut, scales, gills, bones, and fins. By product of fish processing
includes fish meal, fish scale, cod liver oil and fish scales.
RISK FACTORS IN WATER AND FISH FARMING
These have to do with factors that are capable of causing water pollution and danger to fish and other
aquatic organisms. Some of the risk factors in water and fish farming include:
1. Use of chemicals
When residues of these chemicals used by farmers in farming activities are washed by rain water into a
nearby river, stream, pond etc. that body of water will be contaminated and the lives of the fish in such
water body will be at risk.
2. Discharge of petroleum oil into water bodies
Accidental or deliberate discharge of petroleum oil into water bodies can be a major risk factor in
marine ecosystem.
3. Industrial effluents and sewage discharge
Industrial effluents discharged from food processing plants, paper mills, breweries, tanneries etc. into
small and large water bodies can pollute the fish environment and have negative impact on aquatic
ecosystem.
4. Domestic waste
Waste water resulting from domestic sewage (human faeces and urine, small washing, food processing
or preparation and cleaning of utensils) that are in most cases channeled into water bodies can cause
depletion of oxygen.
EVALUATION
Explain the following risk factors in water and fish farming.
(i)
Accidental discharge of petroleum oil into water bodies.
(ii)
Use of chemicals such as Gammalin 20 to harvest fish
Reading Assignment
Junior Secondary Agriculture Bk 3 By A. Youdeowei, B.K Kaigama, J.N Ogbazi, S.O Adesiyanpgs 88,
Essential Agricultural Science 403 – 406.
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. What are wounding equipments?
2. State four examples of wounding equipments.
3. Describe the following: traps, screen, trawlers, gears.
FURTHER QUESTIONS
1. Which of these is not wounding equipment? A. net B. spear C. hook and line D. arrow.
2. Throw net is used by ____ A. industrial fishermen B. town fishermen C. canoe fishermen D.
backyard fishermen.
3. A ____ when added to the sides and bottom of pond helps to seal pores and prevent water
loss. A. N:P:K B. Limestone C. Urea D. Poultry droppings
4. Example of water habitat that can be caught without the use of equipment are______
A. periwinkle B. turtle C. oyster D. clam.
5. A ____ is anything that attracts the fish into trap set for the fish A. bat B. bait C. food
D. sweet.
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THEORY
1. List five types of net you know.
2. Describe how to use a gourd to harvest fish.
WEEK EIGHT
TOPIC: AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES: TYPES OF FARMING SYSTEM
CONTENT
 Mixed Farming
 Pastoral Farming
FARMING SYSTEM
Farming system is a given method for the production of crops and or animals. Soil, climate and
availability of land can influence the choice of any system.
MIXED FARMING
This is a farming system where the farmer grows crops and rears animals on the same farm.
ADVANTAGES OF MIXED FARMING
1.
Animal droppings and dungs can be used as manure to improve soil fertility, and invariably
increase crop yield.
2.
Crop residue from crop production can serve as feeding materials for ruminant animals (i.e.
corn cobs and rice bran etc.)
3.
Large animals like cattle can be used to till the ground for crop production.
4.
If either crop or animal sector of the farm fails, the farmer has the other to fall back on.
DISADVANTAGES OF MIXED FARMING
1.
The farmer has a divided attention and he may not function well.
2.
If the animals are not properly managed, they can graze on the planted crops and destroy
them.
EVALUATION
1.
What is farming system?
2.
State two advantages and disadvantages of mixed farming.
PASTORAL FARMING
This is an extensive system of livestock production where the animals are unrestrictedly left to roam
and graze in the fields.
TYPES OF PASTORAL FARMING
There are three types of pastoral farming, these are:
1.
Nomadic farming
2.
Ranching
Nomadic Farming: The farmer moves his animals from one place to another in search of food and
water.
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Ranching: It’s the semi-intensive system of animal production. The animals are kept on a large but
enclosed expanse of land.
ADVANTAGES OF PASTORAL FARMING
1.
Livestock kept on pasture are more comfortable and sanitary than those kept indoors in feed
lots.
2.
The livestock harvest the pasture crops by grazing thereby saving labour cost.
3.
It does not require large financial investment for building and equipment.
4.
The soil fertility is improved on through the manure they drop.
5.
Animals raised on pasture tend to produce more milk than those kept indoors in feed lots.
DISADVANTAGES OF PASTORAL FARMING
1.
It requires a large piece of land to be successfully practiced.
2.
Animals in the open as well as their herdsmen are exposed to various hazards.
3.
Unplanned breeding which leads to the production of poor quality animals.
4.
Irregular supply of feed to animals and this result in slow weight gain.
5.
High incidence of disease, pest and death of both young and old animals.
GENERAL EVALUATION
1.
Define farming system.
2.
Differentiate between mixed farming and pastoral farming.
3.
Mention two advantages of mixed farming.
4.
Define pastoral farming and explain its types.
READING ASSIGNMENT
Junior Secondary Agricultural Science for Nigerian Schools Bk 3. by A Youdeovei. Pages 2-6
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1.
Which of these farming systems involve crops production?
(a) ley farming (b) ranching (c) mixed farming (d) nomadic farming
2.
The land is left for ____ to ____ years to rest in bush fallowing.
(a) 3 – 5 years (b) 7 – 10 years (c) 15 – 20 years (d) 20 – 30 years
3.
Which of these farming systems involves the production of crops and the rearing of animals?(a)
mixed farming (b) pastoral farming (c) bush fallowing (d) ranching
4.
Ranching is a form of _____ animal production system.
(a) extensive (b) semi-intensive (c) intensive (d) semi-extensive
5.
In which of these farming systems is pasture grown for farm animals?
(a) ley farming (b) mixed farming (c) bush fallowing (d) shifting cultivation
THEORY
1.
State two disadvantages of mixed farming.
2.
What is nomadic farming?
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WEEK NINE
TOPIC: AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES (CROPPING SYSTEM)
CONTENT
 Mono-cropping or Sole Cropping
 Multiple Cropping
 Continuous Cropping
 Crop Rotation
 Bush fallowing
 Ley farming
CROPPING SYSTEM
The different patterns of growing crops and mixtures of crops is known as cropping system.
a)
MONOCROPPING
Monocropping is a cropping system that involves the growing/planting of only one type of crop
on a farm at any given time. e.g. oil palm plantation.
ADVANTAGES OF MONOCROPPING
1.
Easy mechanization of the farm.
2.
Application of fertilizer at proper level is made easy.
3.
Control of weeds, pests and diseases are easily carried out.
DISADVANTAGES OF MONOCROPPING
1.
There is the possibility of exposing the land to erosion after harvest.
2.
The farmer may lose heavily if the sole crop is attacked by pest or diseases.
3.
Reduced selling price, if the demand for the crop is low in market due to much supply.
EVALUATION
1.
Define cropping system.
2.
State two side effects of mono cropping system.
b)
MULTIPLE CROPPING
Multiple cropping is the practice of growing two or more crops on the same farm in the same
year. There are two types of multiple cropping, these are:
1.
Relay cropping
2.
Inter cropping
Relay Cropping: is the act of growing two or more crops one after the other on the same farm in the
same year.
Inter Cropping: entails the growing of two or more different crops on the same farm at the same time.
ADVANTAGES OF MULTIPLE CROPPING
1.
Maximum use of farm land is achieved.
2.
Mixture of crops provides cover for the soil and it helps reduce soil erosion as well as the
growth of weeds.
3.
Mixture of crops discourages the buildup of insects and diseases known with a particular crop.
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Mixture of crops serves as a form of insurance for the farmer.
DISADVANTAGES OF MULTIPLE CROPPING
1.
Competition between crop plants is very high and less competitive plants suffer with low yield.
2.
It is difficult to use machine to carry out farm operations under this system.
3.
Chemicals especially herbicides are difficult to apply to a mixture of crops.
c)
CONTINUOUS CROPPING
This involves the growing of the same crop or mixture of crops on the same piece of land every year for
five or more years.
ADVANTAGES OF CONTINUOUS CROPPING
It is highly useful where there is shortage of land and the environmental condition limits the types of
crop to be grown.
DISADVANTAGES OF CONTINUOUS CROPPING
1.
The soil nutrients are depleted fast and there is the need for fertilizer application.
2.
There is rapid buildup of weeds, insect pests and diseases every cropping year.
BUSH FALLOWING OR SHIFTING CULTIVATION
Bush fallowing is a system of farming whereby a farmer permanently abandons unproductive land for a
productive one. In recent times due to demand of land for other uses, farmers now practice what is
known as land rotation. In this which this system, the unproductive is left to recuperate (regain lost
nutrient usually for about 3-5 years) while using a more fertile or productive land before returning to
it. In shifting cultivation or bush fallowing, the farmer never returns to the previous land.
ADVANTAGES OF BUSH FALLOWING
1.
It is very cheap and simple to practice.
2.
If the fallowing years are long enough, it is less injurious to the soil.
3.
If the fallow period is not enough the soil quickly loses its fertility and becomes useless for
further crop production.
DISADVANTAGES OF BUSH FALLOWING
1.
A very large piece of land is needed for an effective practice of bush fallowing.
2.
Bush fallowing is the main practice for land clearing, in bush fallowing the land clearing results
in reduced organic matter of the soil.
3.
If the fallow period is not enough the soil quickly loses its fertility and becomes useless for
further crop production.
Ley Farming: This is the system of combining pasture with crop production in alternation. The
planting of pasture can follow the harvest of arable crops e.g. cereal. The planted pasture is usually a
mixture of grasses and legumes with different grazing characteristics. It is also known as rotation
pasture.
GENERAL EVALUATION
1.
Define mono cropping.
2.
Mention two advantages of mono cropping.
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4.
5.
6.
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What is multiple cropping?
Explain continuous cropping.
Mention two disadvantages of continuous cropping.
Differentiate between crop rotation and land rotation.
READING ASSIGNMENT
Junior Secondary Agricultural Science by A. Youdeowei Bk. 3, Chapter 2, Pages 7-11.
Junior Secondary Agricultural Science by O. Akinsanmi, Chapter 6, pages 25-26
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1.
The different patterns of growing crops and mixture of crops is known as ………..
(a) multiple cropping (b) sole cropping (c) cropping system (d) continuous cropping
2.
The system in which only one kind of crop is planted is called ………..
(a) multiple cropping (b) mono cropping (c) mixed cropping (d) mixed farming
3.
Planting more than one crop on a piece of land at the same time is ………..
(a) mixed farming (b) multiple cropping (c) mono cropping (d) mono farming
4.
Which of the following is not an agricultural cropping system?
(a) mixed farming (b) crop rotation (c) mono cropping (d) multiple cropping
5.
This is the growing of crops on the same piece of land non-stop for a very long time.
(a) multiple cropping (b) sole cropping (c) cropping system (d) continuous cropping
THEORY
1.
State two advantages of multiple cropping.
2.
Enumerate two disadvantages of Mono cropping
WEEK TEN
TOPIC: CROP PROPAGATION
CONTENT
 Introduction
 Meaning of crop propagation
 Sexual and asexual crop propagation
INTRODUCTION
Crop propagation is the process by which plants are multiplied as independent units. Crop propagation
simply means the multiplication of crops through reproduction. For instance, 1 seed of maize if it
undergoes propagation can multiply and yield up to 100 seeds. There are two types of propagation sexual and asexual.
SEXUAL PROPAGATION
In this type of propagation, seeds are used for planting. A seed is a developed ovule which is formed as
a result of union of the male and female gametes in a process called fertilization. Seeds maybe planted
in-situ (directly into the field) e.g. Okra, Maize, Cowpeas or they may be raised in the nursery before
transplanting them into the field e.g tomato, pepper, tobacco, cocoa etc. It is the use of seeds for
planting. Crops that can be propagated by seeds include maize, rice, wheat,
sorghum,millet,soyabeans,groundnut, tomatoes, pepper, okra, mango, pear, guava, kola, oil palm,
cotton, cocoa, rubber, apple etc
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Characteristics of a good seed
1. It must be mature
2. It must be free from pests
3. It must be free from diseases
4. It must be healthy
5. It must be well dried
6. It must be free from holes
Terms Used in Sexual Propagation
1. Seed viability: This is the ability of a seed to germinate when planted. Seed viability can be
determined by floatation method. Seeds that are not viable usually float in water.
2. Fertilization: This is the movement of pollen grains through the style of a flower to unite with
the ovule of a flower resulting in the production of embryo.
3. Seed dormancy: When a seed is unable to germinate due to some factors such as hard seed
coat or unfavorable weather.
4. Germination: This is the process whereby seeds absorbs water, mineral nutrients, swell up and
bursts to produce plumule and radicle. The plumule forms the shoot system while the radicle
forms the root system.
Conditions Necessary for Seed Germination
i. Viable seed
ii. Adequate soil moisture contenti.e soil water
iii. Oxygen i.e soil air
iv. Optimum temperature
v. Fertile soil i.e medium of growth
5. Seed Treatment: This is carried out in order to kill germs present inside seeds before planting. It
includes
a. Soaking the seed in warm or cold water to soften hard seed coat
b. Removal of seed coat either by chemical or breaking with object (scarification)
c. Seed dressing with chemicals such as Jik, Fernasan D, Apron plus, Gammalin 20, Aldrex T.
ASEXUAL PROPAGATION
This is the method of propagation in which plants are multiplied independent of seeds. Gamete cells
are not involved in this propagation, only one parent is involved. This method is suitable for
propagating plants which do not produce seeds but propagation is difficult with the seeds. e.g.
plantain, sugar-cane, cassava and cocoyam. It is the production of new plants from parent plants using
vegetative parts (roots, stem, and leaves). Examples of crops that are raised in the nursery before
transplanting into the field include tomato, pepper, tobacco, cocoa etc. It is the use of seeds for
planting. Crops that can be propagated by seeds include maize, rice,wheat, sorghum, millet,
soyabeans, groundnut, tomatoes, pepper, okra, mango, pear, guava, kola, oil palm, cotton, cocoa,
plants using vegetative parts (roots, stem, and leaves). Examples of crops that are propagated
asexually includes cassava, yam, cocoyam, sugarcane, plantain, banana, pineapple, ginger, bitter
leaves, potato.
Natural Method of Asexual Propagation
The methods include the following
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a. Corms - An underground stem which stores food in form of starch. It has buds and bears leaves
which develop to become erect. e.g cocoyam
b. Bulbs - A bulb is an underground stem which does not store its food in the stem but stores food
at the bases of old leaves. It has a short stem that bears adventitious roots. The leaves are
covered by brownish membraneous scales in between the auxillary buds. e,g Onion, Lily
c. Rhizomes - An underground horizontal stem. It stores food in the stem and it develops thin
scales and nodes. each node has bud with some adventitious roots. It has the ability to
regenerate and therefore difficult to eradicate e.g. spear grass, ginger
d. Suckers - Modified stems which produce lateral branches that end in terminal buds. e.g banana
or plantain
e. Stem tubers - These are swolllen underground stems which store food in form of starch. Stem
tubers have very tiny buds with vestigial scale leaves. e.g Yam, Sweet potato
f. Runners - Stems which are too weak to stand erect and therefore grow horizontally on the
surface of the ground e.g. carpet grass, sweet potato
Artificial Method of Vegetative Propagation
This involves growing new plants by man from cut portions of the parent plant. It may also involve
union of a bud with root stock or shoot with root stock as in budding and grafting. Artificial Methods
include cutting. Budding, grafting, layering and marcotting.
a. Cutting – A part of the mature plant is cut and used for propagation. Three common types of
cutting are leaf cutting, stem cutting and root cutting.
b. Budding: Process of uniting a bud with a stock. Budding is a form of asexual reproduction in
which a new organism develops from an outgrowth or bud due to cell division at one particular
site. The new organism remains attached as it grows, separating from the parent organism only
when it is mature, leaving behind scar tissue.
c. Grafting: Grafting is a technique used by farmers and scientists to attach the tissue of one plant
to the tissue of another. It allows for asexual reproduction of plants, and for making some neat
new decorations for your yard
d. Layering: Bending a mature branch or shoot down to the soil without breaking it in order to
establish new plant from the parent plant.
e. Marcotting: This method involves propagating a new plant from a branch still attached to the
parent plant, by getting roots to form on the branch.
Advantages of Sexual Propagation
1. Seed is easy to carry, store, procure and plant.
2. It increases the vigour of the plant.
3. Very easy to practice.
4. Well stored seeds remain viable for a long time.
5. Crop improvement can be practiced with the use of seeds.
6. Crops are easily multiplied.
7. Transmission of disease can be avoided. It gives rise to variations and better adaptability.
Disadvantages of Sexual Propagation
1. It reduces the quantity of seeds for consumption
2. Some seeds do not germinate due to dormancy 3. Pollination will not occur if pollinating agents
are unavailable.
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4.
5.
6.
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Some seeds are eaten up by animals like rats, birds and termites.
Seedless crops cannot be propagated by this method
Some crops that are planted with seeds take long time to mature. E.g. orange
Individuals with undesirable characteristics maybe produced.
Advantages of Asexual Propagation
1. Produces individuals which show more resistance to diseases and pests.
2. It produces individuals that mature early.
3. New plants can withstand adverse weather and soil condition.
4. New plants produced resemble their parents
5. Plants mature very early.
6. Plants with uniform growth rate and quality is produced.
7. Plants produced show more resistance to disease and pests
8. The new plants produce resemble their parent plants
9. Plant produced can withstand adverse soil and weather conditions
10. They are used to bring good qualities of two plants together
Disadvantages
1. The new offsprings similar to the parents can carry undesirable characteristics.
2. It gradually reduces the strength and vigour of succeeding generations 3. Vegetative organs are
not easy to store
3. Planting materials are bulky and difficult to transport.
4. Diseases are easily transferred from parent to offspring.
5. Vegetative parts of plant cannot be stored for a long time for planting.
6. Crop improvement cannot be carried with these method
EVALUATION:
1. Define propagation and name the two types of propagation
2. Name 15 crops that can be propagated by seeds.
3. List 10 crops that can be propagated by vegetative methods.
4. Write 5 methods of propagating crops asexually
5. Write 4 advantages of seed propagation and 4 advantages of vegetative propagation.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. A farmer sowed 300 seeds of maize on his farmland, out of which 50 did not germinate. Calculate
the percentage germination of the maize seeds he planted. a. 15.3% b.83.3% c. 73.6% d. 77.4% e.
78.4%
2. The method of propagation that involves the union of bud of a plant to the stock of another plant
of the same or closely related species is called a) grafting b) layering c) budding d) marcotting
3. Farmers prefer asexual propagation to sexual propagation because a) it is not possible to produce
new varieties of plants b) it requires special skills c) plants are not very vigorous and does not live
long enough d) plants are true to type and uniform in quality, growth, habit and yield. d) viral
disease can be transmitted to new plant
4. A stem growing horizontally above the surface of the ground and growing adventitious roots at the
nodes is called a) corms b) rhizomes c) runners d) stem tuber
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5. Assuming the vegetative propagation of cocoa by layering done by a peasant farmer was
successful, new shoots and roots will develop from the
a) buds b) nodes c) bulbs c) leaves d) runners
6. Onion can be propagated by a) corm b) bulb c) rhizomes d) sucker
7. Rubber is best propagated by a) budding b) grafting c) seed planting d) layering e) marcotting
8. Stem cutting are used to propagate the following crops except a) sugar cane b) cocoyam c) bamboo
d) potato e) cassava
9. An advantage of Vegetative propagation is that it leads to the production of offspring which a)
develops, matures and reproduces faster b. Dies off after every maturity year c) Does not produce
fruits and seeds d) posseses undesirable qualities of parents e) reproduction is after pollination and
fertilization.
10. Propagation of crops by asexual means is disadvantageous because a) it makes crop to fruit and
mature late b) it requires skills and techniques c) the crops exhaust soil nutrients d) the crops
usually grow vigorously e) the fruits mature at different times.
READING ASSIGNMENT
Prime Focus Agricultural Science 10-16
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