ADAPTIVE ART
Adaptive
Deconstructing Disability in the Art Classroom
ART
Deconstructing Disability
in the Art Classroom
Bette Naughton
Bette Naughton
Adaptive Art
Deconstructing Disability
in the Art Classroom
Adaptive Art
Deconstructing Disability
in the Art Classroom
Bette Naughton
Heather L. R. Fountain, Editor
Davis Publications, Inc.
Worcester, Massachusetts
Copyright © 2020
Davis Publications, Inc.
Worcester, Massachusetts U.S.A.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any storage and retrieval system
now known or to be invented, except by a reviewer who wishes to quote brief passages in connection
with a review written for inclusion in a magazine, newspaper, or broadcast.
Every effort has been made to ensure that the information in this book is accurate. However, the author
and publisher take no responsibility for any harm which may be caused by the use or misuse of any
materials or processes mentioned herein; nor is any condition or warranty implied.
Every effort has been made to trace the ownership of copyrighted illustrations appearing in this book.
Photo credit: Bette Naughton unless otherwise noted.
Publisher: Julian Wade
Senior Editor: Missy Hall Nicholson
Consulting Editor: Helen Ronan
Production: Tom Fiorelli
Copyediting: Mary Ellen Wilson
Design: Tyler Kemp-Benedict, Douglass Scott
Editorial Assistance: Amanda Hebson, Emily Henderson-Sperber
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018959946
ISBN: 978-1-61528-981-3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Acknowledgments
This book is dedicated to all of the students and people who
have taught me how to be a better teacher, a kinder person.
My colleagues who have provided me with valuable insights,
inspirations, and wisdom in my quest for knowledge to improve
my practice so that all students work through their abilities to
express themselves creatively. To my parents for always encouraging me by telling me I can do anything I put my mind to. And
to my own three wonderful children, from whom I have learned
much about how children learn, grow, and create as they journey
through life.
Special thanks to Dr. Heather Fountain for her wisdom and
guidance in writing this book. To Davis Publications for its dedication to art education and the vision to create resources that
inspire teachers to teach students how to explore and develop
their artistic potential as they embrace the visual arts.
The artwork in this book was created by students with
disabilities. The children’s names have been changed to protect
their privacy.
Bette Naughton
Contents
Introduction 2
Chapter 4
Low Muscle Tone
(Hypotonia) 34
Chapter 1
Creating a Philosophical
Framework 4
Creating Art
Building Your Own Foundation 5
Responding to Art 45
Using Narrative Accounts
Presenting Art and Ideas about Art 46
6
35
Connecting to Art 41
Conducting an Initial Assessment 7
Adaptive Benefits for All Students 48
Chapter 2
Chapter 5
Collaborating with a Learning
Community 8
Making Connections 9
Collaboration 11
Visual Impairments 50
Types of Visual Impairment 51
Creating Art
52
Connecting to Art 61
Starting Conversations 13
Responding to Art 63
Presenting Art and Ideas about Art 64
Chapter 3
Sensory Stimulation 16
Adaptive Benefits for All Students 66
Sensory Processing Disorder 17
Creating Art
Chapter 6
21
Connecting to Art
Gross Motor Impairments 68
27
Responding to Art 29
Presenting Art and Ideas about Art 31
Turning Failure into Success 32
Adaptive Benefits for All Students 32
vi
Creating Art
69
Connecting to Art 78
Responding to Art 79
Presenting Art and Ideas about Art 81
Adaptive Benefits for All Students 82
Chapter 7
Fine Motor Delays
Creating Art
84
87
Connecting to Art
92
Responding to Art 94
Presenting Art and Ideas about Art 95
Adaptive Benefits for All Students 96
Chapter 8
Intellectual Disabilities 98
Meaningful Adaptations 100
Creating Art
102
Connecting to Art
110
Responding to Art 111
Presenting Art and Ideas about Art 112
Adaptive Benefits for All Students 113
Chapter 10
Chapter 9
Hearing Loss
114
Making Your Classroom Comfortable
for All Learners 116
Creating Art
Understanding Your Students
127
Preventive Planning 128
Creating Art
118
Connecting to Art
Emotional and Behavioral
Disabilities 126
129
121
Connecting to Art 133
Responding to Art 122
Responding to Art 134
Presenting Art and Ideas about Art 124
Presenting Art and Ideas about Art 135
Adaptive Benefits for All Students 125
Adaptive Benefits for All Students 136
Chapter 11
Final Thoughts 138
Contents
vii
Introduction
“Follow your bliss and the universe will open doors for you
where there were only walls.”
Joseph Campbell
Humans have an innate desire to communicate. For many students living with disabilities, communication is often difficult.
Observing this difficulty fueled my desire
to develop adaptations in my art lessons
that would facilitate communication with
my students while also engaging them in
the visual arts. Trying new methods, materials, and tools has allowed me to remove
many of the barriers I observed, enabling
my students to express themselves and
their ideas through art.
I envisioned Adaptive Art as a resource
to help art educators adapt lessons and
objectives for students with disabilities by
working through those students’ abilities. I did not intend this book to provide
information on specific disabilities or how
they manifest in people; a variety of books
have been written on that topic, such as
The Complete Learning Disabilities Handbook:
Ready-to-Use Strategies & Activities for Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities by
Joan Harwell and Rebecca Williams Jackson.1 Another great book is Reaching and
Teaching Students with Special Needs through
Art edited by Beverly Levett Gerber and
Doris M. Guay.2 Rather, this book presents
strategies and techniques, based on my
own research and experience, for teaching
the visual arts to students who have been
identified as having various categories of
challenge, such as behavioral, emotional,
vision, or fine motor challenges.
The categories in this book are larger
than a single specific disability, and the
deficits discussed are common in students with and without disabilities. (For
instance, Chapter 7, on fine motor skills,
will be helpful for teachers working with
young children who are developing handeye coordination.) A child need not be
A child need not be identified as
having a disability to have a deficit
in one or more areas.
2
identified as having a disability to have a
deficit in one or more areas. Students may
have weak fine motor skills and exhibit
signs of emotional or behavioral disorders
due to frustration and their inability to
perform at the same level as their peers.
Today, many researchers, such as Dr.
Johann Issartel and David Gaul, believe
that students entering primary grades
commonly lack fine motor-skill stamina
because of exposure to touch screens and
reduced physical exercise, part and parcel
of the sedentary lifestyle that technology
promotes.3
Adaptive Art’s instructional methods
and ideas for teaching and adapting art
activities, media, tools, and techniques
will enable you to engage your students in
meaningful and creative self-expression—
in which the process is often more important than the product.
All are designed to
The capacity
aid your students in
to think and
engaging successreact quickly
fully and to assist
is important,
you in managing the
since not every
vast array of learning
adaptation
styles and student
will work for
needs in your classroom. The strategies
all students all
presented here are
the time.
the result of watching
what my students could and could not do,
and then modifying lessons, materials,
media, and tools, as well as my own thinking about students’ abilities, to allow them
to successfully make and engage in art.
The capacity to think and react quickly
is important, since not every adaptation
will work for all students all the time. The
best method for adapting a tool or technique for painting may be different from
one student to the next. Let your students
try out a variety of brushes and techniques
to see what works best for them. As your
students gain more control of the task,
you may need to change your approach
once again or eliminate the adaptation
completely as they develop control and
confidence in painting.
It is my hope that the findings and
suggestions in Adaptive Art will keep students engaged in learning and educators
engaged in teaching. I wish you much
success as you use these adaptations to
capitalize on your students’ abilities and
foster their artistic self-expression.
Notes
1
Joan Harwell and Rebecca Williams Jackson, Complete Learning
Disabilities Handbook: Ready-to-Use Strategies & Activities for Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities, 3rd ed. (West Nyack, NY:
Center for Applied Research in Education, 2008).
2 Beverly L. Gerber and Doris M. Guay, eds., Reaching and Teaching
Students with Special Needs through Art (Reston, VA: The National
Art Education Association, 2006).
3 David Gaul and Johann Issartel, “Fine Motor Skill Proficiency in
Typically Developing Children: On or Off the Maturation Track?”
Human Movement Science, Vol. 46 (April 2016), 78–85.
Additional Resources
D. J. Vera, M. M. Jozwiak, and M. L. Castilleja, “ ‘The Computer is
Broke!’ Could Technology Be Affecting Fine Motor Development
in Tech Savvy Pre-School Children or Could It Be Something
Else?” 1st ed., Vol. 7, Schooling, pp. 1–10, Rep. No. 1 (2016). San
Antonio, TX: Texas A&M University–San Antonio. doi:http://
www.nationalforum.com/Electronic Journal Volumes/Vera,
Debbie J The Computer is Broke Schooling V7 N1 2016.pdf
 Introduction 3
Chapter 1
Creating a
Philosophical
Framework
“Those who have no compassion have no wisdom. Knowledge, yes;
cleverness, maybe; wisdom, no. A clever mind is not a heart.
Knowledge doesn’t really care. Wisdom does.”
Benjamin Hoff
Foster independence whenever possible; offer the necessary scaffolding to reach that independent state.
4
Set obtainable goals
and give rewards and
movement breaks
when needed or once
the goal is achieved.
From the moment I started teaching, I
have been more curious about those for
whom learning and doing are difficult than
those for whom learning comes easily. The
desire to find ways to encourage all learners to create and engage in art has led me
to investigate best practices and theories
for teaching students identified as having
disabilities. This research has shaped and
altered my philosophy of education.
Photo credit: Kayla McVey
Building Your Own
Foundation
Part of who you are as a teacher is the
result of what you have experienced in
your life. Each person develops a unique
foundation, on which a philosophical
framework is built. Most of us have a
philosophy or philosophical framework
of education that changes as we grow our
knowledge and encounter new theories.
Your philosophy of education is constructed from your thoughts and attitudes
about pedagogy, gleaned from exposure to
various opinions on how to teach, reach,
and engage students. Your framework is a
structure of diverse ideas, thoughts, and
methods, which you form into a system
that works for you and your students.
From the scraps of wisdom and
insights that you have gathered, you create
your own pedagogical patchwork, pieced
together from what stood out to you as a
teacher. In a sense, you have constructed
your own educational theory, shaped by all
of your observations and encounters. Your
philosophical framework consists of the
characteristics, theories, and practices that
you value. And you alter that framework
as you evolve and develop in your profession. Most likely, you became a teacher out
of a desire to pass on your knowledge and
love of learning to others.
The degree to which you change your
teaching strategies to reach every learner
will be based on your personal situation.
If you do not have a good support system
of caring paraprofessionals, combined
with the resources of a supportive special
education department, you may feel overwhelmed and uncertain about how to meet
the needs of a diverse classroom. Art educators with jam-packed schedules and little
planning time may feel they can’t adapt
every lesson. That is okay. Adapt when you
can. Change lessons over time. Adapt tools
first. We use those every day in the art room.
Knowing your students, as well as
understanding their limitations and
abilities, is important when formulating
adaptations that will be effective in the
visual arts. When you make the decision
to adapt, you are removing obstacles,
such as frustration and doubt, that keep
students from appreciating and creating
art. This change in approach leads to an
evolving and informed awareness about
your students’ needs. In “A Disability
Aesthetic, Inclusion, and Art Education,”
Doug Blandy speaks about the silenced
insisting on a voice; he calls for a new
aesthetic that allows us to look at those
who have not had a voice and to see and
Adapt when you can. Change lessons over time.
Adapt tools first. We use those every day in the art room.
Chapter 1 Creating a Philosophical Framework
5
A student builds cutting skills. Warm up
by cutting Play-Doh
prior to paper cutting.
Photo credit: Robin Hughes
hear what they have to say.1 As a teacher,
you have the power to help students find
their voices, many of which will be heard
for the first time.
Using Narrative
Accounts
Another vital component of meeting students’ needs is knowing how they learn.
One way to determine their learning style
is through narrative accounts. As Steve
Thunder-McGuire explains in his contribution to the anthology Issues and Approaches
to Art for Students with Special Needs, these
exercises allow a child to speak about the
processes and learning that take place
during artistic expression.2 By creating
narrative accounts of his students’ abilities, Thunder-McGuire gained a deeper
understanding of each learner, beyond
what an individualized education program
(IEP) alone could provide. A narrative
account can play a dual role, serving as an
initial assessment tool and as an ongoing
metric of a student’s progress throughout
the year.
In working with my adaptive art
class, I have seen the significance of this
method. For instance, I once worked with
a student identified as having multiple
disabilities who was painting a picture of
herself. She completed the self-portrait
and then added several small objects,
one of which had a brushstroke coming
off one end and extending into the air.
Sara was very proud of her work and
6
had enjoyed looking in the mirror as
she worked to paint herself. We sat and
looked at her artwork together. I asked, “Is
that you?” Sara eagerly replied, “Yes.” She
then pointed to an object in her painting.
I asked what it was. “Shadow,” she stated,
then pointed to a circular mark and said
“ball.” Sara’s paraprofessional, who knows
Sara and her home life well, explained
that Sara had a cat named Shadow. Had
I not engaged her in a narrative account
of her art-making experience, I would
not have learned about Sara’s life experience and how important her cat and its
toy were in her life. Sara’s painting was a
meaningful experience.
The narrative provides us with a
deeper understanding of the artist and
tells a story to the viewer. Paula Eubanks
discusses the relationship between visual
language and verbal development in her
contribution to the anthology Issues and
Approaches to Art, stating the importance
Offer encouragement if hands fatigue during
scissor work, as it builds hand strength.
Photo credit: Kayla McVey
of art when other areas of communication
are compromised or impaired.3
Conducting an evaluation of your
students, as well as of yourself and your
teaching methods, is essential to creating
a successful learning environment.
Conducting an Initial
Assessment
The initial assessment involves some basic
materials: paper, a variety of brushes,
paint, markers, pencils, scissors, and a
stencil. I want to see if the student can
hold the pencil or marker correctly or at
all. I note what type of grasp he has and
whether he needs a pencil grip or adaptation of drawing tools. Can he draw basic
shapes and follow one-, two-, or three-step
directions? Is coloring in a confined area
possible?
Next we try painting. We try a number
of brushes to determine which give the
student the most control and success in
art-making. Can he paint independently,
or is a stencil needed to confine the
painted area?
Lastly, when assessing cutting skills,
I recommend tearing paper first to judge
hand strength. I always have the student
try the basic class scissors first before
offering any adaptive scissors. I have
the student cut on a fine pencil line and
also a thick marker line to see if there
are any visual or eye-hand coordination concerns. Students who cannot use
scissors independently or safely will need
hand-over-hand assistance from their
paraprofessional.4
This initial assessment allows me to
plan which adaptations I will need to
consider as I develop my units and lessons. Your students’ needs will change
as the academic year progresses, but this
initial examination ensures that your first
encounter with them will not leave you
unprepared.
In the chapters that follow, you will
learn specific adaptations for materials
and tools, and ideas to choose from when
adapting lessons for students with disabilities. These resources will allow you to
focus on each student’s needs, skills, and
interests while creating a learning environment that encourages learning.
Guided independent
work builds a child’s
self-esteem.
Notes
1 Doug Blandy, “A Disability Aesthetic, Inclusion, and Art Education,” in Issues and Approaches to Art for Students with Special
Needs, ed. A. L. Nyman and A. M. Jenkins (Reston, VA: The
National Art Education Association, 1999), 34–41.
2 Steve Thunder-McGuire, “Narrative Accounts of Experience,
Context, Meaning and Purpose,” in Jenkins and Nyman, Issues
and Approaches to Art, 99–108.
3 Paula Eubanks, “Art as a Visual Language that Supports Verbal
Development,” in Jenkins and Nyman, Issues and Approaches to
Art, 109–17.
4 Susan D. Loesl, “Students with Physical Disabilities,” in Reaching
and Teaching Students with Special Needs through Art (Reston, VA:
The National Art Education Association, 2006).
Chapter 1 Creating a Philosophical Framework
7
Chapter 2
Collaborating with a
Learning Community
“If a child can’t learn the way we teach, maybe we should teach
the way they learn.”
Ignacio Estrada
A friend and colleague who teaches
special education appreciates that I
consult with her about lessons, ideas, and
adaptations for the children in her classroom. I was astonished when she told me
that I am the only teacher who has ever
Student artwork, mixed-media guitar collage.
8
discussed the abilities and disabilities of
her students. No one else asked her how
best to adapt lessons, materials, or tools
to enable her students with disabilities to
express themselves more fully and independently in the visual arts.
Without her guidance and the advice of
many other colleagues, I never could have
discovered all that I know regarding students with disabilities. Her encouragement
propelled my program forward. So, too, did
my desire to understand the diagnoses of
my students, along with their strengths
and abilities, so that I could teach them
more effectively.
Making Connections
First, I must stress the importance of
tapping into the valuable resources in your
learning community. I see my students
for less than one hour a week in the art
classroom. Special education teachers,
occupational therapists, physical therapists, paraprofessionals, and families are
with them much longer and more frequently. The knowledge they have gained
from years of daily observation is your
greatest resource. Consulting with your
learning community at the beginning of
each school year, followed by weekly discussions as your peers bring their students
to art, is immensely helpful. Not only are
your colleagues a source of information
about the disability or multiple disabilities
of your students, but they can also inform
you about health, emotional, or physical
concerns, all of which should be taken into
consideration when adapting approaches
to art-making. Consult with them about
the goals you are setting for your students
to determine if your objectives are appropriate and attainable.
When adapting an art lesson, I always
ask myself: What are the objectives of this
lesson for students without documented
disabilities, and what are the objectives
for students with disabilities? They should
be the same, or as similar as possible, but
may differ depending on the lesson and
students’ IEP goals. With adaptations, the
objectives are achievable by all students;
however, the paths they take to get there
will be different.
That is where my colleagues and their
keen sense of observation come into play.
After I explain my objectives and how I
will adapt them, they may agree with my
ideas or they may say something like “This
child can’t do that,” or “This child doesn’t
think that way.” They then suggest alternatives and offer insights into their learning
modalities, which will enable me to finetune my adaptations and help students
fulfill the goals I have set.
With adaptations, the objectives are
achievable by all students; however,
the paths they take to get there will
be different.
A paraprofessional assists a student in meeting lesson objectives by
chunking and encouraging the task at hand.
Chapter 2 Collaborating with a Learning Community
9
Finding Connections as You Dig Deeper
Peers and Parents
Connecting with your peers and parents can help
you immensely. The first place to look for connections is with the child’s classroom teacher and
learning support teachers. They can provide you
with a quick synopsis of the student and point
out strengths and areas of concern. Use this new
knowledge to inform you, but be sure to meet the
students and create your own impression of them.
School Therapists
Another great place to look for information is the
IEP; there is always a signature page with essential
connections on it. You may see the name of an
occupational therapist (OT), a physical therapist
(PT), a speech teacher, or a nurse that accompanies
the child to your class. Often these professionals
are working on the development of gross and fine
motor skills and can assist you in supporting that
work within your art room. They can also provide
great tips and insights into the child’s ability and
how to foster growth through the use of various
tools or adaptations. I recommend the strategy ask,
observe, and try.
• Ask: I often ask the therapist questions about
tools and which are appropriate for a certain
student. For instance, “Would it be better for the
student to use a brush with a tennis ball on top
as a grip or a shaving cream brush?” Or I might
say, “I have these three types of adaptive scissors. Which would you recommend I use for this
student?” A great general question to ask might
be, “Are there any things you can suggest that
would improve the student’s fine motor skills?”
• Observe: Observing how these professionals work
with the students can teach you many tips and
tricks for helping students. Sit in on a session if
they are willing to invite you. If you can’t sit in
on a working session as an observer, then invite
the OT or PT into your classroom. Your classroom
is a perfect place for OT and PT professionals to
see how the students they service are using their
gross and fine motor muscles to perform many
of the tasks that art-making entails.
• Try: Once you are back in your art room, try some
of their recommendations and the techniques
you observed them using and implementing.
10
Experiment by trying one way and then try a
spin-off of your own technique to see what
works best.
Paraprofessionals
Paraprofessionals work closely with students and
can provide valuable information about what
works, what they have tried, and how their students are progressing. For instance, I had a student
who was extremely uncooperative when it came
to art class. Abby only came to art occasionally,
and when she did, it did not typically go well. She
was extremely vocal, liked to tear things up, and
her paraprofessional usually would leave with
Abby, saying that she needed a break, but then they
wouldn’t return. This year, Abby has a new paraprofessional, and while I was working with Abby trying
a variety of adaptive paintbrushes and techniques
to see if something would connect with her, she
threw the materials and ripped all the papers. I
looked at the paraprofessional and said, “Something has to make Abby tick.” The paraprofessional
told me the only way that she could get her to do
anything was to sing. I said, “Well, sing while she
paints.” She said, “Seriously?” I could tell she was a
bit shy about it, so I asked what she usually sang to
her. Her reply was Row, Row, Row Your Boat and other
nursery songs. So, I hand-over-hand painted with
Abby using the shaving cream brush, since it suited
her grasp best, and sang to her. She painted back
and forth happily with me. I praised Abby’s effort
and signed to her the gesture for “break.” I rewarded
her with a break, as I did not want to push it too
far this first day of success. The paraprofessional
and I now work together closely. She informs me
how Abby’s day is going when they come in, asks
me if she has the objectives correct, and tells me
when things are not working. Sometimes we say,
“Let’s paint ’til we count to ten.” This gives Abby an
achievable goal. Paraprofessionals are more willing to work with you when they realize you value
them and their opinions. Ask them if the child has
a behavior plan, how the child’s day is going, what
tactics they use for success, and if they are aware of
any procedures the child’s classroom teacher implements to ensure progress.
A paraprofessional
assists a student
making marbled
paper using shaving
cream for sensory
engagement.
Collaboration
Collaboration is an essential element in
teaching. Accessing the knowledge of
your learning community will enable you
to engage all learners in the enriched art
curriculum you have developed. Having
your students fully engrossed in art is
a rewarding experience for teacher and
student alike. The role of paraprofessionals is especially important because they
give one-on-one support to their charges
in a busy art room. When you reach out
to the paraprofessionals in your school, it
acknowledges their worth. Together you
can create a plan to engage the student in
meaningful art-making.
The ideal scenario is when paraprofessionals are assigned to a student for a year
or longer. Then they really get to know
the child and your teaching style. You can
educate them in how to encourage artistic
creation in the least restrictive manner.
They will learn where you keep your adaptive tools and materials as well. However,
ideal scenarios rarely exist. I have had
years when one child had a revolving
door of paraprofessionals. Even then, it’s
important to spend a few minutes at the
beginning of the class to communicate the
day’s art objectives and adaptations to the
paraprofessional and check back as you
make your rounds in the art room. When
you give paraprofessionals the tools and
direction they need to help the student
succeed, and demonstrate that you value
them, everyone will have a more enjoyable
art experience. Paraprofessionals can be
valuable assets to the art room. However,
for the teacher, student, and paraprofessional to collaborate effectively, they must
communicate and function as a team.1
Paraprofessionals guide students
through the art lesson, ensuring that they
reach the stated objectives and goals. Often
they will repeat step-by-step directions and
concepts discussed during the teacher’s
demonstration. This reinforces the concepts while working within students’
individual level of ability. Keep in mind that
A student uses
cotton balls to
paint a maskedout area. For
some learners,
these are more
easily grasped
than brushes.
the paraprofessional may not know about
art, so they will also need your skills as an
art educator to help them convey concepts
and art-making instruction. Mentor your
art-room paraprofessionals, expressing
your expectations clearly and supervising their interactions with students. Train
them by modeling how to guide and assist
students through artistic processes. Explain
why particular techniques work best; doing
so will provide valuable insights into your
thinking and methodology.
Research suggests that art-room
paraprofessionals often play the role of
gatekeepers, opening or closing access to
authentic artistic production by students
with disabilities. Authentic art is artwork
created by the student, as opposed to the
student assisting the paraprofessional
in its creation. A 2008 study conducted
by Julie Causton-Theoharis and Corrie
Burdick found that paraprofessionals
can close the gate, or create barriers that
restrict students’ access to creating and
responding to art.2
Chapter 2 Collaborating with a Learning Community
11
Abby’s Story: Opening the Gate
Abby came to class with her paraprofessional, and I greeted them and showed
her where Abby sits. After explaining and
demonstrating the lesson to the class, I
went over to Abby’s desk to explain to the
paraprofessional how to adapt the lesson.
“Oh, she can’t do anything,” the paraprofessional told me. Gate closed! But I had
my foot in the way, so she couldn’t close it
completely. I knew Abby had full use of her
hands and liked to grab and throw things.
After putting a smock on Abby, I told the
paraprofessional not to worry about her
painting in a confined area and to let
her use a big brush or her hands. Abby
immediately tore up the paper. “Told ya,”
the woman said. I calmly grabbed some
masking tape, taped another paper to the
table, and squeezed finger paint onto it.
Abby was fascinated by the smooth feeling
of the paint and became engrossed in
swirling it around.
A paraprofessional may close the gate
in any number of ways: by repeatedly leaving class early, claiming the child needs a
break; by doing the project for the student;
by wandering off to help other students;
by telling the student what color to use.
According to Causton-Theoharis and
Burdick, paraprofessionals can also open
the gate, providing essential support and a
pathway to access the art curriculum. Routinely check the progress of the paraprofessionals in your art room as they get used to
your approach and techniques. Praise them
when they offer new insights into opening gates that might otherwise be closed.
Empower paraprofessionals to realize that
what they do makes a difference. If they
claim the student needs a break, encourage
them to walk with the child around the art
room and see what the other
students are doing. Students
Empower paraprofessionals
often need movement breaks
to realize that what they do
after exercising their fine motor
makes a difference.
skills. Breaks are a great way to
stop a negative behavior. Sometimes I will
guide a student to a sensory activity for a
few minutes to give both the child and the
paraprofessional a break.
When paraprofessionals are doing the
work for the child, I give them their own
paper and materials and suggest they model
the activity for the child. A little creativity
is relaxing for all. If the paraprofessional
says, “Why don’t you paint that red,” show
the paraprofessional how to give choices
to students with limited vocabulary. Show
the child three color options and ask, “Do
you want to use blue, red, or green?” Hold
each up in turn. Even nonverbal students
will typically indicate the color they desire.
I was once told, “He’ll just paint the whole
thing blue.” “So did Picasso,” was my reply.
I showed the student and the paraprofessional The Old Guitarist by Picasso and said,
“If he only wants to use blue, give him a
variety.” This helps students because it gives
them the power of choice, instills independence, and makes the artwork authentic.
You might hear from a paraprofessional,
“I have to draw it for him. He can’t draw
anything.” Here you will need to assess, and
if that is the case, demonstrate how to give
choice and use a selection of stencils to
adapt the lesson. Say the lesson is drawing
pets. Offer the student stencils of various
animals and ask which they would like to
draw, saying the name of each animal as
you show it. If you offer four or five, you
may need to use the process of elimination
technique. Say, “Would you like to draw a cat
or a dog?” Let them choose. “A pig or cow?”
Take the two they chose and hold them
up one more time. “A cat or a pig?” When
you offer only two choices, it is easy for a
student to pick; however a greater selection
allows for more authentic art-making.
The paraprofessionals should know
that you do not expect the artwork to
12
Starting Conversations
look perfectly made; rather, the goal is an
authentic artwork created by the student
with guidance. With that understanding,
they will be more likely to allow the students to express themselves freely when
creating art. Discussions with paraprofessionals regarding authentic student art
may be necessary so that paraprofessionals
allow students to make their own marks,
expressing their creativity and ideas about
art. As an art educator, you must stress that
it is not important for the student art to
look like the sample or that of their peers.3
Conversations work best when there is
give and take and an exchange of information. Listening is as important as speaking.
Approach your peers with respect; let them
know you are asking their opinion and
advice because you value their knowledge.
As with everything, there are right and
wrong ways to do this. I would not recommend starting a conversation with a peer
by saying, “I was working with Maggie in
art today and noticed she can’t cut with
scissors.” That will put them on the defensive, as though you are saying they aren’t a
Digging Deeper: Tips for Approaching Colleagues and Parents
When you get your class lists at the beginning of the
year, make a point to stop by and ask for a quick talk
with the special education teacher or others who will
be working with students receiving services. Be sure
to ask them about any new students, as IEPs and 504s
may not be received for weeks or months into the
new school year. Discuss the students’ disability, their
strengths, and areas of concern. Are there any areas
of concern or recommendations from the previous
school’s IEP, parents, or teachers? Ask if the students
are right- or left-hand dominant, does the child have
any known triggers or concerns, what are the recommendations from the previous school or teacher on
how best to address situations when they occur?
When you meet parents, ask about their child’s
needs and always begin with a positive remark
such as “I really enjoy working with your child in art
class,” then go on to explain how you are helping to
meet their child’s needs by creating and implementing adaptions which allow them to engage more
fully in the artistic process of art-making. Even if you
do not directly meet the parents of your students
you will most likely provide input for IEP and reevaluation meetings. Your input should be thoughtful
and include the above recommendations.
A perfect example of this happened at this year’s
Sneak-a-Peek, our school’s event when the students
come to check out their new classrooms, teachers,
and school prior to the first day. A parent and her
child came in to tour the art room; she told me her
son just loves art. As we were talking, he ran over to
my shelves and was pointing to artist DVDs I had up
high. He became very vocal about holding one and
was close to a meltdown if he didn’t. I took one off
the shelf and let him hold it, but I told him they were
only for special times. I saw his classroom teacher
in the hall later and she said, “I heard you met
Zack. He won’t stop talking about your DVDs.” She
informed me that he had traumatic brain injury (TBI)
and often has things that trigger very emotional
responses. When he came into art two days later, he
went straight for the DVDs and pointed. When I said,
“We are going to be painting today,” he started to
scream. I told Zack that once he finished his painting, he could hold one. He then went to work, and as
he painted told me how he has a “Dora the Explorer”
DVD and many others. DVDs have become a tool for
me to get Zack to transition to my classroom and to
help him complete his class work. Now, when he finishes his work, I give him a paper that I have folded
in half so it looks like a DVD case, which he draws on
and takes home each art class. His outbreaks have
been greatly reduced, and he works for this reward
at the end of class. If I had not talked with his parent
and teacher prior to school starting, I would have
been unprepared to help Zack connect to art, and he
might not be as eager to come to class. Colleagues
and parents are your connection to your students.
Chapter 2 Collaborating with a Learning Community
13
good educator because they haven’t taught
her how to do this seemingly basic task.
Remember that to many teachers, their
students are their “children”—they may be
defensive and protective of them just as a
parent would be. It might be better to start
with something like, “Hi, I really love teaching your students; we had a great time in
art this week. I wonder if you have any suggestions how I can help Maggie with using
scissors. She seems to be struggling, and I
noticed in her IEP that she is identified as a
student with fine motor weakness. I can tell
she loves art, so I was hoping we could put
our heads together and help her be even
more successful.” This method would gain
far more cooperation and likely help you
reach a favorable outcome.
How you approach your peers is sort
of like making a good first impression.
Students use paper
crimpers for a
sensory experience
while creating a paper
sculpture.
A monochromatic paper sculpture
created using precut strips and
hole punches.
14
You will be working with them for a while,
so think before you speak. Some situations can be delicate. Such is the case of
the paraprofessional working in the art
classroom. Over the years, I have had
experience with amazing people who have
taught me much and worked well, guiding
their students as they create. But, occasionally, you may encounter someone who
may be in it for the job, not the child. As in
all professions, some people are more committed than others. However, their level
of involvement affects you as a teacher,
so you must learn to navigate these tricky
waters. If you encounter a paraprofessional
or peer—whether an occupational therapist, physical therapist, or teacher—who
does not share your point of view, remember that you are steering this ship. For the
benefit of the students, you must intercede.
Here is an example from my own
experience: When I saw a temporary
paraprofessional leaving art class with one
of my students who has Down syndrome,
I said, “Oh, art’s not over yet.” She told me,
“He can’t do it. He needs a break.” I steered
them back into the art room and said, “You
take five and let me see. It might be that
my lesson is too hard or needs a modification.” Putting the blame on myself, I proceeded to model for her how to encourage
and excite the student to paint. I praised
him for his effort and rallied him to do
more. I got a harrumph from her, but during the next art class, I saw her replicating
the technique I had modeled.
This would be an example of a paraprofessional closing the gate by interfering
with physical access to your art program,
as Causton-Theoharis and Burdick stated
in their research. When students with
disabilities come to art as part of an inclusion class, they should arrive with their
inclusion class and remain for the entire
lesson, not come in late or leave halfway
through the lesson. When that occurs, the
students get the message that this class is
not important, and it sets them apart from
“My Kid Can’t Do That”
As art teachers, we develop our lessons for each
grade level we teach. I usually shoot a little high,
skill-wise, and challenge the students. I mark my
inclusion classes with a highlighter so I know to
prepare the adaptions needed for students with
disabilities in advance. I try to be prepared, but
sometimes a teacher or paraprofessional will
inform me that their student “can’t do that.” As I
get to know the learners, if I am not sure they will
be successful with an idea, I take the lesson and a
sample of it to their classroom teacher and ask for
suggestions to decide if students will be able to do
the task at hand. Think E.A.T. as you ask for advice
and ponder, is the lesson palatable to all students?
When working with colleagues E.A.T. Explain the
lesson objectives or task at hand. Ask what the
student can do. Think how can I use their strengths
and what they can do to achieve my objectives.
As you think about how to adapt, consider what
your objectives are, how instruction can be scaffolded so that they are achieved, and consider what
you will adapt: the lesson, medium, tools and/
or technique.
their peers. Art is extremely important for
all students, especially those with disabilities, because it is a form of communication and meaningful self-expression.
I always inform new people entering
my art room that I prefer to have the students work as independently as possible.
I would rather the student be engaged in
the process of creating, regardless of the
outcome. Gerber and Guay stated that
when paraprofessionals are mentored by
art educators, they come to understand
that look-alike projects are no longer
considered ideal or authentic student art.
Send the message to your teaching community that we don’t judge the perfectness of art in here; students should be free
to discover and explore the materials and
tools provided as they create and respond
to art.
Teachers and people who have chosen
to work with students are kind, caring, and
supportive across the board, so approach
E.A.T. Example: Drawing a Self-Portrait
Explaining to the classroom teacher that her student
would be creating a self-portrait in art this week enabled
me to think about and create adaptions prior to class.
I explained the objectives, facial proportions, creating
a likeness, and adding details to illustrate what makes
each child unique and special.
Asking what the student could and couldn’t do gave me
ideas on how to adapt the lesson. I discovered drawing freehand was not possible. The classroom teacher suggested
printing out a photo so he could reference it. She was not
sure he would be able to watercolor in a defined area.
Thinking about what I learned about the student, I
created a face shape tracer to get him started. I also had
the photo at his seat so he could reference it. He, and all
of the students, had mirrors so they could notice things,
like eye color and hair, to add to their portraits. I had his
paraprofessional hand-over-hand outline areas such as
his face, hair, and clothing so that he could add color more
easily in specific areas. This helped him to stay in the lines.
When a colleague says, “My kid can’t do that”
think, hmmm, what can they do? Remember where
there’s a will, there’s a way.
them with your ideas and concerns, and listen as they build and collaborate with you.
As an art educator, you are not expected
to know everything about adapting art; it
varies for each learner. It is not a weakness
to be unsure. The Internet does not have
all the answers, and it does not know the
students or the community that cares for
them. Collaborate with your colleagues, and
they will have greater respect for you.
Notes
1 Beverly. L. Gerber and Doris M. Guay, eds., Reaching and Teaching
Students with Special Needs through Art (Reston, VA: The National
Art Education Association, 2006).
2 Julie Causton-Theoharis and Corrie Burdick, “Paraprofessionals:
Gatekeeper of Authentic Art Production,” Studies in Art Education, 49, no. 3 (September 2014), 167–82.
3 Gerber and Guay, Reaching and Teaching Students with
Special Needs.
Chapter 2 Collaborating with a Learning Community
15
Chapter 3
Sensory Stimulation
“All our knowledge begins with the senses, proceeds then to the understanding,
and ends with reason. There is nothing higher than reason.”
Immanuel Kant
In an inclusionary art classroom, some
students may have strong positive or
negative reactions to sensory input,
like smells, colors, or textures. Sensory
processing refers to how the body’s
nervous system receives and responds to
these sensory messages; when a disorder
is present these signals may be affected.
Tennis ball painting—rolling balls dipped into paint across sheets of colored paper—is a fun sensory experience.
16
Questions to Think About
As you read this chapter, consider the following:
1. How do your lessons engage the students’ senses? What
senses are being used as the students work through the
process of creating and responding to art?
2. Do you have students with sensory deficits? Are they
understimulated or overstimulated when one or more of
their senses are engaged?
A student proudly holds up artwork that can
stand alone or be used in a collage.
3. How can you change your learning environment to meet
the needs of students with sensory processing issues?
Sensory Processing Disorder
If you touch something hot or cold, your
body receives the message and then
responds to it accordingly. Sensory processing disorder (SPD) is a condition in
which sensory signals are not organized
into appropriate responses; as a result,
a child’s daily routines and activities
are disrupted writes Lucy Jane Miller in
Sensational Kids: Hope and Help for Children
with Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD).1
The art room engages the senses of
sight, sound, taste, touch, and smell daily.
The lesser-known senses, proprioception
and vestibular, are also called upon in the
art room setting. Proprioception affects
our body’s sense of awareness, movement,
and position in our surroundings. Vestibular sense involves movement, coordination, balance, and spatial orientation.
The vestibular system is located in the
inner ear. If you have ever had an innerear condition, you know that you can be
thrown off balance or experience vertigo.
A student with an SPD affecting this sense
may have trouble balancing on an art stool
or coordinating the movement needed to
put a paintbrush into a paint container.
Reactions to stimuli in the art room can
have positive and negative results. Once
you are aware of SPD and its symptoms,
you can create workarounds to make
creating art an enjoyable experience for
all learners. Some students with SPD may
react negatively to the feel of certain art
media, such as clay, glue, or chalk pastels.
Also common are either negative or positive reactions to some of the smells associated with the art room, such as certain
paints, clay, and fixatives. Students with
SPD may not like hand-over-hand drawing
assistance or the noise level of a busy art
room. Your district’s occupational therapist
may offer suggestions on how to adapt for
each student’s needs or reactions to stimuli
if there are sensory processing concerns.
Some students have
a negative reaction to
glue or lack the hand
strength to squeeze
regular glue bottles.
A soft bottle is easy
to squeeze and
handle.
Chapter 3 Sensory Stimulation 17
Creating shaving cream prints provides a sensory experience.
Textured tools and
surfaces create a
sensory experience
encouraging hyposensitive students
to engage in artistic
expression.
Textured rolling pins
are great sensory
tools that allow students to create patterns when painting
a pattern freehand is
difficult.
A child’s normal behavior or development may be affected by a sensory
processing problem. Students with SPD
may have trouble focusing, and they may
have a harder time achieving, organizing,
or participating fully in an activity. They
18
may appear inattentive, distracted, tuned
out, cautious, or impulsive. Students may
have unnecessary anxiety over situations
that engage their senses. Their reactions
to stimuli are chronic and disrupt their
learning. Sensory reactions can range from
mild to severe and can change from one
environment or day to the next.2
When a child is over-responsive to
stimuli, messages may not be processed
as quickly by the brain and may result in
difficulty transitioning and negative reactions to sounds, tactile sensations, bright
lights, or smells. Often the avoidance
habits associated with SPD may be looked
at as defiance or behavior problems. The
exact opposite may occur with children
who experience under-responsivity of
the senses: They take longer to react to
sensory information. They may not notice
when they hurt themselves or may have a
high tolerance for pain. Repeating instructions may be necessary.3 They might seek
out things that heighten their senses. For
example, a child who is under-responsive
to touch may start finger painting using
their fingers and then move on to painting
their entire arm, just loving the feel and
sensation of the paint, while a child who
is over-responsive to touch may have a
negative reaction to the sensation of paint
on their fingers.
Reactions from SPD manifest in many
ways, a few examples of which are: a
visual reaction to bright lights, op art, or
intense colors; auditory reaction to loud
sounds such as fire alarms; eating something that stimulates taste but is harmful;
craving tactile sensations or avoiding
them due to a negative sensory reaction;
lack of awareness of space or getting too
close to others; smelling or tasting art supplies to satisfy sensory needs; or having a
negative reaction to a smell others do not
find offensive.
Hypersensitivity
and Hyposensitivity
Sensory processing issues vary widely,
but all relate to the reaction a person has
when responding to information that
comes from the senses. Negative reactions to stimuli can cause a child to act
or react in ways that range from a mild
aversion to a complete meltdown. Positive reactions may increase a student’s
engagement and excitement.
Many individuals experience and
assimilate sensations without thought.
However, for a person affected by a sensory processing disorder, an extreme reaction may occur. This reaction can result
in hypersensitivity or hyposensitivity to
stimulation. Hypersensitivity results in
sensory avoidance or an intense response
to stimuli. Hyposensitivity manifests
in sensory craving or seeking due to an
under-response from the senses to stimuli,
as stated by the Understood team.4
Sensory processing issues vary widely,
but all relate to the reaction a person
has when responding to information
that comes from the senses.
A child’s reaction to the brain’s neurological
activity covers a broad spectrum, from mild
to unbearable. Sensory processing issues
that negatively affect a child occur because
the child has a hypersensitive, or extreme,
reaction to stimuli. As noted by Gail Richard
and Debra Hoge in The Source for Syndromes,
an aversion to a smell, sound, or texture
can be a byproduct of various syndromes
associated with neurological, developmental, or emotional disorders.5
Students with multiple disabilities
often need a bit more sensory stimulation to encourage them to partake in
artistic processes. They may not engage
in learning with traditional tools, media,
and teaching. Adaptations to these areas
have proved successful, with the student
participating freely in art-making.
Many concerns related to hypersensitivity or hyposensitivity, or both, can be
addressed by adaptations to your classroom environment, lessons, and teaching
style. A child with hypersensitivity may
experience a sensory overload if adaptations are not implemented to prevent the
overstimulation. Touch, sound, and smell
Hyper vs. Hypo
Hyper and hypo are opposites. Get to know your students with sensory processing issues and work with
colleagues and occupational therapists to discover
best practices for meeting these students’ needs.
Hypersensitivity Imagine if one or more of your
senses were overstimulated. You might be bothered
by a sound that someone else does not even hear.
A smell may distract you or make you anxious. For
the hypersensitive student, working with CelluClay
may be comparable to touching glass or thorns.
Speak with your hypersensitive students and get
to know their triggers. Create a plan together that
is complete with strategies for coping with the
unpleasant feelings. For example, years ago, I had a
student who was hypersensitive to sound—if it got
too loud, he would flee the room. We came up with
a safe place for him to take refuge within my art
room: under the desk. If it became too noisy and he
wasn’t in his seat, I knew where to look.
Hyposensitivity Now imagine if one or more of
your senses responded only if things were intense.
Music has to be loud, you need to be constantly
moving, and so on. While you are painting with a
brush, your eyes wander around the colorful art
room searching for more stimuli. By contrast, painting with your hands gives you the sensation you
crave. You are so engaged that you learn that blue
and yellow make green.
Chapter 3 Sensory Stimulation 19
When creating
texture freehand is
too difficult, a student
can press objects into
the clay slab.
Cutting Edge paper crimpers create an engaging sensory experience.
Using alternative
clays such as Model
Magic, CelluClay, or
air-dry clay can be
more appealing to
students who are
hyposensitive to the
smell and texture of
earthen clay.
Student artwork created by pressing clay
into plastic bowl and
plate forms.
Use scented media to calm and to encourage
working on task at hand. Mr. Sketch markers
shown.
may be more intense and even painful to
the child. Thoroughly understanding the
child’s IEP and working closely with the
student’s teacher and paraprofessionals
will enable you to design art activities that
will prevent sensory overload.
The hyposensitive child may be unengaged in art-making activities. For these
students, tools such as scented markers,
weighted vests and gloves (weighted
apparel helps to engage the sense of touch
so students can feel the surface they are
connecting with), and textured media
may encourage them to create. Students
affected by Tourette syndrome can have
20
hyper- or hyposensitive skin; therefore,
the sense of touch can be greatly affected
in the typical art room setting. Students
diagnosed with Down syndrome can
also exhibit hypo- or hypersensitivity;
moreover, they may react differently to
the same stimuli in different situations.6
When creating art, many students exhibit
under-responsive reactions, thus the art
educator needs to develop lessons rich
in sensory stimulation to engage learners. Adaptations to media, techniques,
and tools can help heighten sensory
experience for students needing greater
stimulation.
Lilly’s Story: Art as an Experience
In art class, Lilly was rarely engaged.
Most of her artwork was completed
in a hand-over-hand manner. Once,
maybe twice, during a lesson, she
would glance at her work, eager to be
finished and free to wander the art
room. She usually gravitated toward
my desk, where she would pick up
small objects she could roll around in
her hands or tear apart, often putting
what she discovered in her mouth.
One day, I went into her classroom
to hand back completed artwork
and I spotted Lilly squealing in sheer
delight. I went over to investigate. She
was moving her hands back and forth,
Creating Art: Tips for
Adapting Art Media
The vast array of media in the average
art room can easily be modified to meet
students’ sensory needs. The following
adaptations will captivate hyposensitive
students and make learning a positive,
fun experience. Hypersensitivity is also
addressed, for many students can have a
negative reaction to clay, papier-mâché,
and other tactile media. For those students, I suggest alternatives that, in my
experience, have met with less resistance.
Soon you will be thinking of your own
ways to adapt other common art media
as you encounter students with hypo- or
hypersensory reactions to stimuli.
The following sensory adaptations can
be effective:
•
Mix sand, cornmeal, soap, or glitter into
a medium such as paint or clay to create
a sensory experience through texture.
•
Blow bubbles into a tub of water with
tempera paint floating on top, then lay
paper on the surface to make prints. The
addition of sound, visual texture, and
scent enhances the sensory experience.
in a gentle wavelike motion, through a
dishpan of beans. I put my hands into
the dishpan to feel what she was feeling: It was a soft, therapeutic, rolling
sensation. This helped me realize that
Lilly would benefit from art lessons
that included sensory stimulation.
When Lilly came to art class that
week, she and her peers painted headto-toe self-portraits. Rather than using
a paintbrush, Lilly used her hands to
apply a smooth layer of finger paints
over her outline. As a result of this
sensory adaptation, she was totally
immersed in art-making until the end
of class.
Paint mixed with
cornmeal allows for
a sensory experience
and can engage a student who otherwise
may not want
to paint.
A student sprinkles
sand on a glue
drawing.
Chapter 3 Sensory Stimulation 21
•
Essential oils, such as
lavender, added to a
medium can create a
calming effect.
Use Model Magic and Play-Doh as alternatives when conventional clay elicits
a negative reaction. When working
with earthen clays, provide thin rubber gloves for students to wear. These
adaptations will help reduce negative
reactions caused by touch
or smell.
•
Add essential oils such as lavender,
mint, or citrus to glues and paints.
Many scents have a calming effect on
children, but be aware of students’
allergies. Nonfloral scents and natural
oils garner the best results.
•
Have students use crayons, pastels, or
paint on sandpaper, a material that
heightens the sense of touch.
•
Outline areas with white or black glue
to create a sensory guide to the areas
students will fill in.
•
Allow students to create on a variety
of textured surfaces: burlap, fabric,
corrugated cardboard, acetate, tin foil.
Any of these will heighten the sensory
experience.
Many of these suggestions heighten the
sensory experience for hyposensitive
learners who may otherwise not engage in
the creative process unless a paraprofessional works with them hand-over-hand.
These adaptations help students experiment with a new technique as they create
their own works of art. Modifications for
hypersensitive students are helpful in
preventing a meltdown. Working collaboratively with colleagues and asking
for information about your students will
allow you to adapt media prior to class.
Adding textures and scents, playing soft
music, and offering alternate materials
sets the stage for student success and a
satisfying creative experience. Even if you
do not know your students well before
they enter your classroom, you can have
many of these alternatives at the ready.
These adaptations will heighten the
experience and add excitement for all of
your students.
Soft alternative clays
work well for both
hypo- and hypersensitive students.
Soft Crayola Twistables glide on easily,
producing a silky feel.
22
Adapting the Medium to Lower a Resistance to Clay
Many students love getting their hands into clay,
but occasionally you will encounter students
who have a hypersensitivity to this much-loved
medium. If you can convince them to touch it
with one finger, they may come to realize that the
material is not that icky. Alternatively, you might
offer gloves, such as those used by the school nurse.
Providing a toothbrush to scratch or score a clay
surface or a small sponge clipped to a clothespin
to apply slip will help alleviate the fear of touching something that the child finds unpleasant.
Students who have hypersensitivity exhibit varied
responses to how things feel. They may cringe,
complain, cry, or become physically ill. Never push
a hypersensitive child to touch something they are
uncomfortable with.
Adapting Processes: Tools and Techniques
Why take the time to alter the way we
teach? Why not! It bothers me—and hopefully you, too—to see a student looking
off into the distance as a paraprofessional
holds her hand and dips the paintbrush
into a color the student did not select, and
proceeds to make the child paint an image
that the paraprofessional created.
Simple modifications can help that
same student feel engaged in the magic
of art, which is happening right before her
when she actively engages in the process
of creating. If you show the paraprofessional how to help the child use a cotton
ball or other appropriate utensil, letting the
child dip it into the paint color she chooses
and place it anywhere on the paper, the
child will be able to make her own artwork,
and everyone will find success. It will
also result in the child being nurtured by
you and the paraprofessional, receiving
positive encouragement and praise for the
effort. Pride is a powerful motivator!
Tools That Increase
Sensory Stimulation
Tools in the art room can be used to create
an additional sensory experience for students with hyposensitivity. However, some
tools can cause sensory overload, so offer
an alternative to ensure that students are
comfortable using them. Creating art on
textured surfaces adds stimuli for hyposensitive students. The same stimuli occur
when unusual or unexpected tools—such
as textured rolling pins, tennis balls, funky
brushes, or sponges—are used to make art.
Students who have these sensitivities need
support in the art room; you must nurture
their creativity so that they enjoy the process of creating. Using the body as a tool
can affect hyposensitive learners positively,
but may have a negative effect on hypersensitive students. Never force a child who
has sensory issues to touch, smell, taste, or
listen to something if they resist.
A student uses cotton
balls as a sensory
adaptation instead of
a conventional brush
to paint with.
Using the hands is a
great way to engage
in a sensory experience that uses gross
motor skills as well.
Chapter 3 Sensory Stimulation 23
A student creates
art with a textured
rolling pin.
A student rolls tennis
balls in a box across
the paper to create
fuzzy patterns.
Some of the best tools are hands, fingers, and feet, but they should be used
only with nontoxic washable media.
•
Make your own tools using kitchen
objects, car wash items, and pet toys to
encourage your hypo- and hypersensitive learners.
Techniques That Increase
Sensory Stimulation
The following suggestions will increase
the amount of stimulation during
art-making.
24
•
•
Use Bubble Wrap or textured recycled
objects as tools for printing or painting.
•
Incorporate texture plates, floor tiles, or
other rough or smooth surfaces around
your art room.
•
Include wallpaper or varied scrapbook
papers that have tactile surfaces. Papers
may be embossed, glossy, or metallic to
provide a sensory experience.
•
Offer rollers and varied brushes for
painting to create texture and visual
variation for the senses.
•
Use feather dusters to paint with
watercolors for a wonderful sensory
experience.
•
Use string, noodles, tennis balls, and
balloons to apply paint, enabling the
student to engage the senses while
creating visual interest.
•
Try cotton balls for painting; they are
soft and encourage the pincer grasp for
fine motor development.
Understanding how your students learn
will generate ideas for adaptations that
complement the ones I have included here.
If you have students with sensory sensitivity, examine your lesson objectives and
question what you can alter so learners
are engaged, whether they are creating,
presenting, responding to, or connecting
with art. When a student chooses to connect with the artistic process or a work of
art because you adapted a medium, tools, or
techniques, then you are encouraging that
child to flourish as an artist. As an educator,
you are removing the obstacle prohibiting
the student from fully participating in the
act of creation. Students feel free to play
and explore when they are stimulated to
discover what they can achieve. If they feel
safe, because of an adaptation that calms
them instead of overstimulating their
senses, then they will participate without
anxiety. Continuing to discover and develop
new techniques will accomplish the feat of
reaching all of your students, all of the time.
The following techniques have been
shown to be effective with students exhibiting sensory reactions:
•
Use alternative clay for students who
have a negative sensory reaction to
organic clay. You can also place the clay in
a large zipper-top clear bag to be manipulated, with the bag acting as a barrier.
•
Paint or stamp with fruits or vegetables; they stimulate the senses of
smell and touch.
A student draws a
person using a soft
glue bottle.
A student sprinkles
colored sand over a
glue drawing.
A student creates a print with fruits and
vegetables. The smell and texture engage
students in a sensory adventure.
The finished studentcreated sand painting.
Put a corncob holder in fruits and vegetables
for easy gripping.
•
Limit students to only a few choices.
Too many options can cause confusion;
two or three is adequate.
•
When weaving, offer felt or foam strips
to students whose fingers won’t easily manipulate yarn. Include items of
varied textures that stimulate the sense
of touch.
•
Have a pan of beads for students to push
their hands into for sensory stimulation or for a break. Stringing beads on a
shoelace or a piece of thick yarn offers a
sensory experience to the fingers. Many
students who are hyposensitive love
holding yarn, thread, or their hair.
•
Create with colored sand, which stimulates touch and sight.
•
Make monoprints by painting on
acetate, then place a sheet of dampened paper on top. Use a brayer to add
pressure to make the print. You could
place an image underneath the acetate
for students to work from.
Chapter 3 Sensory Stimulation 25
Placing a black-andwhite line drawing
underneath as a
student paints on
acetate provides
a visual guide for
painting on the slick
surface and engages
the learner.
A student uses brayer
to make a monoprint.
Different effects can
be created by using
dry or damp papers.
A student-created
monoprint.
Consider This:
Adapting Art Ideas
Students with sensory deficits benefit
from media, tools, and materials that
provide sensory awareness during artmaking. When considering how to adapt
lessons and materials, think of your own
art-making process and how your senses
are stimulated while you create.
Hyposensitive students often remain
unengaged in the creative process unless
it gives them the sensation they are
craving; for instance, a student who seeks
sensory experiences may not engage in
an art lesson on creating pattern with
markers or paint. Ask yourself how you
can make patterns that are visually
engaging using the senses of touch, smell,
and sound. Permitting the use of hands,
textured surfaces, and materials can
give the student craving sensory engagement what they need. Patterns created
on tinfoil, with glue, carved into clay for
monotypes, or stamped can provide the
sensory stimulus they crave. Once you
think of new ways to engage learners
with an interesting surface, move on to
media for painting or coloring. Add scent
to media (or purchase pre-scented) or
add texture to engage the senses of touch
and smell. Think of ways to adapt tools
to paint with. Try several and see which
get the most positive response. Try cotton
balls, cotton swabs, funky brushes, sticks,
or paintbrushes with bells attached or
wrapped in crinkly paper.
Painting on a raised glue surface or
creating shaving cream marbleized prints
creates a sensory experience for students
who may not want to engage with the rest
of the class in an exploration of making
pattern. Open these activities up to the
entire class, so that the student with
sensory needs does not feel singled out.
Ask yourself how you can make
patterns that are visually engaging
using the senses of touch, smell,
and sound.
26
Connecting to Art
Art isn’t much if it’s not meaningful.
Most of us create or relate to art better
when it has meaning to us. Encouraging
students to share why they connect with
certain artworks—theirs or someone
else’s—compels them to describe their
artistic viewpoints. It also helps them
better understand other people. There are
numerous ways to generate discussions
A student paints with fingertips for a
sensory experience.
centered on art, meaning, culture, and the
historical aspect of art and art-making, but
whatever modality you choose for class
participation, consider how it can be modified to stimulate the senses. The choices
we make, whether color, shape, objects, or
size, all add meaning to our art.
In an inclusive setting, explaining why
an idea or artwork is meaningful will be
easy for some students, but not for all
of them. The example below shows one
way of considering how to add sensory
elements to this type of exploration. It
will surely spark other ideas about how
connecting to art through the senses will
work best in your setting.
A student uses a
ruler as a squeegee
to remove excess
shaving cream while
creating marbleized
paper.
A finished marbleized
shaving cream print.
The finished student painting created with
colored glue and watercolor applied with
brush and fingertips.
Chapter 3 Sensory Stimulation 27
Sensory Example
I designed a lesson including sensory
elements that would encourage all
learners to make connections to art. To
begin their exploration of family, traditions, and celebrations focusing on the
Mexican tradition of the Day of the Dead,
the class looked at artworks. To help them
relate to our topic, I decorated the walls
of my art room with reproductions of
Student using a template to create a Day
of the Dead artwork.
Student artwork Day of the Dead.
28
artifacts inspired by the Day of the Dead,
as well as a few hands-on sculptures.
These artifacts aided students in discussions about the traditions surrounding
this day and the people who celebrate it
by comparing it to similar traditions in
their own lives. Students who came from
Mexico explained how they celebrated
the holiday. Students also pointed out
the similarities and differences between
Halloween and the Day of the Dead. They
even noticed that Day of the Dead imagery is found in popular American culture,
such as clothing, tattoos, jewelry, and
accessories adorned with highly decorated skull motifs.
While looking at Day of the Dead
figurines, we discussed how people in
Mexico celebrate life and the souls of the
deceased. Figurines are sometimes funny,
scary, or silly, depicting various professions
or life’s celebrations, such as weddings. To
help engage students and to add a sensory
element to the lesson, I placed on a table
a collection of sensory objects, including
Day of the Dead figurines, toy instruments,
sugar skulls, feathers, fabrics in assorted
colors and textures, spiky balls, a toy
bunny, cotton balls, tinfoil balls, a bell, toy
mouse, and a Halloween clacker. Students
used these items to make connections to
the artifacts. I asked such questions as,
“Which figurine or artwork has a musical
feeling?” They could then find a musical
object on the table, place it beside the
artwork, and explain their choice.
Next I asked, “Which artwork feels soft,
spiky, or bumpy?” Students chose feathers,
a pointy ball, and a piece of corrugated
cardboard from the table and placed them
near the figurine. I asked, “Which artwork
seems noisy?” Some put a bell beside the
artwork. For quiet pieces, students chose
a mouse.
Then I asked students to make connections to the clothing the skeletons wore.
The many colors of the garments can have
various meanings. We explored these ideas
through color and touch. Students made
connections by putting a colored piece
of fabric, lace, or yarn next to items in
response to questions about color. Having
something sensory to hold helps students
focus and connect to the artwork.
We ended by discussing how art helps
us understand cultures and their customs
while preserving those practices for the
future. We realized that we learn a lot about
a culture from the art that its citizens create.
Helping Students
Respond to Art
Responding to art can be a sensory experience, for many images or sculptural works
evoke our memories of certain experiences
through touch, smell, sight, or sound.
Looking at a landscape might remind you
of a special place. The sky might recall the
smell of rain or a dry desert full of dust.
By association, you might hear the sound
of the ocean in a seascape or taste the
salt air. A student might know that the
mountain in Paul Cézanne’s 1897 painting
Mont Sainte-Victoire feels rough and heavy,
but passing around a rock adds a sensory
element that helps the class better make
and understand that association.
Using a Sensory Collection
For our sensory learners, images can and
often do elicit associations to past experiences, both negative and positive. For
some learners with sensory stimulation
issues, as well as multiple disabilities,
verbalizing their reactions may be difficult.
I suggest using the senses to engage all
learners in a fun, multisensory activity in
the art classroom.
Start by building a collection of objects
that can depict how things feel, taste,
smell, sound, and look. For example,
when responding to Frida Kahlo’s painting Self-Portrait with Thorn Necklace and
Creating meaning in art.
Relating ideas to other cultures.
Encourage the use
of fingers to create a stimulating
experience.
Hummingbird, you could lay items on a
table, such as soft flower petals or silk,
feathers, fur, or fabric; a spiky object (to
represent thorns); and heavy and light
objects. Ask students, “How do you think
the hummingbirds feel?” Students can
pick an item that matches their association. You could also put out items in a
variety of colors and ask such questions
as, “What colors did the artist use to create
the leaves in the background?” Some peers
might readily answer yellow and green.
By contrast, students who have sensory
issues would be more likely to engage in
the discussion if they can feel the texture
of the leaf, smell a flower reproduced in a
painting, or taste and smell a lemon when
they see one in a still life.
Chapter 3 Sensory Stimulation 29
Offer various weaving
materials and alternatives. This allows you
to meet students at
their level of readiness and to adjust
materials to meet
the sensory diet each
student needs.
Encourage the
stringing of beads.
This provides a
sensory experience
while developing fine
motor skills.
30
Using 3D and Textural Items
Using Music or Sound
Sculptures, fiber arts, assemblages, and
other textural artworks are effective ways
to engage all students in responding to art.
Many of the senses will be used as they
investigate the real artifacts, as opposed
to images of them; for some students, it is
very difficult to translate or understand a
sculptural object from a two-dimensional
picture of that object. If you have only
images available, consider asking sensorydirected questions regarding how students
think the object feels or sounds, as well as
how large it appears to be in comparison
to them. This is a great way to engage
knowledge seekers in an investigation
of an artwork. Think of how impactful it
could be to hold an object that you see in a
picture or painting in front of you.
Students can be guided through the
process of looking for meaning in a work
of art by using their senses. Choose a
painting to interpret, and then encourage
students to listen to two brief musical selections. Ask, “Which music best
matches the work of art and why?” They
will be interpreting
the painting using
Ask, “Which
the sense of hearing.
music best
The discussion that
matches the
follows will analyze
work of art
why they feel this way.
and why?”
Contrasting opinions
about which is the
correct music to represent the work can
be beneficial in helping students realize
that we all perceive things differently for
various reasons.
While teaching a lesson on Charles
Demuth’s 1928 painting I Saw the Figure
5 in Gold, I began by reading the poem
“The Great Figure” by William Carlos
Williams before showing the artwork on
an interactive whiteboard. As I recited
the verses, I asked the students to close
their eyes and imagine what the painting
might look like. A student with sensory
issues covered his ears just as the other
students said “a fire truck.” He loves
fire trucks, but the associated noise can
cause him to react negatively. Quickly,
I informed him that there was no fire
truck, to which he replied, “Good, because
I would have to hold my ears.” So, paintings do come to life for students, and
they can perceive positive and negative
reactions when responding to works of
art. As always, it is best to capitalize on
the positive aspects of sensory stimulation so your students can successfully
engage and learn.
Helping Students Present Art and Ideas
When you ask students to present their
works of art and ideas about art to others,
either in a discussion, portfolio, or exhibit,
you must consider how this process will
engage your students with sensory deficits.
For students with hyposensitivity, you will
need to use adaptations that stimulate
the senses. Students with hypersensitivity
often have a negative reaction to the way
things smell, feel, or sound; therefore, you
must be aware of students’ needs as well as
what triggers discomfort or a meltdown.
Presenting Art:
Hyposensitivity
As a facilitator, you must stimulate the
senses to trigger a spark and engage the
child with hyposensitivity. You will need
to guide these students in choosing which
artworks to include in a group critique,
show, or portfolio. Depending on the
degree of the diagnosis, minor or major
adaptations may be necessary. Say, for
example, that you are asking students
to choose two personal artworks from a
selection of five for your school’s exhibit.
Students with minor concerns may be able
to stimulate the sense of touch by placing
a soft felt heart beside the two artworks
they love best. For students who are nonverbal and have greater needs, try placing
bells in front of the five artworks and then
direct them to ring the bell next to the two
artworks they like best.
Perhaps you are facilitating a lesson
about how artworks are categorized for
an exhibit, and you desire the students
to group artworks by themes, such as
nature, people, or abstract design. Objects
can be given for the students to hold as
they select pieces, stimulating the sense
of touch: a student could put a seashell or
small branch next to the artworks depicting nature, a small doll or a toy person next
to artworks about people, and a patterned
object next to artworks for abstract design.
This type of exercise is also applicable
to a lesson on why and how artworks are
valued and selected for presentation. Toy
money could be placed next to artworks
considered valuable, followed by a discussion about why. Placing objects next to
artworks stimulates the sense of touch;
clapping next to the one you like stimulates sound and touch; a flower placed
beside artworks that are beautiful stimulates smell and touch.
Presenting Art:
Hypersensitivity
Loud noises, speaking loudly, or discomfort
with the way things smell or feel can trigger overstimulation or an aversion to participating in an activity for hypersensitive
students. Having students present their art
or ideas about art does not need too many
adaptations. The creative process is much
more problematic
You must
for sensory students.
be aware of
However, discussions
students’ needs
that occur during
as well as
activities based on
presenting art often
what triggers
result in lots of talkdiscomfort or a
ing, which creates
meltdown.
noise that may not be
well tolerated by students with hypersensitivities. These students may need to wear
headphones or listen to soothing, quiet
music. Alternatively, the class may need to
speak at a lower volume.
When I think of ways to engage students
with hypersensitivity in choosing artworks
for a portfolio presentation, one particular
child comes immediately to mind. This boy
was bothered by the way things felt as well
as by loud noises; he was also diagnosed
with selective mutism. He typically would
not speak or, if he did, it was only in a yes
or no whisper. In this case, instructing
the class to keep their voices at or below
a quiet indoor level helped reduce the
Chapter 3 Sensory Stimulation 31
Turning Failure
into Success
auditory overstimulation. I directed the boy
to touch the slick surface of an iPad, which
appealed to his sense of touch and added a
calming element to the task. This student
also found it useful to use an assistive communication application on his tablet, which
was designed for a nonverbal user. There
are many assistive apps on the market,
such as Speech Magnet or Dragon Dictation,
as mentioned in Educational Technology
and Mobile Learning, that enable students
to communicate their thoughts and opinions about presenting art and their ideas
about art.7
As you work with students who have
sensory processing disorders, remember
to think about how these disabilities can
hinder or block a child’s ability to learn
and participate. Then consider what you
do now and how you can change in the
future to make learning and communication more accessible to all learners.
Glue dots placed on a surface create a sensory surface.
Devise a convenient system to record and
organize your ideas as you work with your
students such as in a Word doc, notebook,
or spreadsheet. After an art lesson that
does not go as well as you thought it
would, you will have a place to quickly jot
down ways to better adapt the next time.
Failure is often the best motivator to discovery. Sometimes I thought I had a good
idea, only to find that it was too much
work or too frustrating for my students. I
wondered: How can I change this adaptation to make it more manageable? If I
couldn’t think of something, I would share
what I’d tried with peers who are special
education teachers and paraprofessionals.
Often the conversation started like this:
“Here is what I was trying to achieve; it
bombed. Any thoughts?” They would usually laugh and then offer their wisdom.
Adaptive Benefits
for All Students
Most of us use our senses continually
and never stop to think about them; we
take them for granted. “I love the way art
smells,” commented one student. So do I.
Using sensory media can be fun because
it makes creating and responding to art
a holistic experience. Sensory media and
An abstract line drawing a student created
with glue.
The student paints areas after the glue is dry.
The dried glue makes an engaging sensory
surface to paint on, and it keeps the paint in
confined areas.
32
tools encourage learners to relax, explore,
and play. In case you haven’t heard, play
generates ideas, and ideas can turn into
great art. Many of the ideas I have developed for sensory adaptations are used
with the entire class. Who wouldn’t love
painting with tennis balls, making prints
from shaving cream, and discovering how
to pull a monoprint? Engaging the senses
while you create deepens learning as students process and participate fully in art.
Consider This:
Sensory Stimulation
Here are some parting thoughts as you
develop your philosophical framework.
Recalling the students you teach on a
weekly basis, consider the following
questions:
•
How can you adapt a lesson to entice
students who need greater sensory
stimulation when creating and
responding to art?
•
Where can you add sensory items into
your lessons to heighten the experience
for all students?
Challenge yourself:
•
•
•
Start collecting an assortment of
objects that can be used to create with,
and assemble a collection to use when
responding to art. Collaborate with your
learning community regarding suggestions for what to include and what
to avoid.
Get to know your students who
experience negative sensations from
sensory input.
Consider which elements in your
lessons might have a negative impact
on sensitive students. How would a
student who shuts down with loud
noises respond to a painting depicting a famous battle or another loud
sound? Analyze the big idea that you
were trying to achieve in the lesson and
consider replacing the painting with
another artwork.
By considering these ideas and challenging yourself to add sensory elements to
your lessons, you will create an environment that engages all learners through
their senses. Your classroom will become a
calm and welcoming place where individuals can excitedly and safely create and
respond to art.
Notes
1 Lucy Miller, et al., Sensational Kids: Hope and Help for Children with
Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD) (New York, NY: Tarcher-Perigee
Book, 2014).
2 Lucy Miller, et al., Sensational Kids.
3 Lucy Miller, et al., Sensational Kids.
4 The Understood Team, “Understanding Sensory Processing Issues,” accessed August 10, 2018. Understood.
org: www.understood.org/en/learning-attention-issues/
child-learning-disabilities/sensory-processing-issues/
understanding-sensory-processing-issues.
5 Gail J. Richard and Debra Reichert Hoge, The Source for Syndromes (East Moline, IL: LinguiSystems, 1999).
6 “Sensory Differences,” The National Autistic Society, accessed
January 7, 2018, http://www.autism.org.uk/about/behaviour/
sensory-world.aspx.
7 “5 Excellent Text to Speech iPad Apps for Teachers and
Students,” Educational Technology and Mobile Learning,
accessed January 7, 2018, http://www.educatorstechnology.
com/2013/11/5-excellent-text-to-speech-ipad-apps.html.
Additional Resources
National Core Arts Standards website, accessed January 7, 2018,
http://www.nationalartsstandards.org.
“Sensory Processing FAQ.” Child Mind Institute, accessed August, 16,
2018. Child Mind Institute, 26 Mar. 2018, childmind.org/article/
sensory-processing-faq/.
Chapter 3 Sensory Stimulation 33
Chapter 4
Low Muscle Tone
(Hypotonia)
“The greatest challenge to any thinker is stating the problem
in a way that will allow a solution.”
Bertrand Russell
Low muscle tone, or hypotonia, is often
described as a person’s muscles being
“floppy”; the muscles are weak and lack
stamina, causing them to fatigue easily.
Hypotonia also affects the speed of the
muscles’ response and their ability to stay
contracted. Low muscle tone affects all of
the muscles, causing sitting difficulties,
a lack of trunk control, speech delays,
and diminished neck strength, which
may result in the head tilting to one side
and trouble with eye tracking. Hypotonic
children may also have weak reflexes.1 It
therefore takes these students much more
effort to hold a pencil or a brush or even
to sit for extended periods. You may notice
that they have difficulty getting a tool to
do what they want it to do, which may
lead to frustration and fatigue. Dipping a
brush into the color of choice or applying
the paint where they want it can also be a
challenge. Adapting the tools and media,
and your preparation and instruction will
help these students create and respond to
art by working through what they can do,
instead of what they cannot.
Using soft squeeze bottles for glue and paint will help all students be successful.
34
Creating Art
After discovering the metamorphosis that
occurred with my students by adapting
my ideas, methods, tools, and techniques,
I searched for ideas in catalogues, stores,
and the carts of my school’s occupational
and physical therapists. I also collaborated
with my colleagues to learn any tricks
they had up their sleeves to add to my
collection of ways to adapt art to meet the
needs of all learners. I would see things at
the hardware, grocery, and toy stores and
imagine which students could use the item
to enable them to make art. I watched my
students and looked for the roadblocks that
impeded their progress in art, and I sought
ways to knock those barriers down. I guess
you could say it became my mission.
Tips for Adapting Art Media
Imagine threading a needle while standing on a rocking boat. That is what I think
of when I see a hypotonic student trying
to dip a paintbrush into a single color on
a narrow strip of watercolors. It is a hard
target to hit when your muscles are not
doing what you want them to do.
Modifying media for students with
low muscle tone is relatively easy and
best kept simple. In the above example, it
is much less difficult for students to use
larger tempera cakes. Isolating each color
makes the process even easier.
Questions to Think About
As you read this chapter, consider the following questions:
1. What barriers can you remove in your classroom so that
students with low muscle tone can participate fully and
successfully in creating art?
2. How will you gain a deeper understanding of your
students diagnosed with hypotonia and their needs when
creating and connecting with art?
3. How will pre-assessment of students’ skills help you
create appropriate adaptations?
A lesson requiring students to use traditional crayons to color a large expanse
would fatigue and frustrate a student
with weakened muscle control. Adapt the
medium by using Crayola Twistables or
markers, which fill an area more quickly
and glide across paper more easily,
thus reducing the possibility of fatigue
while still meeting the lesson objectives.
FingerMax fingertip
brushes.
Do-A-Dot marker
paints.
Use a foam paint applicator and secure the
stencil with Blu-Tack or tape if needed.
Chapter 4 Low Muscle Tone (Hypotonia)
35
Tim’s Story: Making Art Enjoyable
When I first encountered Tim, he was standing in the doorway to my art room looking
toward the floor saying, “No, I say no, no,”
as a paraprofessional tried to persuade him
to enter. Tim was used to getting his way by
being defiant, and it usually worked.
As I spent more time with Tim, I saw
his frustration with making art; his fingers
didn’t always do what he wanted. He
struggled to paint, cut, and hold tools that
most students could manipulate easily. He
fatigued easily and had difficulty completing his work. I understood that he needed
to feel successful in art-making if I wanted
him to stay in class for the full period and
not say, “I’m done,” every few minutes as a
way out.
I noticed that when I told Tim to paint
a wavy line from the bottom of the paper
toward the top, he struggled. But when he
started at the top and painted toward to the
bottom, he was successful. Experimenting
can often lead to success, and such was
the case for Tim. His doorknob grasp of
the paintbrush made it hard for him to see
what he was doing and to paint within an
outlined area. My solution was to purchase some Styrofoam balls at a craft
store and push a big, short paintbrush
through one. This adaptation allowed
Tim to hold the brush in a manner that
was more suited to his grasp.
Tim still had his defiant bouts in the
art room. Once I realized that his desire
to leave before class was over was
usually associated with the frustration
he was experiencing, I was able to step
in, give him a movement break, and
then adapt the lesson, tool, or medium
to help him feel successful. Everyone
has the desire to please and achieve;
our job as art teachers is to discover the
path our students need to get there.
Three years quickly passed and
an unsure child grew in confidence.
Tim would even volunteer to help
other students with disabilities when
they became frustrated. He eventually
developed a cheeky sense of humor
and would imitate the sing-song voice
I use when calling for someone. It was
important to Tim’s success that he felt
comfortable with me; his teasing told
me that he did. It was through this
comfort level that I was able to convince
him to try various tools and media
to create art. He trusted that I would
give him the adaptations he needed
and find the solution to the problems
he encountered. These modifications
removed the barriers that obstructed
the creative process and helped cultivate his confidence. It can help your
students’ creativity bloom, too.
Thicker objects are easier to grasp, so keep
size in mind when you select pencils,
crayons, brushes, and other drawing tools.
Use alternative objects for painting, such
as sponge pieces clipped onto clothespins
or fillable handled sponges for dishes.
Remember to schedule movement breaks
and be cognizant of the amount of work
you expect students diagnosed with low
muscle tone to accomplish. Get together
with your colleagues for advice and support, and instruct paraprofessionals to
guide the students as they work, interceding only when necessary.
Paintbrushes can
be adapted for
students who
have a doorknob
grasp.
36
Use adaptive brushes and paints with large
color wells or single containers of paint.
Be cognizant of fatigue in students
with low muscle tone. Focus on
the skill being taught; have the
student cut half and you or a
paraprofessional can do the rest.
Glue empty film canisters or corks
to shapes for printing to adapt
for learners’ grasp. Pre-made
shapes can be used to create
patterns when a student cannot.
Sitting “W” style is a natural position students use to compensate
for lack of muscle tone. If working
in a chair is difficult, allow them
to sit on the floor. Invite a few
students without disabilities to
join in on drawing or painting on
the floor—they will love it.
Isolate colors by using paper with holes cut
into it to help students avoid the frustration
of dipping into another color due to lack of
hand-eye coordination.
Many of the adaptations I suggest
involve clearing a pathway by removing
obstacles to art-making. For your own
lessons, you may need to break down the
artistic process into smaller steps, which
may be beneficial to the entire class as
well. Students will “climb” those steps at
varying speeds, just as they do stairs in a
building, but with the adaptations, all the
students will be able to succeed.
The following tips can help reduce student frustration and lead to greater success:
•
Separate paint colors or use individual
containers to avoid accidental color
mixing.
•
Tape down unstable containers so they
do not accidentally get knocked over.
•
Use tracers and stencils attached to
paper with blue poster tack or tape to
keep paint in the desired area or mask
areas that should not be painted.
•
Use a hand-over-hand technique to add
strength when rolling out clay.
•
Use soft bottles when gluing, or spread
glue beforehand and allow students to
press shapes into it.
•
Add liquid dish soap to tempera paint
so that it spreads more easily.
•
Tape or secure artwork to the work
surface so it does not move, allowing
the helper hand to assist with balance.
Sculpture media can also be adapted for
students who have hypotonia. Allow learners to manipulate and cut clay more easily
by using stencils or cookie cutters; using
slats when rolling out clay will keep the
slab a uniform size. Encourage paraprofessionals to make the clay project as well,
modeling the step-by-step process instead
of doing the work for the student or relying
solely on hand-over-hand instruction.
Chapter 4 Low Muscle Tone (Hypotonia)
37
Tips for Adapting Process: Tools and Techniques
A wide variety of adapted tools for artmaking are available through the specialty
catalogues. You can purchase these modified tools or see how a particular tool works
and create your own. Each child is different,
as is each child’s grasping style or strength
and degree of hypotonia, so one type of tool
may not work for every student. It helps to
offer several options, and these new tools
can be fun for all students to try.
Offering a variety of brushes can turn
a traditional painting lesson into an unexpected exploration of texture and technique.
Be sure to confer with your school’s occupational therapist, who may have therapeutic
items such as a weighted handwriting glove,
which can also be used for painting. Tracers
can help students guide a pencil or crayon
around an edge of a shape that they might
not be able to draw freehand.
It is important to remember that the
level of adaptation varies from one learner
to the next. One student may need assistance to draw the shape of a heart independently, while another may need to use a
tracer. Scissors are available with different
Try a variety of
scissors until you
have success. What
works for one child
may not be best for
another. Consult
with their teacher or
paraprofessional for
suggestions.
modifications; having an assortment will
allow you, the students, and the paraprofessional to decide which type works
best for each project. To assist in working
large muscles, encourage students to take
breaks, lift heavy objects (“Carry this paint
to the closet, please”), and press objects
into or onto surfaces, standing up to press
objects down when gluing, kneading clay,
or using a paper punch to develop hand
and arm strength, and the like.
Tools
The following tools can be helpful in
assisting students with low muscle tone:
•
Egg-handled brushes and shaving
cream brushes with larger handles,
available in catalogues. Create your
own by placing foam or a tennis ball
around a traditional handle.
•
Foam brushes or a dish sponge with a
tube handle that can be filled with paint.
•
Tools weighted with metal nuts and
washers to help those with featherweight pressure when drawing. You can
also purchase a weighted wristband
from a catalogue of occupational
therapy products.
•
Spring-loaded scissors for those with
weak hand strength.
•
Homemade printmaking shapes cut
from Miracle Sponges.
•
Use tracers secured with Blu-Tack to
aid in drawing.
Looking at common art-making tools in a
new light and adapting them will empower
your students to express themselves more
freely. However, adjusting the tools is not
enough—you must also instruct the students on how to use them, finding the path
that is most advantageous for each child. If
students have more control standing than
sitting, good; if they have even better results
painting when sitting cross-legged on the
38
Use soft squeeze
bottles for glue and
paint when grip
strength is weak.
floor, great. Byron and McEntee recommend taping the drawing or painting paper
to the wall or table to see what elicits the
best results.2 Spending a few classes at the
beginning of the school year experimenting
like this is not wasting precious art time; it
is setting up your students to be creative,
independent artists who make art by themselves while being guided by caring adults.
Techniques
Enlisting a few of the above adaptations
for students with low muscle tone will
get you started, but I am sure it will also
help you generate your own ideas, solutions, and adaptations for the lessons you
design for your classes. Your motive for
considering adaptions should be how you
can remove barriers that might prohibit or
alter the flow of creativity. As students are
striving to do their best and create art, we
can help them reach this goal by removing
impediments that might result in frustration or abandoning the work.
Use large hole punchers to cut out shapes and build body strength.
Clay Adaptations
•
•
•
•
Use a slab roller or pre-roll a piece
of clay for students with low muscle
tone.
Have students stand to roll out the
clay, which will give them more
leverage than sitting at a table.
Have students trace the outline they
are cutting with a pencil or stylus to
leave a guide mark in the clay before
they cut with a fettling knife. If they
cannot cut, have the paraprofessional
use the hand-over-hand technique.
Instruct students to use a toothbrush
to score the clay when scoring and
slipping two pieces together. Demonstrate a back-and-forth rubbing
motion, then dip the toothbrush into
the slip. Have them apply the slip to
the two surfaces.
•
When applying glaze to a finished
piece, use small pieces of a sponge
clipped on a clothespin instead of a
brush if holding and manipulating
a paintbrush does not produce the
desired result.
Keep it simple. Use cookie cutters, lids,
and containers for pre-made shapes.
Chapter 4 Low Muscle Tone (Hypotonia)
39
Movement Breaks: Why, When, and How
Why? Movement breaks allow time to decompress and
switch the use of muscle groups, enabling students to sit for
longer periods. Such breaks result in greater productivity and
enjoyment in art-making.
When? If you see a student starting to tire, getting anxious,
fidgeting, or wanting to leave the room, it is time for a movement break.
How? Ask the student to take a quick trip around the art
room to pass out materials. Longer breaks need planning;
for example, arrange with another teacher for the student to
deliver something to her classroom. In turn, that teacher can
send the student back with something for the art room.
This is not an easy task, and it will not
occur overnight. It has taken me years to
develop and compile my arsenal of modifications, and I continue to alter and refine
them as I meet each new student entering
my art room. Some lessons will need more
adaptations than others, so add things
when you can. Remember that you are not
alone—the students’ teachers, parents,
and paraprofessionals are there to support
your endeavors.
Here are a few techniques that can lead
to success:
40
•
Keep the cutting of shapes simple; or
have students cut out half, and you or
an aide cut the other half, to prevent
fatigue.
•
Allow students to work at the size
that suits them best. A child who has
limited ability to move hands or wrists
might need a smaller paper, whereas
students who have difficulty controlling their muscles might need a larger
surface on which to work.
•
All student projects need not look the
same, as long as they meet the lesson
objectives.
•
Experiment with where students create: table, floor, wall, blackboard.
Allow the use of a light box tracer for
students who have difficulty drawing
independently. Give them a few choices of
subjects to pick from so they can still express
their creativity.
Use an interactive whiteboard to illustrate
concepts, engage muscles, and encourage
those with limited speech to participate in
art criticism.
•
Allow students to use a light board or
window to trace an outline or transfer
a design.
•
Tape or clamp artwork to a table or
easel so that it does not move when
being worked on.
•
Have students paint on glossy surfaces,
such as acetate, the shiny side of poster
board, or Bristol board, which allow
liquids to glide more easily.
Consider This:
Adapting Art Ideas
Students who have low muscle tone often
feel frustrated because their muscles
fatigue easily. As a result, sitting for long
periods may be challenging for them. Try
one or several of the following adaptations
to help them better engage:
•
Encourage movement breaks.
•
Build into your lessons a variety of
activities that avoid repetitive actions
and switch active muscle groups, such
as a mixed-media project that combines painting with pressing stamps or
printing.
•
For students with weak trunk control,
adjust how or where they work to
provide more stability:
Secure students’ papers to a slant
board, or use a two-inch binder to
prop up their work surface.
Have students work while sitting
cross-legged or W style on the floor,
which not only provides trunk stability but also decreases involuntary
movements.
Allow students to use the floor or
wall as a surface on which to create.
◦
◦
◦
Connecting to Art
Meaningful connections to art have great
power; relating your own experiences to a
work of art enables you to connect to the
work at a deeper level. Creating opportunities for your students to make art that
has personal meaning to them and to the
world in which they live helps to validate
who they are as people. Discussing how
artists draw on their own knowledge and
life experiences gives your students an
appetite for sharing their own personal
meaning in works of art they create or
view. Connections are made to time,
place, culture, and community as students
analyze works of art. Allowing students
to walk around instead of having a seated
discussion will give all learners a movement break. For students with low muscle
tone, this is a necessary break that helps
to engage the gross motor muscles and
keep them interested in the discussion.
Something as simple as this can create a
spark and allow a student to relate to the
topic of the discussion.
Block out areas when
painting to assist in
creating images.
Interactive Response:
Comparing and Contrasting
Venn diagrams are a great way to help
students compare and contrast ideas.
Draw a large Venn diagram on the
board and invite students to walk up
and add their ideas. If students have
not yet developed a sight vocabulary
or have difficulty communicating,
allow them to use images.
Use printed rollers
or stamps to create
patterns if a disability
prevents a student
from drawing patterns freehand.
Chapter 4 Low Muscle Tone (Hypotonia)
41
Art Exploration: Grade Two
As the second-grade students excitedly
enter the art classroom, they rush to their
tables to find stacks of images from various periods and places around the world.
As they sift through the pictures, they
begin to chatter about them, making automatic connections across time, country,
and culture while discovering the theme:
family portraits. After a bit of independent
exploration, I gather them for an introduction to the lesson.
I ask students to be investigators
and to look for clues that will help them
determine if the artworks in the pictures
are from today or were made long ago. To
assist with their analysis of the details,
I illustrate how to make decisions about
the age or era of an artwork. I show them
five different phones: an 1800s wooden
wall phone with a handheld bell to speak
into, a black rotary desk phone from the
1930s, the first “brick” cellphone from
1983, a football phone from the early
Use soft plastic
squeeze bottles for
glue or paint for
students with weak
muscles.
Adapt a weaving
project by using
color-coded thick
yarns or fabric
strips, and instruct
students to lift the
blues and yellows.
Allow students who
cannot weave to glue
various textures to
a cardboard surface
to create a textured
fiber arts piece.
42
1990s, and my current smartphone. (This
can be done with any object that has
changed in the past hundred years.) I ask,
“Which phone do you think is the oldest
and why? How do you know which is the
newest? What clues help you come to
this conclusion?”
After sharing and discussing various
ideas about how we know if things are
older or newer, I ask them to use those
same methods to arrange the art images
in chronological order. Students work as
a group to place the artwork they feel
is the oldest at one end and the most
recent at the other, and then they fill in
the middle.
As they worked, students began to
question and talk about one particular
image, Walker Evans’s portrait of a family
from the Dustbowl during the Depression. They were curious and wanted to
know why the people were dirty. We
brainstormed about why people are often
soiled; their answers ranged from being
poor to not having a washing machine,
until we ultimately arrived at the conclusion that working makes you dirty. The
conversation led to more pictures being
quickly displayed on the whiteboard,
along with brief information about the
Dustbowl and Great Depression. The
students’ questions and natural curiosity helped them empathize with this
family and develop a deeper understanding of life during this difficult era in
American history.
The lesson continued with a discussion about family. Given the variety of
family compositions, I felt that it was
important to explore the concept of who
makes up each student’s family so they
could draw the people they consider their
family members, whether that is parents
and siblings, grandparents, or other relatives, foster parents, friends, and so on.
This was an easy concept for the children
and required only brief consideration by
asking such questions as, “What makes
Take a Risk:
Choosing Photos
Wonderful connections to the world
are made by viewing unfamiliar
images that make students question
and step out of their own experience.
Depending on your class, you might
find one or more of the following artists interesting to explore:
John Biggers
John Brewster, Jr.
Margaret Bourke-White
Walker Evans
Lee Soo-Auck
Alice Neel
Nicholas Nixon
Kehinde Wiley
someone important enough to consider
them family? Who can people live with?
What people do you consider to be in
your family?”
Next, students illustrated their family
while meeting the following objectives:
the portrait must show the time of year
(season), the place you are located, the
people in your family, and details such
as clothing and other items that help the
viewer understand where and when your
family is living.
By guiding the students to make connections and develop ideas about past
and present, I helped them gain a deeper
perspective of their peers and others in
their world. In addition, it seemed as if
they were better able to synthesize the
meaning in the art images they viewed,
and could make meaningful choices about
how to tell a story of time and place in
their own work.
How the Lesson Was Adapted
Many lessons that you already teach can
be modified for students with low muscle
tone. For example, prior to adapting the
lesson described above, I had the students
work in small groups to organize the
images while sitting at their tables. The
modification of standing and moving
around assists hypotonic students by letting them engage different muscles. I also
gave them the option to sit on the floor or
at a table and scheduled movement breaks
to help reduce muscle fatigue.
Because many students with low muscle
tone need extra support or stability or may
lack adequate strength to move their hands
as they wish, I use Blu-Tack to hold their
artwork in place while they work. I also have
foam noodles on hand, which can be placed
behind students’ backs to increase support
while seated in a chair. Many art rooms only
have stools for students to sit on; due to the
lack of back support, this can be challenging
for many types of students, not just those
with low muscle tone. Consider having
chairs available. Modifying the work surface
from horizontal tables to the verticality of
walls, doors, and windows changes any lesson into one that increases trunk strength
and therefore gross motor functioning. It
also helps keep students more engaged.
Place a foam noodle
or support behind the
back to help posture.
By guiding the students to make
connections and develop ideas about
past and present, I helped them gain
a deeper perspective of their peers
and others in their world.
Chapter 4 Low Muscle Tone (Hypotonia)
43
The last group of adaptations in this
lesson relates to drawing the portraits.
For some of the students who had
hypotonia or intellectual disabilities, I
enlarged their family photo on a copy
machine and allowed them to trace
it using a light table or window. I also
offered shape tracers to help them outline heads and other body parts. With this
adaptation, some students were able to
complete the portrait without much additional assistance. Although many adaptations are available for all students to use,
tracing should be reserved for those who
would not be successful without it. As
Heather Fountain notes in Differentiated
Instruction in Art, it is not important that
all students do the same thing the same
way, but rather that they have the tools
they need to succeed.3 Most students easily understand when they are told that,
Attach sponges
or wood blocks to
shapes when using
them to print with;
this helps students
who have difficulty
grasping small knobs
and objects.
in a differentiated classroom, the teacher
will give them what they need to do well.
Some students require only minor adaptations, such as working standing up or
using a modified tool, whereas others will
need greater support.
Benefits for All Students
Many of the adaptations for students
with low muscle tone create a classroom
atmosphere in which all students achieve
a greater measure of success. Students
should have the option to create in a
way that makes sense for their bodies,
whether it is standing, sitting, or working
at an angle, against a wall, or on the floor.
Movement breaks provide a built-in stress
release, which also helps students reengage their minds on the task. Movement in
a classroom further benefits students who
are kinesthetic learners or who have ADD
or ADHD by offering opportunities to be
active without getting in trouble, which is
critical for building effective engagement
and a sense of positive self-esteem.
The short, thick
handle of shaving
brushes combined
with the soft bristles
makes painting easier
for students with low
muscle tone.
Wrap Crayola Model Magic or plumber’s
foam around pencils and paint brushes
for grips.
44
Responding to Art
When considering how students interact
with and respond to art, keep in mind that
their responses need not be limited to
verbal communication. Although talking
about art is beneficial, children with low
muscle tone, as well as the entire class,
may also use their bodies in ways that will
better assist them in communicating their
thoughts and opinions.
Since students with low muscle
strength may not be able to sit for prolonged periods, getting them on their
feet for some hands-on investigating will
enhance their ability to engage successfully in discussions. A great way to do
this is to have students imagine that they
are detectives. Offer magnifying glasses,
either real ones or paper cutouts, and ask
students to get up and look for an artwork
that has meaning to them. Alternatively,
you could ask them to find specific items
from a scavenger-hunt list that is waiting
on their table when they arrive to class. Or
direct them to pull a card out of a hat and
then read a description on the card of an
item or idea they need to discover in the
artworks on display.
Including touch as part of a response
is a powerful way to adapt art interaction.
Whenever students stand up and move
toward an artwork to reach or touch it,
they are using large muscles. By pointing
to an area, especially if they cross the midline of the body, students increase their
trunk stability. To foster art response using
touch and interaction, give students word
flashcards, color cards, items with various
textures, or physical objects to place with
the artworks.
Making decisions and showing their
ideas about art through the use of symbolic items can also help students more
fully participate in responding to artworks.
The art criticism game Token Response,
by Eldon Katter and Mary Erickson, serves
this purpose well. In this type of activity, students place shapes next to or on
Fostering Success: Responding to Art
It is essential to establish a comfortable, safe art room where
students do not feel judged and are free to make and explore
art. “Put-ups” instead of put-downs, along with constructive
criticism, are preferred and should be a topic of discussion.
Doing so allows all students to engage in authentic ways that
help them learn from one another’s perspectives, while having their own ideas and voices valued, too.
Use stamps or
stickers to create
patterns if students
cannot make patterns
independently.
Foam printmaking
stamps are great for
creating patterns
or designs when
drawing freehand
is a challenge. All
students will enjoy
creating patterns
with stamps.
artworks in response to them. If sharing
individually, students can simply hold up
their symbolic token as they explain why
they chose it. You can use simple paper
shapes for tokens, depending on what you
hope students will respond to in the artwork. For instance, a heart can represent
love, a red circle with a line through could
indicate something disliked, a smiley face
for happiness, a dinosaur for something
old, a dollar bill for something expensive,
and so on.
Chapter 4 Low Muscle Tone (Hypotonia)
45
Responding to Art: Prompts
For some students, it can be difficult to
answer abstract questions, such as why
they like something or why they chose
a certain work to talk about. Try using
a prompt to encourage participation.
Questions often elicit a response and
many can be answered by nonverbal
students through actions. You might say:
An artwork might elicit meaning
because of its color. An alternative, then,
is to have a stack of felt pieces in different hues; students choose the color they
associate with the feeling, theme, or tone
of the art. Again, you may need to provide the words if a student has a limited
vocabulary. Ask, “Did you pick this color
because it makes you smile or frown? Is
it the color or the dog in the painting that
makes you frown?”
Presenting Art and
Ideas about Art
The ability for all students to show and
share their opinions and assignments is
critical in helping them gain confidence
and the knowledge that their art and
ideas about art are important. There
Easy-grip round
finger crayons are
great for students
with a doorknob
grasp, or they can be
placed on fingertips
when students are
creating art.
46
•
•
•
•
Point to a thing or part of the artwork that you like the most. Why is
it your favorite?
What does this artwork remind
you of?
How does the artwork make you feel?
Does this artwork make you smile or
frown? Show me.
are several ways to meet the needs of
students with low muscle tone. Here are
some suggestions:
As you and your students consider
venues for your exhibit, engage in a
“clothesline critique.” Having students
hang works of art on a clothesline for
discussion seems simple, but it requires
the use of large muscles. Crossing the
midline to attach clothespins builds
stability and trunk control. Fine motor
skills are also developed by pinching the
clothespins to attach the art. Remember
that the muscles of hypotonic children
fatigue easily; therefore, activities such
as written responses regarding artistic
decisions should be minimized. Verbal
responses are less difficult, as is the use of
speech-to-text apps such as Talk for Me,
which was created for people with spoken
communication difficulties. These types of
assistive technologies will allow students
to connect and converse more easily.
Selecting Artworks
for Presentation
The selection process, whether for a
solo exhibit or a group show, compels
us to consider what we value in art and
why. For students with low muscle tone,
making those decisions and explaining
their reasons can be difficult. Let’s say,
for example, that students have been
instructed to choose four works from their
portfolio. There are several ways to adapt
the selection process that take into consideration muscle fatigue and the speech
delays that often accompany hypotonia.
Process of Elimination Technique
Telling students to lay out all of their work
on a table and then to pick four can be
overwhelming for them. Instead, try the
process of elimination method. Hold up
two pieces and ask, “Do you want to put
this one or this one in the show?” Then do
the same for two more, repeating the process until half the works are eliminated.
Lay the remaining artworks on a table and
begin the process of elimination again,
repeating until only four works remain.
The remaining four objects are the selections for the show.
Stars of the Portfolio
Discuss the students’ portfolios with them,
recalling which techniques were favorites
or worked well and what subjects, media,
and types of art allowed them to create
the most meaningful art. Ask them why
and how along the way. Students who
have speech delays may need to be posed
a series of yes-or-no questions. At the end,
direct the students to place four yellow
stars next to the artworks they decided to
place in the exhibit.
decisions. For example, a picture of
a color wheel with the word “colors”
under it would be selected by students
if they chose the work because they
like its colors; a labeled photo of paint,
clay, or markers would be chosen if they
selected the artwork because they like
the medium. Journal entries can be more
easily completed if they are transcribed by
a paraprofessional or recorded using an
iPad or talk-to-text application.
Categorizing artworks for an exhibit
may require a similar adaptation. When
choosing works for a themed show, use
picture-word cards illustrated with a still
life, portrait, landscape, abstraction, and
so on. These can help students recall
the various types of art, or they can be
placed beside an artwork to assist in communicating a student’s selection. Getting
children up and moving during the selection process also works large muscles
and gets the blood flowing to the limbs
and brain.
Use tools such as
egg-handled brushes
or fingertip brushes
that adapt for grip,
and consider the
student’s hand
strength when making modifications.
Talking and Writing
about Choices
Discussions about why students chose
particular works often require an adaptation for writing, and speech is often
affected in children with low muscle tone.
Asking “Why did you choose this work
of art?” can be replaced by a yes-or-no
question, such as, “Did you choose this
artwork because of its subject? Its color?
The technique? The medium?” Pictureword cards with images that correlate
with the text can be helpful in verbalizing
Chapter 4 Low Muscle Tone (Hypotonia)
47
Virtual Presentations
and Portfolios
Interactive whiteboards, tablets, and
computers are a great way for students to
create electronic portfolios and exhibits.
For learners with low muscle tone, touch
screens are best since they require less
fine motor skills to achieve the desired
results. Younger students may
There are myriad
use apps that allow them to create written or audio recordings to
ways and methods to
accompany their artworks. Artfacilitate presentations
ist statements or conversations
of student artwork.
documenting why works of art
were selected give insights into what the
student considered when arranging a collection for presentation.
There are myriad ways and methods
to facilitate presentations of student
artwork. As you guide your class through
the selection and presentation process,
consider how students with low muscle
tone will participate and share in presenting artwork of themselves and others to a
larger audience.
Do-A-Dot marker paints roll on color, helping students with
low stamina.
48
Adaptive Benefits for
All Students
Adapting tools, media, processes, and
instruction can be a lively change for all
learners. Many modifications, such as
Do-A-Dot markers, textured paint applicators, stamps for patterns, and adapted
brushes, may be offered to all students,
opening up new avenues for creating. I
often hear students say, “Why don’t I get
to use a brush like that?” I tell them they
can, and they often try it. Some stay with
it, while others gravitate back to traditional tools.
The benefit comes from students gaining an understanding of their classmates
who have deficits and how those children
create and engage in art, thus building
acceptance and tolerance. Activities that
encourage all students, not just those
with low muscle tone, to get out of their
seats and work on vertical surfaces
benefit everyone by increasing blood flow
to the brain. Professional presenters use
this same strategy to make their presentations interactive and keep audiences
alert and engaged. When students are
not actively participating in making art,
they need to be engaged in other handson activities to learn. Learning occurs
when students are actively participating
in accumulating the knowledge they
seek. By helping children who have a low
muscle disability, you are implementing
strategies that will benefit the class as a
whole.
Consider This:
Low Muscle Tone
As you design a new lesson or redesign
an old favorite, create a mental image of a
student who has low muscle tone (I think
of a former student named Tim) and envision that student performing each step.
This technique helps me think beyond
students’ typical actions and responses.
It often leads me to have those eureka
moments, when I discover how to help all
my students be successful in the lesson. I
ask myself questions like:
•
How will Tim be able to take part in the
conversation about family portraits?
•
Will he be able to draw a portrait
independently?
•
What adaptations and modifications
do I need to make for him to
be successful?
•
How can I teach and engage him
in this lesson and meet both the
national standard and my own lesson
objectives?
I challenge you to take a lesson that
you feel is successful and engage in the
process described above. See what aha
moments occur and what adaptations
come to mind. While thinking through
this process of developing and testing a
new lesson or idea, maybe you, like me,
will recollect a student who would benefit
from this new approach. As you come up
with the answers to your own classroom
challenges, be sure to try them out, make
adjustments, and, as always, consult and
collaborate with your colleagues.
Notes
1 “Hypotonia Information Page,” National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, accessed January 17, 2018,
https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/All-Disorders/
Hypotonia-Information-Page.
2 T. Byron and P. McEntee, “Art-making: An Impact on Fine Motor
Development,” Resource packet distributed at a Chester County
Intermediate Unit In-Service, 2006.
3 Heather Fountain, Differentiated Instruction in Art. (Worcester,
MA: Davis Publications, 2015).
Additional Resources
Paula Eubanks, “Art as a Visual Language that Supports Verbal
Development,” in Issues and Approaches to Art for Students with
Special Needs. Andra L. Nyman and Anne M. Jenkins, eds. (Reston, VA: National Art Education Association, 1999), 109–117.
D. Blandy, “A Disability Aesthetic, Inclusion, and Art Education,” in
Nyman and Jenkins, Issues and Approaches to Art, 34–41.
Beverly Levett Gerber and Doris M. Guay, eds., Reaching and Teaching Students with Special Needs through Art (Reston, VA: National
Art Education Association, 2006).
“Hypotonia Is Also Known as Low Muscle Tone,” Our Journey
(blog), accessed January 7, 2018, http://www.cdadc.com/ds/
hypotonia.htm.
“Low Muscle Tone and Hypotonia—Diagnosis and Treatment,” Our
Journey (blog), accessed January 17, 2018, http://www.cdadc.
com/hypotonia-low-muscle-tone/hypotonia-low-muscle-tonediagnosis-early-treatment.html.
Chapter 4 Low Muscle Tone (Hypotonia)
49
Chapter 5
Visual Impairments
“Close both eyes to see with the other eye.”
Rumi
Art is a visual subject and adaptations
must be made to assist learners who
have visual impairments by considering
how the disability affects their perception and participation when creating
and responding to art. Acquiring a clear
understanding of what impact a visual
impairment has on a student’s learning
will help you adapt your lessons, as well
as your way of thinking about art, so
that all students can fully engage in the
artistic process.
Using pre-made shapes for ease in cutting and tracing assists students with low vision by helping them to feel the
shape of an object.
50
Types of Visual Impairment
Visual impairments range from low vision
to color vision impairments to total vision
loss. Such impairments can include reduced
visual acuity, an obstructed or narrowed
field of vision, or failure of visual stimuli to
be sent to or processed by the brain.1
Low Vision
Low vision is a loss of eyesight that can
make everyday activities such as reading,
writing, comprehending images, or perceiving depth difficult or impossible.
Like many impairments, vision loss can
range greatly. It might present itself in one
or more of the following ways:
•
Being able to clearly see only the
periphery of the view in front of you.
•
Having tunnel vision and being able to
see only the center of the view in front
of you.
•
Having contrast sensitivity that makes
it difficult to distinguish items of
similar color or tone.
•
Experiencing loss of depth perception,
which happens when vision is lost in
one eye.
Questions to Think About
As you read this chapter, consider the
following questions:
1. How would having a vision impairment affect a student’s ability to
create and respond to art?
2. What type of obstacles might
occur as students explore the creative
process of art-making? How will this
affect their inquiry into art and the
choices artists make?
•
Being confused because of visual
processing issues that make it hard to
understand what is being viewed.
•
Seeing everything as blurry.
•
Having a blind spot.
•
Seeing only light and shadow.
•
Seeing everything as if through a haze
or glare.
•
Being unable to see in dim light.
•
Being extremely sensitive to light,
which causes the eye to see a washedout image or glare.
Visual Color Deficiency
Visual color disabilities can affect a student
when making art, navigating the art room,
and participating in discussions about art.
Students with limited color vision or color
blindness can usually see most colors but
often have difficulty distinguishing certain
colors.2 This loss can vary from mild to
severe. Red-green color blindness is most
common; blue-yellow color blindness is
less common, and monochromacy rare.
People with red and green deficiency often
experience problems with reds, greens, and
shades between colors such as red-orange;
some colors may appear muddy. Blue and
yellow can be seen but may be confusing.
Blue can be mistaken for green, yellow for
violet or gray.3
Having a student use a coffee can to
cut out clay circles is a great way to
adapt when hand-eye coordination is
a challenge.
3. What types of scaffolding and
modifications should you make to
your lessons to meet the needs of
learners with limited vision?
Chapter 5 Visual Impairments
51
Creating Art
Textured rubbing
plates allow students
with low vision to feel
the surface as they
create.
Typically, your school nurse will be
able to supply a list of students who have
reduced color sensitivity, but it is common
for this type of vision loss to be discovered
only when students begin to interact in art
classrooms. Although females carry the
gene for limited color vision, it is typically
males who are affected.
Blindness
Although we might think of blindness
as the state of seeing nothing at all, that
may not be the case. Most people who
are legally blind have some vision, ranging from seeing things only when they
are very close to the eyes to seeing fields
of color or light/dark shapes. If you have
blind students, talk to them and those
who know them best to determine the
severity of the impairment, which can
range from limited vision to complete
vision loss.
Just because students see poorly or not at
all does not mean they don’t want their
artwork to look good or maybe look like
the work of their sighted peers. Whenever
possible, consult or brainstorm with your
visually impaired students to come up
with adaptations while also preserving
their dignity. Imagining and developing
adaptations is a creative process that
involves a bit of risk-taking and trial and
error. When adapting lessons for students
who have color loss, ask them for ideas
and show them your ideas as well. I found
that as I shared and talked with students,
they provided great feedback about what
did and did not make a difference for
them in the art room.
Keep in mind that children with
visual impairments who have multiple
disabilities may not be able to give such
detailed comments. For these students,
you may need to present two adaptations
and ask them to point to the one they feel
helps the best. You can also consult with
teachers and paraprofessionals who work
with those students daily. Sometimes it is
helpful to construct learning situations in
which students with limited vision work
in groups with sighted peers, collaborating
and exploring artistic techniques through
play, experimentation, and investigation.
Learning from those around them and
having a sense of belonging can deepen
their artistic process.
Visual Color Disorders vs. Color Blindness
The term color blindness is not accurate
because people who have this impairment are not actually blind; rather, they
see things differently. A more accurate
term is visual color impairment. The
cones in our eyes have light-sensitive
pigments that help us perceive color.
It is the lack of one or more of these
52
pigments that creates the impairment.
Each person sees color differently,
depending on how much of this pigment we have. This helps explain why
some people who are highly sensitive to
color can see a wider range of tints and
shades of a color, whereas others see
just a monochromatic hue.
Joe’s Story: Recognizing What a Student Needs
Joe was a student of mine who was
diagnosed with intellectual disabilities, hearing loss, and low vision,
none of which thwarted his desire to
learn. Working with Joe incited my
interest in creating adaptations that
would help him participate fully in
creating and engaging in art, despite
his challenges. I observed that his
head was always close to his work,
for example when he was cutting
along a line or trying to fill in small
areas. This got me thinking and led
me to talk with his special education
teacher. I discovered that dark lines
and bright colors were easier for him
to see, which prompted me to develop
an adaptation that would allow him to
successfully participate in an upcoming watercolor project. After coordinating with Joe on his selection of colors,
I used a marker to outline the areas
he wanted to fill in; the dark bold lines
made it much easier for him to paint
his watercolor. This same technique
helped him cut out shapes in a more
natural, comfortable position. Joe was
able to complete projects independently thanks to this small adaptation,
which eliminated much of his frustration and reduced eyestrain.
A reproduction of a
painting by Arthur
Dove is made by
outlining with a
thin bead of glue
to create a tactile
representation.
General guidelines for adapting lessons for students with limited vision are
simple, but they can make a huge difference. While reading the following sections about adaptations to media, tools,
and techniques, consider which might
work best for students with visual impairments and which might enhance learning
for all students.
Low Vision Adaptations
Many obstacles can be easily removed or
lessened to make art a more natural and
pleasant experience for students who have
low vision. Many of the tools you need
might already exist in your classroom.
Let’s take a look.
providing students the opportunity to
create with new or unusual materials
adds another layer of fun and excitement. Try one or more of the following
suggestions:
•
Tips for Adapting Art Media
Adapting media in ways that engage
the other senses can help students with
visual impairments find multiple ways to
enjoy and experience art. Studies show
that play and experimentation greatly
aid inventive thinking, and many of these
adaptations naturally create an environment for play and experimentation. Also,
Have students use a dark 6B pencil
instead of a lighter one, which will make
work easier to see. The same goes for
most art media—contrast is beneficial.
Many obstacles can be easily removed or lessened
to make art a more natural and pleasant experience
for students who have low vision.
Chapter 5 Visual Impairments
53
Adding Scents to Art
Adding fragrance to your art room can create a wonderful
sensory experience, but be careful of sensitivities or allergies
that students or others in the room may have. It is a good rule
of thumb to use only pure essential oils or culinary items such
as fruits or spices. Food scents—including vanilla, lemon, lime,
orange, mint, cinnamon, rosemary, or clove—will be less reactive to students with allergies. Avoid floral and scented oils that
are not 100 percent natural; these often have added chemicals
and synthetic fragrances that can cause allergic reactions or
asthma attacks in students with respiratory issues. Remember,
a little goes a long way. The odor doesn’t need to reach across
the room, just the location where it is being used.
•
This student artwork
illustrates using neon
paints on a black
surface for visual
adaptation. Neon
paints are easier
to see.
A student uses
textured paint rolling
pins that stimulate
the sense of touch,
which is heightened
in students who have
low vision.
54
Scent paints with essential oils that
relate to each color: for example, lemon
for yellow, grape for purple, mint for
green. This works well for students
with extremely low vision or those who
have no sight by encouraging them to
use their sense of smell when choosing colors. Scented markers also help
students make a sensory connection
to color. The same goes for glue, which
can be scented with essential oils like
orange, thyme, or mint.
•
Mix cornmeal, sand, or other textured
items into paint so that students can
feel where they are painting and associate an alternative sensory experience
with art-making.
•
Create on sandpaper. It engages not
only touch but also hearing.
•
When working with textiles, use thick
pieces of yarn or strips of fabric and
work on a larger scale.
•
Use puff paint so students can feel the
artwork when it is dry.
•
Use Do-A-Dot paint applicators if the
student’s hand-eye coordination makes
dipping a brush into paint too difficult.
Essential oils produce a calming effect and
can assist students who have low vision in
identifying colors when added to media.
Student creating a mandala on sandpaper,
which stimulates the sense of touch.
Student drawing with
Do-A-Dot applicators. Remind
students to use their helper
hand to stabilize the paper
while drawing.
Do-A-Dot applicators.
Exploring a variety of media and adapting
your lessons will assist visually impaired
students in creating and evolving concepts
for making art. As students develop their
ideas and seek solutions to the problems
and investigations presented in the lessons, they will be collecting knowledge as
well as ideas for future art-making.
•
Drawing thick lines made with a bold
marker increases students’ ability to
cut on a line. Have on hand a variety
of Bubble Wrap, burlap, corrugated
cardboard, keys, corks, sponges, and
other 3D items with shape and texture
for printmaking lessons. These items
add a haptic element and can be used
to create patterns more efficiently for
those with limited sight.
•
Use shape stencils as guides when cutting out clay; cookie cutters and cans
can also be used.
•
Place large-print, laminated visual
diagrams and instructions on students’
work surface. Since most people are
visual learners, placing one at each
table will help all students.
•
Put a drop of hot glue on scissors to
indicate where the index finger should
rest when cutting. This will help students
feel the proper way to hold the tool.
Tips for Adapting Process:
Tools and Techniques
When we walk in the dark, we often put
out our hand to feel where we are and to
guide us to our destination. That is what
I think of when I am considering how to
adapt tools and processes for students
with low vision. While contemplating
the knowledge I want them to acquire, I
ask myself how I can help them navigate
through this lesson. If it is an art-making
process, I wonder what can be adapted
to ease their journey. Should it be the
surface, the tools, the process, or all
three? How I adapt a lesson depends on
my objectives and the product or goals I
desire my students to accomplish. Which
tools and techniques might help your
students?
Here are some ideas for tools:
•
Enlarge worksheets or brainstorm
sheets for students with limited vision.
•
Place large-print stickers or a largeprint keyboard skin over existing
computer keys to help students better
navigate the keyboard.
Detail of a
keyboard with
large print keyboard stickers
attached.
Chapter 5 Visual Impairments
55
•
Encourage drawing on textured
surfaces or textured drawing plates.
Students can feel the surface, thus
stimulating multiple senses.
•
Print out copies of artworks being
discussed and place them at each
table. This will help all students better
engage with the work by being able
to look at it closely and discover new
things not seen from afar.
•
Outline art images with a thin line of
glue to create a tactile reproduction. A
raised edge or surface, much like the
raised dots used in the Braille system,
gives a guideline to the overall shapes
of the image.
•
Create a handout of step-by-step
directions for the art-making process
being taught in the lesson, such as
building a coil pot or creating a relief
print. Enlarge the text’s font and add
images. Place one at each table. These
help children with low vision as well as
struggling learners, students who were
not paying attention during demonstrations, or those who were absent for part
of the lesson.
Wikki Stix.
Shapes cut from poster board and outlined
with a thin bead of glue create great tactile
tracers for students with low vision.
•
Enlarge photos or line drawings to
assist students in drawing their choice
of object. This technique is also helpful
to children who cannot draw or paint
independently, because it provides
them with a line drawing as a starting
point.
•
Monoprint plates can be made using
this technique: place string dipped in
glue along the pattern lines and allow
to dry. Once the plate is dry, you can ink
it with a brayer and press paper on top
of the plate, burnish the surface, and
pull your print.
•
Place photos or drawings under white
paper on a light table for easier copying
or transferring of an image or sketch.
•
When demonstrating a technique,
have students touch, hold, and closely
examine each step of the process.
Depending on your students and their
comfort level, one or more of the following ideas may help you teach more
effectively:
56
•
Have students with low vision sit closest to the source of instruction; check
for understanding as you instruct.
•
Outline areas with a thick bead of
colored or black glue and allow it to
dry so that the raised lines can be felt.
This barrier will contain watercolors or
other painting media. Glue drawings
are fun and create an interesting effect
on black paper when filled in with
colorful pastels.
Adaptations for Visual Color
Deficiency (Color Blindness)
Creating sculptures outdoors is a great
activity that engages alternate senses for
students with low vision.
•
Use the hand-over-hand method when
working with clay so that students learn
how hard to press into the material.
•
Describe what is being taught step-bystep. Oral narration can illuminate the
process for those who cannot see it.
•
Allow students to use Wikki Stix to
create a line or shape on paper, which
can then be followed or traced with a
drawing implement.
•
Provide tracers to guide students in
drawing shapes or objects they are
unable to draw independently. Tracers
may be made from oak tag, foamcore,
cardboard, or mat board. Outlining the
tracer’s edge with a black marker will
help ensure success.
•
Use stencils or paper to isolate or mask
areas not being worked on; this will
help keep the rest of the work clean.
•
Take your lesson outside to create 3D
earthworks that stimulate the sense of
touch.
Most artists interpret the world with
great variance. Even two artists standing
side by side will select different shades
of colors or choose diverse aspects to
depict in greater detail. When creating
an artwork, a student who does not have
full color vision may choose a different
shade of red for an apple than a student
without color vision loss, but in most
cases, this isn’t a problem. Remember,
a Cézanne tree is a different shade of
green than a Matisse tree. The issue
arises when students wish to use specific
colors, the ones they know are typically
used, such as blue for the sky, yellow for
the sun, or green for the grass. It is also a
concern when working with color theory,
for students may not be able to see the
same colors as their classmates or may
confuse colors.
How a still life
appears to a student
without color vision
disabilities.
How a still life looks
to a student with
tritanopia, blue
blindness.
How a still life looks
to a student with
protanopia, red
blindness.
Chapter 5 Visual Impairments
57
Adaptations to Techniques
For students experiencing color loss, art
media and tools do not typically need
to be adapted, but several techniques
can assist them to understand color and
navigate its use more effectively. The
following adaptations will help guide their
color choices as well as make the selection
process less frustrating.
•
•
Choose artwork that will help students with certain color needs better
understand the work, such as a work
with fewer reds and greens if you have
a student in your class who has redgreen color blindness.
Keep your art room well lit and position
students who have trouble distinguishing colors near a light source. Good
lighting can help a person with a color
disability distinguish between challenging colors.
•
Create or choose signs, artworks,
and posters that have high contrast
between the foreground and background. Low contrast makes it harder
to distinguish colors.
•
Consider the colors you use to write
on the board. If you write on a green
chalkboard with pink chalk, it will be
Certain color combinations make colors
hard to read or nearly impossible for a
student with a color vision disorder.
58
harder for a student to read than if you
use white chalk. Writing in white on a
black background or black on a white
background, such as a whiteboard, will
help students see information clearly.
•
Label paints so that the names of colors
are visible. This will help students
independently choose colors, even if
they don’t see that color as others do.
•
When pouring paints into a palette,
keep the colors in a consistent order so
that students know where each color
is, even if they cannot distinguish it by
sight. Rainbow order is a great organization method.
•
Choose crayons, pastels, and colored
pencils that have the color names
written on the side. This will assist with
discerning the subtle differences in
colors that can be hard to distinguish.
•
Display a color wheel poster in a prominent place in your classroom; choose
one that has the colors labeled for
quick reference.
•
Have students create a color chart in
their journal or notebook. Instruct them
to include the color names and items
that are often associated with each color.
Label colors that are known to be difficult
for your students with color impairments.
Consider This:
Adapting Art Ideas
Revising a lesson isn’t such a big deal, but
for the student who will benefit from the
changes, it is huge. Every year brings new
students and new challenges; pulling out
a lesson that has worked great previously
may need a new twist if a new student
has a visual impairment. Personally, I love
the challenge and quickly start thinking
of solutions and adaptations to enable
the student to have a successful creative
experience. Whether it is a color vision
deficiency, low vision, or total vision loss
that affects your students, it is your job
to help them navigate along the path
towards success. Praise is a great motivator; be there for them and they will create.
Elementary:
Jamie Wyeth Lesson
Inspired by the combination of my students’
interest in animals and my love of Jamie
Wyeth, I created a lesson that incorporates
both. First, the class gathered to consider
Wyeth’s Portrait of a Pig (1970). We talked
about pigs, listing their body parts and
touching our own noses and ears to make
connections. I passed around a toy pig for
the children to hold and feel, prompting
them to consider facts about these animals.
Students use a combing technique to mix
blue sky into yellow
to get green grass.
Textured combs help
the students to feel
what they are doing
and make contrasting
lines easier to see.
Students mix red and
white to create pink.
Two visually contrasting colors become a
new one.
A template of shapes students used to create
their pigs. Note the thick black line, which
functions as a cutting guide for students with
low vision.
Feeling and creating texture allows the students to grasp the concept of how an image
or subject feels.
Students paint the
shapes that make
up the pig on the
template prior to
cutting them out and
assembling the pig.
This adaptation gave
students a visual
guideline to follow
and involved the fine
motor skill of cutting.
Chapter 5 Visual Impairments
59
Choosing Artwork for Students with Low Vision
When choosing artwork for students
with low vision, consider artwork that
has high contrast, clean clear lines,
and larger areas of color. One example
is the artwork of the Tlingit peoples.
Much of Tlingit art is bold and easy
We imagined what pigs would feel like,
and students decided that pigs would feel
coarse. I passed around rough fabrics such
as burlap so they could experience the
texture. (Note: although this lesson was
limited to pigs, you could explore any animal. I chose to limit the subject because
I thought it would be more attainable for
this class.)
Next, the students drew their own pig.
For those needing extra assistance with
painting, I outlined the animal’s parts with
bold marker or glue. The class created
textures by dragging cardboard combs cut
with various edges, such as zigzag, wavy
and ridged, through the paint. Everyone
was successful in this lesson and enjoyed
exploring varied textures. Moreover,
no one was aware that the lesson was
designed with adaptations specifically for
visually impaired students.
How the Lesson Was Adapted for
Students with Visual Impairments
I adapted the lesson so that all art conversation included an element of touch
and sensory engagement that
Learning that is interactive
involved more than just vision.
calls students to be actively
In the introduction, students
imagined a pig and thought
involved in their own
about its body parts, touched
knowledge acquisition.
a stuffed pig to help trigger
responses, and rubbed their hands on various rough textures to form an idea of how
a real pig might feel.
To create their own artwork, students
could add paint to the paper and then run
various texture combs through it to mimic
a pig’s texture. To assist students who
have low vision or complete vision loss, I
60
to see, even from a distance and by
students who have low vision. This
artwork can open a rich dialogue about
customs and ­traditions of cultures that
differ from those to which students are
accustomed.
outlined the shapes of a pig’s body using
either a bold marker or a line of black glue
that was allowed to dry. Not only could the
bold glue line be seen better, but it created
a textural surface that could be felt as
well. In addition, the raised line assisted
students with filling in the shapes of their
pigs by creating a barrier that prohibited
the paint from running outside the shapes.
When they finished their pieces, I
invited students on a gallery walk, where
they were able to see and/or feel the
artworks made by their peers. This exercise engaged several senses and created
a more interactive exhibit, adding further
context and meaning to the “viewing” of
the artworks.
How the Adaptations Benefited
All Students
Learning that is interactive calls students
to be actively involved in their own knowledge acquisition. Articles such as “Active
Learning: Creating Excitement in the
Classroom”4 and “Does Active Learning
Work? A Review of the Research”5 show
that when students are thus engaged,
they are less likely to exhibit behavioral
problems and are more likely to remember and recall what they have learned.
This lesson helped all my students
actively engage by incorporating multiple
senses. Moreover, students who are less
able to move their bodies or hands in
the ways that they want, or who are less
confident in general, can still be successful in creating artwork through the three
adaptations to the animal drawing lesson
described above.
Create low-relief
sculptures with
texture for students
who have low vision.
Building up a surface
with puzzle pieces,
cardboard, or foam
allows students to
feel the textured
surface they are
creating.
Connecting to Art
We often consider our sight as the only
way to connect to art, but it is important
to broaden our thinking and consider the
myriad paths through which we interact
with and respond to the world around us.
Think of the pleasure you gain by listening to the sound of a sculpture, like those
by Harry Bertoia or George Rhoads, or by
touching fiber arts that have been knitted,
woven, or felted. Who has not put their
hands on a cast metal sculpture to feel the
cool smooth surface? An understanding of
why one creates art and how time, place,
traditions, and cultures can be reflected in
it can be attained with or without sight.
As teachers, we need to help students
connect to art in multiple ways, and
sometimes we must move out of our own
comfort zones to do so.
High Contrast:
Artists to Consider
Students with low vision and visual
color impairments see images,
reproductions, and art more easily when there is a high degree of
contrast. This list includes artists
whose work has high contrast. If
an image is small, consider enlarging it and printing it out for your
students with visual impairments. If
you are projecting images, have the
students with low vision sit in the
front row.
Laylah Ali
Piet Mondrian
Bridget Riley
Romero Britto
Banksy
Andy Warhol
Jessica Fortner
KAWS
Poul Webb
Roy Lichtenstein
Robert Indiana
Edward Gorey
Charley Harper
One way to adapt our teaching of art is
to be more verbal. If the image you select
includes a snake colored red, instead of
asking, “Why did the artist choose this
color?” ask a more specific question, such
as, “Why do you think the artist chose
red to represent the snake?” Students
who cannot see the image or those who
have difficulty distinguishing colors can
still understand that the snake is red and
participate in the discussion.
A common tool used by people who
are blind is auditory description. In our
attempts to be more verbal, we and our
sighted students should use this tool. It
can be done on the spot by explaining the
location and objects shown in an artwork,
including its size and placement compared to other items. It can also be done
through recordings that students listen to
while holding or examining an artwork.
This technique is basically a translation of
the visual elements into another language: words.
Never underestimate the emotional
connection that students can have to a
work of art. An image, whether seen or
described, may contain items that elicit
stories, memories, or feelings. Capitalize
on these personal associations and use
them to help students relate to art in real
ways. For instance, if an artwork shows a
dog, then, by association, students might
think of their own dog or a story about a
dog. This, in turn, could lead them to tell
their own stories about dogs through their
artwork in two or three dimensions.
Chapter 5 Visual Impairments
61
How an artwork
looks to a student
without color vision
impairment.
How an artwork looks
to a student with
protanopia (red-green
color blindness).
How an artwork looks
to a student with tritanopia (blue-yellow
color blindness).
Choosing artworks that are high in contrast makes it easier for students with low
vision to see and recognize the imagery. In
addition, it is helpful to place the artworks
in a location where all students, not just
those who have vision issues, can examine
them more closely. Other students will
most likely want a closer look, too, which
helps the adaptation pass unnoticed. Students diagnosed with low vision may not
see all of the small fine lines and shapes,
so having them work with and make
artworks that have larger defined areas
will be met with more success.
When connecting with art in the classroom, keep in mind the following:
62
•
Use reproductions that can be easily
viewed by all; bold is better.
•
Pass around a copy of the image so
students with low vision can examine
it closely.
•
Adapt your image selection if the class
includes students who have the inability to see all colors.
•
Create copies of the artifacts that have
raised edges or areas so that touching
will assist in comprehension.
•
Use three-dimensional artworks or
objects that stimulate the sense of
touch as often as possible.
•
Check for comprehension and attend
to the needs of your learners who have
diagnoses related to their vision.
•
Bring in 3D artworks so that students
can experience firsthand how they feel,
smell, and appear to them. Allow them
to take their time and examine the art
being discussed.
Consider alternative ways to illustrate a
point. In art criticism, for instance, when you
are discussing repetition in a painting, specifically how a color such as red is repeated
to create rhythm and unity, remember that a
student with color blindness may be unable
to see that color. It would be better to illustrate the concept with an artwork that uses
shape or line to create rhythm and unity.
Conceiving of adaptations for students
with low vision or color vision problems
can be mystifying if you do not understand
how they see the world. Try stepping
into their shoes for a moment. There are
many free color-blind simulator programs
Student artwork inspired by the artist
Elizabeth Murray. Bright contrasting colors
are easier to see for students with visual
color disorders.
Use florescent paint,
paper, and crayons for
students who have
low vision.
online that can help you see images as
they look to students experiencing various color vision disorders.6 I often look at
the artworks I have chosen for my lessons
through that filter to determine if they will
work for all students. This has helped me
spot issues or challenges that students and
I might encounter. For example, I wanted
to show students one of Elizabeth Murray’s
unusually shaped canvases to discuss how
she created unity by repeating the color
red. When I looked at the artwork through
the color-blind simulator, the red appeared
green! I adapted the lesson by choosing a
different artwork by the same artist.
You will come up with various solutions to ensure that every learner understands and connects with art. Some of
your ideas will work, others will not, but
all will be a success because they will help
you get to know and teach your students
better. These simple changes will benefit
the entire class by providing everyone with
an equal opportunity to connect with art
and meet the lesson objectives.
Responding to Art
Examining artists’ use of various media to
express themselves and communicate ideas
may be challenging for visually impaired
students. Some may be unable to see the
details needed to tell if a reproduction is
an oil painting as opposed to a watercolor
painting, or if it is an outdoor installation
in a photograph. It may be challenging to
determine the artist’s intention or the mood
without auditory description.
Consider adding elements that involve
other senses. For example:
•
Pair a piece of music with an artwork
that shares a similar mood or theme.
•
Add sounds that help students feel the
meaning of an artwork.
•
Read a story or poem that helps illustrate the image.
Student-created
Gyotaku art using
florescent paint on
bright colored paper.
•
Integrate 3D items into the discussion.
•
Include textures that can be passed
around and felt.
•
Prepare a copy of the artwork that can
be touched by using glue to outline the
image ahead of time.
If your analysis of the artwork includes a
discussion of the mood portrayed or a consideration of colors, students with visual
color deficiencies may not easily participate or understand. To them, an outdoor
scene could look as if it portrays a dismal
blue-gray day, when in fact the mood is
supposed to be joyful and sunny. Adapting
your thinking and strategies for students
who have color loss will enable them to
interpret and analyze works of art. Many
of the adaptions described above will be
helpful, but also consider the tips discussed in the “Adaptations to Techniques”
section of this chapter (see page 58).
Responding to art allows students to
find meaning in imagery and to understand
the decisions artists make to convey those
meanings. Having a visual impairment can
make this activity more challenging for
both you and your students, but looking at
the task through their eyes and not yours
will make it a lot less difficult.
Chapter 5 Visual Impairments
63
Presenting Art and Ideas about Art
Creating and interpreting art is a very personal thing. When you ask your students
to present, share, and interpret works of
art, you are asking them to reveal part of
themselves, which can be hard for some.
You need to create a caring environment
where students feel safe to partake in
discussions about art. For your learners
with visual impairments you must make
the process of presenting art and artistic
ideas accessible for them; having a caring classroom will support them as they
share and exhibit, whether it is through
a discussion, an online portfolio, a school
exhibit, or an artist statement. Adaptions
will be needed to ensure success for all
your students.
Low Vision
Facilitating activities and discussions that
lead up to the presentation of student artwork is a special role. All of their creativity, artistic choices, and hard work have
brought them to this stage of the artistic
process. Much like a dancer’s opening
night, an exhibition exposes all of the
artist’s hopes and dreams to the eyes
of the world. As an artist myself, I enter
this final stage with both excitement and
trepidation. We are all protective of the
thoughts, emotions, and love we put into
our art.
Creating an Artist Statement
Gaining an understanding of why and how artworks are chosen and presented allows students to better interpret works
of art and understand how art reflects life and life reflects
art. An artist statement explains why and how students
create and inform viewers about the meaning behind their
creations. You can easily create templates to be used by all
students; the text’s font can then be enlarged for students
with low vision. Students with total vision loss can create
oral and auditory artist statements.
64
As you guide students through the
selection process, be mindful of their
ownership of the work. We often begin
by placing the artworks on a wall so that
everyone can stand back and assess.
Although it is important to view art from
this perspective, students with low vision
should be permitted to look at the works
close up first, before they are shown to
others. Encourage them to walk back and
forth to the display area as necessary.
Educators often use written journal
entries and worksheets to aid student
reflection. By analyzing why artworks
were chosen and where they will be
displayed, students
will better underSharing artwork
stand the decisions
helps shape
that galleries and
our views,
museums make
experiences, and
when they present
beliefs about
art to the public.
society, people,
These journal
and the world.
entries or worksheets should
be enlarged or typed in a large font for
students who have low vision. If this
assignment is still too difficult, I suggest a
conversation or dialogue between you or
a paraprofessional and the student. When
documentation is necessary for assessment, the conversation can be recorded,
or a talk-to-text application may be used.
Sharing artwork helps shape our views,
experiences, and beliefs about society,
people, and the world. Verbal sharing
activities, rather than written ones, make
learning and participation more accessible to students with low vision. Pass
around artworks for close examination or
have students line up and go on a “gallery
walk,” strolling past images for inspection.
Once everyone has had a careful look,
then the class can be seated or gathered
together for an in-depth discussion.
This simple modification is beneficial to
all learners because many details and
Printing
If you have access to a 3D printer or a
3D printing lab, transform a selection
of 2D works into 3D pieces. This will
enable visually impaired students to
use other senses as they explore and
understand the artists’ work.
nuances are often missed when artworks
are viewed from a distance.
When displaying student work, be sure
that all signs and identifiers of individual
pieces are typed in bold, large print using
sans-serif fonts that are easy to read.
These minor adaptations will make the
presentation an exciting time for all.
This is a great opportunity to compare
and contrast how one would present 2D
versus 3D art. Students can work collaboratively to organize the exhibition and
to record detailed audio descriptions of
the works presented. Touchable artworks,
such as sculptures, assemblages, weavings, and low reliefs, could be the focus of
the show.
As we share student artworks with
people who are blind, we must consider
how they will navigate and understand
the works presented. Playing recorded
audio descriptions, having students act
as docents to explain pieces and answer
questions, or even offering Braille descriptions when appropriate, will help create a
holistic experience.
Blindness
Flexibility is vital as you guide students
with extensive vision loss in selecting
artworks for exhibition. Remain openminded to new and different ways of
presenting art, and help your students
consider alternatives. Children with vision
loss might use touch to select their art, or
they might like the help of a paraprofessional, peers, or even you to orally describe
and discuss the pieces.
But what about storytelling? A student
who has total vision loss may better
understand where and how the artworks
will be displayed if a clever storyteller
can describe the presentation venue. As
the facilitator, you should pair a visually
impaired student with someone who can
give rich descriptions to help the child
form a clearer picture of the overall site
and the story that the collection of works
will tell.
Categorizing artworks based on a
theme is one of the performance standards of the National Visual Arts Standards (NVAS). For students who are blind
or legally blind, why not choose a 3D
theme or designate a section of a student
exhibit “Three-Dimensional in Nature.”
Wikki Stix adhere
to most surfaces,
creating raised lines
for students to feel
and trace.
This student assemblage illustrates a
tactile surface, which
allows a student
with low vision to
feel what they are
creating.
Chapter 5 Visual Impairments
65
Visual Color Deficiency
Before you decide how and where your
students will present their art or the art of
others, make accommodations so that students with color vision deficiency can fully
participate. Many sighted people may join
in the discussion or exhibit, and they should
be aware that describing works of art using
colors others cannot see may leave some
confused. An alternative is to ask students
to describe the art using objects, subjects,
scale, or artistic style rather than color.
The adaptations described above work
well as students analyze and prepare
works for presentation, but an additional
consideration is how art is displayed.
As artists, we often like to choose font
styles and color combinations that are
Student creating a heart shape using a large stencil which blocks out
areas not to be painted while allowing for freedom of creativity while
achieving the lessons objectives.
Use florescent PlayDoh and bright media
for students who are
visually impaired.
fun, unusual or creative, but which don’t
always match students’ needs. When
creating displays or showcases, we don’t
consider what color combinations are best
for overall visual perception.
Certain color combinations and font
styles can help images and texts be seen
more clearly. For instance, some colors are
easier to read than others. Avoid red text,
as well as red and green combinations in
designs; instead, consider white on a dark
background or black on a white background. Also, to make text more accessible
to everyone, consider increasing contrast
so that the words are more legible. Use a
sans-serif font such as Arial, Helvetica,
or Verdana, which have a consistent line
quality (without thick and thin variations)
that helps the words to be read more easily.6 When students are working with color,
such as creating a display or choosing
mats, be sure to label colors clearly and
provide assistance to children with color
deficiencies, if needed.
As students share their art with others,
instruct them to be cognizant of both their
oral and written descriptions by adding
rich details. These subtle modifications are
just different ways to give information to
viewers as we present, interpret, and share
the work of artists. Think of adaptations
to assist your students with vision impairments. Brainstorm with your colleagues, if
needed, and make the necessary modifications to grant all learners an equitable learning experience and pathway to success.
Adaptive Benefits for
All Students
Art is visual—there is no debating that.
Many of the adaptations presented in
this chapter will enhance learning for
all students. Bright colors and artworks
with high contrast are visually stimulating for everyone. Describing step-by-step
processes, either verbally or by placing
66
laminated handouts on each table, reinforces what is needed for success. Scented
media and tactile surfaces can engage the
senses of all the children by making art an
exciting multisensory experience. Having
students describe artworks using statements that do not rely on color encourages deeper thinking into how artists use
other elements and principles of design.
Students who develop compassion toward
the differences among their peers develop
tolerance while accepting diversity in
the world.
Consider This:
Visual Impairments
Take a few of your favorite art reproductions and run them through an online
color-blindness simulator to see how
students who have color deficiencies
would view them. This step will assist you
in implementing adaptations into your
lessons and discussions about art. It can
also help you decide if an artwork should
be replaced with one that is easier for all
students to see.
Next, choose one of your lessons that
requires the use of images and ask yourself
the following questions: How would students with low vision see this? Could they
see all the details? If not, how would it affect
their participation in a discussion about the
artwork? How might I help them understand how the artist used the media or
techniques to illustrate their ideas? Should
I enlarge the image, bring in an object to
touch, or display the image on a whiteboard
and zoom in on particular areas?
These questions will help guide you
each time you create a lesson for visually
impaired students. Stopping to consider
potential problems and solutions ahead
of time often helps a lesson run smoothly,
avoiding meltdowns, frustrations, apathy,
or other behavioral problems.
A thick line drawn
with a marker to
outline the area to
cut or paint is much
easier to see than a
pencil line.
Notes
1 P. R. Cox and M. K. Dykes, “Effective Classroom Adaptations
for Students with Visual Impairments.” TEACHING Exceptional
Children, 33(6) (2001), 68–74. doi:10.1177/004005990103300609
2 “What Is Colorblindness?” accessed January 7, 2018, http://
colorvisiontesting.com/color2.htmeqwwsa
3 K. Albany-Ward, “What Do You Really Know About Colour
Blindness?” British Journal of School Nursing, 10(4) (2015), 197–199.
doi:10.12968/bjsn.2015.10.4.197
4 Charles C. Bonwell and James A. Eison. “Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom.” ASHE-ERIC Higher Education
Report No. 1. (Washington, DC: The George Washington University, School of Education and Human Development, 1991).
5 M. Prince. “Does Active Learning Work? A Review of the
Research,” Journal of Engineering Education, 93(3) (2004), 223–231.
doi:10.1002/j.2168-9830.2004.tb00809.x
6 C. Willings (n.d.), “Font Legibility for Students Who Are Blind
or Visually Impaired.” Retrieved August 25, 2018, https://www.
teachingvisuallyimpaired.com/font-legibility.html
Additional Resources
“TestingColorVision.com,” Waggoner Color Vision Testing website,
accessed January 17, 2018, http://www.testingcolorvision.com.
“Colour Blindness Simulator,” Etre website, accessed January 17,
2018, http://www.etre.com/tools/colourblindsimulator; “Colour
Blindness: Experience It,” Color Blind Awareness website,
accessed January 7, 2018, http://www.colourblindawareness.
org/colour-blindness/colour-blindness-experience-it.
“Color Vision Testing Made Easy,” Waggoner Color Vision Testing
website, accessed January 17, 2018, http://colorvisiontesting.
com/online%20test.htm.
National Eye Institute. (n.d.). Retrieved August 24, 2018, from
https://nei.nih.gov/
http://www.colorvisiontesting.com/online-test
Chapter 5 Visual Impairments
67
Chapter 6
Gross Motor
Impairments
“A teacher affects eternity; he can never tell where his influence stops.”
Hans Hofmann
Gross motor muscles are the large muscles
of the body that enable us to walk, sit
upright, reach, balance, throw, and lift
objects. If a child has a gross motor disability, he or she may experience delays or
difficulties engaging in these activities. This
condition is often due to weak or underdeveloped muscle strength or central nervous
system damage, which may cause the child
to struggle to complete common, everyday
tasks in the art room. Adaptations can help
these students better engage in creative
activities while also developing the large
muscles that assist in the development of
fine motor muscles. Gross motor delays are
also connected with the way other muscles
function.1 Building tone and strength in the
large muscles through these adaptations
will be advantageous in developing better
fine motor skills as well.
Sitting cross-legged improves stability; encourage your students to sit in this manner when the opportunity presents itself.
68
Creating Art
I am sure that, at some point, we have
all hit the gym or exercised and come to
the realization that building and toning
muscles leads to the development and
better control of those muscles. Whether
swinging a bat or standing in first position
in a ballet class, you get better the more
you do something—your muscles respond.
This is true also with art for students who
have gross motor problems. The more
those students use their large muscles,
the more control they will have of them.
The result is better outcomes of artistic
expression, less frustration, and a feeling
of well-being.
Alternatives Equal Success
As you present artistic problems for your
students to solve, be mindful of the needs
of all learners. Those with gross motor
conditions will benefit from alternative
methods, such as working on the floor or
a vertical surface to increase their trunk
strength. Offering students different tools
for cutting shapes, like large hole punches
or surfaces they can press objects into or
on, encourages them to invent new ideas
and solutions to creating art while developing and toning large muscles.
The Importance of Warm-Up Activities
I often use my demonstration time to warm up students
identified as having large muscle disabilities. I pass around
various objects, asking students to reach for them and using
the whiteboard or chalkboard as a group demonstration
surface to build trunk stability. Warming up large muscles
enables students to sit and attend to the task at hand as you
proceed with your chosen art activity. This exercise will also
help you to get to know your students and see how limitations affect their learning and ability to participate in your
lessons as they create, demonstrate, evaluate, explore, and
interpret art.
Using an interactive
whiteboard is fun and
aids in the development of gross motor
skills by building
trunk strength.
Have students paint
on a vertical surface
and encourage crossing the midline of
the body.
Questions to Think About
As you read this chapter, consider the
following questions:
1. What lessons do you teach that
require the use of gross motor
muscles?
2. Are you aware of the students in
your school who have gross motor
disabilities?
Go big! Painting on a
large surface on the
floor or wall encourages gross motor
development.
3. How can you incorporate gross
motor development, which benefits all
learners, into your classroom routines?
Chapter 6 Gross Motor Impairments
69
Theresa’s Story: An Artist Blooms
Theresa had multiple disabilities, including intellectual disabilities and poor
trunk stability; she was very stubborn yet
extremely loving. Discovering a way to
help Theresa shine in art allowed her to
bloom into a willing artist, one who was
no longer a distraction but rather a star
attraction in the classroom.
I knew that painting on a vertical
surface would build gross motor skills, so
I designed a lesson on head-to-toe selfportraits that included this element. I also
wanted the lesson to be hands-on and
visual, and I wanted to teach it step-bystep to best engage all students, including
Theresa, in learning.
I had recently participated in an inservice workshop on gross and fine motor
skills, where I was introduced to Mat Man,
a set of wood pieces that helps students
identify the shapes that make up parts of
the body: two half circles that look like a
head, two wood strips that look like arms,
etc. Students took turns building Mat Man.
Theresa kept saying, “Me, me,” showing her
eagerness to participate in the activity. It
held her attention and fully engaged her in
the lesson, which kept negative behaviors to
a minimum.
Theresa’s excitement continued as
students took turns creating a head-to-toe
“friend” on a large piece of white butcher
paper clamped to the chalkboard. After asking students what we needed to make our
friend, they came up one at a time, encouraging one another to paint the body parts. If
students needed prompting, I would draw a
shape on the board and ask them what body
part it could be. When it was Theresa’s turn,
she painted a body part, then proceeded
immediately to the chalkboard and imitated
me by drawing another shape.
70
She liked playing teacher! This was
an aha moment, because now I knew
how I could best engage Theresa in
the class. After that day, I often let her
warm up her muscles by drawing on
the board. This helped her feel important—like a teacher—while she built her
core muscles by crossing the midline
of her body. Sometimes I would draw
rainbows or arches and ask her to erase
them for me. We also took to painting
rainbows on large paper clamped to the
chalkboard.2
For Theresa and her peers, I saw
their confidence soar. The preproduction activities with Mat Man and
creating a class “friend” together gave
them all an “I can do it” feeling and set
them up to successfully participate in
the rest of the lesson. At first I wasn’t
sure why this lesson was so effective
until I looked around the room at the
students painting; for the most part,
they were working independently while
teachers and support staff watched in
amazement. I talked with my peers as
we cleaned up to glean some insights,
since they know the students best. They
noted that the step-by-step involvement was essential—you could see the
students’ self-assurance build as they
all participated. They reinforced the
importance of working as a group during the learning process and then going
off independently, adding, “That’s the
way our kids learn best.”
Theresa and her peers taught me a
lesson in building confidence while I
was teaching art.
The Challenge of
Craftsmanship
The Power of Talking with Colleagues
Sharing a lesson with peers can help you effectively reflect on
what happened during the class by providing varied perspectives. In the example with Theresa, I was not fully aware of the
lesson’s success until I reflected upon it later with colleagues.
Sometimes we get so busy teaching that we don’t take time to
recognize or celebrate the little victories we accomplish each
day. Through reflective practice, take time to share a story with
a colleague; you might be surprised by what you uncover.
Good craftsmanship is a common topic of
conversation in any art room. Craftsmanship is usually one of the objectives I list
on the board at the beginning of class. As
I review the objectives for creating a work
of art, I always check for comprehension
by questioning what students think good
craftsmanship should look like in the lesson. Of course, the answers vary depending
on the medium and lesson, but for students
with gross motor conditions, craftsmanship
can be a true hurdle. Often children at this
stage are still developing and have weakness in the muscles needed to demonstrate
good craftsmanship when painting, gluing,
cutting, or forming clay. For this reason, it is
important to evaluate students individually
and to choose adaptations that will remove
barriers that prohibit them from expressing
themselves fully. The following discussion
on tips, techniques, and tools will provide
some insight.
Cutting Edge paper
crimpers create
fun textures while
strengthening
muscles in the wrist
and arms.
Craftsmanship Success: Three Tips
There are several simple and free adaptations that can help students gain a better
understanding of craftsmanship. If students are assisted in art by a paraprofessional, instruct that person how to adapt
a segment of the process and to gently
remind students when they begin to veer
away from good craftsmanship. Keep in
mind that the paraprofessional may not
know about art and what constitutes
craftsmanship, so providing a craftsmanship tips sheet can be beneficial.
Another idea is to instruct a volunteer
helper-student to assist those in need
with cleaning up and properly maintaining the tools they have used. The last tip
benefits all students and can serve as part
of their assessment, too. Create a completion and craftsmanship checklist that
includes all the steps and items needed
to successfully meet the objectives.
Did you:
□ Erase the pencil smudges on the
edges of your work?
□ Remove glue strings hanging from
your work?
□ Wipe up your spot at the table?
□ Pick up items from the floor and
return them where they belong?
□ Write your name and class code on
□
the back of your work?
Do your best job? If not, is there
something you need to fix before
turning in your project?
Ask students to write their names on
the checklist and use this as part of the
assessment. You can even add a question or two to the checklist if you wish
to further assess comprehension or provide a place for students to comment.
Chapter 6 Gross Motor Impairments
71
Tips for Adapting Art Media
Changing the medium or how it is used will
help students with gross motor weakness
find success in the art room. In general, children with low muscle tone or strength will
also have fine motor skill delays, making it
difficult for them to hold a paintbrush, cut,
fold, and work with clay. To reduce frustration, consider these adaptations to common
art room media and activities.
Painting
Proper painting techniques and brush grasp
should be taught and reinforced by both
you and a paraprofessional. Sometimes the
solution is as easy as changing the paint
choice from watercolor to tempera cakes.
Other times it may be necessary to modify
the painting medium. When students are
working on a vertical surface, for example,
add a thickener such as acrylic gel medium
or cornstarch so that the paint does not run.
Most important, don’t be confined by
what you have always done. Think outside
the box! Use alternative containers or
painting tools instead of a traditional paintbrush. Invite students to paint with a spray
bottle, pastry bag, handled dishwashing
sponge, tennis ball, or even their fingers, all
of which build hand strength. Allow them
to use washable paints on windows or
acetate sheets secured to a vertical surface
at their height, which builds trunk stability.
Sneaky Teacher:
Warming Up for Success
At the beginning of class, call on students with gross motor
development concerns to pass out supplies. The simple act
of carrying the scissor bin and handing a pair to each student warms up large muscles prior to art-making. Erasing
whiteboards or chalkboards, clipping artwork to the board, or
using an interactive whiteboard all work and tone those same
muscles. Think about a kinesthetic activity that will engage your
students and you’ll be on the road to meeting their needs in the
art room even before the lesson begins.
72
Step by Step
Don’t underestimate the importance of
demonstrating a step-by-step process.
Many teachers have moved away from
this method so that students do not
create artworks that look like their
example, but many students with
challenges need to see the steps in
order to avoid frustration. The step-bystep process gives students a concrete
understanding of things they may not
be able to figure out on their own, thus
helping those who can handle only
one step at a time. It is important to
remember the needs of all types of
learners, from those who can figure out
solutions along the way to those who
need to see each step to find success.
These adaptations will offer students the
independence to paint with tools and
materials that work better in their hands,
thus eliminating the need for hand-overhand guidance from a paraprofessional.
Folding, Cutting, Tearing, Gluing
Students with gross motor weakness may
require assistance with folding, cutting,
and tearing papers. You can work with
them one-on-one or roughly cut out shapes
beforehand so they are able to get closer to
the cutting line. Drawing a thick line to cut
on will further help them hit their target.
See what works best—some students work
best in a seated position, some do better
standing, and still others benefit by a bit
of both. Tearing is often easier than using
scissors, so provide that as an option when
possible. If a fold or crease line is needed, a
tool such as a bone folder can help students
apply the appropriate pressure. Simply
putting glue in soft squeeze bottles, such as
perm solution bottles found at beauty supply shops, can adapt for muscle weakness
because less strength is required to squeeze
them; these containers can also be used for
painting. Figuring out what works best for
each student is all about experimentation.
Clay
Students create a tall sculpture,
helping to build arm and upper
body strength.
Using clay may present challenges, especially with scoring and slipping to assemble a wobbly sculpture. Adapt the lesson
into an achievable goal, for example, a
clay project created
Adapt the
by pressing clay
into a mold or form
lesson into an
instead of by buildachievable goal
ing a slab structure.
Another option is to use a clay alternative
like Model Magic, which sticks together
more easily.
Although clay can be tough to work
with, simple modifications such as using
a rolling pin and two 1/4-inch wood slats
secured to a surface can help to prevent
the slab from getting too thin. Clay can
be beneficial in building muscle strength
through the action of rolling and pressing objects into it; the latter will also
help students achieve the detail they
want in their work, which may not be
achievable otherwise.
Drawing
Drawing is one of the greatest challenges
for students with gross motor impairments because they often can’t move their
bodies or hands the ways they want to.
Many lack the ability or strength to hold
a traditional pencil. What frustration and
hurt this can cause! This does not mean
you should avoid drawing lessons; rather,
consider providing larger drawing implements that could help students achieve
success. For example, try using thick
markers, drawing media with added hand
grips, or large sidewalk-type chalk. Drawing on boards, walls, the floor, pavement,
and other alternative surfaces develops
overall trunk strength, which is needed to
increase stability and motor skills.
A student creates
pavement art while
sitting cross-legged.
Interactive Whiteboard
This is a great tool for students to build core body strength
and participate in demonstrations or activities that encourage them to cross the midline, or center, of their body. One
idea is to have them drag objects, such as matching words,
from one side of the whiteboard to another. The swiping movement has the double advantage of building their
strength while they have fun.
A student uses
an interactive
whiteboard
while building
trunk stability.
Chapter 6 Gross Motor Impairments
73
Building Body and Arm Strength:
Class Project
Tips for Adapting Process:
Tools and Techniques
Have students work in groups or as a class, depending on
the size of the class, to create a sculpture made of wood or
recycled materials that measures at least four feet tall. By
working together, they will all be able to contribute, while
also building body and arm strength as they move, bend,
attach, and create their sculpture.
As artists who use tools, our skills and
techniques are part of how we create,
and a specific tool or technique will often
allow us to express our thoughts better
than another. This is also true of adaptations to the tools and techniques that
students with gross motor impairments
use to express themselves and engage in
the process of art-making. For me, nothing
is more frustrating than not being able to
bring my ideas to fruition on the canvas
or paper. Now imagine how frustrating
it must be when you can’t get your body
to do what you want it to as well. Many
of the following suggestions for tool and
technique adaptations are designed to
help eliminate some of the frustrations
that students may feel and provide a way
for them to better express themselves
without barriers. Most are alternatives
to traditional art tool and technique use,
simply and cost-effectively modified.
Weaving
Holding on to small bits of thread, yarn, or
other textiles can be tiring for students with
motor skill deficits. Consider enlarging the
loom to make the weaving process easier.
Modify the medium by using thicker yarn or
stiff items such as burlap strips, rope, or torn
strips of fabric, which are easier for students
to hold and manipulate. It might be easiest
for students who have severe challenges to
weave large felt strips or foam sheeting on a
stiff cardboard loom or a large, more stable
loom that is secured to a vertical surface.
Another simple adaptation is to attach a
large plastic needle or apply masking tape to
the end of the yarn.
When considering adaptations to media,
think first about how the student will use
the medium to achieve the desired results.
Then imagine doing that process yourself
and think about what muscles you use to
complete it. If you are using fine and gross
motor skills, then a modification is necessary to facilitate success for your students.
Differentiation
Sometimes differentiating instruction
is as simple as breaking down your
lesson into smaller, more manageable
segments that can be easily followed;
alternatively, you could use the stepby-step method of instruction. Always
keep in mind that artistic problems
can have multiple solutions for
various levels of readiness while still
meeting the lesson objectives.
74
Tools
Although there are several tools on the
market that have been designed specifically for people who have disabilities, most
art tools can be easily and inexpensively
adapted right in your own classroom.
Some adaptations modify the existing
tool, and others replace the traditional tool
with another one to assist students with
painting and drawing.
Try one of the following adaptations:
•
Paint with sponges in various sizes.
Larger ones will be less taxing for students’ hands, and they are often easier
to hold than brushes.
•
Apply paint with rollers, which is an
easy and quick way to cover large
areas with less muscle fatigue. Also,
patterned paint rollers help students
create pattern and designs if they are
unable to make them independently.
One Step at a Time: Reflective Practice
•
Use wide paintbrushes and experiment
with the textures of foam brushes.
•
Use the whole body and body parts
as tracers or to paint with. This adds
a kinesthetic element as the students
trace one another’s outlines; using
their hands and arms to stabilize
the rest of their bodies builds large
muscle strength.
•
To help students make straight lines,
have them dip the edge of a ruler or
strip of mat board into paint and then
press it on the paper.
•
Use long-handled brushes or attach
a paintbrush to a ruler and paint on
a vertical surface. A longer handle
requires the use of the whole arm,
not just the fine motor muscles of
the hand.
•
Allow students with diminished
arm strength to draw on a slant
board; propping up artwork will help
decrease fatigue.
•
Purchase or make a variety of pencil
and paintbrush grips for different
grasps. Ask for specific recommendations from your school’s occupational
therapist. Model Magic or foam can be
wrapped around a handle to increase
its circumference and create a better
grip, decreasing hand fatigue.
As a reflective practitioner, I find that the process of experimentation, reflection, and adaptation of ideas and methods
is on-going. The many possible adaptations that might assist
students can be overwhelming, so as you read through the
suggestions, keep in mind the following:
1 When you meet with your students who have gross motor
deficits, observe them for awhile. See what their challenges are, what they are unable to do on their own, and
what they can accomplish without assistance.
2 Think about your lesson objectives and the obstacles that
a gross motor deficit creates for achieving them.
3 Try out one or two adaptations to assist your students in
realizing their artistic potential. Note how well the adaptation works or how it must be modified to meet students’
specific needs.
4 Don’t be frustrated if an idea doesn’t work. Next time, try
another approach or modify your last adaptation.
Rulers dipped in
paint create lines for
students who cannot
draw independently.
Using a paintbrush attached
to a ruler while painting
on a vertical surface builds
trunk stability and upper
body strength.
Natural sea sponges are easy to grasp and
create texture.
Chapter 6 Gross Motor Impairments
75
A student paints over
a traced body outline
for a Keith Haring–
based lesson.
A student fills in an outlined figure. Working
on the floor helps build trunk stability.
A student can use
the entire body to
balance and paint—a
great strengthener.
Techniques
Small additions or adaptations to students’ working methods can make a
tremendous difference in their success
working independently. To help them build
trunk stability and achieve greater success,
have them try the following:
•
A student created
this large mandala
using body parts,
hands, fists, and feet
dipped in paint. Have
washbasins ready
on the floor for an
easier cleanup.
76
Paint rainbows, arches, or anything that
requires students to move their arms
and hands from one side of the body to
the other, across the midline.3
•
Paint on an easel or vertical surface,
such as a wall.
•
Paint while sitting cross-legged or lying
on their bellies on the floor.
•
Provide a clothesline for students to
clip artwork to, building muscles in
their bodies, arms, and hands.
A completed student artwork inspired by the
Keith Haring art history lesson.
•
Give directions during a lesson that call
on students to use various sides of the
body, which will build laterality.4
•
Use full-length mirrors when creating
self-portraits, or tape a piece of paper
to a wall and have students work
standing up.
•
Use feet and hands to make art; involving
more of the body benefits gross motor
development and increases muscle tone.
•
Build 3D artworks, the taller the better.
This involves the use of large muscles.
•
Create large—get the whole body
involved and think kinesthetic.
In every classroom, there are students
who need more help and those who need
less help. Offering alternatives to tools and
techniques creates an atmosphere more
conducive to supporting independent
learning, which will encourage everyone
to be involved, inventive, and capable of
making their own decisions as artists.
A student uses a softsqueeze glue bottle
during the adapted
Mondrian lesson.
Consider This:
Adapting Art Ideas
Gross motor weakness often impacts fine
motor development. The large gross motor
muscles of the body support the fine
motor muscles; therefore when students
lack strength in their gross motor muscles,
they may also have fine motor weaknesses
that affect their skill level. Consider that
scribbling (which uses generally gross
motor skills) is a precursor to writing and
drawing distinct and recognizable objects
and letters (which uses fine motor skills);5
they go hand-in-hand. If you have students with gross motor concerns, you may
want to warm up those muscles before
you have them participate in fine motor
activities. Developing the gross motor
skills will benefit the fine motor skills that
are needed to create and partake in the
visual arts.
Mondrian Lesson with
Extension Activities
When adapting a lesson on Piet Mondrian,
I thought about my objective: I wanted
students to experiment with grids and
fields of color. I was aware that students
with more severe disabilities would need
extra support to paint an intricate grid, but
by arranging and gluing already cut primary shapes onto black paper, they were
able to meet the same objective as the rest
of the class. All students were successful
and the end results looked similar.
Students who participated in the
adaptive lesson finished before their
classmates, so I had them work on extension activities that were developmentally
appropriate. For these, I relied on the use
of learning centers to provide opportunities for independent learning while
ensuring that precious instructional time
was not wasted.
Learning Centers can reinforce concepts of the lesson or unit being taught
and develop and reinforce specific skills. A
lesson on Mondrian using line, shape, and
a limited color palette could have a center
on the floor where students can place
squares and rectangles of colored felt on
a large black felt rectangle to reinforce the
lesson objectives of using primary colors
and line in a Mondrian-style composition.
To encourage gross motor skill development, students could move to a group
center where a large paper is taped to a
wall or easel. Here they can paint in rectangles using a small paint roller dipped in
primary colors, with a smaller width roller
in black paint to create lines. I stock my
permanent centers at the beginning of the
year in a plastic shoebox or bin and when
students finish early, I offer them a choice
of activities that reinforce gross and fine
motor skill development. It can be as easy
as a shoelace and a bin of beads that they
work on while sitting on the floor to build
trunk stability as they practice hand-eye
coordination by stringing beads. By keeping all your students engaged at all times,
you will more effectively prevent behavior
problems or anxiety, which may arise out
of boredom.
A student artwork from the
adapted Mondrian lesson.
A Mondrian lesson artwork
created by nondisabled peer.
Chapter 6 Gross Motor Impairments
77
Connecting to Art
At the learning center, I directed
students to draw a similar grid artwork
using a computer or tablet; exploring and
experimenting with another medium can
lead to amazing results. If your classroom
is unable to accommodate
computers or learning
Exploring and experimenting
centers, I suggest making
with another medium can lead
a larger artwork in the
to amazing results.
adaptive lesson, or choosing
two adaptations and allowing the students who have disabilities to
try both to see which results in greater
individual creativity. Additionally, the
second version of the lesson should be
easier so that muscles do not fatigue. One
option is to allow children to create on a
slick surface like acetate or an interactive
whiteboard.
Engaging All Learners
Sitting still during a lecture gets
students squirming and wondering
when they’ll be able to start making
stuff, so adapt your teaching style
and have them connect to art through
hands-on activities. For example,
give them viewfinders made of mat
board frames and send them off on
an exploration of the artwork. Ask
questions that enable them to arrive
at understandings about the work,
as well as the time and place it was
created. Modifications for connecting with artworks benefit the entire
classroom. All students will be more
involved in their learning, which
leads to a greater understanding
of art—both its meaning and its
historical context.
Viewing art causes us to pause, interact, and
make connections with the artist, subject,
historical period, or culture in which the
work was created. Whether it transports us
back in time or to a faraway place, art helps
us comprehend a special moment or idea
that the artist portrayed. Often a story is
told or meaning is derived by analyzing art.
Through works of art, we learn about the
customs and traditions of cultures past and
present, and we come to understand that
people around the world make aesthetic
objects for a variety of reasons. This knowledge opens the window to our own thinking
when we engage in the act of making art.
As we guide students through investigations of artworks, we are aware that there
are many different answers to the questions that arise. We are also mindful that
our instruction needs to be differentiated
to meet the needs of all students. Learners
who have gross motor impairments will
require modifications and alternatives to
fully engage in the experience. If the students with limited gross motor skills have
multiple disabilities, further adaptations
may be necessary. Sitting still during conversations about artworks can be a challenge and may quickly result in students
being inattentive, so let’s consider ways to
get them out of their seats and using those
large muscles to respond to art.
Student artwork; creating arches and rainbows incorporates crossing the midline to
develop upper body strength.
78
Interactive Art Response
Responding to Art
Interactive whiteboards are great tools
for presenting and connecting to art. The
projected image may be drawn over with
dry-erase markers or an interactive stylus,
allowing students to point out or investigate details up close and personal. Simple
directives such as asking students to find
main characters, shapes, colors, or items in
the artwork will get them out of their seats
and actively looking at what their peers
have found and where. If you do not have
this type of touchscreen device, you can use
the same ideas to make learning interactive
by displaying reproductions on an easel or
board and directing students to approach
and point to particular areas to be examined.
Another way to help students actively
engage and respond to art is by letting
them work in small groups to explore
an artwork or a set of guiding questions,
and then share their findings with the
class. This method provides learners with
a small group in which to express their
ideas and opinions first while also allowing them to share answers with the entire
class from the safety of their group.
Finding meaning in art is intimately
connected with our past experiences.
Each of us analyzes and perceives art in
different ways, finding similar or divergent
meanings based on the life we have lived.
Therefore, one person may look at a painting of a seascape and find meaning in the
crashing waves, recalling swimming on
vacation, while another may associate the
crashing waves with anxiety if they have
had a negative experience at the seaside.
As you guide
As you design
students through
activities that
lessons, consider
involve respondhow you will gain
ing to works of
the participation
art, remember
of all learners
that everyone can
and lead them
react to art, but
to successfully
not always in the
respond to art.
same way. Some
students will
have a hard time writing about art, for
instance, whereas others might be able to
share responses through drawing, acting,
pointing, speaking, recording a response,
nodding in response to questions, and so
forth. As you design lessons, consider how
you will gain the participation of all learners and lead them to successfully respond
to art.
As noted earlier in the chapter, students with gross motor impairments
often have multiple disabilities. If you
are guiding an activity in which a small
group analyzes a painting, and you expect
each student to write down or fill in a
worksheet explaining how it is meaningful
to them, keep in mind that a child with
gross motor and/or multiple disabilities
may not be able to do so independently.
Rather than modify the lesson, many
teachers have the student reply verbally to
a paraprofessional, who writes down their
responses. Let’s consider a few ways to
adapt this type of activity so that students
can more actively engage.
Creating on a vertical surface is an adaptation
that all learners love to do. Make it fun for
everyone.
Chapter 6 Gross Motor Impairments
79
Drawing
Verbal Response
Sometimes images can help us express
more than words can. Drawing in response
to an artwork may allow some students
to explore their connections to the image,
story, or ideas presented. You could direct
them to respond to a specific element,
such as how they would feel if they were
in the image or how they think the artist
felt when making the image, or ask them
to imagine what happened before or after
the moment shown. Colors and marks
have their own meanings and can be
used by students to respond to art. Even a
simple activity such as drawing a line that
describes how they feel when looking at a
work can be quite telling.
Many students who encounter difficulties
getting their hands or bodies to do what
they want, such as to write or draw, favor
giving verbal responses. To encourage their
full engagement, have them discuss art in
a small group and then share their ideas
with the class. You can assign specific
jobs within the groups to ensure that each
member actively participates.
Digital technology opens another way
for students to describe, interpret, and
express themselves. If you want each
student to respond individually, such as in
a journal, allow children with gross motor
delays to use the audio record or video
function on a phone, tablet, or computer.
A slideshow program can help students
create a book or show related to what
they see.
Lastly, don’t limit the possibilities.
Some learners might prefer to sing, rap, or
even act out a response to art. You may be
surprised by the deep and powerful reactions that students will share.
Choosing
A student clips artwork to a clothesline to build gross motor muscles.
This is another adaptation that all students enjoy without knowing
that you are making a modification.
Pressing out shapes
from clay or hole
punchers develops
gross motor skills.
80
Consider making a fun game-like activity
in which students can choose a response
from prepared cards that they hold up for
the class to see. Allow them to gather in an
area of the room they choose to get them
physically active. You could also create a
page where there are answers to choose
from and students can circle the ones they
feel best fit their response to the artwork.
This will allow everyone to participate, and
you can have students raise their hands
to show what answers they chose. The
objective is to get the whole class involved
in responding to art, not just a few eager
students. Games, groups, gallery walks,
turn and talks, and scavenger hunts are all
activities that get all students out of their
seats and moving, which is so beneficial
to students with gross motor deficiencies.
As you guide your students to investigate,
Presenting Art and
Ideas about Art
react, and inquire about art, look at your
students who need adaptations and think
of how you can use their strengths and
your ideas to help them participate as they
respond to art.
Children with gross motor disabilities
have varying skills with which they can
respond to art, so the challenge for educators is to work with individuals and
discover the path that will help them best
take part in this vital learning process.
Considering the multiple ways that we can
react to art will facilitate greater participation for all learners, leading us to devise
activities that allow students to use their
eyes, hands, bodies, movements, noises,
and actions to forge deep and meaningful
connections to human artistic creations.
Painting arcs and rainbows encourages
crossing the midline, thus developing gross
motor muscles.
Selecting works of art for a portfolio or
exhibit requires learners to consider
various criteria and standards for presentation. As they determine which pieces
they should include and exclude, students
begin to understand how curators and
artists make decisions about presenting
artwork to the public. Engaging students
who have gross motor conditions in this
process is not that different from working
with their peers. As you consider adaptations, think of getting your students out of
their seats and using those large muscles
as they make their choices. Here are several activities that engage these muscles
and, in turn, support the development of
fine motor skills as well.
Interactive hands-on learning works
best because it keeps students moving and
their large muscles engaged. One example
is to string a clothesline for displaying art
instead of pinning it to bulletin boards;
when students open and close clothespins, they use their trunk for stability and
develop gross motor muscles. This is a
quick and easy way to put up and take
down artworks as you and your students
discuss their choices. Clothesline exhibits
are also convenient when display space is
at a premium.
Interactive whiteboards work in
much the same way. Using a finger or an
interactive pen, students can drag photos
of their artwork in and out of a virtual
gallery, analyzing which ones make for
the strongest portfolio or presentation.
Electronic portfolios are great formats for
sharing artwork, and they can even be
sent to parents, colleges, peers, artists, and
galleries.
Do not overlook the floor as a surface
on which to sort through art. Sitting crosslegged on the floor improves stability for
students who have difficulty with balance.
Chapter 6 Gross Motor Impairments
81
Adaptive Benefits for
All Students
Discussions with your students that center on the meaning conveyed by the selections in their portfolios or in group and solo
exhibits should examine why specific works
were selected, which criteria students used,
and what message and meaning are being
conveyed to the viewer. For students with
gross motor conditions, these types of questions are best answered orally, either scribed
by a paraprofessional or translated using a
talk-to-text application. Written responses
will be difficult, for fine motor skill development is directly affected by developmental
delays in gross motor development.
Sharing artwork with the public—
whether one person or the school community—is a thrilling event. Many factors
come into play prior to the end product.
Active involvement will ensure that students understand the process and decisions that galleries and other art venues
make to best display and present art. If
you have a large art room or display space,
assign each student a 6-by-8-foot area for
his or her personal art show. This gives students more ownership and involvement in
the decision-making process. As they tape,
pin, hang, and staple their works to walls
and surfaces, they are engaging their large
muscles. When working with children who
have gross motor impairments, use cueing
to encourage them to cross the midline.
For example, as students hang art, instruct
them to hold the work in place with the
left hand and use the right hand to place
a pushpin in the far-left corner and then
repeat with the other hand to the opposite
side. This simple task causes them to cross
the midline, which builds core stability.
Leading your students in activities that
involve presenting art to a larger audience
is the cumulative activity of many hours
spent creating, responding to art, and
analyzing artistic decisions. As artists, we
all look for affirmations of what we create.
The presentation is the culmination of
all that came before and now is, at last
revealed for the world to see.
82
Accommodating students with gross
motor impairments requires activities and
adaptations that get students out of their
chairs to create and respond to art in alternate ways and alternative places, such as
walls, whiteboards, and floors. This active
learning helps develop the large muscles
needed for trunk strength, balance, and
fine motor skills development in all
students, not only those with gross motor
conditions. Children are seated for most
of their school day, so getting them out of
their seats is good for their bodies as well
as their minds. A Purdue University study
showed that students who are involved in
hands-on learning gained a deeper understanding of the ideas and concepts being
taught.6 Clearly, adaptations designed for
students with gross motor disabilities
allow all learners to have a richer, more
meaningful art experience.
Clamp large paper to a chalkboard or easel
so students can work on a vertical surface,
building trunk stability.
Consider This:
Gross Motor
Take a look at the National Visual Arts
Standards and choose one anchor
standard, such as “Interpret intent and
meaning in artistic work.” For instance,
the second-grade performance standard
is “Interpret art by identifying the mood
suggested by a work of art and describing
relevant subject matter and characteristics
of form.” Once you have chosen a standard and found the specific performance
standard for your grade, think about how
you would have your class participate in a
lesson that meets this standard. Then ask
yourself the following questions:
Notes
1 Ann Logsdon, “Learn about Gross Motor Skills Development” (updated August 30, 2017), Verywell Family website,
accessed January 7, 2018, https://www.verywell.com/
what-are-gross-motor-skills-2162137.
2 T. Byron and P. McEntee, “Art Making an Impact on Fine Motor
Development,” resource packet distributed at a Chester County
Intermediate Unit In-service, 2006.
3 Byron and McEntee, “Art Making an Impact on Fine Motor
Development.”
4 Byron and McEntee, “Art Making an Impact on Fine Motor
Development.”
5 M. Menzer, PhD, The Arts in Early Childhood: Social and Emotional
Benefits of Arts Participation: A Literature Review and Gap Analysis
(2000–2015) (Washington, DC: National Endowment for the Arts,
2015), 6.
•
What challenges might my students
with gross motor disabilities
encounter?
•
What adaptation(s) will help me engage
these students in the same process as
their peers?
6 K. Medaris, (n.d.). Study: Hands-on projects may be best
way to teach engineering and technology concepts.
Retrieved August 28, 2018, https://news.uns.purdue.edu/
x/2009a/090128DarkStudy.html
•
How can I design the lesson so that all
students are doing the same thing and
no one child is singled out?
Additional Resources
•
Is it possible to provide three options
for how students respond? If so, what
would they be?
Hand in Hand: Gross and
Fine Motor Skills
When thinking of adaptations for
students with gross motor disabilities,
you will most likely include those
designed for fine motor impairments.
Developing larger muscles helps
develop smaller muscles as well,
enabling students to move in a more
controlled and balanced manner.
Focusing only on fine motor development and ignoring those larger
muscles is akin to putting the features on a sculpture of a face before
you make the head. Both are required
for a positive outcome.
Resource for interactive whiteboard games Keith Haring Kids.
(n.d.). Retrieved January 17, 2018, http://www.haringkids.com/
master_k_bio.htm
E. Marincola, “Hands-on Learning Boosts Success in the Classroom
and Beyond” (September 7, 2012). Retrieved January 7, 2018,
https://www.huffingtonpost.com/elizabeth-marincola/stemteaching-hands-on-_b_1865146.html
NVAS Responding. (n.d.). Retrieved January 17, 2018, http://nationalartsstandards.org
Chapter 6 Gross Motor Impairments
83
Chapter 7
Fine Motor Delays
“Great things are done by a series of small things brought together.”
Vincent van Gogh
Fine motor skills involve the use of hands,
fingers, and arms, as well as feet and toes.
They are essential to the development
of fine motor activities such as writing,
reaching, grasping, and moving objects.
Students with fine motor skill deficits may
have decreased dexterity and weakened
hand, finger, or grasp strength. Making
A student artwork with a laced frame.
84
art naturally uses fine motor muscles;
painting, using scissors, even doodling
and scribbling develop the fine motor
muscles of hands and arms. Adaptations
that strengthen these smaller muscles will
help students build up their fine motor
skills, allowing them to communicate
ideas while creating art more effectively.
Questions to Think About
As you read this chapter, consider the
following questions:
1. What indicators alert you that students may be having fine motor difficulties, even if they are not identified? Do
they tire easily, avoid fine motor activities, or have poor artistic calligraphy?
You can adapt your daily art activities
so that students won’t even be aware of
the exercises.
An ever-increasing number of children
are entering kindergarten and first grade
with fine motor skill delays because of
increased screen time on tablets, phones,
and computers and a lack of activities
involving drawing, playing on the floor,
or picking up small items. Collaborating
with your school’s occupational therapist
about specific needs of students, as well
as discussing ideas for modifications,
will help you better understand how to
develop your students’ fine motor skills.
Modifications and activities that increase
stamina of the muscles that support those
skills will allow students to participate in
artistic processes more confidently.
The quote by Vincent van Gogh at the
start of this chapter is a great reminder
of what to think about when teaching
students diagnosed with fine motor
deficiencies. By incorporating a series of
small changes into their art-making, your
students will bring together the skills they
need to create great things. Indeed, all
students can benefit from art instruction
that implements strategies for fine motor
development.
2. Who in your school can collaborate
with you to help you gain insights into
how to develop fine motor skills in your
students?
3. What modifications and materials
can you make available for students
with fine motor developmental delays?
Threading shoelaces through holes is a great fine motor exercise.
Add this component to a lesson you create.
This artwork was created by tearing shapes using the thumb
and index finger. This develops the pincer grasp used in many fine
motor activities.
Chapter 7 Fine Motor Delays 85
Nell’s Story: Removing Barriers for Success
Nell was a petite girl with a strong
determination to achieve, create, and
please those she cared about. Her fine
motor skills were impaired, and her hand
strength was weak, so working on improving Nell’s fine motor skills was essential
in helping her create art with more ease.
Nell patiently tried my methods, never
taking the easy way out. Instead, she did
as I asked, listened well, and somehow, I
feel, knew that what I was doing was helping her advance, even though her verbal
communication was limited. Because of
her positive attitude and eagerness, Nell
progressed quickly.
When I gave her a tiny cup full of
mosaic pieces to be picked up and glued
onto a surface one at a time, Nell held the
cup as I demonstrated and proceeded to
work with zeal. Often, students try to outsmart me by dumping the cup’s contents
onto the table or into the glue as a shortcut—but not Nell. By holding the cup in
her palm, she was building strength in the
arch of her hand. Meanwhile, picking out
individual mosaic pieces strengthened the
muscles of her index finger and thumb,
which are needed for handwriting, fastening clothing, painting, drawing, and more.
A student uses
the pincer grip to
pick mosaic pieces
out of a small cup.
86
Later, during a lesson when we
were gluing sequins and tissue
squares, Nell looked up at me and
said, “One at a time.”
When Nell and her peers finished
their projects and I was helping to
clean up, I allowed the students to go
to a learning center that I set up as a
tearing station. They loved sitting in a
circle and tearing colored construction
paper into small pieces, which can
be used for papermaking, mosaics,
collages, and more. This type of small
motor focused station provides a
calming exercise to end the art activity; especially with music playing, it
can become a ritual that makes for a
nice transition by signaling that class
will soon be over. You will find that,
like Nell, some students are eager to
please, and others will try to rush. It
is important to encourage them to
take their time in order to develop the
muscles in the wrist and hand. Not
everyone will understand the gift you
are giving them by incorporating these
strategies into your lesson; however,
you will note the strides they make in
their development.
Holding a small cup
of paint or mosaic
pieces builds strength
in the hand’s arch.
Adapting for Success
If cutting with regular scissors is too
difficult for your students, look for
spring-loaded scissors, which aid in
opening and closing the blades. A prescissor activity that I often do with
my first-grade classes, whose fine
motor skills are underdeveloped, is to
create collages by tearing shapes from
papers of various weights. The tear
makes a soft edge, suitable especially
for landscape forms and clouds. Make
sure to demonstrate the pinch, pinch,
pull method of tearing, which engages
the pincer grasp and develops hand
muscle strength.
Creating Art
Developing and refining artistic works
uses fine motor skills as well as the gross
motor muscles that support them, and
your adaptations and exercises should
encourage the development and strengthening of those muscles, thus building a
foundation for success. Alternatively, you
can lower the objectives of your lesson to
accommodate the deficiency. I feel that
the former offers the greater benefit, but
sometimes you may need to create adaptations and lower learning outcomes to
meet learners at their level of readiness.
Let’s say you are studying the artist
Reggie Laurent and how he uses color, line,
shape, and pattern when creating his art.
After being inspired by the artist and his
work, students are instructed to cut out
twenty small shapes and glue them onto a
black paper background. For students with
a fine motor deficiency this amount may
prove exhausting for their hands. I suggest
you adjust your expectations and have
them cut ten larger shapes or as many as
they can before their hand fatigues. They
will still meet the objectives of the lesson
and use color, line, shape, and pattern
while encouraging success for all students
in your classroom. You may have picked
twenty as a number because it filled up
the background paper nicely; however
students with fine motor weakness may
also need to cut out larger shapes as they
hone their skills. The students will still
fill up the area, just by a slightly different
means.
Creating adaptations is not enough—
you must continuously monitor the class
to see if students are correctly using the
modifications, grips, and strategies to
improve significantly. Developing and
sharpening fine motor skills will allow
your students to have the freedom and
confidence to approach a variety of artistic
processes as they engage in creating art.
Demonstrate proper
tearing technique
using the thumb and
index finger and have
students practice it
prior to beginning
a lesson using this
technique.
Check students
periodically to make
sure their scissor grip
is correct, with the
index finger leading
the way, the thumb in
the top loop, and two
fingers in the bottom
loop. If necessary, put
a dot or snowflake
where the index finger should be placed.
Chapter 7 Fine Motor Delays 87
Tips for Adapting Art Media
Incorporating exercises and activities that
develop fine motor skills into art-making
lessons, learning centers, or warm-ups
are great ways to support the artistic
processes of drawing, painting, sculpting, and weaving. Try the adaptations in
this section to observe firsthand how the
muscles are being used. This will be your
gateway to developing and customizing
fine motor activities that blend into your
lessons. Many of these activities strengthen
muscles, develop hand-eye coordination,
and build self-esteem as students master
them and become more self-assured in the
art-making process.
Art Media
When using and adapting media, consider
one or more of the following ideas:
•
Use small pieces such as mosaics,
sequins, beads, torn paper, buttons,
small tissue squares, or yarn to create
artworks. Working with these materials requires the use of the thumb and
index finger, which builds the strength
of fine motor muscles.
Foam shape peel-off stickers make it easy to create patterns. Students
also use fine motor skills to peel them apart.
88
•
Keep patterns simple and the difficulty
level and length of the exercise appropriate. Activities that are too long cause
fatigue and discouragement.
•
Peel-off stickers can be used to create
patterns if students with limited ability
are unable to make them independently. Peeling stickers off a sheet uses
fine motor skills.
•
Use short pencils and crayons to
improve pincer grip.
•
Use short, chubby, or fingertip crayons,
pastels, and charcoal to build hand
strength.
•
Roll balls of clay between the palms to
build cupping muscles in the hands.
•
Press objects into clay using the pincer
grip.
•
Provide lightweight cups filled with
mosaic pieces, beads, or any small
item; holding the container uses the
cupping muscles and develops the
pincer grip as children select from it.
•
Make torn-paper collages or lessons
using torn-paper techniques. This is
a great fine motor activity; just make
sure that you instruct students how to
properly tear paper, in a pinch, pinch,
pull fashion.
Creatively approaching adaptations to
incorporate fine motor exercises will
benefit all of your students. Think of the
medium for each lesson and ask yourself,
“How can I sneak in a few fine motor exercises?” Maybe it is through the use of cotton swabs to paint with or a lesson on how
to hold a paintbrush. Adapt a unit on clay
to incorporate texture created by using
the pincer grasp to press small objects or
using the hand to press textured surfaces
into the clay. Such small adjustments will
result in big rewards for your students.
Tips for Adapting Process:
Tools and Techniques
The tools and methods we use to create
art and how we use them is part of the
discovery and exploration of what it is
to be an artist. Artists who broke free
from tradition and modified media, tools,
and techniques in ways other than their
intended use have blazed a new path for
us to follow. Think outside the box by
considering what you
can adapt to build
Think outside
hand strength and
the box by
achieve the objecconsidering
tives of your lessons.
what you can
Perhaps it is not the
adapt to build
artwork but the mat
hand strength
the students put
and achieve the
around it. Provide
objectives of
frames punched with
your lessons.
holes that students
can lace with yarn,
building fine motor skills. Or direct
students to decorate their frames with
sequins or dots of paint dabbed on with a
stick or cotton swab. It is not necessary to
completely change the way you have been
teaching. You just need to change your
thinking and incorporate ideas that, in the
end, build fine motor skills.
When you are working with students
who have difficulty with fine motor skills,
you must assess how they are delayed
in order to best help them. Consult with
the school occupational therapist or
paraprofessionals assigned to the students to determine the adaptations that
will achieve individual goals. Many such
students experience fatigue of the hands,
so make the adaptations appropriate and
be mindful of the activity’s length.
Holding traditional art tools, such as
a number 2 pencil, can be tiring for students’ hands and may even cause pain.
Consider trying a few of the following
adaptations to see which work best for
your students.
A student uses a cotton swab to dot paint onto paper.
Lacing is an engaging way to encourage learners to practice fine motor
skills. This activity can be woven into a lesson or set up as a center in
the art room.
Give Up a Planning Period to Learn
Not sure how to begin? I suggest asking your school’s occupational therapist or handwriting specialist if you can observe a
session or two. You will learn much about warm-up exercises,
such as hand bridges and the correct way to hold a pencil, as
well as the variety of available pencil grips to improve students’ grip. Seeing the games that students play to build skills
and knowing the reason behind the instructor’s methods will
enable you to adapt these ideas for your own art classroom.
You don’t need to reinvent the wheel—just tweak it a bit.
In her book Differentiated Instruction in Art, Heather Fountain
discusses the need for proactively planning your curriculum
as you address your students’ different learning styles, as
opposed to reactive planning, which has you interceding as
your students experience difficulties.1
Chapter 7 Fine Motor Delays 89
Tools
Use junk (e.g., keys, corks, nuts and bolts,
rings, etc.) to create an imprint or pattern.
As students grab these small objects they
use the pincer grasp, which develops fine
motor skills while allowing the students
to make patterns that otherwise could
fatigue the hand. A student can use a
marker cap or a cork to make a polka dot
background that they might not be able to
draw independently due to fine motor or
intellectual disabilities.
Egg-handled paintbrushes are easy to grip for students with
a doorknob grasp.
Here are some other ideas for adaptive
tools:
•
Paint with sponges attached to clothespins to build strength.
•
Paint with cotton balls, which uses the
thumb and index finger pincer grasp.
•
Use scissors that match a student’s
grasp and fine motor developmental
needs.
•
Use egg-handled paintbrushes, which
develop palm strength.
•
Use pencil and paintbrush grips.
Consult with your school’s occupational
therapist for individual needs.
•
Glue film canisters or wood shapes to
foam stamps, to create a handle for
grasping.
•
Make pinch pots, coils, and clay beads
to develop fine motor skills.
•
Demonstrate and reinforce proper finger
position when holding pencils, scissors,
and paint tools. Put a marker or sticker
dot on the scissors handle to show
where the index finger should rest.
•
Create projects that use lacing cards or
hole punches, and have students practice sewing. Paper, burlap, and felt are
great foundations for lacing projects,
which build fine motor skills.
Techniques
Sponge shapes with
a film canister or cork
attached makes them
easy to grasp while
printing.
90
If you are uncertain what to modify or
how to create adaptations, work with your
school’s occupational therapist (OT) and ask
for fine motor warmup exercises and activities. Then adapt those strategies for art.
Here are some techniques used in the
art room to build fine motor strength:
•
Use stamps to create patterns when
independent patternmaking is too difficult. As students’ fine motor development improves, encourage them to
make patterns independently.
•
Cut and paste patterns that can’t be
drawn freehand.
•
Demonstrate and reinforce proper tearing technique: the thumb and index
finger of both hands should grasp close
to where tearing is desired.
•
Allow frequent breaks; tiny muscles
fatigue easily.
•
Cut shapes beforehand to focus on the
skill or concept being taught.
•
String beads as a fine motor exercise
before a weaving activity.
•
Provide thicker yarn or fabric for
weaving, which is easier for little
fingers to manipulate.
Use hole punches to improve palm strength
and fancy press punches for forearm
strength.
This student artwork
was created using
potato stamps to
create birds and small
cardboard strips to
make branches. Holding the small pieces
is a great fine motor
strengthener.
Adapt weaving materials and the width of the loom and
weaving strips in accordance with student’s ability.
Fine Motor Learning Center
Nothing is worse than seeing frustration on the face
of a student when he or she can’t do what other
children accomplish easily. Suggesting an alternative to struggling learners is meeting them at their
level of readiness. People like to play, and many
fine motor adaptations and exercises incorporate
play and discovery. Set up a learning center in your
room that offers this experience. Students with and
without fine motor difficulties will gravitate to it
and develop their fine motor skills as they explore.
The center could include clay or Play-Doh, beads,
pasta to string, a sand tray to draw in, or even little
objects to sort or create with, such as buttons, pipe
cleaners, yarn, and straws. A center is also useful
when a student needs a break from the work at
hand. Allow them to explore the center for five
minutes and then return to the lesson.
Chapter 7 Fine Motor Delays 91
Consider This:
Adapting Art Ideas
When working on developing fine motor
skills, it is important to develop gross
motor skills as well. Gross motor muscles
are the larger muscles that support the
fine motor muscles of the hand and wrist;
you can’t develop the latter without making sure the former have been strengthened first. An occupational therapist who
works in your area or school is a great
resource for ideas and adaptations regarding fine motor development. When I have
a student who is struggling with fine
motor skills, my first action is to speak
with the classroom teacher and inquire if
they have an IEP or 504. If they do, I ask if
they are seeing the occupational therapist.
If so, I take the time to visit the therapist
and discuss my student’s needs . If the
student does not receive services, ask the
OT for advice anyway. We are all in this
to help children learn, and I have never
met an OT that does not
want to help. I often ask if
An occupational therapist who
they can come in during
works in your area or school
the art period to see where
is a great resource for ideas
the student struggles. The
and adaptations regarding fine
majority of what we do in
motor development.
art is fine motor, so it can be
valuable to introduce the OT
to the cutting, gluing, painting, and more,
to show them how conducting a therapy
session during art class makes sense.
The development of fine motor skills
was once the purview of the classroom
teacher; today, it has becoming the responsibility of art educators because of the lack
of time for creative activities in regular
education classes. As you take on this
duty, think of how adaptations will enable
students of all abilities to freely express
themselves in art-making. As students
enjoy the creative activities you have
designed to build fine motor skills, you can
feel proud that you made a difference by
removing obstacles to creating artworks
that convey meaning and demonstrate
skill and knowledge acquisition.
92
Connecting to Art
Examining works of art often leads to a
connection of personal meaning to the
viewer. This meaning may alter depending on the context in which the work is
displayed and viewed. Viewing a painting
in a museum or gallery produces a different reaction than finding and looking at
the same artwork at a yard sale or in the
culture in which it was created. The meaning a viewer attaches to art may vary as
it is viewed in different times and places.
Nevertheless, a connection is made,
whether the artwork was created this year
or many, many years ago.
For discussions and activities that
encourage students to make connections
to works of art from various eras, places,
and cultures, consider how to accommodate and engage learners with fine motor
difficulties. If your inquiry is a verbal
discussion, they should be able to participate freely because fine motor muscles are
not being used. However, you could view
this as an opportunity to sneak in a few
exercises that do work those fine motor
muscles. Instead of remaining seated and
pointing to an artwork, students could
stand up and attach a spring-loaded
clothespin decorated with a symbol to
the artwork they are discussing. Or they
could use the pincer grasp to place a small
symbolic item next to or on the artwork
they are responding to.
Adaptive scissors with an extra finger loop to
promote correct scissor grip.
Easy-Grip round
finger crayons.
Written Responses
During a written response such as a
journal entry, you will need to assess the
level of the delay and create an accommodation for it, if needed. Perhaps students
with fine motor difficulties can verbalize
their thoughts to a paraprofessional,
write a short written response, or fill out
a worksheet adapted with multiple choice
or matching answers. For students with
greater developmental delays, a computergenerated response sheet with drop-down
choice boxes or a talk-to-text app or
journaling app with a recording feature on
a tablet can eliminate much of the writing
requirement.
When creating a lesson, ask yourself
if any of your students will be unable to
complete the task because of a fine motor
deficit. If you see a speed bump in their
path, you will need to insert an adaptation so that they may more successfully
maneuver over it.
Example Lesson:
Connections to Community
Making connections to community
attunes students to their surroundings.
Beginning a first-grade lesson with a
discussion about who and what make up
your community will get ideas flowing
while deepening understandings about
this concept. In this example, the objective was to create a mixed-media painting
about events in the community. Students
were directed to choose a time of day
and a season for their community event.
As they brainstormed events they have
attended, such as a soccer game, a chili
cook-off, a Halloween parade, and a local
marathon, a sense of pride and belonging
to the community was evident. Students
eagerly sat down to work on their paintings after completing practice sketches.
I adapted this lesson for students with
fine motor delays by providing short pencils, 2 to 3 inches long, which forced them
to use the pincer grasp to grip the pencil
correctly. After the drawings were complete, I offered a choice of various paintbrushes, including those with soft grips
for finger placement and fingertip brushes.
Students decided which brush worked
best for them. Large areas of sky and grass
could be painted with a brush or a small
Hidden Fine Motor Exercises
Discussions about art often do not involve use of
the fine motor muscles, unless drawing or a written
response is required. Sneak a few exercises into the
conversation. Invite students to parade past the
artworks you will be discussing so they can take a
closer look. They may have a question, idea, or comment about one or more of the works to which they
made a connection. Cut out paper or felt hearts
(love it), light bulbs (good idea), question marks (I
have a question about this one), paintbrushes (good
craftsmanship), speech bubbles (comment), and
the like. Attach them to spring-loaded clothespins
with glue or hook-and-loop dots. Squeezing the
clothespins open and placing them on the edge
of the artworks help children develop fine motor
skills. The objects that they clipped to the artworks
will not only help students remember their comment or question, but they also provide a great way
to begin a discussion about how we relate artworks
to society, ourselves, and other cultures.
Chapter 7 Fine Motor Delays 93
Responding to Art
piece of sponge held with a clothespin or
directly with the pincer grasp. Finished
artworks were hung to dry on a clothesline
with clothespins, which works both fine
and gross motor skills.
Many children enter first grade with
fine motor skill deficits, so this lesson benefited all my students. The small pencils
forced them to use the grasp preferred
by our occupational therapist, and the
students loved working with the small
implements. Experimenting with various
paintbrushes allowed students to see
which worked best and fostered the greatest success. I also discovered that painting
an entire 12-by-18-inch paper can fatigue
little hands. Switching to a larger tool to
apply paint, such as sponges or cotton
balls, made the process more manageable.
A student draws with fingertip crayons.
Interpreting and analyzing works of art can
be turned into a fine motor activity for all
learners. Getting students out of their seats
and actively engaged is much more exciting than a lecture or presentation. Think
about creating activities that strengthen
fine motor muscles. Let’s say, for example,
you are facilitating a discussion about
analyzing mood in artworks. Imagine all of
your students sitting in front of you and ask
yourself how you could get them to develop
their fine motor skills in this lesson. What
activities would work the muscles in their
arms and hands? One idea is to have them
choose ice-pop sticks on which various
words that describe mood (e.g., quiet, angry,
sad, etc.) are written, or toothpicks that
have a flag image, and stick them in a lump
of clay or Model Magic in front of each artwork. Picking up and grasping objects works
the index finger and thumb, and pushing
works the small muscles of the hand.
It is easy to make small word or image
cards to illustrate possible messages in
works of art, such as caring, community,
happiness, beauty, nature, and so on.
These can be adhered to sticks or skewers,
which students “plant” in little flowerpots
in front of each artwork. Or students could
use clothespins or pushpins to attach the
cards near the artwork. Anything that gets
the body moving and hands grasping will
help students develop their motor skills.
Similar activities can be incorporated
into discussions about how people
evaluate and determine the value of an
artwork based on society’s standards. An
easy adaptation is to have the class place
marbles in clear jars to show which artwork they think is most valuable. Picking
up and releasing marbles uses fine motor
muscles. A conversation about why, how,
and with what criteria they determined
value prompts them to respond to art in
fun and interesting ways.
Anything that gets the body moving and hands grasping
will help students develop their motor skills.
94
Presenting Art and Ideas about Art
Presenting art—yours and others—as well
as unpacking and revealing your thoughts
about art is a very personal and intimate
experience. As a teaching artist myself, I
know firsthand the pride, trepidation, and
thought that the process involves. As a
teacher, I know the love and emotion that
go into the students’ artwork I display
and discuss during classroom critiques
and discussions, therefore I always praise
the work before discussing how it could
be refined. Often if you say, “I think it’s
missing something,” and ask them if they
think so too, they
I always praise
see what they need
to add to make it
the work before
better. My students
discussing how it
never seem to mind
could be refined.
when I say, “Wow, it
is really, really good. One more little thing
can make it great!” They usually ask me
what that one little thing is.
For students with fine motor weakness,
the process of creating art takes more
time, stamina, and grit. When they refine
and present their art, they are putting
themselves out there even more than their
peers. Integrating fine motor adaptations
into your classroom will narrow the gap
between them and their peers, enabling
their artistic visions to come to fruition.
The best thing is that these adaptations
allow student artists to convey the ideas
they hold in their heads and hearts onto
the canvas, allowing them to create
meaning as they present and discuss their
work. Imagine the frustration of having a
great idea in your head and not being able
to express it due to a lack of fine motor
skills. As your students select, refine, and
analyze their work and that of others, it
is of great value to address fine motor
skill weakness and how it might impact
students as they participate in presenting
their art. Before you teach a lesson or unit,
consider how you can ensure that they can
fully interact with the lessons and activities you create for this standard.
Laying the Groundwork
The average art class will most likely have
more students who have never been to an
art museum than those who have. Therefore, exploring why and how works of art
are selected for exhibition in museums,
galleries, and other venues is a hit-or-miss
topic for some students. Luckily there is
a large selection of virtual museums and
gallery tours online. Google Art Project, the
National Gallery, London, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art, as well as many
other institutions, offer virtual tours of
their collections. (Web resources are listed
at the end of the chapter.) The exploration of this topic can be accomplished in
large or small groups, either guided by the
teacher or explored independently on computers. Using computers does engage fine
motor skills and can be easier than writing
tools for students with fine motor deficits.
Creating Active Learning
FingerMax fingertip brushes are a lively
way to engage learners with fine motor
weaknesses to paint.
Once students understand the basics of
museums, galleries, and online exhibits, it
is time for a discussion focused on what
guiding criteria, methods, and procedures
curators use to select artworks for display.
This exercise will help students assume
that role in curating their own exhibition.
Chapter 7 Fine Motor Delays 95
Next, get those fine motor skills working. Using pencils, either short ones or
some equipped with grips, students
should write on an index card their criteria
for determining what is chosen for their
show or museum. It might help if you narrow the categories, perhaps limiting it to
landscapes, portraits, an exhibit of artwork
with a theme, women artists, contemporary art, sculptures, or art from a particular
culture or time period. When finished
writing, students should attach their cards
to a board with a clip or pushpin and then
discuss the ideas as a class.
Conclusion of the Activity
By discussing and analyzing the criteria
used during the curatorial process, students gain insight into how artworks are
selected for display. Conclude the investigation by picking five or six criteria and
applying them to a group of reproductions
of contemporary art, which need to be
narrowed down to five for exhibition. This
could be done as a class or by table teams;
at each table, place five prints that students need to narrow down to the one that
will be added to the class exhibition. The
final artworks chosen can be displayed on
a clothesline with spring-loaded clothespins or attached to a whiteboard with
magnetic clips that need to be squeezed
to open. Call on students with fine motor
delays to help.
The adaptations discussed here benefit
all learners by getting everyone up and out
of their seats and engaging them in active
learning. At the same time, students are
strengthening their fine motor skills, making them more successful in academics as
well as the arts.
96
Sewing shapes with laces to a background
for an adapted fiber arts lesson.
Adaptive Benefits
for All Students
As classroom teachers are required to
focus more and more on testing, reserving
blocks of time for reading and writing and
incorporating science into their schedule,
activities that use fine motor skills are
becoming nearly nonexistent in students’
daily routines. The writing that students
complete in the classroom is often done
on computers to squeeze in the technology standards that many teachers strive
to meet. After-school hours are often filled
with sports activities or time spent on
tablets or gaming devices. Therefore, practicing adaptations with the entire class
is a great way to develop and exercise all
students’ fine motor skills. Not only will
these modifications help them with their
art-making, but they also benefit handwriting, dexterity, hand-eye coordination,
as well as simple self-care tasks such as
dressing and hygiene.
Consider This: Fine Motor
Of the possible fine motor challenges
students may face in the classroom,
Susan Loesl points to grasping pencils,
markers, and crayons, using scissor and
glue bottles, and two-handed activities
such as weaving, folding or tearing, and
twisting.2 During the first month of the
new academic year, meet one-on-one
with your school’s occupational therapist,
special education teachers, or classroom
teachers. Collaborate on how you can
add fine motor exercises into your art
room. The colleagues you teach with are
a valuable resource. You may even want
to ask the occupational therapist to set
up a few learning centers or activities for
you, or perhaps she could come in during
art class to offer expertise and wisdom.
Creating adaptations, whether through
lessons, warmups or centers, is a wonderful way to improve the fine motor skills
your students rely on so heavily when
producing art.
I ask you to add yet another block to
your philosophical foundation. We all have
students who finish art lessons early, or
two-thirds of the class is done and you let
the rest work independently until everyone has finished. This would be a good
time to have a few fun activities ready that
use fine motor skills. You could create a
learning center where students can make
mini mosaics using trays of colorful paper
pieces and simple backgrounds for gluing
them onto. Another learning center could
have a tray with lacing cards and yarn or
beads to string. Even making friendship
bracelets uses fine motor muscles.
These are just a few of the many activities that develop and support fine motor
deficits, and are beneficial to all learners
as well. And so I ask, how are you going
to reach your students with fine motor
delays and incorporate fine motor exercises into your art room and curriculum?
The possibilities are limited only by your
imagination.
Origami is a great fine motor activity.
Notes
1 Heather Fountain, Differentiated Instruction in Art (Worcester,
MA: Davis Publications, 2014), 76–77.
2 Susan D. Loesl, “Students with Physical Disabilities,” in Reaching and Teaching Students with Special Needs through Art. Beverly
Levett Gerber and Doris M. Guay, eds. (Reston, VA: National Art
Education Association, 2006), 107–108.
Additional Resources
Virtual Museum Tours
www.google.com/culturalinstitute/beta
www.nationalgallery.org.uk/visiting/virtual-tours
www.youvisit.com/themet
Chapter 7 Fine Motor Delays 97
Chapter 8
Intellectual
Disabilities
“All that we are is a result of what we have thought. The mind is everything.
What we think we become.”
The Buddha (Gautama Siddhartha)
Intellectual disabilities are characterized
by a decreased level of both cognitive
and adaptive abilities. Intellectual disabilities interfere with a person’s capacity
to perceive or understand information,
which affects how they learn and engage
in daily activities. Angelman syndrome,
Down syndrome, fetal alcohol syndrome,
Prader-Willi syndrome, Rett syndrome,
congenital rubella syndrome, Williams
syndrome, and Fragile X syndrome, along
with autism, can cause a child to exhibit
varying degrees of cognitive and developmental impairments. The degree of the
deficit varies greatly and can range from
mild to severe, depending on the individual.1 Cognitive disabilities may include
communication and speech delays, as well
as delays in processing information.
Stencil the mask’s outer portion of image to make it easier for students to create shape.
98
Questions to Think About
As you read this chapter, consider the following questions:
Teaching in a concrete step-by-step
progression with repetition and reinforcement of concepts is essential for
helping students grasp complex ideas.
Simplification of the art-making process
will enable them to perceive what is being
taught and how to achieve the desired
educational goal. For many children with
intellectual disabilities, art is the perfect
way to express themselves and find joy
while developing skills. Engaging in the
process is often more important than the
product, so don’t be afraid to experiment
with tools and materials to encourage
students to participate in art-making. As
artists and art educators, we must treasure
uniqueness in all works of art. Don’t worry
if students’ outcomes do not all look the
same; treasure their differences.
1. How can you eliminate obstacles in students’ creative path
and enable them to be more successful in creating art?
2. How can you simplify and “chunk” your lessons to make
them easier to comprehend and accomplish for students
with intellectual disabilities?
3. How can you work through your students’ abilities and get
them creating more independently? Can you think of what
your cognitively impaired students can do, instead of what
they cannot do?
Stencil the mask’s
inner portion to allow
students to paint the
background without
the heart image being
painted over.w
Understanding
Intellectual Disabilities
Intellectual disability is a broad term
that does not define one specific
diagnosis, but is rather an overarching
umbrella under which many varied
disabilities are categorized. Although
intellectual disabilities vary, they
do have one commonality; affected
individuals may have deficits in:
1 Intellectual functioning. Often
known as IQ (intelligence quotient), intellectual functioning
affects a person’s ability to learn,
reason, problem solve, and make
decisions. The average IQ is 100;
a range from 85 to 115 is considered typical. A person would be
considered as having an intellectual disability if the IQ is 70 to 75
or lower.
2 Adaptive abilities. Skills needed
in day-to-day life to take care of
one’s self, interact with others, and
communicate effectively.
A student’s heart
artwork inspired by
artist Jim Dine.
Chapter 8 Intellectual Disabilities
99
Meaningful Adaptations
Adaptations to how and why you teach will
be necessary to reach and engage students
with intellectual disabilities in the process of
making and responding to art. As you read
through this chapter, reflect on how your
instruction must change, and how you can
modify your lessons and methodology so
that art becomes an expressive, meaningful
experience for students with intellectual
impairments. Some adaptations will be
Mae’s Story:
Building Confidence with Communication
I recall with fondness watching a
quiet, nervous young girl named Mae
come alive through her art. Cautious
at first, Mae, who had intellectual and
multiple other disabilities, looked to
her classroom teacher for assurance
with each movement she made. One
day I saw her come into the art room
wearing riding breeches, and I discovered that she loved horses and rode
weekly. I sat down and took the time
to get to know her a little better, asking
about her horseback riding, her horse,
and its name.
At the end of art class, as others
cleaned up, I saw Mae drawing on
paper. I sat down with her and we
drew a horse hand-over-hand. In this
moment, she came to life. “Ears,” Mae
said excitedly. She tried desperately to
get me to draw the horse’s halter on
its face. At first I couldn’t understand
what she was saying, but she used
her hands and gestured with her
fingers to communicate her intentions to me. “Halter?” I questioned.
“Yes, yes,” she said. “Reins, too?” I
asked, and I got a big hug. Through
pantomime, Mae communicated that
she wanted to draw the saddle and
then her sitting astride the horse.
From that day on, Mae no longer
looked to her teacher for help or
assurance to create art. Mae and I had
100
made a great connection—she eagerly
followed my step-by-step instructions,
often jumping ahead in her eagerness
to create art.
Mae was timid and rarely left her
classroom without an adult. One day,
I heard a knock at my art room door.
Mae had ridden her bike (an incentive
program) to my room to deliver a paper;
this was a huge step. Her bike trips
down the long hallway to my classroom
became more frequent as the year
progressed. In art class, her confidence
soared, and at the end of each lesson
we would draw horses together.
A big breakthrough came toward
the end of our second year together.
One day Mae came into my art room
and showed me pages filled with bold
lines—drawings she had made. She
was finding sheets of paper and creating art on her own. I could see her
happiness as she displayed each page,
grasping them all eagerly.
“Mae, you need a sketchbook,” I said,
and so bookmaking became our next
art lesson. When the class finished
making their books, I passed out crayons. As students opened their sketchbooks, a silence fell over the room;
they were all drawing with great intent.
Everyone, including Mae, realized that
this was a successful lesson that gave
them a great way to communicate.
physical or procedural, whereas others will
be more philosophical, prompting you to
consider why and how you teach. It may be
important for you to consider, if you have
not already, how objectives can be achieved
through differentiated instruction or tiered
learning.2 Creating adaptations can be extra
work, but when you see students with intellectual disabilities excited about art, making
it independently, and feeling successful, all
the effort will be worth it.
During my first year teaching, a parade
of paraprofessionals entered my art room.
Typically, I saw them making the majority
of the students’ art projects because that’s
the way it had always been done. People
mistakenly assumed that cognitively
impaired children could not do anything,
and art teachers didn’t offer alternatives to
help the students participate on their own
terms and according to their own abilities.
Seeing this made me stop and analyze my
role as a teacher of art. Wasn’t it my job to
educate all students about art, no matter
how they learn? I realized that I believed
students needed to be actively involved in
the art-making process for the experience
to be meaningful, and that learning is not
a one-size-fits-all approach. This conclusion led me to observe individual students
and note how each one learns. Next, I
created adaptations to lessons, tools, and
materials so that every learner could be
reached successfully. That is when great
things started to happen.
Finished student
sketchbook.
Tissue squares are pasted on with a gluewater mixture held in a small container.
Choices Allow for Expression
Choices for students with intellectual disabilities help with
self-expression. For students who cannot draw a still life
independently, being offered a choice of several bottles to
trace, for example, makes them feel part of the creative process. Offering a full palette of paints to choose from may be
overwhelming. Students should be allowed to decide which
colors they want to paint with. Offer them five or so colors
to choose from, but allow them to use only one at a time.
This approach gives them ownership of their art and allows
for individuality and self-expression while supporting the
practice of decision-making as part of the artistic process.
Sketchbook cover made from a tissuesquares collage and glitter.
Chapter 8 Intellectual Disabilities
101
Creating Art
Communication is often extremely difficult for students with multiple or severe
disabilities. Some may be able to only
make gestures or sounds or pronounce the
first syllables of words. However, the desire
to communicate is great, so when traditional paths are blocked, these children
may have to take an alternative route to
express themselves. Coleman and Cramer
discuss the significance of art as a visual
language that provides another means of
communication for students with disabilities; they stress the importance of art
having many solutions rather than just
one answer, which naturally allows the
expressions or voices of multiple learners.3
For many students, art is that pathway—the alternative route to communication. Their excitement at being able to
communicate is evident when you observe
the creative process in which they are
engaged. The desire to create is just as
important for students with disabilities as
it is for their peers.
Color coded warp and
thick, multicolored
weaving materials
make weaving easier.
Allow students to
choose from several
tracers when creating
an artwork, involving
them in the creative
process.
102
The majority of students diagnosed
with intellectual disabilities are aware that
their artworks do not look like the work
of their classmates. Although art can be
used to communicate in myriad creative
ways, sometimes students want their art
to be similar to that of their peers, even if
they lack the motor or intellectual ability to create a specific project. You can
just let them express themselves as they
wish, but the subject depicted often loses
its shape because students are overly
involved in the process or lack hand-eye
coordination. With the help of simple
proven adaptations for painting, drawing, clay sculpture, and other art media,
learners will be able to create a product
that is more concrete and recognizable.
Having tried it both ways, I quickly realized the importance of the satisfaction
that students gain by creating identifiable
images. Whether they are depicting a vase
with a flower, mountains, or a portrait,
their excitement peaks when they make
the connection between what they are
creating and its relationship to the world
or community in which they live.
Glue wood shapes to cardboard to make
printmaking plates.
Tips for Adapting Art Media
Sharing all the directions of an assignment
at once can be overwhelming for students
with cognitive impairments. Chunking
information is a much more manageable approach. Asking students to paint
one area at a time (e.g., the grass or the
mountains), limiting the number of colors,
or outlining areas to be filled in are much
more manageable steps that will allow
students the satisfaction of knowing they
can achieve each immediate goal.
Isolating media and materials also helps
students focus on the task at hand. If they
are painting a sky, a palette of sixteen watercolors may lead to confusion and hesitation.
To promote easier decision-making, offer
a smaller paint selection, while still allowing for free choice. If a lesson calls for the
use of only certain hues, lay paper or apply
masking tape over part of the paint tray so
that only the colors students should work
with are exposed. Another option is to use
big tempera cakes or watercolor cakes. The
larger surface allows for greater success at
reaching the desired color than the small
ovals found in most watercolor trays. Handeye coordination is often affected in students
with multiple disabilities, so larger paints or
individual paint cups ensure success.
If you usually lay out all of the lesson’s
supplies on a table or place them in a bin
at the table for easy access, you might consider limiting the items to help students
know what is acceptable to use at which
phase. For instance, if the first task is cutting out a shape, then place only scissors
on the table; if painting is next, then put
out the paint and put the scissors away.
Leaving out an array of materials and tools
can be a distraction or may lead to confusion, and students may end up using the
wrong item for one or more steps.
To ensure success in using all the media
and tools in the average art room, you
will need to discuss your techniques and
lesson objectives with the paraprofessionals
assigned to your students who have intellectual disabilities. Doing so will help them
Assortment of plastic
combs designed to
create texture on
surfaces.
understand your expectations and ideas,
such as the need for simplification of steps,
isolation of materials, and the adaptations
you have designed specifically for the media,
tools, and techniques the lessons will call on.
Media
Consider trying out one or more of the
following adaptations:
•
When teaching a weaving lesson, use
fabric, felt, or foam instead of paper so
the material does not tear and cause
frustration.
•
Color code the warp when weaving.
•
Use purple glue sticks that turn invisible when dry. The color allows students
to see where they have applied glue.
•
Work with one color at a time; isolating
colors allows for greater success.
•
Provide everyday concrete items to create
with. Fruits and vegetables are great to
print with, especially when low cognition
prevents a student from creating a foam
or linoleum plate to print independently.
•
Use alternative clays, such as Model
Magic, for fewer steps when sculpting—
no scoring or slip required.
Chapter 8 Intellectual Disabilities
103
Tips for Adapting Process:
Tools and Techniques
•
Work on surfaces that engage students
(e.g., burlap, tin foil, or cardboard), using
sidewalk chalk or nonpermanent paints.
•
Provide individual watercolor and
tempera pans to avoid color mixing.
Keeping projects simple should be your goal
when designing and implementing adaptations for students with intellectual challenges. These modifications are vital because
they remove the stumbling blocks that may
impair the artistic process. Accessibility and
ease of use equals better control and results.
The final artworks may look a bit different,
but the same objectives can be met by all.
Short-handled shaving cream brushes are
easy to grasp to apply
paint.
Watercolor-filled
paintbrushes, for
ease in painting.
Watercolor-filled
paint pen applicators.
104
Trying to grasp a concept that you do not
comprehend might have you looking out
the window, staring at the floor, asking to
get a drink of water or take a bathroom
break, or all of the above. These are avoidance tactics that students often exhibit
when they are unsure what to do or feel
they cannot accomplish a task.
Some learners may require a quick
verbal reiteration of the steps they need
to take; others may benefit from a visual
step-by-step handout. Students who have
greater cognitive impairments may need
you to simplify the concept. In addition,
adaptations to tools and techniques may
make it manageable for all students to
accomplish tasks independently or with
as little assistance as possible.
Adaptations to tools and techniques
should be designed to simplify some of
the thought process or work for students.
One example is to use tape or temporary
adhesive to secure students’ art to the
work surface so that it doesn’t move
around, and their hands are free to create.
If students with an intellectual disability
cannot draw independently, use tracers, light tables, or the hand-over-hand
technique to assist them in completing
the task. Tracers made from thin sheets
of printmaking foam are easier to use
than oak tag because the thicker material is easier for students to trace. Adding a sensory component helps engage
students and maintain their attention.
Adaptations that incorporate the senses
of touch, smell, sight, and sound will
heighten interest and enjoyment,
allowing students to focus on tasks for
a longer time.
Analyzing the Situation
Every time your students with disabilities enter the
art room, their needs will be different. Some days,
they may require more assistance and guidance
from you or paraprofessionals, other days they
might need less. It may simply be a challenging
day for them, or the materials or lesson objectives
might be out of their reach. Communicating with
the student and paraprofessional will give you
insights to improve the situation.
If you are wondering how paraprofessionals help
their students with an art assignment, investigate
before assuming that they are doing too much or too
little regarding the independence of the students.
Keep the dialogue open and have many conversations about your students’ progress as well as your
expectations. You are the teacher, but paraprofessionals, special education teachers, and classroom
teachers work with your students daily and have
much to offer. Collaboration between you and them
will build relationships that benefit all learners.
Also keep in mind that many of your colleagues
will not have an art background or may even be
uncomfortable with art, so it will be up to you to
teach them what to do.
Lesson Example: “Chunking” the Lesson
If you hand a piece of white paper, crayons, and watercolors to students with a
severe cognitive impairment and instruct
them to make a painting of an ocean, they
may not grasp the concept. By chunking,
or breaking down the project into steps,
they will have greater success. Here is
what that lesson might look like:
1 Show images of an ocean and ask what
colors students see in the seaweed, fish,
and water. To facilitate discussion, hold
up cards marked with various colors
and ask students to clap, cheer, or give
a thumbs-up to the colors that they see.
2 Provide stencils of a fish shape for
students to trace with the crayon or
paint within, and use textured plates and
crayons to color the ocean floor. Students
enjoy placing a textured plate underneath the paper and creating a sand-like
texture to add depth and texture to their
artwork. This will engage students in a
sensory activity that involves touch.
3 Follow with a demonstration showing
how to paint seaweed, moving the brush
from the bottom of the paper toward the
top. Place a sticky note at the bottom of
the demonstration paper and draw an
arrow pointing up to remind students to
paint in an upward direction.
4 Model drawing wavy white crayon lines
across the paper to simulate movement
in water. If students need more assistance, place stickers or dots on each
side of the paper for them to connect.
5 Instruct students how to add watercolors to their paper or provide a
hand-over-hand demonstration. Start
by dipping the brush in water and then
in the paint; drag the brush from side
to side. Students love seeing the white
lines appear as they paint.
6 Demonstrate how to apply the blue
water thinly over the background to
create the ocean.
The above process demonstrates how a
concept can be broken down and scaffolded to make a lesson attainable for all.
As educators, we chose this profession
to teach—not to have our students fail,
but to help them find success. They may
not always achieve mastery in the ways
we expect, but they will grow, and perhaps
our vision of mastery might eventually
change, along with the means we use to
help students achieve it.
As educators, we chose this profession to teach—
not to have our students fail, but to help them find success.
Chapter 8 Intellectual Disabilities
105
Tools
Differentiation doesn’t just apply to
instruction. It can also include how tools
are presented and used. This section shares
a few tips to help you better accommodate
all students in the art-making process.
•
Clamp or tape artwork to the work
surface to prevent movement.
•
Encourage the use of a helper hand
(a peer or adult with a free hand)
when working.
•
Use blue poster tack to secure tracers
if students are using them, eliminating
the frustration of the paper or tracer
moving.
•
Different disabilities need different
tools; experiment to see what works for
each student.
•
•
Use Do-A-Dot markers or similar tools
to create patterns. These relieve some
of the work while still allowing for
self-expression.
Use tracers and stencils to help
students create shapes or objects.
Tracers help make some tasks more
manageable, especially when cognition
or motor skills prevent a child from
creating specific objects.
Drawing on textured surfaces and plates.
106
Artwork clamped to a binder to prevent
movement.
Encourage the use of a light table to assist in
drawing skills.
Always offer a few choices so that
students retain ownership of artistic
decisions. Use the hand-over-hand technique only when necessary. Explain to
paraprofessionals that students are to
work as independently as possible; they
are to keep students on task and assist in
recalling the steps and techniques used to
create art, not make the art for them.
•
Draw on textured surfaces; this experience helps create an awareness of the
activity and engages multiple senses.
•
Use fun scissors that cut wavy lines to
add interest and details.
•
Use paper crimpers and other objects
that engage the sense of touch and add
texture to artwork.
When working with students diagnosed
with cognitive impairments, keep the
lessons simple but engaging. Creative
media, tools, and lessons will keep the
students’ attention on the task at hand.
Simple step-by step directions, combined
with strategies that assist with successful
achievement, will garner positive results.
Techniques
When adapting techniques to meet students’ needs, it is important to remember
that process is often more important than
product. Consider the following to lead
students toward success:
•
For tedious activities, allow frequent
breaks to avoid frustration and fatigue.
•
“Chunk” information—explain only one
or two steps at a time.
•
Share visual samples of the various
steps of the task to be completed.
•
Use Wikki Stix or a bold marker outline
to aid in visually organizing areas to be
painted or colored in.
•
Computers and interactive whiteboards
help engage students in a lesson. The
more hands-on involvement, the better
the results will be.
•
Use laminated templates when working with clay so that students can more
easily cut out desired shapes.
•
Draw a light pencil line as a path to
trace with glue.
•
Use stencils to show which areas
should be painted and to cover those
that should not.
•
Offer two or three colors to choose
from; having too many choices is
confusing.
•
Communicate with paraprofessionals
about how much assistance you want
them to provide to students.
The creative process will actively
involve students
who have intellectual disabilities
if you pitch the ball
where they can hit
it. As you adapt
your ideas, tools, and techniques, remember that the process of making art is more
important than the end product. If students cannot grasp a concept or method,
break it down into smaller chunks that can
be understood and achieved. In the end,
those small pieces will fit together just like
a puzzle into a finished work of art.
Remember that
the process of
making art is
more important
than the end
product.
A student uses
tracers adhered with
Blu-Tack to keep the
paper from moving.
Students without intellectual disabilities
draw castles freehand; adapt by making
tracers available.
Chapter 8 Intellectual Disabilities
107
Consider This: Adapting Art Ideas
Adapting a lesson on drawing or painting
a still life requires breaking the task into
step-by step segments. If students with
intellectual disabilities cannot draw the
shapes and objects independently, offer
them a selection of tracers made from
thin printmaking foam to choose from.
Set up a simple arrangement of inanimate
objects and display prints of artworks so
that students can see what a still life is.
If peers without intellectual disabilities
are including five objects in their still life,
students with cognitive impairments can
A paraprofessional
offers a limited choice
of colors.
paint three to five items, depending on
individual skill and stamina.
A variety of brushes were available to
meet the needs of all students: traditional
brushes, shaving cream brushes, sponges
clipped onto clothespins, and egg-handled
brushes. I worked with the students’
paraprofessionals or special education
teachers to determine what options would
work best.
Pattern was added in a variety of
ways, according to student choice. Learning centers and supplies were readily
available. Objects for creating patterns
included textured rollers, corks, sponges,
fingers, tempera paint markers, Do-A-Dot
Adapting a lesson on drawing or
painting a still life requires breaking
the task into step-by-step segments.
A student uses tracers to arrange and
paint a still life.
Pattern is created in a sensory fashion with
hands.
Pattern is added
using a textured
roller.
A student uses a variety of adaptations to
explore pattern.
108
markers, and strips of mat board to dip
into paint to create stripes. Black glue
(glue tinted with black tempera) was used
in a hand-over-hand technique to create
Cézanne-like outlines. Paper mat frames
were printed with a pattern to complete
the lesson.
Beautiful, colorful still lifes were
created by all students. The class also
benefited from the play-like atmosphere
created by the various adaptations and
learning centers available for creating
patterns. Teaching the lesson step-by-step
ensured that all students, whatever their
abilities, could accomplish each progressive stage in creating an artwork.
This lesson and its adaptations sent the
message that there are many avenues
and directions that artists take to make
works of art; there is no one right way
to create.
A variety of student
outcomes for finished still lifes using
adaptations.
There are many avenues and
directions that artists take to
make works of art; there is no
one right way to create.
Get Hands-On
Active hands-on activities result in
fewer behavioral issues and greater
student involvement; they also allow
students to absorb information more
easily and at a deeper level than
via a discussion or written activity.
Responding to art can be as exciting
and involved as creating art. Choose
activities that get students out of
their seats so they’re moving around
and in charge of their own inquiry
into understanding the wonders of
the world of art.
Chapter 8 Intellectual Disabilities
109
Connecting to Art
Connections to art, whether created by our
students or by people in societies throughout the world, enhance children’s understanding of themselves and others. We often
connect to art that we relate to in personal
ways or through common interests. It can
be challenging for students with intellectual
disabilities to comprehend abstract ideas,
so consider choosing images that show
relatable topics, exciting colors, interesting
textures, or universal themes that can be
explored on many levels, from simple to
complex. Through the use of tiered learning, you can develop various entry points
through which students can connect to lesson content.4 On one tier, or level, students
can explore the designs and colors that various cultures around the world use to paint
faces, finding one they would like to create.
Meanwhile, other students might consider
deeper concepts, such as why face painting
is used in various cultures, and then create
art that jumps off from those ideas. Breaking down a topic into a range of complexity
Narrow color choices
to two.
helps all students engage with the same
artworks and ideas, but from different levels
of intellectual challenge.
As an educator, I often find myself in
the role of facilitator during art-centered
discussions, helping guide students
through questions that lead to discovery.
For students with intellectual disabilities,
this process can be complicated. Incorporating visuals, game-like strategies such as
holding up response cards, and movement
can ensure greater student participation
and comprehension.
Using flash cards or flags decorated
with images will give students with cognitive issues a more fun yet concrete way
to respond. For example, you could create
cards that depict things that are the same
and things that are different. (Cards containing words and images would further
heighten understanding.) One card would
read “same” and depict two identical red
circles. The other card would read “different”
and depict a red circle and a blue triangle.
When you discuss a topic related to same
and different, students could hold up the
cards to communicate their answer. Comprehending what things are the same and
different as you analyze works from various
cultures and your own encourages students
to make personal connections to art.
Artist Statements
Painting on acetate
with a drawing
underneath allows
students to follow
lines and make a
design while having
the choice of color
and experiencing the
process of painting on
a slick surface.
110
An artist statement gives the viewer
a clearer vision of the creator’s ideas,
process, and intention. For students
with intellectual disabilities, writing
a statement about their art may be
difficult. Think of ways to modify the
traditional presentation of an artist statement. Perhaps a peer could
interview student artists on video to
record their thoughts. Many options
and applications are available to
accommodate this process.
Mold alternative
clay into preformed
containers, such as
paint cups or bowls,
making it easier to
manipulate.
Responding to Art
Typical activities that involve responding to art can be challenging for many
students with intellectual disabilities
because they involve complex reasoning
through questions and answers. Remember that, although these learners are a
certain chronological age, they may think,
respond, and reason in ways that resemble
those of a younger child. Be sure to include
varied learning goals and learning levels
that ensure that art-response activities
appropriately challenge students where
they are and help them move toward
greater learning success without feeling
overwhelmed.
When choosing anchor standards,
select those that are appropriate for
your students; doing so may sometimes
warrant “back-mapping,” or matching a
standard to one at a lower grade level that
is more suitable to your students’ intellectual abilities. If you are unsure what level
students are performing at, consult
Students may
their IEP, classroom
feel overwhelmed
teachers, or special
if they are given
education teachers.
too many choices
As you refer to the
or goals at once.
anchor standard by
grade level, decide
where students are currently, then look at
the next level they should climb to, and
challenge them to achieve that goal. Be
sure to match the appropriate challenge
so as not to devalue students’ abilities or
overwhelm them with challenges that are
too advanced.
Students may also feel overwhelmed
when responding to artworks if they are
given too many choices or goals at once.
We all love options, but to promote success, offer only two or three possibilities
so that students can reach a decision more
easily.
If students are nonverbal or have
limited language skills, this a great place
to implement alternative ways to respond.
Students can paint by
dipping tennis balls
in paint, then rolling
them on paper. They
are fun and easy to
grasp and create a
unique pattern.
Analyzing artworks for meaning via such
questions as, “What mood do you think
the artist is trying to portray?” or “What
was the artist thinking?” might be too
challenging. Students may have better
success if you ask the questions more
concretely and provide visual (nonverbal)
ways for them to respond. For instance, if
you are considering mood in an artwork,
you might provide cards that portray faces
that look happy, sad, scared, or sleepy,
which students can hold up when answering. You might ask them to stand up or sit
down to answer a yes-or-no question, such
as, “Does this work look happy?” Students
could even use their own faces to show
you the emotion evoked by the mood of an
artwork.
No matter how, or on what level, students respond, providing inclusive options
will help everyone have fun while gaining
the necessary skills to better digest and
analyze the growing number of visual
images that children consume every day of
their lives.
Chapter 8 Intellectual Disabilities
111
Presenting Art and Ideas about Art
Art shows are a terrific venue for presenting art. Having students select works
they have created based on a theme
informs the viewers about the various
ways that artists interpret ideas. Whether
the exhibit focuses on more traditional
subjects, such as landscapes, still lifes,
and portraits, or is based on an abstract
theme or concept, these displays provide
learners with an opportunity to select,
analyze, and share their work with the
community.
For students with intellectual disabilities, guidance and modifications to show
Use wood slats when
rolling out slabs of
clay, so clay does not
get too thin.
concrete examples will be necessary so
that they may take part in this process.
For instance, say your class is organizing
an art show based on different media that
artists use: charcoal, watercolor, collage,
pencil, and so on. Students without intellectual disabilities will be able to easily
look through their portfolio and select the
artworks that fit into these categories. To
adapt this activity, you or a paraprofessional could work with students to put
together a sampler showing the media to
be included in the exhibit, creating a fresh
visual connection. Students can then take
the sampler to their portfolio to assist
them in finding artworks made from the
same media.
Another way for students to be
involved in sharing artwork is by becoming a guest or featured artist at the
exhibition, demonstrating the use of a
medium they love working with. This type
of interaction allows children with intellectual disabilities to be part of the process
while building self-esteem. With appropriate support, a short time frame, and
practice beforehand, the chosen student
can become the star of the show.
Rewards
Incentives often make tasks more
manageable for students with intellectual disabilities. If a student easily
loses attention or concentration, offer
movement or activity breaks as a
reward for accomplishing chunks of
a task. For example, if students paint
the background of an artwork, allow
them to use an iPad for a short time.
This type of motivational device is
often used by occupational therapists,
112
paraprofessionals, and learning support and classroom teachers in school
to modify behaviors and promote good
work habits. For students with cognitive
deficits, reaching several short-term
goals may be necessary to achieve the
end product. These adaptations can be
arranged prior to or during an activity,
in collaboration with classroom teachers or paraprofessionals.
Adaptive Benefits for
All Students
Consider This:
Intellectual Disabilities
Remember that students with intellectual
disabilities absorb information better
when learning is broken into manageable
chunks. Teaching step-by-step, which
is concrete and sequential, will benefit
all students and help them more fully
understand the lessons and concepts.
Teaching
Keep in mind that
step-by-step
concrete means that
will benefit
learners use their
all students
five senses to register
and help them
information, and
more fully
sequential refers to
understand
the mind’s ability to
the lessons
order information in
and concepts.
a linear way.5 Even if
students’ minds work
in other combinations of learning styles,
comprehending in abstract or concrete
ways, processing the information step-bystep will give them a foundation of knowledge from which they are free to express
themselves creatively in art.
Not one day goes by that I do not have
to repeat steps or directions, whether for
the entire class or for individual students.
It may seem like extra work, but I have
found that breaking down information
lessens the frequency of confusion and
the time I spend re-explaining concepts
and processes, thus benefiting everyone in
the end.
We talked briefly about back-mapping
a standard to an anchor standard at a
lower grade level. Consider a student you
teach who has intellectual impairments.
Next, looking at the current grade level
that reflects the child’s chronological age,
examine the anchor standard that she is
supposed to learn. Then find the level you
feel the student is truly at and think of
how you can adapt your lesson so that she
can find success where she is and climb
the scaffold to the next level. What barriers can you remove and which adaptations
can you implement to get her there?
Notes
1 Gail J. Richard and Debra R. Hoge, The Source for Syndromes (East
Moline, IL: LinguiSystems, 1999).
2 Heather Fountain, Differentiated Instruction in Art (Worcester,
MA: Davis Publications, 2014).
3 M. Coleman, PhD and E. S. Cramer, PhD. (September 24,
2018), Making Art Accessible for Students with Physical, Visual,
Severe and Multiple Disabilities. Presentation, Making Art Accessible for Students. PowerPoint Presentation Handout, 2013.
4 Coleman and Cramer, Making Art Accessible.
5 Anthony Gregorc, “Mind Styles,” SUNY Cortland Faculty Webpages, accessed January 7, 2018, http://web.cortland.edu/andersmd/learning/Gregorc.htm.
Chapter 8 Intellectual Disabilities
113
Chapter 9
Hearing Loss
“Though born with a fiery, active temperament, even susceptible to the
diversions of society, I was soon compelled to isolate myself, to live life alone.
If at times I tried to forget all this, oh how harshly was I flung back by the
doubly sad experience of my bad hearing.”
Ludwig van Beethoven
Hearing loss is defined as a decrease in
hearing or the total loss of the ability to
hear (deafness). Your adaptations will
depend on the degree of the disability. First,
be aware that much of what we say and do
is based on the assumption that everyone
can hear. Most of the adaptations in this
Student work, printmaking.
114
chapter may seem like common sense, but
when they are not in place, students with
hearing loss are at a great disadvantage.
Beethoven’s anguish over his deafness, expressed in a letter to his brothers,
reflects the embarrassment that some
people feel when they have a disability.
Student work,
tennis ball painting.
Questions to Think About
As you read this chapter, consider the
following questions:
1. How will you ensure that students
with hearing loss understand you and
the concepts you are teaching?
2. What avenues can you use to communicate with students who have
hearing loss?
3. How can you foster a sense of
belonging and acceptance by peers
of students with hearing loss? How
will students communicate with
their peers who have a hearing
impairment?
Despite his distress, the next ten years
were the most productive of Beethoven’s
life, for it was during this time that he created his most famous compositions.1
A person may have partial or total hearing loss and the degree of the deficit can
vary. Assistive technologies such as hearing
aids, amplification devices, and cochlear
implants might help a student hear better,
but they do not always result in complete
recovery of hearing. Sign language, closed
captioning, real-time reporting, and voice
recognition software (to translate what a
teacher says) can help students understand
what they cannot hear.
Adaptations to your lessons, art media,
and processes will help ensure that
hearing-impaired students comprehend
and succeed when responding to and
making art. Instruction is vitally important, for steps in a process or information
may be missed as students with hearing
loss process the instructions as an interpreter signs or they lip read. Geisser and
Geisser note that there is a distinction
between “dumbing-down” and clarifying
or simplifying instructions and concepts.
Step-by-step instruction with a visual
demonstration and pause between steps is
valuable for all students in class.2
Demonstrate stepby-step directions
and allow students
to participate in the
demonstration.
Photo credit: Padgett Smith
Student work, low-relief paper sculpture.
Chapter 9 Hearing Loss
115
Making Your Classroom Comfortable
for All Learners
Many of the hearing-deficient students I
have encountered often slide their amplification system across the table to me
or, when another child asks about their
hearing device, act as though they don’t
know what it is for. As an educator, it is
your responsibility to encourage both the student and the
Fostering an attitude that
class to feel comfortable with
embraces differences will
these assistive devices. Classencourage the entire class
room research has noted that,
to work together to promote
when teachers allowed curiosa nurturing, supportive
ity of the other students about
environment for all.
hearing aids (and other unique
traits) to be met by addressing
it early, both through classroom discussions and through presentations by outside
experts, the strategy helped to “get the
curiosity out and be done with it.”3
Fostering an attitude that embraces
differences will encourage the entire class
to work together to promote a nurturing,
supportive environment for all. By fielding
questions about what assistive technologies are and how they help people,
you will establish a compassionate and
Group Work: Making It Work
Group projects and activities benefit all students and teach
many lessons, such as getting along with others, communication skills, cooperation, idea sharing, and more. A leader
usually takes charge of the group and the rest become the
workers; many times, the quietest student does not get
involved or just goes along with the flow. Keeping all group
members actively involved is not always possible. Circulate
among the groups and assess involvement. Make a quiet
student the assistant to the leader. Students with hearing
loss may take on any role. If needed, remind students to
make sure they are facing the child with hearing loss when
speaking. Suggest they go to a quiet area or in the hall or
doorway to work so background noise is lessened. Work with
paraprofessionals and ask them to keep the group dynamics
in check. This small group setting can often help a student
with hearing loss more actively engage in the activity, as
opposed to participating in a whole class discussion.
116
comfortable environment for students
who have hearing loss. Classmates who
understand how amazing a cochlear
implant is and how it works will be more
accepting of the device when it is worn
by a classmate. Modeling how to face
hearing-impaired children when speaking
to them will foster communication as well.
We all fear what we don’t understand,
so help demystify this potentially unfamiliar situation by teaching your students
techniques to communicate effectively
with one another. With input from hearing-impaired students, when appropriate,
hearing students can learn that simple
procedures—such as looking directly at
the person who is trying to understand
them, keeping their hands away from their
mouth when talking, or raising their hand
and waiting until the teacher points to
them before sharing a response can help
everyone see, know, and comprehend that
something is being said and shared.
Educators must ensure that their communication to hearing-impaired students
is being received and understood. Communication is likely the most salient area
in which individualized education applies
to deaf students. Cawthon states that in
response to these needs, we can speculate
that teachers may try to add finger spelling
to their speech, place deaf students near
the front of the room, give them language
level–appropriate assignments, or discuss
deafness as a culture. Other changes may
be subtler, such as using simplified or
exaggerated speech. It is also important to
teach advocacy to your hearing-deficient
students. Even though they are young, the
students are responsible for managing their
own amplification systems and should
check the device daily to see it is charged or
if it needs new batteries.4 If students do not
go up to a new teacher and tell them they
have a learning challenge and may need
extra assistance or adaptions, they may
miss valuable learning; advocating for the
self is empowering, so encourage it.
Jason’s Story: To Know Someone Well, Know Their Story
On a fall day in my first-grade art
class, I had the pleasure of meeting
a charming, funny young boy named
Jason who often liked stealing the
show as I discussed and demonstrated the day’s art lesson. If I got off
my teacher stool to get something I
forgot, he would quickly take my spot
and pretend to be me in a silly voice,
getting the whole class laughing. He
liked the attention he received from
being funny. He was always eager to
learn, but was often off task or didn’t
seem to know what to do. It wasn’t
until the middle of third grade that
he was identified as having a hearing
impairment. Jason liked attention, but
he was uncomfortable with the attention he was receiving from wearing an
amplification device.
After I seated Jason closest to the
source of instruction and asked him
how he was, he pushed his amplification device I was to wear across the
table and said, “Here,” raising his eyebrows. The child across the table said,
“What’s that thing for?” Jason looked
to me for help, and I said, “I don’t
always talk clearly and loudly enough
for Jason to hear, so I wear this. It
makes my voice louder.” “Oh, cool,”
the child said, and that was that. Jason
would leave the device on the table
where he worked, and I would pick it
up as I walked by. Being nonchalant is
often best.
Even when I was using the assistive device, it was important for me to
remember to speak face to face with
Jason. To further aid his comprehension, I put a laminated step-by-step
handout of the lesson at his table. I
did not want to single him out and
cause embarrassment, however, so I
placed one on each table, explaining
that it was a reinforcement of the
lesson. I soon realized that this simple
adaptation for Jason was beneficial to
the entire class; by placing a printout at
each table, I was able to help all learners,
especially those with attention difficulties, successfully acquire the lesson’s
key information. It also served as a great
reference when students began looking at
art, talking about art, and creating their
own art.
In the beginning, I also had to be
cognizant that students with hearing loss,
like Jason, might repeatedly say “Okay”
when they can’t hear you. After I picked
up on this habit, I made a point to check in
with Jason one-on-one throughout class to
make sure he was interpreting the directions and information correctly. Over time,
he became comfortable with me, recognizing that I was on his side and wanted to
help him fit in. Building a relationship
takes trust and time. Once Jason and I
developed a mutually respectful relationship, he was much more relaxed and able
to enjoy being creative.
Making Clay Coasters
1. Roll out clay on your mat with a rolling
pin, keeping the clay between 2 wood
sticks to keep thickness even.
4. When you have made all 4 coasters peel
them off the mat and put your name
and class on the back. Now place them
on the drying boards.
A laminated visual
handout of a stepby-step process.
2. Use a coffee can to cut out 4 coasters.
5. Clean up: put your mat, rolling pin,
coffee can, and any items from the junk
box back into the proper boxes at the
back of the room. Wash your table with
a sponge.
3. Add texture to each coaster by pressing
objects into the clay from the junk box.
Chapter 9 Hearing Loss
117
Creating Art
Whether you are presenting a new lesson or facilitating a discussion about art
history or criticism, consider including a
visual presentation that retells the topic
through images and captions, like “closed
captioning” on television. Visual reinforcement helps all learners, especially
if students’ attention wanders while you
introduce a lesson or concept.
As a teacher, you must be in
Visual
tune with all of your students,
reinforcement
paying particular attention
to those with hearing loss by
helps all
reading their body language,
learners.
checking their progress intermittently, and verifying their comprehension. Do not assume that they just didn’t
listen to instructions. If a student has total
hearing loss, an interpreter who signs or
provides oral interpretation (using the
mouth to exaggerate words while facing
the student), might accompany the child,
providing a valuable resource. Here, too, a
printout will give much-needed information to refer to, since these professionals
may not be familiar or comfortable with
art. If you have students who use sign
language, learn the basics like stop, wait,
OK, more, and good, so that even from
across the room you can communicate
with them. Most important, be caring and
supportive; their best work is yet to come.
Tips for Adapting Art Media
Many adaptations to art media are more
about how you demonstrate and instruct
the use of the medium than adapting the
medium itself. That said, a loss in one of
the five senses can heighten other senses,
but not always, so making adaptations
to media so that they engage the other
senses can be beneficial to students. Art is
a visual and sensory carnival; keep that in
mind as you create adaptations.
If you are demonstrating an artistic
process, such as slab building a mug, the
student will be watching the interpreter
sign what you are saying and may miss
what you are doing with your hands as
you score and slip surfaces together. In
this situation, you have two options. The
first is to allow the interpreter to sign as
you demonstrate techniques, then follow
up with a laminated handout of photos
and explanations of each step. The second
option is to have the child watch you
demonstrate, then give the interpreter a
handout to review and ask any questions
about prior to beginning the process. I feel
the latter works best—sometimes you do
things naturally when demonstrating that
are essential to the lesson, but you don’t
even realize or explain what you are doing.
Nonverbal communication is not just an
add-on to what we are teaching; it may be
the only way a student will understand.5
A demonstration of
how to mix colors.
Demonstration of steps of the production
process.
118
Show rather than tell how
to create.
Photo credit: Padgett Smith
Gather students around you when giving a
demonstration.
Photo credit: Padgett Smith
As always, circulate around the room
and check for students’ comprehension and
progress. There may be gaps in comprehension because the student may not have
acquired as much background knowledge
as his or her peers, but this is true whether
a child has hearing loss or not. Many
students who have cochlear implants have
regained some of their hearing ability; the
level of hearing regained can vary greatly
from hearing only some sounds to most
sounds. If children received implants at a
young age, there may be no difference in
comprehension compared to their hearing
peers, but for many, some factors may affect
speech or processing or both. Keep in mind
that sometimes a student simply does not
comprehend and creates what they interpret the assignment to be by watching their
peers. Many of the following adaptations to
art media and techniques will help students
with hearing loss; in most cases, all students
will better understand the lesson goals.
Media
•
Show, rather than tell, how colors are
mixed.
•
Demonstrate watercolor techniques,
such as wet-on-wet and drybrush.
Encourage students to try the technique while you are present.
•
When working with clay, encourage
students to feel the desired thickness
of the project.
•
Demonstrate all steps in the art-making process.
•
Make sure the student is close to
you when you demonstrate weaving
techniques.
•
Distribute a visual handout of the
techniques being taught to reinforce
instruction.
•
Don’t show too many steps at once; it
is better to chunk information. You can
even give three directions for students
to complete, then provide the next step
when students are ready.
We learn so much from observation.
Perhaps that is why many of the adaptations for students with hearing loss incorporate slowing down as you demonstrate a
medium and how it is used during an artistic process. Visuals, from demonstrations to
laminated directions, help explain how and
what the student is to do and accomplish.
It is not so much about modifying the
media as it is how you demonstrate and
assist your students with hearing deficits
to use them. Taking the extra moment to
stop by and check for understanding can
alleviate any doubts or misconceptions that
the student may have about the proper use
and method for the medium.
Modifications are advantageous
because they fill in communication gaps
that can occur because of hearing loss.
Having the student demonstrate a small
part of the process or technique is also a
handy method for checking comprehension. Implementing modifications can
thwart mistakes and help all students feel
more successful.
Chapter 9 Hearing Loss
119
Tips for Adapting Process:
Tools and Techniques
My normal teaching practice is to circulate the art room after I give my lesson
introduction and demonstration. I like to
see if the concept and process are being
understood, offer praise, and make sure
that students are using tools correctly. This
practice should be adopted for students
with hearing loss, too. You will use the
same tools and techniques as you do for
their peers; however, you will need to
adapt the way you instruct, using tools and
techniques that provide visual demonstration and reinforcement. Some learners
may also require a one-on-one session.
Try to reinforce verbal directions with
visual ones. You can ask the interpreter to
assist, communicate by writing notes, and
demonstrate by drawing pictures or creating your own artwork next to the student.
Think, “Okay, if they can’t hear me, how
can I get the concept across and chunk
the information so they can process it and
begin creating art?” Be sure to talk with
students ahead of time and find out what
works for them, letting them know that
you are there for them and want to help.
Many of the tools that we already have
on hand help students see directions. Use
document cameras, handouts, interactive
whiteboards, and anything you can think
of to display visuals of what you are teaching them. So many of us learn by seeing
and doing, so make sure you have students’ attention before you begin talking
or sharing information.
Tools
•
Most tools for students with hearing
loss will be the same as those of their
peers; the main difference will be in
how you teach students to use the tool.
•
Check for comprehension of the correct grasp by demonstrating how to
hold tools.
A PowerPoint, Prezi, or Flipchart presentation
provides a visual of the knowledge being
taught.
Praise and check
frequently for
comprehension.
Interactive whiteboards allow learners to
proceed at their own pace, while providing
hands-on learning and movement breaks.
120
Consider This:
Adapting Art Ideas
The final product shows students’ comprehension of the activity. Assess your demonstration for comprehension, then tweak it so
that all learners become successful.
•
Place yourself in your hearing-impaired
students’ shoes. If students are not
using the correct pencil or process,
perhaps they missed part of your introduction. If they are lip reading your
conversation, they might not get every
word. Or you may have tipped your
head down while demonstrating, and
they were unable to see your mouth.
Praise students for their effort and then
make small corrections if needed.
Techniques
Students with hearing losses may also have
communication or speech concerns. If you
cannot understand what the child is saying,
a paraprofessional may be able to assist.
Alternatively, you can have the child show
you or write it down for you, without calling
too much attention to the situation. Interactive whiteboards are another great tool
for effective communication. The whole
class can be involved in using the whiteboard, and for those with hearing loss, it is
a great visual display on which to explain
the objectives and steps of the lesson.
I’ve suggested these tools and techniques
to keep the channels of learning open with
as few interruptions as possible. Lack of
communication often results in a misunderstanding and a failure to meet the objectives
of the lesson. Making everything more
visual, with presentations, handouts, and
written information and images, ensures
success not just for students with hearing
loss, but for all students in the classroom.
Hearing loss can range from frequency
losses to total hearing loss. Hearingimpaired students are capable of undertaking the same projects as their hearing
peers unless they have multiple or severe
disabilities. If students do not seem to
grasp a concept, such as a sculpture
garden, show them images of it on a
computer. Adjust your lesson, reteach, and
ask your paraprofessional or sign language
interpreter to sign to the student, checking
for understanding as needed.
Connecting to Art
Understanding how art—and ideas about
art—relate to society, history, places, and
cultures usually involves visual images
and discussions. Even if a lesson has an
art creation component, discussions and
activities that investigate these connections occur prior to, during, and after the
art-making process. Involving students
with hearing loss in discussions requires
several adaptations. Printed handouts,
projected presentations, amplification
devices, interpreters, and facing students when you speak all help facilitate
communication.
If you are discussing cultural traditions
and how they are represented in works of
art, you will need to use assistive technology to amplify or translate spoken word,
or ask an interpreter to sign as the discussion evolves. Having prepared question
cards (and, if you desire, answer cards)
can help students follow and understand
the discussion. Make sure to allow ample
time for students to answer, and give
them the chance to digest the information they are given. Be open to a variety
of ways for students to respond—there
are so many! Say you are discussing how
the artist Carmen Lomas Garza depicts
cultural traditions in the 1990 lithograph
Tamalada. It would be helpful to have a
few guiding questions, either projected
Chapter 9 Hearing Loss
121
Responding to Art
onto a whiteboard or written on word
cards that are visible to all students,
including those with hearing impairments. Use questions such as, “What is
the tradition the artist is showing us in
this artwork?” or “How is it similar to and
different from other traditions we have
learned about?” If an interpreter is needed
but not available, students can write
answers to the questions on index cards
and then discuss. Using
visual communication
Encourage students to
will ensure that everymake connections to
one takes part in the
events, people, time, and
dialogue.
place. This can be done in
When examining
many ways that promote
works of art, creative and
communication.
higher-order thinking
skills are used. For hearing impaired students, you may need more
than just an image or reproduction. To get
there, teachers can tell more stories to
the students.6 Having students participate
by telling stories about the work of art is
also a process rich in information for the
entire class. Encourage students to make
connections to events, people, time, and
place. This can be done in many ways that
promote communication: through visual
mapping, in small groups or teams of two,
drawn responses, written responses, or
even kinesthetic responses by acting out a
scene or idea.
Consider this: You have all your students
gathered near as you begin to share a lesson
on responding to art. Various artworks are
displayed that convey a meaning you want
students to explore. Your guiding questions
are typed and ready for you to read; they are
questions about how color, subject matter,
placement, brushstrokes, and medium can
convey and affect meaning in works of
art. This lesson was planned mainly as a
discussion—children listen and participate
as they analyze art, pulling ideas from previous knowledge acquisition. Perhaps you
have a student who was born profoundly
deaf and now has a cochlear implant. How
are you going to engage that student in this
activity? What adaptations can you use or
create to make sure the child meets the
performance targets for the lesson? How
do you know if students comprehend the
information if their speech is limited? Was
this a strong lesson that was successful for
all students to begin with? These are all
things you need to consider as you design
and plan your lessons and curriculum.
In the above example, your lesson was
designed to have students think about and
question how meaning can be conveyed in
works of art, which is a great goal. Perhaps
you have displayed three artworks that
all use the color red to convey meaning. If
you have a child who uses a sign language
interpreter, that person could stand beside
Gotta Love Lists
Checking off completed items I have written on
lists always makes me feel like I have accomplished
something. Lists also work great for students. Place
a visual checklist, complete with boxes to tick off,
beside your student with hearing loss. The list can
explain the steps needed to complete a project, the
lesson’s objectives, or points that students should
check for prior to handing in their artworks. I often
use lists for students with learning difficulties or
122
attention deficit disorder. Lists help chunk information and keep the student progressing in the right
direction. No need to plan ahead; just keep a small
tablet or pile of paper scraps clipped together and
jot down three to five things, along with a few boxes
to check off. Seeing this type of visual reminder will
assist in students’ success. Lists can be beneficial to
everyone and may even be displayed on a board or
highly visible location for easy reference.
A student rolls out a clay slab using wood
slats to keep the clay from becoming too thin.
you and sign the discussion. The child will
spend more time watching hands than
looking at the art, so you might consider
a different approach than a group lecture,
one that will help students engage in
responding through many modes of communication instead of just one—voice.
If parts of a lesson involve whole-group
instruction, design visual ways to share
what you are asking or demonstrating. If
a student is using a sign language interpreter, be mindful to ask only one question at a time. Have the group wait until
students with hearing loss can process not
only the signed conversation (since they
will always be one step behind), but also
the interpretation of what you shared.
Another alternative is to have students
work in pairs or small groups prior to wholegroup activities. This way, they can explore
questions about art and consider their
answers before coming together as a class.
Printed items like word cards or a word
bank sheet will help students express ideas.
Question cards encourage them to consider
ideas and stay on task. The cards can also
have space for writing answers, allowing you
to assess the performance target or learning
objective. Using word cards, word banks,
or lists with questions or other interactive
strategies will benefit all learners.
When students respond to artworks,
we often want them to use the specialized vocabulary they have been learning.
We often think only in terms of spoken
words; children with hearing impairments
typically have a stronger vocabulary with
written words. For this reason, when asking
students to use vocabulary and demonstrate
A student cuts out a clay coaster
with a coffee can.
Students make coaster sets,
adding texture with a roller.
Students press objects into clay
to create pattern.
Placing a visual diagram of the
step-by-step process on the
table helps students with hearing loss and all students who are
visual learners.
their understanding, offer both visual and
verbal ways to respond. Flash cards with
art vocabulary are a great tool; they can be
spread out on a table to assist students in
communicating their ideas, or even help
those who are stuck for an idea or word. You
can hold up a question card about an artwork and, in response, a student can choose
a vocabulary word to hold up. All students
could have these flash cards at their table
and play with them like a game.
The vocabulary words could also be in
a word bank or a list on a sheet of paper.
This way, a question card could be given
to students, including those with hearing loss, and they could circle possible
answers, such as color, subject matter,
contrast, and the like.
The most beneficial aspect of these
adaptations is that students with hearing
loss blend in seamlessly with the class
discussion and analysis of art. You will
find that most modifications made for
children with hearing loss greatly benefit
all students and help you create a stronger
overall learning experience for everyone.
Chapter 9 Hearing Loss
123
Presenting Art and
Ideas about Art
Why do some artworks get into museums
and not others? Who cares for and presents
art, and why is it important to have art
museums, galleries, and displays? As you
begin a discussion, distribute a handout
with a list of vocabulary words and definitions so students with hearing loss can
understand the meaning of the words being
signed or discussed. Images of museums,
galleries, and other venues—both exterior
and interior views—will further help them
follow the discussion.
An activity in which students create
their own exhibition, complete with artist
statements, will allow them to
Creating an artist statement
understand the process that
clarifies the choices the
curators go through as they
organize displays and shows.
student makes as an artist.
Choosing an artwork from a
portfolio simulates the curatorial process.
Creating an artist statement clarifies the
choices the student makes as an artist. The
information included in the artist statement will vary depending on the age of the
student. In the primary years, statements
about art can be in the form of a worksheet
with prompts. For example, perhaps there is
a place for the name, followed by a prompt
on how the art makes the student feel, with
pictures or emojis. Another option is to
make an audio artist statement. Children
Criteria Cards
Responding to and evaluating works of art usually requires
establishing criteria. Create cards by writing various criteria for
evaluating art on them. Use objective terms such as idea, skill,
creativity, imagination, memory, message, and technique, and place
the cards next to each artwork to prompt discussion. This
creates a visual conversation topic for all to see. To use this
adaptation for the benefit of the entire class, assign one student to write a list of words on the board as the class discusses
the topic. For instance, if skill is the topic, the class brainstorms
words that describe how the artist used skill in the artwork. By
viewing this visual record, all students, including those with
hearing loss, will better understand the conversation.
124
Online Learning
Many activities that engage students
in responding to and analyzing art
can be explored in a Web-based venue
such as a blog, Wiki, or Moodle activity, where the learning is more selfdirected. Students with hearing loss
may appreciate learning on the computer because it gives them a break
from trying to understand everyone
around them in addition to struggling
with the content of the lesson.
can take photos of their art and record an
artist statement. There are even apps that
make this type of artist statement seamless
and quick to create. Elementary students
can use a “How to Write an Artist Statement” worksheet; I provide one for my older
students that breaks down what should
be included and offers prompts to get the
creative juices flowing. High school students
may write a statement about a particular
piece or series of artworks they have
produced, or about themselves as artists.
Ensuring that students with hearing loss
participate fully in this activity may require
several adaptations beyond providing written information about the artistic direction
and goals. Provide a statement guide with
writing prompts for students with hearing
difficulties (or the entire class) to fill in or
work from.
Once the show is mounted, invite students to place their artist statements near
their own artworks. A scavenger hunt can
get children and their audiences engaged
in looking closely at the works of art. As
hearing-impaired students look at their
classmates’ art in conjunction with an
informative artist statement, they will gain
a deeper understanding of the art and artist. Divide the class into small teams and
have them create the activities or scavenger hunt prompts for their peers. That
way, all students will feel involved and
important in the process while increasing
their investment and ownership.
Adaptive Benefits for
All Students
Hearing loss, whether mild or severe, affects
students’ ability to comprehend discussions and instructions related to creating,
responding to, and connecting with art.
Many adaptions are based on the use of
images, directions, and handouts that offer a
visual way to grasp the lesson being taught.
This type of adaptation benefits all learners, because it offers reinforcement of the
spoken word. Seeing written keywords that
relate to the discussion topic helps students
stay on task better, especially if their attention tends to wander. Teaching students
with hearing impairments also helps you
be a better teacher. You slow down, chunk
information, and allow a longer time for students to respond to questions—all of which
benefits every student in the art room.
Notes
1 Ludwig van Beethoven—Heiligenstädter Testament. (n.d.).
Retrieved August 28, 2018, https://www.nyu.edu/classes/gilbert/
classic/heiligenstadt.html
2 Maura Geisser and Peter Geisser, “Students Who Are Deaf and
Hard of Hearing,” in Reaching and Teaching Students with Special
Needs through Art (Reston, VA: National Art Education Association, 2006), 147–152.
3 S. W. Cawthon, “Teaching Strategies in Inclusive Classrooms
with Deaf Students,” Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education,
6(3) (2001), 212–225. doi:10.1093/deafed/6.3.212
4 Cawthon, “Teaching Strategies.”
5 Geisser and Geisser, “Students Who Are Deaf and Hard
of Hearing.”
6 Geisser and Geisser, “Students Who Are Deaf and Hard
of Hearing.”
Additional Resources
Consider This:
Hearing Impairments
First, find a camera or iPad. Next, think
through a lesson or artistic process that
has many steps, such as making a structure out of clay slabs. Work through each
phase of the process in the same way that
you expect students to complete the task.
This process will make you extremely
aware of what challenges your students
might encounter along the way. Photograph the important steps and then insert
them into a Word document or create a
flipbook with step-by-step process instructions and written descriptions under each
picture. This will be a great visual learning
aid, not only for students with hearing
loss, but also for children with attention
deficits and any learners who need extra
help revisiting a process that was already
demonstrated. It will also be of great value
to students who arrive late to art because
they were attending instrumental lessons,
enrichment classes, or learning support.
“10 Celebrities with Hearing Loss,” Audiology & Hearing Center
website, accessed January 7, 2018, https://www.farmingtonhearing.com/10-celebrities-with-hearing-loss
Michael Thompson, “What Causes Hearing Impairment and Why?”
updated December 18, 2017, http://hearingcenteronline.com/
audiology/what-causes-hearing-impairment-and-why
“Famous Well Known People with Hearing Impairments and Deafness,” Disabled World Disability News, updated May 17, 2018,
https://www.disabled-world.com/disability/awareness/famous/
deafness.php
National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD). (August 3, 2018). Retrieved August 31, 2018,
https://www.nih.gov/about-nih/what-we-do/nih-almanac/
national-institute-deafness-other-communication-disordersnidcd
This process will make you extremely aware of what
challenges your students might encounter along the way.
Chapter 9 Hearing Loss
125
Chapter 10
Emotional and
Behavioral
Disabilities
“A work of art is a world in itself reflecting senses and emotions
of the artist’s world.”
Hans Hofmann
Outbursts and meltdowns are unpredictable and can come on suddenly. Adaptations for students who have emotional and
behavioral disabilities are best planned in
Student artwork: painting clouds with cotton balls.
126
advance; being prepared prevents escalation. Design your adaptations to defuse
outbreaks and prevent future ones while
working on modifying behaviors. For best
Questions to Think About
As you read this chapter, consider the
following questions:
1. How would you handle a situation
that could result in harm to a student
or in the child having an emotional or
behavioral meltdown?
2. What do you know about your
students who have behavioral or
emotional challenges? Do you know
their background, concerns, triggers,
and behavior plan, if they have one?
3. Do you know how the students’
classroom teachers defuse situations,
and are you familiar with the strategies they use when a crisis erupts?
results, these adaptations should be part
of a structured environment in which
students feel safe and secure, knowing
that the adult in charge will help them
work through and gain control over the
situation and their emotions. Review each
student’s IEP, which often contains behavioral plans for students with emotional
or behavioral needs. Hunter and Johns
remind us that “knowledge is power”;
learning about your students before they
enter your classroom will have you better
prepared.1 If IEP plans are in place, incorporate them into your art room routine.
Collaborate with classroom teachers and
school psychologists to learn students’
triggers and how to defuse them. Give your
students with behavioral and emotional
disabilities a positive greeting as they
enter the art room. If a student exhibited
negative behavior during the last class, do
not say, “I don’t want to see a repeat of last
week’s behavior. You lost recess for that,
remember?” Tell the student instead what
he or she did right; continue to praise good
behavior and positive attitudes during the
entire class, and address all students. Kids
aren’t bad. They sometimes exhibit negative behaviors, but these can be changed.
Understanding Your
Students
Emotional disorder and behavioral disability
are terms that cover a broad spectrum of
more specific conditions, and the reasons
for such disorders are equally broad and
varied. Factors that may affect behavior
can be abuse (physical, emotional, and
sexual); homelessness; drug use; or the
death of a friend, relative, or pet.2 I have
worked with students who have minor,
infrequent outbursts and those who have
several meltdowns in a single class. The
one commonality I have observed is that,
given time and guidance, most of these
students improve through art.
Disruptions often occur because students
are bored or do not understand what is
being taught. Fear of the unknown and of
failure can result in a meltdown before
the lesson even begins. Begin by asking
learners with emotional or behavioral
disabilities what you can do to help. Create
lessons that are relevant to their world—
get to know who they are, understand
what is going on in their lives, and use artworks and lessons that connect strongly
to those experiences. Doing so will raise
their interest in art, and a child who is
interested in what they are creating and
responding to is less disruptive and more
emotionally secure. Always stay calm in a
crisis, state your expectations clearly and
concisely, and remain firmly in charge.
Student artwork:
guitar with collaged
background.
Chapter 10 Emotional and Behavioral Disabilities
127
Preventive Planning
Having a bag of tricks handy when a
student is about to have or is experiencing emotional or behavioral distress is
extremely important to avoid or defuse the
situation. One of my students, Dave, always
had a hard time when the classroom
was too noisy or when he was frustrated
with what he was trying to accomplish.
If I sensed he was becoming frustrated, I
would ask him to do me a favor and deliver
something to the office. Sensory and
kinesthetic movement can be calming for
children with emotional disabilities. So I
set up an arrangement with the office staff
that if Dave showed up, they should give
him something to bring back to me. I usually gave him a box of heavy things to carry.
I’d say, “Is this too heavy for you, Dave?”
which often prompted several students
to offer to run the errand. But Dave would
confirm that he could do it. This loadbearing exercise calmed him down, and a
Ryan’s Story: To Understand Is to Help
One of my students, an eight-yearold boy named Ryan, experienced an
abusive childhood. He had been in and
out of foster homes for most of his
life and had developed emotional and
behavioral disabilities. Ryan was angry,
attention-seeking, and defiant. Who
wouldn’t be?
During class one day, Ryan said that
the lesson we were doing was “stupid.”
When a child makes this type of statement, what they are really saying is, “I
don’t know how to do this.” Ryan then
questioned why another student was
permitted to use the computer to draw.
I replied, “Because he finished his lesson already.” I explained that trying to
finish his work quickly so that he could
make art on the computer was not
acceptable. I told Ryan that he had to
do good work and meet all the lesson
objectives before he could be finished.
Ryan was unable to excel at many
subjects in school, but he soon discovered that, in the art room, he wasn’t
being told what he couldn’t do; he was
being praised for what he could do.
Once he began working hard at his
art-making, I commended his efforts
when he deserved it, and the behavior
issues subsided.
128
Like other students with emotional
disabilities, Ryan could be manipulative.
I have had many paraprofessionals tell
me that a child cannot handle a difficult
situation and has to leave the classroom. It is my opinion that by giving in
to this behavior, we are exacerbating
it. I believe that working with students
one-on-one and showing them how
to manage the episode allows them to
develop much-needed coping skills.
One day, at the end of art class,
Ryan had an emotional breakdown; I
was not sure what caused it. When the
paraprofessional tried to line him up
with the other students, he wrapped
himself around the legs of the art
table and began shouting “Go away!”
Because he was seen as a danger to
himself and other students, we called
the school’s crisis team for help. After
letting the team have a go at calming
Ryan, I asked if I could try. I had a
hunch his outburst was about having
to leave art. In a calm voice, I told Ryan
that if he let go and settled down,
I would give him some paper so he
could draw a picture that I would tape
to the front of my desk. (I have a gallery of student art there.) Ryan looked
up and said, “Okay,” and that was that.
Creating Art
Relaxing art activities help to calm students
with emotional disabilities.
Movement breaks get students out of their
seats and involved in learning.
Creating art can be both relaxing and
frustrating. When students come to the art
room, we want them to have an enjoyable
experience, one that makes them grow
and ignites their creativity. But sometimes a concept may not be understood,
a morning meal may have been missed (I
have had kids eat breakfast in a corner of
my art room as they worked), or maybe
the student does not have the skills to
succeed. You will need to quickly assess
the situation to discover the source of
the frustration. Only then can you offer
suggestions to let students know you
care. If the source of the problem is a lack
of skill, adapt the lesson so that it is less
challenging for that child. Demonstrate
how you would solve the problem, offering
a few alternatives to choose from. If you
think a guidance counselor could help,
ask the child to write a note to take to the
counselor after art class. Sometimes just
writing about a problem offers some relief.
As you get to know your students with
emotional and behavioral needs, you will
be able to work with them and paraprofessionals to minimize outbreaks while
helping all learners feel secure in your art
room and the school.
An assortment of self-stick foam shapes is
an easy way to add color. Plus, feeling them
and pulling them apart provides a sensory
component—a great modification for anxious
learners.
change of scenery provided a much-needed
movement break.
It is good to communicate with your
school’s paraprofessionals and specialists
about their strategies for helping students
cope with emotional or behavior disabilities. They may have a behavior plan or
keep a behavior modification chart, which
helps reinforce strategies already in place
in the student’s IEP.
Student-created textured print plate.
Chapter 10 Emotional and Behavioral Disabilities
129
Tips for Adapting Art Media
Emotional and behavioral needs vary from
one child to the next, as do their reactions
to media. Students may have no aversion
to certain media, they may have a sensory
aversion to some, and they may be
adamant about using a particular
Things can change day to
medium for no discernable reason
day, and even during the
other than that they like it. Media
course of a single class.
that stimulate the senses can
cause positive and negative reactions. You
will need to get to know your students with
emotional and behavioral needs and adjust
and adapt on an individual basis. If frustration occurs with weaving, for example,
adapt by using a thicker yarn, or try color
coding yarns to make the lesson go more
smoothly. Be willing to make last-minute
changes and remain flexible; it is impossible
to know in advance if something will trigger
an emotional or behavioral eruption. Things
can change day to day, and even during the
course of a single class.
Media
•
Use scented media if it appeals to
the students. Place calming essential
oils, such as lavender and chamomile,
into a medium such as glue, paint,
or papier-mâché. If students exhibit
sensory issues when handling clay, use
Prevent frustration by putting Blu-Tack on
tracers so they don’t move when tracing.
an alternative, such as Model Magic,
CelluClay, or air-dry clay.
•
Use soft bottles (e.g., hair dye or perm
containers) for gluing if frustration
occurs with harder bottles.
•
Mix soap into tempera paint so that
it spreads easily and creates a more
sensory experience.
•
Allow students to have their own paint
rather than sharing from the table
paints if they get upset about other
people using a color they want or if the
blue mixes in the yellow, and so on.
•
Encourage movement breaks if the
medium causes annoyance or fatigue.
Obsession vs. Passion
Creating art can be both rewarding and baffling.
For students with emotional or behavioral issues,
outbursts or defiant bouts may occur as a result of
not being allowed to create what they desire. If you
are teaching certain skills and techniques, this can
be problematic. Children with Asperger syndrome
can become engrossed with drawing the same
thing again and again. I had a young girl who was a
phenomenal artist, but she only wanted to draw the
same subject every time. I always thought of this
type of behavior as obsessive until I spoke with an
adult who has Asperger’s, and she told me, “It’s not
130
that we’re obsessed. Think of it as my passion; I am
passionate about certain things, and I just can’t do
them enough.” So when students show a passion for
a particular subject, adapt your lesson to encourage
them to explore it further. For example, if the goal
is to create a clay slab structure and your student is
passionate about cats, let the student inscribe cats
onto the surface or make the structure in the shape
of a cat. If the art project is to paint a landscape,
allow the student to incorporate a cat into the
scene. Students can meet the required objectives
while also letting their passions shine through.
Tips for Adapting Process:
Tools and Techniques
Modifications that defuse disruptive
situations before they explode benefit the
student, the class, and the entire school.
It is well worth spending time during
lesson preparation to adapt media so that
students with emotional and behavioral
concerns remain calm and relaxed, able
to create without obstacles. Creating an
art room that is a welcoming, stress-free
environment is also a kind thing to do. It
is a safe haven, where students are not
measured by test scores or how fast they
can calculate math problems. Art is about
the multisensory experience of creating. Thinking ahead to the needs of your
students will help alleviate emotional or
behavioral meltdowns.
You will learn from your students, too.
Take notes about what works and what
does not. Store them away until you need
them—you might have a student with
these needs every other year or two. Being
aware and prepared with these modifications will make the task easier.
Circumventing outbreaks due to frustration with tools and techniques in the art
room puts you in the role of problem solver
and peacemaker. Emotional and behavior
outbursts can result from many situations,
such as having to share markers, too much
cutting with scissors, not being able to draw
as well as a peer, or noise in the art room.
There are many ways to avoid a crisis; once
you have witnessed a few, you will be better
prepared with strategies. Even the smallest
changes have an impact on reducing stress.
Giving clear and concise directions, breaking
tasks into chunks, assigning students with
behavior issues to be your helpers, offering alternatives to tools and techniques,
and other modifications help minimize
these occurrences. If the normal classroom
routine is not working, mix it up. Be flexible
with seat changes, lesson requirements,
and the use of calming devices such as
headphones, music, bumpy seat cushions
(provided by a physical therapist), and quiet
spaces where students can decompress.
Tools
Offer Alternatives
Artists often experiment with media
to see which one allows them to
successfully convey their idea. While
artists often use a variety of media,
they are generally known for the one
that they love best. If students show
increasing frustration or discomfort
with an art medium, let them try
something else. Perhaps they can’t
paint as well as their peers and are
feeling pressured, but they love using
pencils; give them colored pencils as
an alternative. As long as students are
meeting the objectives of the lesson,
how they get to the end point doesn’t
really matter. Remove the obstacle,
which will help decrease their stress
and increase their success.
•
Provide textured surfaces for students
to create on.
•
Encourage students to work on a
slanted, lighted box placed on a counter in a quiet area.
•
Equip pencils with soft grips.
Student pressing objects into
clay; pressing into and wedging
clay can be a great de-stressor.
Chapter 10 Emotional and Behavioral Disabilities
131
•
Offer patterned stamps, stickers, or
rollers if students become frustrated
creating their own repeating motifs.
•
Secure the surface on which the
students are creating to the table using
clamps, Blu-Tack, or tape to prevent
movement while they work.
•
Allow students to press objects into
clay or wear thin gloves if they have an
aversion to the way clay feels.
Techniques
•
Allow students to hold and manipulate
a kneaded eraser as a calming device.
•
If children get frustrated trying to draw
or create something, let them practice
on the chalkboard until they get it the
way they want. This also gets them out
of their seat, and it is fun. You can even
draw together.
•
Allow breaks at a computer center that
has headphones and calming music.
Too much noise stimulation can lead to
negative emotional reactions.
•
Narrow choices so that students are not
overwhelmed with decisions.
•
Allow the use of templates or tracers if
working freehand causes frustration.
Understanding your students and their
triggers can offset and prevent emotional
and behavioral outbursts. Offering adaptations allows you to help students decompress and handle situations better, so they
can participate fully in making art. It is
best to implement adaptations before the
outburst, however; having a bag of tricks
can quickly end a crisis.
Students with behavioral concerns will
benefit from many of the same sensory
modifications that calm all children down.
Behavioral flare-ups are often the result of
frustration—remove the frustration and
you get fewer flare-ups. Create a caring,
structured atmosphere for your students
with emotional and behavioral disabilities
by reinforcing good behavior repeatedly;
this often deters negative behavior. Most
important, follow through with what you
say you will do, whether that is helping
the student who is apprehensive to begin
a lesson or meting out consequences for
undesirable behavior.
Stickers are a great
way to make prints
if the student is not
able to make them
independently.
A student uses a light box to trace
designs.
132
Consider This:
Adapting Art Ideas
Create an artist center in a corner of your
art room where students can go for a
creative moment or a stretching exercise.
Set up an easel and have paint in closable
containers along with paper and brushes;
these can be stored in a crate under the
easel. At the beginning of the school year,
show students one at a time how to use
and clean up the center. Explain that it is a
place to go to when they feel overwhelmed
or just need a short break to release a
burst of energy before returning to their
project. Establish ground rules so that
this area is not used as an excuse to avoid
completing an assignment. Restrict use of
the center to only one student at a time.
Connecting to Art
Relating artworks to cultures, history, time,
and place helps us understand the artist,
the society, and the era in which a work
was created as well as ourselves in relation to it. Lessons that teach and encompass this standard should be engaging and
as hands-on as possible. Keeping students
who have emotional and behavioral disabilities engaged and on task will leave
little time for negative issues to crop up.
By contrast, an uninspiring art-in-the-dark
lecture will leave windows of opportunity
open for bored learners to misbehave or
worry about concerns that may cause
distress. Games, whether at the art table or
on an interactive whiteboard, get students
up and moving. Throw in a few movement
breaks as you examine art and students
learn about the context in which works of
art were created and make connections
to art.
When discussing ties to past and
place, as well as to community and family,
keep in mind what may be a trigger for
students. Triggers might include a recent
separation from or between parents,
trouble on the bus, bullying, loss of a
family member, or negative associations
with any given object or event. Taking
emotional risks can be hard, causing reluctance; allow students to make connections
to people or other artworks instead of to
themselves, as exposing their own soul
can be risky.3 Small things can become
big things to students with emotional and
behavioral concerns. An argument with
a peer about cutting in line at lunch can
escalate into an episode in the art room
hours later. Connecting to an artwork
about family traditions can be positive or
negative, depending on a child’s state of
mind. That is why having students actively
engaged in their learning is so important:
It keeps their minds off the things that can
cause distress.
Art can be a way for students to communicate concerns and fears. If you come
across a student who is asking for help
through his or her art, whether drawing
questionable scenarios or expressing
anger, alert the school psychologist or
guidance counselor of the student’s possible distress.
Small things can become big things to students
with emotional and behavioral concerns.
Encourage using headphones if classroom
noise becomes upsetting; music can be
calming.
Chapter 10 Emotional and Behavioral Disabilities
133
Responding to Art
We all interpret art in our own unique
way. Evaluating and reacting to artworks
can lead to agreements and arguments
among adults and children alike. For some
students with emotional and behavioral
concerns, understanding another person’s opinion can be difficult. It is wise to
begin discussions and activities that are
intended to evoke responses to artworks
with a conversation that communicates
how we all see and interpret things
differently because of our
own past experiences and
Thoughtfully choose the
current lives. The idea that
artwork as well as which
it is all right to see things
students will be grouped
differently can be reinforced
together to minimize outbursts
by showing an example of
or other potential problems.
well-known optical illusions such as Rubin’s Vase.
Explain that we do not always agree with
another person’s interpretation, but we
should acknowledge that it can be valid to
that person.
Comparing and contrasting classmates’
interpretations can be fun when you see
what you have in common and what
things are different. Thoughtfully choose
the artwork as well as which students will
be grouped together to minimize outbursts
or other potential problems. Once you
are familiar with your students who have
emotional and behavioral concerns, you
can select group members who will most
likely work well together and lead to a successful investigation of the artworks.
When guiding students through an
exercise in which they are applying criteria
to evaluate art, keep the activities relaxed
and fun. Avoid anything too competitive,
which can escalate emotions if one group
or student is winning and others are not.
Modeling positive behavior and how to
use “I feel” words will help students see
that people can and do have varying ideas
about analyzing works of art. Give them
an out if a disagreement arises by allowing
them to say, “I agree to disagree.”
Using tracers can prevent frustration if drawing skills are limited and perfection is sought.
Safe Spot
Everyone has different ways of handling stress. As adults, we have the
freedom to walk away from situations
or take a break when it gets too tough;
we don’t always want to ask for help
even when we need it. When students
get stressed out at school, they usually have to sit in their seats and keep
working, even when the urge may be
to curl up somewhere or jump on a
134
trampoline. Creating a safe corner of
your art room—with a soft seat, a few
art books, and headphones connected
to a laptop—offers a haven for students
who are having a difficult time handling
their emotions, environment, or life.
Place a sand timer in the safe spot that
students can flip over when they need a
break. Explain that when the sand runs
out, they are to return to their lesson.
Presenting Art and Ideas about Art
Sharing and presenting our own art allows
others to look into our hearts and minds.
For students with emotional and behavioral deficits, revealing that side may be
difficult. I have encountered students who
would not part with their artwork, becoming emotionally upset because they could
not take it when they leave the art room
(even if the paint is still wet). Never force
a student to share or give up their work if
they are opposed to doing so.
Promoting Calm in
the Classroom
Students with Asperger syndrome are
anxious and tend to worry obsessively
when they do not know what to expect;
stress, fatigue and sensory overload easily
throw them off balance. Their inflexibility
and inability to cope with change causes
these individuals to be easily stressed and
emotionally vulnerable.4
It is important for these students to
be aware of changes in routine. I often
alert students who have Asperger syndrome that I will need to mat and display
their work for a school show. If they
expect to take an artwork home and do
not know they cannot, this change in
expectations may cause an outburst. It
may help to allow them to make a smaller
version of the work or another artwork to
take home.
Students diagnosed with Asperger’s
may also become fixated on a certain
subject or theme. This can be cause for
concern when students are collaborating
on a display or planning for an art exhibit.
Students’ rigidness may make them
appear uncooperative in a group setting.
As the facilitator, you will need to defuse
the situation, possibly by designating jobs
for each student. A stress break involving
some heavy work, perhaps lifting or pushing, may help calm agitated students.
Refining techniques and works of art
can also be a delicate area for students
with emotional and behavioral needs.
Their thinking can be very rigid, and
asking them to refine an artwork may
meet with resistance. Establishing guidelines in advance, such as a checklist, will
help students understand the artistic
process of developing an idea or work of
art completely. Many students come up
and say, “I’m done,” and I say, “I think you
could give a little more here and there.”
You may get an answer such as “No, I’m
good” or “I don’t want to.” It helps if you
list your lesson objectives on the board
with boxes next to them and tell students
they have to be able to put a check in
each box. I also use the “ask three before
you see me,” meaning to ask three peers
if your work looks done. It then becomes
a fun social activity, and usually the work
gets refined.
Limit color choices
for students who
find making decisions difficult.
A stress break involving some heavy work,
perhaps lifting or pushing, may help calm
agitated students.
Chapter 10 Emotional and Behavioral Disabilities
135
Allow students
to manipulate a
kneaded eraser for a
calming effect.
Adaptive Benefits for
All Students
Presenting artworks for school and
community displays builds students’ selfesteem, which is highly beneficial for all
children, especially those with emotional
and behavioral concerns. Comparing
works of your own, those by classmates,
and creations of artists from the past and
present fosters an understanding of the
differences and commonalities among all
of us, which will ultimately make us more
accepting of one another.
Creating a calm and safe environment for
students as they create, respond to, and
present art benefits the entire class. If one
student is continuously causing disturbances, you will spend all your time and
attention on that student and neglect the
rest of the class. You will also be reinforcing the negative behavior by paying so
much attention to it. When you use strategies to prevent and abate emotional and
behavioral disturbances, you help not only
the children with special needs, but the
entire student body as well.
Sensory adaptations produce a calming
effect, which is a pleasant experience for
all children. There are days when even the
most even-tempered person can have an
emotional or behavioral episode. Knowing
how to neutralize the situation will keep
students engaged in art-making and learning instead of focused on what is often an
embarrassing eruption. Alleviating frustration is the objective of many adaptations,
and this, too, is beneficial to the entire
class. These modifications can be used
when needed to assist all students in
achieving success in art-related activities.
Wave a White Flag for Help
Emotional breakdowns can be triggered
by the helplessness students feel when
they just don’t know what to do. This
experience is traumatic for the student
and, if repeated, can foster a dislike of the
subject or class. By the time you realize
students need help, they might already
be in a state of emotional turmoil and
can’t get themselves settled down to
even communicate what is upsetting
them. Here is a tip: Provide an object to
wave, hand to you, place on the board, or
whatever method makes sense for your
136
students to communicate an SOS. Your
objective should be to prevent the episode from occurring. During a good day,
free of emotional distress, approach the
student and say, “I know you sometimes
get upset when things are difficult or you
don’t know where to begin. How about I
give you this flag to raise when you need
help.” If the student is agreeable, go from
there. If not, ask what they would feel
comfortable with, as a way to prevent
them from getting upset and letting you
know when they need help.
Consider This:
Emotional and Behavioral
Needs
Given the increase in autism, you will
most likely have students with emotional
and behavioral needs in your art room.
How can you create a space, center, or
quiet zone where children can take an
intermission from the task at hand and
regroup? Keep in mind that using large
muscles helps students decompress. Use
calming scents like lavender for relaxation. Music is soothing, and headphones
block out the high volume of noise that
often accompanies art room activities.
Creating a niche in your art room that
serves as a safe spot will benefit the
entire class. It can be used as a free-time
activity when students finish before
their classmates, so that it is not seen as
a place for students who are behaving
differently.
Notes
1 Adrienne Hunter and Beverly Johns, “Students with Emotional
and/or Behavior Disorders,” in Reaching and Teaching Students
with Special Needs through Art (Reston, VA: National Art Education Association, 2006), 43–60.
2 Hunter and Johns, “Students with Emotional and/or Behavior
Disorders.”
3 Hunter and Johns, “Students with Emotional and/or Behavior
Disorders.”
4 K. Williams, “Understanding the Student with Asperger
Syndrome,” in Focus on Autistic Behavior, 10(2) (1995), 9–16.
doi:10.1177/108835769501000202
Additional Resources
Doug Blandy, “A Disability Aesthetic, Inclusion, and Art Education,” in Issues and Approaches to Art for Students with Special
Needs, Andra L. Nyman and Anne M. Jenkins, eds. (Reston, VA:
National Art Education Association, 1999), 34–41.
Gail J. Richard and Debra R. Hoge, The Source for Syndromes (East
Moline, IL: LinguiSystems Inc., 1999).
Creating a niche in your art room
that serves as a safe spot will benefit
the entire class.
Chapter 10 Emotional and Behavioral Disabilities
137
Chapter 11
Final Thoughts
“Imagination is everything. It is the preview of life’s coming attractions.”
Albert Einstein
A student artwork
inspired by American
Pop artist Jim Dine.
138
The use of the visual arts as an avenue
for language development is extremely
important. For students who have learning
disabilities, art may be their strongest and
most accessible form of communication;
for this reason, art should be seen as an
alternative form of language development when other
avenues have been
When I see
depleted.1 When
students come
I see students
alive in my art
come alive in my
room, I know that
art room, I know
they feel free to
that they feel
communicate their
free to communiideas, feelings,
cate their ideas,
and emotions.
feelings, and
emotions. I have
observed firsthand that art is an academic
discipline in which children who have
disabilities can thrive and feel comfortable
if you, as an educator, move beyond the
traditional limitations that confined learners in the past.
I empathize with my students who
have disabilities that cause them to
struggle to complete tasks and understand concepts I once thought were so
clear. This empathy and my own philosophical framework have caused me to
react on my feet, adapting as I go, learning about students’ abilities and areas of
concern. Teaching adaptive art and the
inclusion model in the classroom has
been my laboratory for the past several
years. I have experimented with a variety
of ways to modify lessons, materials,
and techniques, resulting in many of the
adaptations found in this book. Other
adaptations I have picked up from colleagues, art teachers I have observed, or
fine motor workshops I have attended. I
am grateful to all who have guided and
inspired me in my quest for art lessons
that fully engage and benefit all students,
regardless of ability.
Art educators are often a bit isolated
compared to classroom teachers. Finding
support and teaching strategies requires
resources that support your teaching.
These resources for adapting your lessons, ideas, tools, and techniques can
be found among your peers: other art
teachers, paraprofessionals, or special
education teachers and liaisons. Look to
universities that specialize in art or special
education, as well as organizations such
as the National Art Education Association
(NAEA); Special Needs in Art Education
(SNAE); VSA, the International Organization on Arts and Disability (formerly Very
Special Arts); and the National Center on
Universal Design for Learning.2 All offer a
vast amount of information and resources
that will inform your quest to create a
classroom that treasures the individuality
of each learner.
Constructive Conversations
Establishing guidelines for working with paraprofessionals
will help your art room run smoothly. Sit down and talk
one-on-one with the paraprofessionals who work with the
students in your classroom. Outline your expectations,
explain your philosophy, and share your reasons for teaching
and adapting lessons the way that you do. Explain the adaptations prior to each lesson, showing examples and providing
the lesson objectives. If a paraprofessional is still not doing
what you requested or continues to overlook your suggestions, speak with the special education teacher or supervisor.
It should be your goal to have a classroom that works effectively and efficiently with all adults present; working from
a platform of respect and cooperation will help ensure that
this occurs.
Chapter 11 Final Thoughts
139
Striving to meet the needs of all students is a challenge. But working with the
varying levels of ability in your classroom
is much better than holding on to the
one-size-fits-all approach. Flexibility when
designing and implementing your curriculum and lessons is as important as understanding that lessons can have
Working with the varying
different outcomes and that all
levels of ability in your
artworks need not look the same.
There are numerous ways to get
classroom is much better
to the end product. Do not limit
than holding on to the
yourself or your students to one
one-size-fits-all approach.
medium, tool, or technique to
reach that result. As long as they achieve
the lesson objectives, it does not matter
what they used or how they got there, just
that, ultimately, they did.
I have given you a collection of tools,
adaptations, and skills that will enable you
to engage your students in a meaningful
creative process of self-expression. These
ideas will help them better communicate
with the world in which they live. And this
is only the beginning. I am sure that, now
that you have read this book, you will see
how easy it is to think of ways to adapt
your lessons, media, tools, and ideas by
watching what your students can and cannot do and then creating your own adaptations based on that valuable knowledge.
I encourage you to work through your
students’ abilities and desires to achieve
success by removing obstructions that
inhibit their ability to communicate freely
through the arts. Remember to use your
community of special education teachers,
paraprofessionals, occupational therapists,
and students’ families and peers as a
resource and support network when developing your art education program. Once
you have created and implemented your
adaptations, you can then enjoy watching
your students grow and fully engage in
the arts.
140
I close with a quote from the philosopher G. W. F. Hegel: “Nothing great in the
world has ever been accomplished without
passion.” Be passionate about life, art, and
teaching so that, in turn, great things can
be accomplished.
Notes
1. Paula K. Eubanks, “Art as a Visual
Language That Supports Verbal Development,” in Issues and Approaches to Art
for Students with Special Needs, ed. Andra
L. Nyman and Anne M. Jenkins (Reston,
VA: National Art Education Association,
1999), 109–117.
2. The UDL Guidelines (August 31,
2018). Retrieved September 2, 2018,
from http://udlguidelines.cast.
org/?utm_medium=web&utm_
campaign=none&utm_
source=udlcenter&utm_content=sitebanner
Additional Resources
VSA - Education - The John F. Kennedy
Center for the Performing Arts. (n.d.).
Retrieved September 2, 2018, from
http://education.kennedy-center.org/
education/vsa/
“Nothing great in the world has ever
been accomplished without passion.”
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143
Index
A
adaptations
emotional, behavioral disabilities
and, 130
gross motor impairments and,
72–74
hypotonia and, 33–37, 43–44
intellectual disabilities and,
103–104, 108–109
low vision, 53–55, 55–57, 57–58
sensory processing disorder
(SPD) and, 26
adaptive benefits, whole class and,
32–33, 48, 66–67, 82, 96, 113, 125,
136
apps, sensory processing disorder
(SPD), 32
art
communication and, 15
language alternatives and, 139
artist statements, 64, 110, 124
Asperger syndrome, 130, 135
assessments, initial, 7
assistive devices, hearing loss and,
116
auditory descriptions, low vision
students and, 61
autism, 137
B
Beethoven, Ludwig van, 114–115
Blandy, Doug, 5–6
blindness, 52
presenting art and, 65
See also low vision students
brushes, 35, 36, 37
Buddha (Guatama Siddhartha), 98
Burdick, Corrie, 11–12, 14
C
Causton-Theoharis, Julie, 11–12, 14
classroom activities
connections to community, 93–94
Garza, Carmen Lomas example,
121–122
hypotonia, art exploration, 42–44
hypotonia adaptations, 39
intellectual disabilities and, 105
Jamie Wyeth lesson, 59–60
lesson adaptations, 43–44
Mondrian lesson, 77–78
sensory example, 28–29
144
sensory processing disorder
(SPD), 20, 22, 23
clay, gross motor impairments and,
73
collaborations, 71,139
conversations and, 13–14
learning communities and, 9–10
paraprofessionals and, 10, 11–13
peers, parents and, 10, 13
colleagues. See collaborations
color blindness, 52
adaptations, 57–58
techniques, 58
See also low vision students
communication, art and, 15, 139
connecting to art
assistive apps for, 32
emotional, behavioral disabilities
and, 133
fine motor delays and, 92–93
gross motor impairment and,
78–79
hearing loss and, 121–122
hypotonia and, 41
intellectual disabilities and, 110
low vision students and, 61–63
sensory processing disorder
(SPD) and, 27–29
connections. See collaborations
conversations, starting, 13–14, 139
craftsmanship, challenges, tips and,
71
criteria cards, 124
D
disabilities
role of art in communication
and, 15
drawing, gross motor impairments
and, 73
E
E.A.T., example, asking, thinking, 15
Einstein, Albert, 138
emotional, behavioral disabilities,
126–127
adaptations and, 130
alternatives, offering and, 131
connecting to art and, 133, 134
creating art and, 129
media and, 130–131
presenting art and, 135–136
preventive planning and, 128–129
safe spots and, 134
sensory, kinesthetic movement
and, 128–129
techniques, 132
tools and, 131–132
understanding, 127
white flag, waving for help and,
136
Estrada, Ignacio, 8
Eubanks, Paula, 6–7
F
fine motor delays
adaptations for, 87–88
art media and, 88
connecting to art and, 92–93
defined, 84
example lesson, 93–94
exercises, hidden, 93
gross motor impairments and, 92
learning center, 91
mosaic pieces exercise, 86
presenting art, ideas and, 95–96
responding to art and, 94
screen time and, 84
techniques, 89, 90–91
tools, 89, 90
flashcards, art vocabulary, 123
folding, cutting, tearing, gluing,
gross motor impairments and, 72
Fountain, Heather, 44, 89
G
games
Token Response (Katter and
Erikson), 45
gatekeepers, collaborations and,
11–12
Geisser, Maura, 115
Geisser, Peter, 115
Gerber, Beverly L., 15
glue drawings, 21
Gogh, Vincent van, 84
gross motor impairments
adaptations for, 72–74
alternative methods for, 69
defined, 68
fine motor delays and, 92
fine motor skills and, 83
Mat Man and, 70
presenting art and, 81–82
reflective practice and, 75
responding to art and, 79–81
techniques and, 74, 76
tools and, 74–75
warm–up activities and, 69
group work, 116
Guay, Doris M., 15
H
Haring, Keith, 76
hearing loss, 114–115
adapting art media and, 118–119
assistive devices and, 116, 117
connecting to art and, 121–122
creating art and, 118
media and, 119
modeling communication with,
116
presenting art and, 124
responding to art and, 122–123
step-by-step process instructions
and, 125
techniques and, 121, 129
tools and, 120–121
visual handouts and, 117
visual reinforcement and, 118
Hegel, G.W.F., 140
Hoff, Benjamin, 4
Hofmann, Benjamin, 68
Hofmann, Hans, 126
Hunter, Adrienne, 127
hypersensitivity, 19–20, 31–32
hyposensitivity, 19–20, 31
hypotonia
adaptations for, 33–37
art exploration activity and,
42–44
art ideas and, 41
connecting to art and, 41
defined, 34
movement breaks and, 40
presenting art and, 46–48
responding to art and, 45–46
talking, writing, choices and, 46
techniques, 39–40
tools, 37, 38–39
virtual presentations and, 48
I
incentives, rewards, 112
initial assessments, 7
instruction, dumbing-down versus
clarification and, 115
intellectual disabilities
adaptations and, 103
art and, 102
back mapping, 111, 113
building confidence and, 100
choices, expression and, 101
connecting to art and, 110
defined, 98–99
lesson example and, 105
media and, 103–104
presenting art and, 112
responding to art and, 111
techniques and, 104, 107
tools and, 104, 106
interactive whiteboard
gross motor impairments and,
73, 79, 81
J
Jamie Wyeth lesson, low vision
students and, 59–60
Johns, Beverly, 127
K
Kant, Immanuel, 16
L
Laurent, Reggie lesson, 87
learning communities
collaborations and, 9–10
paraprofessionals, 10
peers, parents, 10
school therapists, 10
lesson examples. See classroom
activities
lessons. See classroom activities
light boxes, tables, 40, 106
Jamie Wyeth lesson and, 59–60
Loesl, Susan D., 97
low muscle tone. See hypotonia
low vision students, 51
adaptations for, 53–55
auditory descriptions and, 61
high contrast artists and, 61
personal associations and, 61
presenting art and, 64–65
responding to art and, 63
tools for, 55–57
See also visual impairments
M
markers, 35
Mat Man, 70
media
emotional, behavioral disabilities
and, 130–131
hearing loss and, 119
Miller, Lucy Jane, 17
Mondrian, Piet lesson adaptation,
77–78
mosaic pieces exercise, 86
music, sound, sensory processing
disorder (SPD) and, 39
N
narrative accounts, 6–7
O
online learning, 124
P
painting, 23
brushes and, 36, 37
gross motor impairments and, 72
paint and, 21
paraprofessionals, collaborations
and, 10, 11–13
peers, parents, collaborations and,
10, 13
philosophy of education, personal,
5–6
photos, connecting to world and, 43
posture, foam noodle and, 43
presenting art
blindness and, 65
emotional, behavioral disabilities
and, 135–136
fine motor delays and, 95–96
gross motor impairment and,
81–82
hearing loss and, 124
hypersensitivity and, 31–32
hyposensitivity and, 31
hypotonia and, 46–48
intellectual disabilities and, 112
low vision students and, 64–65
selection process, 46–47
sensory processing disorder
(SPD) and, 31–32
visual color deficiency and, 66
proprioception, 17
Index 145
R
reflective practice, 75
responding to art
choosing activity and, 80–81
drawing and, 80
emotional, behavioral disabilities
and, 134
fine motor delays and, 94
gross motor impairment and,
79–81
hearing loss and, 122–123
hypotonia and, 45–46
intellectual disabilities and, 111
low vision students and, 63
music, sound and, 30
prompts, 46
sensory processing disorder
(SPD) and, 29–30
3D, textural items and, 30
verbal response and, 80
Richard, Gail and Debra Hoge, 19
Rumi, 50
Russell, Bertrand, 34
S
safe spots, emotional, behavioral
disabilities and, 134
scents, 54
school therapists, collaborations
and, 10
screen time, fine motor delays and,
84
sensory, kinesthetic movement,
emotional, behavioral disabilities
and, 128–129
sensory processing disorder (SPD),
17–20
adapting art media and, 21–22
connecting to art and, 27
defined, 17
ideas, adapting and, 26
music, sound and, 30
over-responsiveness and, 18, 19
presenting art and, 31–32
responding to art and, 29–30
sensory collections and, 29
techniques, adapting and, 24–25
3D, textural items and, 30
tools, adapting and, 18, 20, 23–24
under-responsiveness and, 18, 19
146
T
techniques
color blindness, 58
emotional, behavioral disabilities
and, 132
fine motor delays and, 89, 90–91
gross motor impairments and, 76
hearing loss and, 120, 121
hypotonia and, 39–40
intellectual disabilities and, 104,
107
sensory processing disorder
(SPD) and, 24–25
textures, tools, 18, 54
Thunder-McGuire, Steve, 6
“Token Response” game (Katter and
Erikson), 45
tools
emotional, behavioral disabilities
and, 131–132
fine motor delays and, 89, 90
gross motor impairments and,
74–75
hearing loss and, 120–121
hypotonia and, 37, 38–39
intellectual disabilities and, 104,
106
sensory processing disorder
(SPD) and, 23–24
visual impairment and, 55–57
V
Venn diagrams, 41
vestibular sense, 17
virtual museums, 95
virtual presentations, portfolios
and, 48
visual color deficiency, 51–52
blindness versus, 52
presenting art and, 66
visual handouts, 117
visual impairments, 50–52
blindness, 52
creating art and, 52–53
low vision, 51
low vision adaptations, 53–55
scents, adding and, 54
tools and, 55–57
visual color deficiency, 51–52
See also low vision students
W
weaving
gross motor impairments and, 74
Deconstructing Disability in the Art Classroom
As art educators, we encourage students of all abilities
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In her debut book, author and art educator Bette Naughton
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Deconstructing Disability in the Art Classroom
By Bette Naughton
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• building a team of paraprofessionals with the resources
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Bette Naughton
and lessons that will encourage engagement