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Forensic Science Club
Topics today
Forensic Investigation - use of science
and/or technology in the investigation
and establishment of facts or evidence
for use in criminal proceedings
Forensic evidence - information (e.g.
verbal, physical, observational) that is used
in legal proceedings.
Evidence based on science that can be
used in a court. It can be blood tests,
ballistics, and DNA.
Evidence falls into two categories
Identification and classification
Forensic tests used to identify and classify a
substance – e.g. drugs, body fluids, trace
materials
Common origin
A more discriminating conclusion in which the examiner
concludes that an evidence item originated from a person
or other source
Match, identification, individualization depending on the discipline, wording
can be controversial.
How evidence is used
Different origin/negative identification
Hypothesis proven to be false
Two or more items of evidence are not of
common origin
Non-match vs. exclusion
Inconclusive
No conclusion possible
Reconstruction/corroboration
Used to aid in the development of a hypothesis of
the order of events
The relative position of actors to one another
– who was driving?
How the crime unfolded
Forensic History
Pre 1800s
1800 - 1960
Modern
Marcus Fabius Quintilianus
Francis Galton
Sara Bisel
HISTORY OF FORENSIC SCIENCE
Bronze Age – 2nd Millennium BC 2000-1001 BC
Babylonians used fingerprints as signatures to
protect against forgery
Took fingerprints of arrestees
Rome 35 – 100 AD: Marcus Fabius Quintilianus: an
attorney in the Roman courts, showed that a bloody
palm print found at the crime scene was not from his
client.
A blind man accused of murdering his mother
(excluded as the source)- ACQUITTED. Quintillianus is
also well-known for his catchy sayings!
History of Forensic Science
China (Qin Dynasty) 200 BC : Chinese
used fingerprints as seals and to sign legal
documents and authenticate clay
sculpture – no formal classification system
yet
Yi Yu Ji (A Collection of Criminal Cases-published
1418) Reported a Chinese coroner provided evidence
supporting that a man’s death was not by accidental fire.
A man was found dead in a house fire.
Experiment
Burned a living pig and dead pig
Ash was found in the mouth of the pig burned alive but not
in the mouth of the dead pig
No ash was in the man’s mouth.
Early forensic advances
1248 Hsi Duan Yu (The Washing Away of Wrongs):
Established the position of Coroner.
How to identify strangulation through damage to the
body
Possibly the first forensic science publication.
Washing away of wrongs – forensic entomology
1235 AD
Chinese villager was found dead
with injuries caused by a sickle
Farmers were required to bring
their sickle to the town center
They were told to place their
sickle on the ground in front of
them.
Blowflies were attracted to the
sickle with traces of blood on it
François Demelle (France)
1609 The first published essay on document
examination
He noted there is “. . . a way of comparing handwriting
and signatures as a guide to practice, and as a way of
detecting forgeries."
François Demelle
Toxicology methods
1775 Carl Wilhelm Scheele (Sweden):
Detection of arsenic acid in stomach contents –
reaction between arsenic trioxide with nitric acid and
zinc to produce arsine (AsH3), a gas with a garlic odor
Evidence couldn’t be shown in court.
No valid test.
Published “Chemical Treatise on Air and Fire”.
Discovered manganese, chlorine, tartaric acid, glycerin
and lactic acid (to name a few), absorption of gasses by
charcoal, and presence of oxygen in air.
Carl Wilhelm Scheele
Technological advances in 1800’s
Major scientific Discoveries:
Chemistry:
–Antoine Lavoisier – Law of the conservation of mass (1789)
Beginning of chemistry
Physics:
–Michael Faraday (1831) – Electromagnetic Radiation
- James Maxwell (1858) – Theory of electromagnetism
- Josiah Gibbs (1876) – Founded chemical
thermodynamics
Biology
- Rudolf Virchow (1858) – Cells arise from preexisting
cells
Development of technology and
instrumentation
Microscopy
Photography
Louis Daguerre – Paris 1828
Father of Toxicology
1814 Mathiew Orfila (Spain):
Medicinal/forensic chemistry at University of Paris
Published: A treatise on poisons, found in the mineral,
vegetable, and animal kingdoms
Developed tests for the presence of body fluid stains in a
forensic context
First to use of a microscope in the assessment of blood
and semen stains.
Studied asphyxiation, decomposition, and exhumation.
Image: Fine art of America
Anthropometric Theory
(1830s) Alphonse Bertillion
French police officer.
Bertillion’s anthropometric theory: Identification of
people through physical measurements.
The anthropometric method lost out to fingerprint
identification.
Fingerprint classification
1823 John Evangelist Purkinje (Czecheslovakia)
professor of anatomy at the University of Breslau,
He published the first paper on the nature of
fingerprints and suggested a classification system
based on nine major types:
“After innumerable observations, I have
found nine important varieties of patterns of
rugae (ridges) and sulci (furrows) though the
lines of demarcation between the types are
often obscure.”
Harold Cummins, Rebecca Wright Kennedy, Purkinje's Observations
(1823) on Finger Prints and Other Skin Features, 31 Am. Inst. Crim. L. &
Toxicology in the courtroom
1836 James Marsh (Scotland): chemist,
was the first to use toxicology in a jury trial.
In the 1832 trial of John Bodle:
Marsh’s initial test for arsenic was unstable and
couldn’t be shown to a jury.
He developed the Marsh Test in 1836, in which
he “stabilized” the arsenic product by “plating
it out” on a solid surface – arsine gas + heat +
surface = metallic arsenic.
1851 Jean Servais Stas (Belgium) a chemistry professor from
Brussels, was the first to
Identify plant alkaloids from body tissue leading to the successful
prosecution of Count Bocarme who poisoned his brother-in-law by forcefeeding him nicotine he extracted from tobacco.
Jean Servais Stas
Examples of alkaloids: morphine, strychnine, quinine, ephedrine, and
nicotine
1853 Ludwig Teichmann, (Poland)
First microscopic crystal test for hemoglobin using hemin crystals –
Teichmann test – a confirmatory test for blood.
1879 Rudolph Virchow (Germany): “The
Pope of Medicine” - a pathologist interested in social
medicine, public health, and later, anthropology.
He was the first to testify to forensic hair comparison in
1861. An avid promotor of microscopy.
Hair analysis
Hair comparison
Rudolph Virchow
Fingerprints can link suspects to a crime scene
1880 Henry Faulds (Scotland):
physician working in Tokyo, published
a paper in the journal Nature
”When bloody finger-marks or impressions
on clay, glass, etc., they may lead to the
scientific identification of criminals.”
First to suggest fingerprints could be used to
identify criminals.
Nature volume 22, page 605 (1880)
Henry Faulds
Sherlock Holmes popularized forensic science
1887 Arthur Conan Doyle (England): published the first
Sherlock Holmes story in Beeton’s Christmas Annual of London;
A Study of Scarlet.
Holmes used fingerprint comparison in The Sign of Four (1890)
Scotland Yard adopted it 10 years later.
Frequently used footprint evidence instrumental to solving the
case and even “wrote” an essay on the preservation of
footprints using Plaster of Paris.
He used handwriting analysis to profile the character and stateof-mind of the author.
First use of forensic firearm testing
1889 Alexandre Lacassagne (France): A professor of
forensic medicine at the University of Lyon
Founded the Lacassagne School of Criminology
The first to try to individualize bullets to a gun barrel after
noticing the lands and grooves (rifling) on a bullet he
removed from a body during autopsy.
He was able to trace the bullet to a murderer’s pistol. Land
and groove patterns are now referred to as Class
Characteristics.
st
1 Comprehensive book on fingerprints
1892 (Sir) Francis Galton (England):
Anthropologist, scientist, inventor, explorer, and cousin
of Charles Darwin
He published Finger Prints the first comprehensive book
on the nature of fingerprints and their use in solving
crime.
He defined and named print minutiae, known as Galton
Details.
Francis Galton
Fingerprint Classification System - 1896
Sir Edward Richard Henry (England)
Inspector General of Police in India
Collaborated with Galton and some Indian police officers to develop
the finger print classification system that came to use in Europe and
North America.
He published Classification and Uses of Finger Prints.
“In conclusion, we are of opinion that the method of
identification by means of finger prints, as worked on the
system of recording impressions and of classification used in
Bengal, may be safely adopted as being superior to the
anthropometrics method- simple, cheap, easy, fast and
specific.
Edward Richard Henry
FBI Fingerprint Database – 1950s
20, 000 employees maintained the database
Sir Edward Richard Henry classification system to find a match
Albert Osborne published Questioned Documents
1910 Albert S. Osborne : the most influential
document examiner, published the book, Questioned
Documents (still used today).
Pen Position, pen pressure and shading
Arrangement, size, proportions, spacing and slant in writing
Writing instruments
Variations in Genuine Writing
Simulated and copied forgeries
Traced Forgeries
Anonymous and disputed letters
This book is available on Blackboard
First blood type test - 1915
1915 Leone Lattes (Italy): Devised a method for ABO blood
typing of dried bloodstains – a huge advancement for criminal
investigations.
He first use of the test in an actual case was to resolve a
marital dispute over two bloodstains on the husband’s shirt
tail. Turns out it was the husband’s blood due to a prostate
problem.
He published L’Individualità del sangue nella biologia, nella
clinica, nella medicina, legale, the first book dealing with
clinical issues, heritability, paternity, and typing of dried stains.
Edmond Locard
French criminologist
1877 - 1966
Locard’s Principle:
“Every contact leaves a trace”
Hair, fiber, fingerprints, saliva,
DNA, shoe prints, etc.
Who will certainly be on the exam?
Francis Galton
People who will definitely be on the exam
(underlined and in blue font)
What do you need to know
Who
What did they do?
The Crime laboratory
Crime Labs
• Oldest crime laboratory in the US:
LAPD Crime Lab – 1923
• Largest crime laboratory in the world
is the FBI Laboratory in Quantico, VA
established in 1932
Biometric Analysis
- Combined DNA Index System (CODIS)
- DNA Casework
- Federal DNA Database
- Latent Print
Forensic Response
- Crime Scene Documentation
- Evidence Response Team
- Hazardous Evidence Response
- Photographic Operations
- Scientific Response and Analysis
- Technical Hazards Response
Scientific Analysis
- Chemistry
- Counterterrorism & Forensic Science
- Cryptanalysis & Racketeering
- Firearms/Tool Marks
- Questioned Documents
- Trace Evidence
NY State Crime Lab
NYPD Crime Lab located in Jamaica, NY
•
Largest multi-discipline
laboratory in NY state
•
Largest DNA Laboratory in
the US
•
160 scientists, supervisors and
managers.
Public Crime Labs
• 411 government crime labs in the U.S. 2016
• Total budget $1.6 billion
4.1 million requests for forensic services
34% Biology
Majority requests: CO and Arrestee
samples for DNA profile
databases
33% Controlled substances
15% Toxicology
Source: BJS Census of Publicly Funded Forensic Crime Laboratories, 2009
Major reasons for the increase in the number of crime laboratories:
Supreme Court decisions in the 1960s responsible for police placing greater
emphasis on scientifically evaluated evidence
Case clearance rates are 3X greater when the case includes scientific
evidence Peterson, J. et al. (1987).
Contributors to the number of crime lab cases
1. New Laws
2. New Technology
3. Population
growth
Keeping up with crime
• Population Increases – leads to more cases
• Basic Services
• Criminal Justice system
More Laws Enacted
Food & Drug Laws
Environmental Laws
Firearms Laws
Drug possession
Driving laws
Population growth leads to an increase in crime lab cases.
Rockefeller Drug Laws
15 years to life for drug dealers and
addicts
Gov. Nelson Rockefeller
Prison Population
Zero-tolerance for drug sellers and users
(1973)
War on Drugs
https://youtu.be/k1E8bTUbquM
New DNA laws in NY State
New York State Law
DNA Samples:
Must be worked within 90
days of receipt
And results communicated
with the submitting agency
and DA
New technology – Familial DNA analysis
Familial DNA sequencing
solved the Golden State Killer
case
Requests for new “familial
DNA” analysis increased
Important criminal cases
Court cases that have shaped forensics and
the judicial system
Gideon v Wainwright
Mapp v Ohio
Miranda v Arizona
Mapp vs Ohio - 1961
Shondor Birns
Birns and King ran competing gambing
organizations in Cleveland, OH
Bomb goes off at King’s home
Informant tells police:
Dollree Mapp has evidence in her home
Mapp worked for Birns
Cleveland, OH
Police go to Mapp’s home
Don King
Mapp vs Ohio - 1961
Police asked to search her home
Mapp refused the search – she requested a
warrant
Police faked a warrant and searched her
home anyway.
They found ”sexually explicit material” that
they used to put Dollree Mapp in jail for 17yrs.
Cleveland, OH
Supreme court ruled against the police – Unreasonable search and
seizure. No probable cause.
Gideon v Wainwright
3 June 1961
8:00 AM
Crime:
Broke the door down
Smashed cigarette machine
Broke the record player
Stole money from the register
Eyewitness stated Clarence Gideon was in
the poolroom around 5:30 that morning
Gideon v Wainwright
The COURT: Mr. Gideon, I am sorry, but I cannot appoint
counsel to represent you in this case. Under the laws of
the State of Florida, the only time the court can appoint
counsel to represent a defendant is when that person is
charged with a capital offense. I am sorry, but I will have to
deny your request to appoint counsel to defend you in this
case.
GIDEON: The United States Supreme Court says I am
entitled to be represented by counsel.
Found Guilty – Sentenced to 5 yrs. in prison
Gideon wrote the Supreme Court
Given a new trial with a court appointed
attorney
Found Innocent
The Court ruled that all citizens must be provided a lawyer if they cannot afford one.
Miranda v. Arizona
16 March 1963
Phoenix Arizona
Police are investigating the
kidnapping and rape of an 18
yr. old girl
Ernesto Miranda was
interrogated for hours.
Miranda gave a confession
after a long interrogation
Miranda v. Arizona
Miranda v Arizona (1966) The Court ruled that
citizens must be informed of their rights prior to
questioning.
Any evidence or statement obtained prior to a
suspect being read his/her rights is inadmissible.
This has led to what is commonly referred to as
one's "Miranda Rights" having to be read upon
questioning or arrest.
What are the Miranda Rights
• Right to remain silent
• Anything said may be used
against you in court
• Right to consult an attorney
before and during an
interrogation
Quiz questions
1. Three major factors that increase the number of criminal cases include:
population growth, changes in technology and __________________.
new laws
2. Police walk into your yard and suspect that you have illegal material in your home.
They search your home and find 3 grams of cocaine. What court ruling protects you?
Mapp vs Ohio - 1961
Court cases that have shaped forensics and
the judicial system
Gideon v Wainwright
Right to an attorney even if
you cannot afford one
Mapp v Ohio
Miranda v Arizona
Protection against
unreasonable search and
seizure
Police must read you your
”Miranda” rights before
interrogations
Admissibility of evidence - The Frye Standard
• The Frye v. United States (1923; admissibility of a lie detector method based
on measurement of blood pressure) decision set guidelines for determining
the admissibility of scientific evidence into the courtroom.
•Frye standard states:
the evidence in question
must be “generally
accepted” by the relevant
scientific community.
Daubert Criteria for Admissibility
►Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceutical, Inc., (1993;
lawsuit over a drug to treat severe morning sickness –
does it cause birth defects?)
►U.S. Supreme Court asserted that the Frye standard is not an
absolute prerequisite to the admissibility of scientific evidence.
Trial judge is the “gatekeepers” for any
evidence presented in court
Evidence is evaluated with the following criteria:
►Can the technique be tested
►What is the potential error rate
►General accepted within the relevant
scientific community
►Are there standards and controls for this
scientific method.
►Has the theory or technique been subject to
peer review and publication
Chapters 2
Crime Scene Processing
Critical people at a crime scene
First Responders
Police Investigator
First responders collect basic information
Documentation must begin immediately
1. Log dispatch information
Location
Time/ date
Call type
Parties involved
2. Note persons or vehicles leaving the scene
3. Look for secondary scenes
4. Be aware of persons, vehicles that may be
related to the crime
5. Will need to detain for statements from
victims, suspects, witnesses
Murder suspect Dario Ormejuste caught outside home
smoking as brother, father lay dead in house
First responders checklist
1. Get dangerous situations under
control
2. Emergency care
3. Limit people entering the crime
scene
4. Establish boundaries
Get the scene under control
Ensure a crime is not in progress: shooter, robbery, fight, etc.
Determine any source of danger for police and medical units
Meth lab, gas leak, home fire, etc.
Emergency Care
After gaining control of the scene
Emergency medical care takes priority
An officer accompanies victim/suspect to medical
facility
•!
•`Document comments
Collect evidence from victim/suspect
•!
!
Limit the number of individuals entering the scene
Isolate suspects, victims,
and witnesses
Family
Friends
Neighbors
Pets
Wildlife
Law enforcement
Medical staff
Bystanders
Next slide contains Nicole Brown-Simpson’s body and blood evidence
Media
Nicole Brown-Simpson Crime Scene
Kato
Bloody path – Bruno Magli shoe print
(300 sold in the entire US)
Idaho College Murders
November 2022
Madison Mogen, Kaylee Goncalves,
Ethan Chapin, and Xana Kernodle
were attacked in their home.
• 6 total students lived in the house
• 4:15 AM after a doordash arrived
One roommate heard odd things
happening in the house. She
contacted police the day after the
incident. Bodycam footage shows
how police handled the case.
https://youtu.be/-QSmfEJDRXQ?si=l0cq-jC2SuyGHCCj
Blueprint of the house
Blueprint of the house
https://youtu.be/-QSmfEJDRXQ?si=l0cq-jC2SuyGHCCj
Bodycam footage
What did you notice?
Who is the kid in the grey
sweatshirt and khaki shorts?
https://youtu.be/-QSmfEJDRXQ?si=l0cq-jC2SuyGHCCj
Bodycam footage
How did they handle the scene?
Should this officer have gloves
on?
https://youtu.be/-QSmfEJDRXQ?si=l0cq-jC2SuyGHCCj
Responding officer establishes the boundaries
Establishing boundaries at a crime
scene
Focal point of the crime
Entries and exits
Secondary scenes
Potential evidence
Post an officer at the boundary
Log all personnel that enter
the crime scene
Initial responding officer briefs investigators taking
charge of the scene
Turn over responsibility for
documenting traffic to and from scene
!
Scope and nature of scene(s)
Primary, secondary scenes
Condition of the scene
Statements
Witnesses
Victims
Perpetrators
Location of evidence
Remain at scene until dismissed