P a g e |1
THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT
PROJECT TITLE: DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A HEXACOPTER
DRONE FOR AGRICULTURE
NAME OF STUDENT
COMPUTER NUMBER
MWANSA MUSONDA
20157728
MWAMBA MULENGA
18122767
EMMANUEL C.CLETUS
20157111
JOSEPH MUKUKA
20154324
SUPERVISOR: MR. L. KANIKI
YEAR OF REPORT: 2024
P a g e |2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Declarations………………………………………………………….3
II. Approval…………………………………………………………….4
III. Acknowledgements………………………………………………...5
IV. Abstract…………………………………………………………….6
V. List of figures……………………………………………………….7
CHAPTER 1
1.0.
INTRODUCTION……………………………………………….8
1.1. BACKGROUND………………………………………….9
CHAPTER 2
2.0.
LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………….17
CHAPTER 3
3.0.
METHODOLOGY……………………………………………...25
3.1. COMPONENT DESIGN………………………………...26
CHAPTER 4
4.0.
DESIGN SIMULATIONS AND RESULTS…………………...31
CHAPTER 5
5.0.
SYSTEMS TESTING…………………………………………...33
CHAPTER 6
6.1.
6.2.
6.3.
CONCLUSION…………………………………………………36
RECOMMENDATIONS……………………………………….37
FUTURE WORKS……………………………………………...38
APPENDICES
APPENDICE A; GANTT CHART
APPENDICE B; LIST OF MATERIALS
APPENDICE C; BUDGET
P a g e |3
I.
DECLARATION
We hereby declare that we carried out the work reported in this report in the
Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Copperbelt University, under the supervision of
Mr.L.kaniki . We solemnly declare that to the best of our knowledge no part of this
report has been submitted
here or elsewhere in a previous application for award of a Degree. All the sources
of knowledge
used have been duly acknowledged
Name of Students
Signature
EMMANUEL CLETUS
……………….
MWANSA MUSONDA
……………….
JOSEPH MUKUKA
……………….
MWAMBA MULENGA
……………….
P a g e |4
II.
APPROVAL
This is to certify that the project titled Design and Fabrication Stirling Engine
carried out by EMMANUEL CLETUS, MWANSA MUSONDA, JOSEPH
MUKUKA and MWAMBA MULENGA has been read and approved for meeting
part of the requirements and regulations governing the EM/MC/AE500/EG401
Projects course in Mechanical Engineering (Hons) at the Copperbelt University,
Kitwe, Zambia.
Names
Signature
EMMANUEL CLETUS
………………….
MWANSA MUSONDA
………………….
JOSEPH MUKUKA
………………….
MWAMBA MULENGA
………………….
PROJECT SUPPERVISOR Signature
MR. L. KANIKI.
`……………………
Date
………………
P a g e |5
III.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to everyone who contributed to the
successful completion of this Stirling engine project. First and foremost, we extend
our appreciation to our supervisor, Mr Lameck kaniki, for his guidance, financial,
enduring support and encouragement throughout this project. His expertise and
dedication has been of great help in shaping the direction of this project.
We are also grateful to our lecturers in the Mechanical Department, for providing
the principles upon which the project was based. We wish to extend our
appreciation to our guardians for their support. Above all, we thank the Almighty
God for the abundant strength, safe travels and good health provided to us during
the course of the project
P a g e |6
IV.
ABSTRACT
Unmanned aerial vehicles or drones are a topic of interest to many academic and
industrial research organizations. They find applications in several fields ranging
from military functions to civilian functions. Consequently the UAVS are expected
to perform a wide range of ,missions which necessitate a certain level of autonomy.
Through this paper we introduce a short review on a particular type of UAV called
HEXACOPTER or HEXAROTOR in which we discuss the items which compose
a hexacopter from the very fundamental to the most elaborated parts, the report
covers the flight mechanism the avionic sensors, the dynamic modelling and the
various control techniques used on a hexacopter , the vision system the different
localization and navigation techniques are also explored.
P a g e |7
V.
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. helicopter
Figure 2. hexa-copter
Figure 3. stress simulations and results
Figure 4. displacements simulations and results
Figure 5. strain simulations and results
Figure 6. factor of safety simulations and results
Figure 7. pump
P a g e |8
CHAPTER 1
1.0.
INTRODUCTION
The agricultural hexacopter represents a groundbreaking synergy between cutting
edge drone technology and evolving needs of modern agriculture. Unmanned aerial
vehicles have seamlessly integrated into the farming landscape, offering the transformative approach to precision agriculture. Among these, the hexacopter stands
out for its exceptional maneuverability and stability, making it an ideal platform
for revolutionizing farming practices, providing farmers with unprecedented
insight and tools to enhance the efficiency, optimize the resource management, and
ultimately contribute to the sustainability of agricultural endeavors. The
implementation of agricultural hexacopter introduces a novel set of challenges
within the farming sector. Despite their potential to revolutionize precision
agriculture, issues such as high initial costs, limited accessibility for scale farmers,
and the need for specialized training pose significant barriers to widespread
adoption. Additionally, concerns related to agricultural irrigation, pest control and
fertilizer distribution have shown the most need for precision agriculture. The
project entails multiple stages in the design process. Using computer-aided design
(CAD) software such as Solidworks, a detailed 3D model of the hexacopter drone
is developed, allowing for optimization and performance analysis. The
manufacturing phases involve the selection of appropriate materials and techniques
to construct the hexacopter prototype.
1.1.
BACKGROUND
ANALYSIS ON VARIOUS USES OF AGRICULTURAL DRONES.
The Role of Drones in Precision Agriculture
In the realm of precision agriculture, drones have emerged as indispensable tools
for optimizing farming practices. These advanced flying devices play a crucial role
in various aspects, including crop monitoring, imaging technologies, and data
analytics. Equipped with state-of-the-art imaging sensors, drones provide real-time,
site-specific information about crop health and potential issues, aiding farmers in
making informed decisions to maximize productivity.
P a g e |9
Enhancing Crop Monitoring and Analysis
Drones equipped with hyperspectral and thermal sensors enable precise crop
monitoring and analysis. By capturing high-resolution images and thermal data,
drones can detect early signs of plant stress, disease, and pest infestation. This data
allows farmers to take timely action, implementing targeted interventions to ensure
the health and productivity of their crops. Drones also provide crucial insights into
soil conditions, allowing farmers to optimize irrigation and fertilizer application,
reducing waste and environmental impact.
Surveying Damage and Assessing Unreachable Areas
After natural disasters, such as floods or storms, drones can survey the extent of
damage in agricultural areas that are difficult to access. By capturing aerial images,
drones provide farmers with valuable information to assess and plan for recovery.
In combination with mapping technologies, drones can create detailed 2D and 3D
maps of fields, helping farmers analyze changes over time and make informed
decisions about soil management, planting, and harvesting.
Advantages of Drones in Precision Agriculture
Detect early signs of plant stress, diseases, and pests
Optimize irrigation and fertilizer application
Survey damage after natural disasters
Create detailed maps for soil management
The utilization of drones in precision agriculture is revolutionizing the industry,
providing farmers with invaluable insights and data. By leveraging the capabilities
of drones, farmers can enhance crop yields, reduce costs, and optimize resource
management. As drone technology continues to advance, the future of precision
agriculture looks promising, with further integration of robotics and artificial
intelligence facilitating even more precise and automated farming operations.
Crop Surveying and Mapping with Drones
Drones have revolutionized crop surveying and mapping in precision agriculture.
By utilizing advanced technologies such as time-lapse drone photography and
NDVI mapping, drones provide accurate and detailed information about crop
growth, pests, diseases, and stress levels in plants.
P a g e | 10
These data enables farmers to make timely interventions and adjustments to ensure
higher productivity and optimize crop health.
With the help of drones equipped with photogrammetry software, farmers can
create comprehensive 2D maps and 3D models of their fields. These detailed
representations allow for in-depth analysis of changes over time, helping farmers
make informed decisions regarding soil management, planting strategies, and
harvesting schedules. This information is invaluable in maximizing the efficiency
of farming operations and improving overall crop yields.
Table: Benefits of Crop Surveying and Mapping with Drones
Benefits
Description
Accurate
Monitoring
Drones provide real-time, site-specific data on crop health, pests,
diseases, and stress levels, enabling farmers to take immediate
action.
Timely
Interventions
By detecting issues early on, farmers can make necessary
interventions and adjustments to prevent further crop damage
and optimize productivity.
Detailed maps and models created by drones allow farmers to
Improved
analyze changes over time and make informed decisions
Decision-making
regarding soil management, planting, and harvesting.
Enhanced
Efficiency
Precise data from drones helps optimize farming operations,
reduce resource wastage, and increase overall efficiency.
In summary, drones have revolutionized the way farmers survey and map their
crops. Through advanced imaging technologies and data analysis, drones provide
accurate and timely information that helps farmers make informed decisions to
maximize productivity, optimize crop health, and improve overall efficiency.
Weed and Pest Control Management with Drones
Drones are revolutionizing weed and pest control management in precision
agriculture. Equipped with advanced imaging technologies and multispectral
sensors, drones provide farmers with crucial insights for targeted strategies and
efficient crop protection. Here, we explore how drones play a vital role in weed
control and pest management, offering significant benefits to farmers.
P a g e | 11
Weed Control
Drones equipped with specialized cameras and sensors can identify and map out
weeds in fields with exceptional accuracy. This information allows farmers to plan
targeted interventions and implement precise herbicide application. By applying
herbicides only where needed, farmers can reduce the use of chemicals, minimize
environmental impact, and save costs. Additionally, drones enable farmers to
monitor the effectiveness of weed control measures over time, providing valuable
data for ongoing management.
Pest Management
Drones equipped with multispectral sensors provide valuable insights into pest
populations and their distribution across fields. By identifying pest hotspots,
farmers can develop targeted pest management strategies, minimizing the use of
pesticides and reducing the risk of resistance development. Drones also enable
farmers to assess the impact of pest infestations on crop health, allowing for timely
interventions and preventive measures. Aerial spraying of crop protection products
with drones ensures even coverage and reduces the spread of pests and diseases,
leading to healthier crops and increased yields.
Weed and Pest Control
Benefits with Drones
1. Targeted
interventions and
precise herbicide
application
• Reduced use of
chemicals
• Minimized
environmental
impact
• Cost savings
2. Insights into pest
populations and
distribution
• Effective pest
management
strategies
• Reduced
pesticide use
• Decreased
resistance
development
3. Timely interventions
• Assessing impact • Improved crop
and preventive
on crop health
protection
measures
• Increased yields
In conclusion, drones equipped with advanced imaging technologies and
multispectral sensors provide farmers with crucial tools for weed and pest control
management. Through targeted interventions, precise herbicide application, and
effective pest management strategies, farmers can reduce chemical usage,
P a g e | 12
minimize environmental impact, and optimize crop protection. The use of drones
in weed and pest control not only enhances agricultural practices but also
contributes to sustainable farming and increased productivity in precision
agriculture.
Soil Inspection and Health Monitoring with Drones
In precision agriculture, drones have become indispensable tools for soil inspection
and health monitoring. Equipped with advanced multispectral sensors, drones
provide real-time measurements and data to help farmers make informed decisions
about soil management, nutrient application, and crop placement. By monitoring
soil conditions throughout the growing season, farmers can proactively address any
issues and optimize land management practices to enhance crop yields and reduce
environmental impact.
One of the key benefits of using drones for soil inspection is the ability to create
detailed soil quality maps. By collecting data on soil density, nutrient levels, and
moisture content, drones can generate accurate maps that highlight variations
across the fields. These maps enable farmers to identify areas that may require
additional attention or adjustments in irrigation, fertilization, or drainage. By
targeting specific areas with tailored interventions, farmers can maximize the
efficiency of their resources and minimize waste.
Real-time Measurements and Analysis
Another advantage of using drones for soil inspection is the ability to collect realtime measurements and perform on-site analysis. Multispectral sensors on drones
can capture data on soil moisture, temperature, and other relevant parameters while
flying over the fields. This real-time information allows farmers to assess soil
conditions as they change and make timely decisions regarding irrigation, water
management, and crop health.
Soil Parameter Measurement Range Ideal Range
Soil Moisture 10-40%
20-30%
Soil pH
6.0-7.5
6.5-7.0
Organic Matter 1-5%
3-4%
The table above showcases the typical measurement ranges and ideal ranges for
key soil parameters. With real-time measurements from drones, farmers can
P a g e | 13
quickly identify any deviations from the ideal range and take appropriate actions to
maintain optimal soil health. This proactive approach helps prevent nutrient
deficiencies, imbalances, and other issues that can negatively impact crop growth
and productivity.
In conclusion, drones offer a valuable tool for soil inspection and health
monitoring in precision agriculture. By providing real-time measurements, data
analysis, and detailed soil quality maps, drones empower farmers to make
informed decisions about soil management and improve overall crop health. With
the ability to optimize land management practices and reduce environmental
impact, drones play a crucial role in the future of sustainable farming.
Irrigation and Water Management with Drones
Drones have become invaluable tools for precision agriculture, playing a vital role
in irrigation and water management. Equipped with thermal sensors, drones
provide real-time information about moisture levels in the soil, allowing farmers to
optimize their irrigation practices and promote water efficiency. By monitoring soil
moisture with drones, farmers can prevent overwatering, reduce water pollution,
conserve water resources, and minimize the environmental impact of farming
operations.
With the help of thermal sensors, drones can accurately detect variations in soil
moisture levels, even in large agricultural fields. This data allows farmers to make
informed decisions about when and where to irrigate, ensuring that water is applied
efficiently and only when necessary. By avoiding unnecessary water use, farmers
can reduce their water consumption and lower costs, while also contributing to
sustainable farming practices.
Furthermore, drones equipped with thermal sensors enable farmers to identify
areas within their fields that may suffer from poor drainage or excessive moisture
retention. By pinpointing such problem areas, farmers can implement targeted
drainage solutions or adjust their irrigation strategies accordingly.
This precise approach to water management not only improves crop health and
productivity but also helps maintain the long-term sustainability of agricultural
practices.
P a g e | 14
Benefits of Irrigation and
Water Management with
Drones
Examples
Water Efficiency
Drones provide real-time data on soil moisture,
enabling precise irrigation practices that minimize
water waste.
Cost Reduction
By optimizing irrigation, farmers can reduce their
water consumption and lower operational costs.
Environmental Impact
Precise water management with drones helps
conserve water resources and minimize the
ecological footprint of farming operations.
Sustainability
By promoting water efficiency and reducing water
pollution, drones contribute to more sustainable
agricultural practices.
Types of Drones Used in Agriculture
Drones play a pivotal role in precision agriculture, offering a range of capabilities
to meet the diverse needs of farmers. Different types of drones bring unique
advantages and are suited for various farming operations. Let’s explore the most
common types of drones used in agriculture:
Fixed-wing Drones
Fixed-wing drones resemble airplanes and are ideal for large-scale aerial
monitoring and data collection. These drones can cover extensive areas efficiently
and provide valuable insights into crop health, soil conditions, and environmental
factors. With their long flight endurance and stable flight characteristics, fixedwing drones are particularly useful for mapping and surveillance tasks in precision
agriculture.
P a g e | 15
Multi-rotor Drones
Multi-rotor drones, characterized by their compact size and maneuverability, are
widely used for mapping, modeling, and monitoring in precision agriculture. These
drones can hover at specific locations, capturing detailed images and collecting
data with high precision. They are ideal for tasks that require close proximity to
crops and need quick deployment, such as inspecting individual plants or detecting
potential issues in small areas.
Hybrid VTOL Drones
Hybrid VTOL (Vertical Take-Off and Landing) drones offer a combination of
fixed-wing and multi-rotor capabilities, providing flexibility in various farming
operations. These drones can take off and land vertically like a helicopter and then
transition to horizontal flight like a plane. Hybrid VTOL drones are advantageous
when both large-area coverage and pinpoint accuracy are required, making them
suitable for tasks like crop surveying, mapping, and spraying.
Single-rotor Helicopter Drones
Single-rotor helicopter drones are designed for precision applications in
agriculture. These drones offer superior stability, payload capacity, and endurance,
making them well-suited for tasks that require high precision and control. Singlerotor drones are commonly used for activities like crop spraying, precision
fertilization, and monitoring hard-to-reach areas. Their vertical take-off and
landing capabilities enable efficient operations in challenging terrains and complex
farming environments.
Type of Drone
Advantages
Applications
Efficient aerial monitoring
Fixed-wing Drones Long flight endurance
Stable flight characteristics
Large-scale mapping and
surveillance
Environmental monitoring
Crop health assessment
Compact and maneuverable
Multi-rotor Drones Precise data collection
Quick deployment
Crop inspection and
monitoring
Pest and disease detection
Small-area mapping
P a g e | 16
Hybrid VTOL
Drones
Combination of fixed-wing and
Crop surveying and
multi-rotor capabilities
mapping
Vertical take-off and landing
Aerial spraying
Large-area coverage and pinpoint
Site-specific interventions
accuracy
Single-rotor
Helicopter Drones
Superior stability and payload
capacity
Vertical take-off and landing
High precision and control
Crop spraying
Precision fertilization
Monitoring challenging
terrains
P a g e | 17
CHAPTER 2
2.0.
LITERATURE REVIEW
A History of Drones and their Agricultural Evolution.
1960s-1980s: Early Drone Research and Development
In the 1960s, drone technology found its way into agriculture with the invention of
the Radio-controlled Model Helicopter. This would become the first drone for use
in farming. Developed by crop dusters, the Model Helicopter would open the doors
for a new style of farming. Three years later, in 1965, the U.S. military dreamt up a
grand vision for future “farmer-pilots”: Remotely operated rotor craft that could
enable farmers to view their entire land with the help of aerial images and
surveying systems.
Not long after, in the 1970s, public entities and researchers started utilizing drones
for taking pictures in agricultural fields. This new technology was being used to
map fields and accurately measure soil fertility to diagnose pest infestation. The
method was also used to observe trends in crop growth throughout the year. As
progress was made in the robotics field, it would lead to even better results. By the
mid-1970s, the use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) was seen in various
agricultural sectors.
The way farmers use aerial technology has come a long way. marking a significant
chapter in the history of drones in agriculture.
It all started with basic surveying and mapping techniques, but today it’s about
cutting-edge precision farming.
The story begins in the early 1900s when airplanes and satellites first took to the
skies to capture bird’s-eye views of farmland. This innovative approach allowed
farmers to:
•
Monitor crop growth from a whole new perspective.
•
Spot potential problems like pests or irrigation issues before they become
major threats.
•
Survey vast areas of land with incredible efficiency and accuracy, saving
them time and resources.
P a g e | 18
These aerial images weren’t just for looking. They became the foundation for
creating detailed maps, digital elevation models (fancy 3D maps of the land), and
powerful analytical tools.
This information revolutionized farming by giving farmers the power to:
1. Make smarter decisions: With data on hand, farmers could plan their
farming practices with precision.
2. Manage crops more effectively: They could track growth, identify issues,
and take action to optimize yields.
3. Predict harvests: Data analysis helped them estimate how much they would
harvest, allowing for better planning.
4. Analyze soil conditions: Understanding the soil allowed for targeted
treatments and resource allocation.
5. Plan land use strategically: With a clear picture of their land, farmers could
optimize its use for different crops.
Who Invented the First Agricultural Drone?
In The year was 1987, and a Japanese manufacturer named Yamaha took to the
skies with a revolutionary invention: the R-50, the world’s first agricultural drone
P a g e | 19
Figure 1
This wasn’t your average drone. It was specifically designed to assist farmers with
field analysis and crop mapping. Equipped with a GPS and camera, the R-50 could
gather valuable data on crop size, health, and development. This information
proved to be a game-changer, allowing farmers to make informed decisions about
their crops.
While the R-50 marked a significant milestone, it wasn’t the first drone ever
created. Since then, drone technology has advanced rapidly, leading to a wider
range of agricultural drones for various purposes. Today’s agricultural drones can
be used for tasks like sowing seeds, monitoring crop health, and even spraying
crops.
Uses of Drones in Agriculture
1. Transforming Agriculture
The arrival of drones in agriculture has been nothing short of revolutionary. These
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have become essential tools, completely
changing how farmers work. Drones offer a wide range of applications that are
P a g e | 20
redefining modern agriculture, with a focus on precision, efficiency, and
sustainability.
2. Real-Time Data for Informed Decisions
One of the biggest game-changers is drone-based crop monitoring. Equipped with
high-tech cameras and sensors, drones can quickly and precisely scan large fields.
This gives farmers valuable information about crop health, soil conditions, and
potential problems like pests or diseases. The real-time data allows farmers to
make data-driven decisions, such as applying fertilizer only where needed,
controlling pests right away, and managing irrigation more effectively. This
approach maximizes productivity while minimizing waste.
3. Optimizing Yields
Drones are at the forefront of precision agriculture, a concept that uses technology
to optimize crop production and minimize environmental impact. Advanced
sensors like multispectral imaging cameras and LiDAR systems can capture
intricate details about the soil, like moisture levels and nutrient distribution. This
information is used to create detailed field maps, allowing for precision planting.
By placing seeds in the ideal location and depth, farmers can maximize yields
while using fewer resources.
4. More Than Just Crop Management
Drones are incredibly versatile. They can be used to monitor livestock, conduct
search and rescue operations, and even apply pesticides and fertilizers with
extreme precision. This targeted approach minimizes chemical use and potential
environmental harm, promoting sustainability and saving farmers money.
5. AI and Machine Learning
Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning are taking drone data analysis to a
whole new level. These technologies allow for predictive analytics, yield
forecasting, and even automated decision-making. This means agriculture can
become even more precise, optimizing resource use, minimizing environmental
impact, and maximizing crop yields worldwide.
As the agricultural industry continues to embrace innovation, drones will likely
play an even bigger role. This powerful combination of technology and nature has
P a g e | 21
the potential to ensure food security and promote environmental stewardship for
future generations.
The explosion of the human population makes high
productivity, high performance and sustainable agriculture
more important [1]. In the modern environment, agriculture
is essential for the subsistence of more than 60 percent of
total of the world's population. [2]. It is a critical element in
the protection of the environment in the developed world.
The agricultural modernization is mandatory when demand
and food supply are increased. Drones are one of the most
advantageous equipment for modern agriculture.
The pesticides and fertilizers are critical components in the
control of insects and the development of crops. Spraying
pesticides and fertilizers by hand causes tumors,
hypersensitivity, allergies, and other illnesses in people.
Hence, Drone can be used to automate fertilizer application,
pesticide spraying, and field tracking, which is also used for
many applications such as search and rescue, police, code
inspections, Emergency Management, fire. Other
advantages of drones include their fast maneuverability,
improved payload, high lifting power, and stability [3]. It
comes with a universal sprayer for spraying both liquid and
solid contents. The global nozzle sprays all pesticides and
fertilizers, but the tension pump is only used when spraying
P a g e | 22
pesticides and not when spraying fertilizer. In wide fields,
the GPS can be used to automatically direct the quadcopter
and power it remotely. A quad copter is piloted by an
autopilot controller, and the payload is driven by an RF
transmitter and motors. The figure 1 illustrates the pesticides
spraying mechanism [4].
Figure 1: Pesticide spraying mechanism
This paper usually depicts the characteristics of appropriate
Drones for a particular agricultural purpose. Furthermore, it
will be clear as to which Drone archetype is needed for
specific farming tasks. The systematic review of this article
is based on basic keyword and abstract searches in Scopus,
WOS (Web of Science), and Google Scholar databases.
Several trustworthy websites were also consulted for
subject-related material.
P a g e | 23
Figure 2
Yallappa (2017) improved an hexacopter with 6 BLDC
motors and two LiPo batteries of 6 cells- 8000 mAh. Their
research also includes a performance assessment of spray
liquid discharge and pressure, spray liquid depletion, and
droplet size and density determination. By means of their
project, they eventually created a drone that can hold 5.5 L
of liquid and has a 16-minute endurance period [5].
Dongyan (2015) investigated successful swath width and
droplet distribution uniformity over aerial spraying systems
such as the M-18B and Thrush 510G. The agricultural planes
flowered respectively at 5m and 4m high, and by this
experiment they conclude the disparity in swath width of M18B and Thrush 510G in flight height [6].
Prof. B. Balaji (2018) created a hexacopter UAV for
pesticide spraying as well as crop and environmental
surveillance using Raspberry Pi and the Python
programming language. Their UAV also has a variety of
sensors, including DH11, LDR and
P a g e | 24
Water Level Monitoring sensors. As a result of this
experiment, they eventually concluded that with proper
implementation of UAVs in the agricultural sector, savings
in terms of water, chemical abuse, and labour can be
projected to range between 20% and 90%. [7].
Kurkute (2018) used basic cost-efficient equipment to work
with UAV quadcopter and its spraying system. Spraying
with both liquid and solid material is done using the
universal sprayer method. During their analysis, they also
compared various agricultural controllers and came to the conclusion that the
quadcopter system with the
Atmega644PA is the most suitable due to its successful
implementation [8].
Huang (2015) developed a low-volume sprayer that can be
used in unmanned helicopters. The helicopter has a 3 m main
rotor diameter and a payload capacity of 22.7 kg. It used to
take at least a gallon of gas every 45 minutes. This research
paved the way for the development of UAV aerial
application systems for crop production with a higher goal
rate and a larger VMD droplet scale [9].
Shilpa Kedari has suggested a low-cost, lightweight
Quadcopter (QC) framework. The quadcopter is also known
as Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV). This quadcopter is
compact and can be used for both indoor and outdoor crops.
The quadcopter is an unmanned flight that uses an android
smartphone to spray pesticides and fertilizer. The contact
P a g e | 25
between the quadcopter and the android smartphone is
achieved in real time using a Bluetooth device. This method
is used to reduce agricultural field problems while still
increasing agricultural yield [10].
Sadhana improved on the above approaches and created the
quadcopter UAV and shower module, which can be used to
spray pesticides in agriculture fields to increase efficiency
and protect materials. The total load for this project is 1 kg
and is used to spray low altitude pesticide quadruple copter
lift. The Arduino UNO AT mega328 and Brushless Direct
Current (BLDC), Electronic Speed Control (ESC), MPU6050, which combines a MEMS accelerometer and a MEMS
gyro into a single chip, Radio receiver, LIPO battery, and
pesticide spraying module control this quadcopter [11].
P a g e | 26
CHAPTER 3
3.0.
METHODOLOGY
The first research design is a quantitative research which will be conducted
through simulation using a computer-aided engineering software (solid works)
Each of the individual components of the hexacopter drone are estimated, sketched
and designed.
The modelling and fabrication of the completed hexacopter. The testing of the
hexacopter.
3.01. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
weight - When it comes to the weight of a drone, the materials used in
construction are crucial. We often find drones made from a variety of plastics,
metals, and sometimes carbon fiber. Plastics offer affordability and lightweight,
making them common in consumer-grade drones. Metals provide robustness and
can increase the drone’s weight, especially if used in the internal framework.
Carbon fiber is a high-end material prized for its strength-to-weight ratio. It’s used
in professional drones where every ounce matters for performance and durability.
Power -is a big piece of the puzzle influencing drone weight. The battery
size and type are determining factors. Larger batteries provide longer flight times
but come with additional heft. We often find lithium-polymer batteries in use for
their balance of weight and power output. The type of battery also affects the
weight, with newer technology usually leading to lighter and more efficient power
sources.
cost – low cost materials with good structural properties (strength,
durability, rigidity etc.)
Type of drone- the hexacopter is a type of drone that can fly more freely in
the air that consist of 4 basic movements, throttle, roll motion, pitch motion and
yaw motion
Control system of drone- The control mechanism of a drone involves a
combination of manual input from the operator and autonomous flight systems.
Understanding these control mechanisms is vital for achieving precise and smooth
flight maneuvers. Moreover, advancements in technology have enabled
P a g e | 27
autonomous flight capabilities in drones. GPS systems, gyroscopes, and
accelerometers help to stabilize the drone and maintain its position and orientation
in the air
Structural design- One of the key challenges in designing drones is achieving
structural stability. The structural design of these drones plays a critical role in
ensuring their stability, durability, and reliability during operation. A weak or
poorly designed structure can lead to mechanical failure, resulting in a loss of
control or damage to the drone.
With our design considerations, it helps us select the most efficient, cost effective
and widely accessible UAV
3.02. DESIGN CALCULATIONS
 ESTIMATED WEIGHT: 3500g
 THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO: 2:1
𝑇
𝑊
2
=
1
T= 7000g → total thrust
Individual motor thrust =
𝑇
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑠
=
7000𝑔
6
= 1166.67g or 11.4N
POWER CALCULATIONS (www.wingflyingtech.com)
P=
𝑇×𝑉
𝜂
=
11.4 𝑁 ×14.8 𝑉
0.875
= 193.58 watts per motor
∴ 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 1161.5 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
V= voltage
T=thrust
P=power
𝜂= motor efficiency=0.875
Using 4-s batteries = 14.8 volts
CURRENT CALCULATIONS
P a g e | 28
 I=
𝑃
=
𝑉
1161.5 𝑊
14.8 𝑉
= 78.4 A
 I=total current
 V= voltage
 P= power
 Assuming a factor of safety of 1.25
∴ total current becomes =78.4 × 1.25= 98.34 A
∴ 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
=
98.34 𝐴
6
= 16.39 A
Therefore, based on the calculation above it is safe to assume an ESC rating of
about 20A
3.03. PROPELLER CALCULATIONS
1
𝜋
2 3
2
𝑇 =[ ×𝐷 ×𝜌×𝑃 ]
2
T= Thrust
D=Propeller diameter
P= power
𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
Making D subject of the formular
D= √(
2 ×𝑇 3
2×11.43
) =√(𝜋×1.225×193.58)= 0.1433m≈ 143.3𝑚𝑚
𝜋×𝜌×𝑃2
D=5.642 inches
∴ our preferred propeller is 6 inches
3.1.
COMPONENT DESIGN AND ANALYSIS
The choice of materials can have a significant impact on the overall performance,
durability, cost and sustainability of a project. Different materials possess varying
properties, such as strength, stiffness, corrosion resistance, thermal conductivity,
electrical conductivity and aesthetic appeal. The selection of appropriate materials
P a g e | 29
is crucial to ensure that the project meets its functional and design requirements.
Overall, material selection influences the project’s efficiency performance,
functionality, cost effectiveness and sustainability.
Table 1
No.
Part
Material type
advantages
1.
Canopy
plywood
2.
Motor mounting pipe
aluminum
3.
Horizontal landing base aluminum
4.
Vertical landing support PVC
• It Resists
Warping
• It Is Relatively
Lightweight
• It Is Relatively
Inexpensive
• It Holds Nails
and Screws Well
• Good thermal
conductivity.
• Light in weight.
• It is easily machined
since it’s relatively soft,
malleable, ductile. • It
has good heat
dissipation
• Good thermal
conductivity.
• Light in weight.
• It is easily machined
since it’s relatively soft,
malleable, ductile. • It
has good heat
dissipation
• Lightweight
• Durable and
Strong
• Resistant to Low
Impact
• Affordable
• Easy to Mold
P a g e | 30
It is important that design dimensions are considered in any design as they play a
critical role in the design process for the following. Accurate dimension help in
choosing the right materials and calculating costs, minimizing waste and selecting
cost-effective materials. Materials act as a reference for producing parts or
assembling components. Detailed and clear dimensions in drawings are essential
for effective communication. They help ensure that a product or structure functions
as intended and fits its intended purpose. Proper dimensions help ensure that
designs meet the specific safety regulations and standards set that designs must
adhere to. Proportions and sizes can greatly influence the overall aesthetics and
attractiveness of a product or structure. Engineering designs often require specific
tolerances to accommodate variations in manufacturing or assembly processes.
Dimensions can impact the performance and efficient of a design. Below is a table
showing the dimensions considered in our design of our hexacopter Drone.
Table 2
COMPONENT
DIMENSIONS
Canopy
200mm/side
Vertical leg support
225mm
Horizontal landing base
250mm
P a g e | 31
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN SIMULATIONS AND RESULTS
Static analysis case for the frame
Preparing the frame for simulation
For performing FE analysis, it is important to define all the forces acting on the
frame. The weight of the frame and all components (ESP, GPS module, light
controller, motors-weight, battery, antenna, propellers and camera) is normal to the
ground. Static loading involves a static study for calculating the response of bodies
on which loads are applied statically or slowly.
For simulation, it is very important to create customized SolidWorks coordinate
system, for remote loads locations.
• Simulations were conducted showing the stresses incurred on the drone
when it is static or at zero thrust power. Thus, the propellers are not part of
the drone.
• The equivalent strains, displacements and the resultant factor of safety were
also simulated.
Stress simulations and results
Figure 3
P a g e | 32
Displacements simulation and results
Figure 4
Strain simulations and results
Figure 5
P a g e | 33
Factor of safety simulations & results
Figure 6
P a g e | 34
Chapter 5
5.1 SYSTEMS TESTING
The drone prototype wasn’t ready to be tested for flight.
We however managed to test its spraying system and the stability of the drone
frame.
We connected the pump to a 14.7volt laptop battery to test if our sprayer set up
works.
The test was successful.
Figure 7
P a g e | 35
CHAPTER 6
6.1 CONCLUSION
This project was aimed at in-cooperating the benefits of unmanned aerial vehicles
into the agricultural sector. The benefits of course, of UAV’s include the fact that
they do not require on-board human interference to operate. Rather, they can
simply be programmed to traverse a given distance. This is key in agriculture
because distance is notably a big part of the sector. Agriculture itself is the practice
of cultivating land and rearing livestock to produce food. As such, agricultural
practices on a commercial scale require large pieces of land. And with huge land
comes the demand of manpower. These are the notable problems in agriculture.
Our goal was to find a way to use UAV’s to eliminate these problems to better
improve the sector and promote precision agriculture. More specifically, we opted
to demonstrate how drones can lessen the need for manpower thereby eliminating
the human errors that come with it.
We designed a hexacopter drone that could carry a mass of fluid and spray it over a
field. This design would allow farmers to spray larger fields in less time. Thereby
eliminating the need for multiple men operating in the field, saving farmers on the
cost they incur on payments.
This project redefines the whole concept of agriculture as it provides a more
precise way of performing various tasks. These include irrigation and pest control,
to name a few. Basically practices that require the use of agricultural fluids.
However, the use of drones is not limited to this, as they can also be used for land
mapping and surveying. Drones can be equipped with ground monitoring
electronics to help farmers see which parts of their land are most fertile and which
ones need fertilizers. Drones can also be equipped with heat sensing cameras to
help farmers monitor livestock health and number.
Clearly, our project is evidence that drones are a groundbreaking invention and the
use of drones in agriculture is a practice we need to invest in to better improve our
lifestyle. They are the very definition of what engineering is all about.
P a g e | 36
6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
• The team recommended that we make the drone automated. This would
allow us to pre-program the drone to traverse a given field unsupervised or
uncontrolled by remote. This would include the assigning of virtual
longitude location co-ordinates called weigh points.
Automating the drone would further eliminate the need for human
intervention analogously eliminating the human errors that come with them.
• The second recommendation is to in-cooperate the use of composite
materials to further lighten the load. This would allow for more room to
accommodate the agricultural fluid to be used. Thereby cementing the
purpose of the drone even more.
6.3 FUTURE WORKS
• The team would like to further our research in the use of drones in
agriculture. Preferably using thermal imaging equipment.
With the support of our coordinators, we hope this will be possible.
Thank you.
P a g e | 37
APPENDICES
APPENDICE A; GANTT CHART
APPENDICE B; SPECIFICATIONS OF COMPONENTS USED
MATERIAL
USE
Ply wood
Base of the frame
Aluminum Bar
Drone arms
Aluminum Pipe
Horizontal Landing gear
PVC Pipe
Vertical landing gear
Epoxy Resin and Hardener
adhesion
P a g e | 38
APPENDICE B; BUDGET
Component
Quantity
Price (ZMK)
Flight Control
1
2500
Battery
1
1625
Pump
2
500
Tubes
6
100
Receiver
1
500
Tank
1
0
ESC
1
850
Speed controller
1
2500
Propeller
6
900
Rotor
6
1200
Drone frame
1
850
TOTAL
11,000
P a g e | 39
Refreeces
[1] V. Artale, C. Milazzo and A. Ricciardello, "Mathematical modeling of hexacopter",
Applied
Mathematical Sciences, vol. 7, pp. 4805-4811, 2013.
[2] J. Ligthart, P. Poksawat, L. Wang and H. Nijmeijer, "Experimentally Validated Model
Predictive Controller for a Hexacopter. The authors gratefully acknowledge the partial
sponsorship by DSTG, Australia.", IFAC-PapersOnLine, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 4076-4081,
2017.
[3] M. Moussid, A. Sayouti and H. Medromi, "Dynamic Modeling and Control of a
HexaRotor
using Linear and Nonlinear Methods", International Journal of Applied Information
Systems,
vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 9-17, 2015.
[4] A. Alaimo, V. Artale, C. Milazzo, and A. Ricciardello, "PID Controller Applied to
Hexacopter Flight", Journal of Intelligent & Robotic Systems, vol. 73, no. 1-4, pp. 261-270,
2013.
[5] Morales, Camilo, Diana Ovalle, and Alain Gauthier. "Hexacopter maneuverability
capability: An optimal control approach." Modeling, Simulation, and Applied
Optimization
(ICMSAO), 2017 7th International Conference on. IEEE, 2017.
[6] Falconí, Guillermo P., Christian D. Heise, and Florian Holzapfel. "Fault-tolerant
position
tracking of a hexacopter using an Extended State Observer." Automation, Robotics, and
Applications (ICARA), 2015 6th International Conference on. IEEE, 2015.
[7] Ahmed, O. A., et al. "Stabilization and control of autonomous hexacopter via
visualservoing and cascaded-proportional and derivative (PD) controllers." Automation,
Robotics,
and Applications (ICARA), 2015 6th International Conference on. IEEE, 2015.
[8] Baránek, Radek, and František Šolc. "Modeling and control of a hexacopter."
Carpathian
Control Conference (ICCC), 2012 13th International. IEEE, 2012.
P a g e | 40
[9] Leishman, Robert, et al. "Relative navigation and control of a hexacopter." Robotics
and
Automation (ICRA), 2012 IEEE International Conference on. IEEE, 2012.
[10] E. Bekir, Introduction to modern navigation systems. Singapore: World Scientific,
2007.
[11] D. Küchemann, Progress in aerospace sciences, vol. 12. Pergamon Pr., 1972.
[12] D. Wang, "Quadcopter Parts: What are they and what do they do? – Quadcopter
Academy", Quadcopter Academy, 2017. [Online]. Available:
http://www.quadcopteracademy.com/quadcopter-parts-what-are-they-and-what-do-theydo/.
[Accessed: 24- Nov- 2017].
[13] "Components of a Multirotor - Drones and Multirotors: Types, Components &
Uses", Sites.google.com, 2017. [Online]. Available:
https://sites.google.com/a/ewg.k12.ri.us/drones-types-components-anduses/home/componentsof-a-multirotor. [Accessed: 24- Nov- 2017].
[14] Ae01.alicdn.com, 2017. [Online]. Available:
https://ae01.alicdn.com/kf/HTB1YRgDKpXXXXaPXXXXq6xXFXXXu/HexacopterDroneBrushless-Motor-450-Rc-F450-Quadcopter-Motor-Motors-Diy-Quadcopter-DroneParts-SetPart.jpg_640x640.jpg. [Accessed: 26- Nov- 2017].
[15] I2.wp.com, 2017. [Online]. Available:
https://i2.wp.com/www.americandronesonline.com/wp
content/uploads/2016/07/182435a99cb1.jpg?fit=500%2C343 [Accessed: 26- Nov- 2017].
[16] Pisces.bbystatic.com, 2017. [Online]. Available:
https://pisces.bbystatic.com/image2/BestBuy_US/images/products/4872/4872301_sd.jpg;ma
xH
eight=640;maxWidth=550. [Accessed: 26- Nov- 2017].
[17] P. Michal Mazur, "Six Ways Drones Are Revolutionizing Agriculture", MIT
Technology
P a g e | 41
Review, 2017. [Online]. Available: https://www.technologyreview.com/s/601935/sixwaysdrones-are-revolutionizing-agriculture/. [Accessed: 26- Nov- 2017]. [18]
Robotshop.com, 2017. [Online]. Available:
http://www.robotshop.com/media/files/images2/tarot-960-folding-carbon-fiberhexacopterframe-large.jpg. [Accessed: 26- Nov- 2017]. [19] Bhphotovideo.com, 2017.
[Online]. Available:
https://www.bhphotovideo.com/images/images2500x2500/yuneec_yunh920034_4000mah_6
cl_ 6s_22_2v_lpo_1223119.jpg. [Accessed: 26- Nov- 2017]. [20] NOVA, Rise of the Drones.
(n.d.). [video] PBS [Accessed: September 20, 2018]. [21] Paul Pounds, Robert Mahony,
Peter Corke, Modeling and Control of a Quad-Rotor Robot, Australian National
University. [22] Holger Voos, Nonlinear and Neural Network-based Control of a Small
Four-Rotor Aerial Robot, IEEE, 2007. [23] Bouabdallah, Samir, and Roland Y. Siegwart.
"Full control of a quadrotor." IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots
and Systems, 2007: IROS 2007; Oct. 29, 2007- Nov. 2, 2007, San Diego, CA. Ieee, 2007.
Review, 2017. [Online]. Available: https://www.technologyreview.com/s/601935/sixwaysdrones-are-revolutionizing-agriculture/. [Accessed: 26- Nov- 2017].
[18] Robotshop.com, 2017. [Online]. Available:
http://www.robotshop.com/media/files/images2/tarot-960-folding-carbon-fiberhexacopterframe-large.jpg. [Accessed: 26- Nov- 2017].
[19] Bhphotovideo.com, 2017. [Online]. Available:
https://www.bhphotovideo.com/images/images2500x2500/yuneec_yunh920034_4000mah_6
cl_
6s_22_2v_lpo_1223119.jpg. [Accessed: 26- Nov- 2017].
[20] NOVA, Rise of the Drones. (n.d.). [video] PBS [Accessed: September 20, 2018].
[21] Paul Pounds, Robert Mahony, Peter Corke, Modeling and Control of a Quad-Rotor
Robot,
Australian National University.
[22] Holger Voos, Nonlinear and Neural Network-based Control of a Small Four-Rotor
Aerial
Robot, IEEE, 2007.
[23] Bouabdallah, Samir, and Roland Y. Siegwart. "Full control of a quadrotor."
IEEE/RSJ
International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, 2007: IROS 2007; Oct. 29,
2007Nov. 2, 2007, San Diego, CA. Ieee, 2007.
P a g e | 42
[24] Pawar, A., Joshi, S., & Sulakhe, V. (2015). Development of Autopilot for VTOL
application [Accessed: September 20, 2018].
[25] Salih, A. L., Moghavvemi, M., Mohamed, H. A., & Gaeid, K. S. (2010). Flight PID
controller design for a UAV quadrotor. Scientific research and essays, 5(23), 3660-3667.
[26] Poksawat, P., & Wang, L. (2017, October). Automatic tuning of hexacopter attitude
control systems with experimental validation. In 2017 21st International Conference on
System
Theory, Control and Computing (ICSTCC) (pp. 753-758). IEEE
[27] Le, D. K., & Nam, T. K. (2015). A study on the modeling of a hexacopter.
Korean Marine Engineering Journal, 39(10), 1023-1030.
[28] Bose, S., Bagchi, A., & Dave, N. (2017). Hexacopter using MATLAB Simulink and
MPU
Sensing.
[29] Magnusson, T. (2014). Attitude control of a Hexarotor.
[30] Index of /Roboclub/Lectures, students.iitk.ac.in/roboclub/lectures [Accessed:
September
20, 2018].
[31] “How Does a PID Controller Work? - Structure & Tuning Methods.” ElProCus Electronic Projects for Engineering Students, 2 Oct. 2014, www.elprocus.com/the-workingofa-pid-controller/.
[32] Luukkonen, T. (2011). Modeling and control of quadcopter. Independent research
project
in applied mathematics, Espoo, 22.