WORLD HISTORY
PAMPHLET
WORLD HISTORY FROM 1870 TO PRESENT-BY: LIKOMENO SAMATALE KELVIN © 2021
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EUROPEAN HISTORY 1870 TO 1945
11.1. GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING
Q1. Locate on the map of Europe the major European Empires by 1870
11.2.1. BISMARCK AND THE UNIFICATION OF GERMANY, 1870
Q2. Describe the stages leading to the unification of Germany
Background till 1871, Germany was divided into 39 independent stages, having
nothing in common except the German Language. All these states were
members of the German Confederation, which was weak and disunited.
Between 1815 and 1848, Prince Metternich of Austria dominated the
Confederation.
After 1848, Prussia became the leading state, by uniting the confederation into
the economic union (Zollverein). Austria did not join this union, thereby, losing
the opportunity for German leadership. In 1862, Bismarck became Chancellor
of Prussia and by series of wars, unified Germany in 1871.
The first sage in the unification of Germany started in 1848 when every German
state revolved against their rulers, demanding democratic constitutions. The
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Frankfurt Constituent Assembly was formed, which suggested unifying
Germany as a Constitutional monarch, with the Prussian King being crowned
the Emperor Germany. The Prussian King declined this offer as he did not wish
his power to be limited by a constitution.
The second stage/phase began under Bismarck’s leadership and his militaristic
policy of ‘Blood and Iron’. He did not want Germany to be a democratic
country controlled by the revolutionaries. He wanted Germany, dominated by
the aristocracy and army under the leadership of the Prussian King.
The third and final stage began with series of wars (policy of ‘Blood and Iron’
against Austria, France and Denmark, by which Austria was removed from the
German Confederation, France and Denmark defeated and King William I of
Prussia was declared emperor of the united Germany in 1871.The following
were the three wars of unification:
a) The Danish War of 1864; The war aimed at liberating Holstein and Schleswig
from Denmark. In this war Denmark was defeated. After the war, Prussia got
Schleswig and Austria got Holstein.
b) The Austro-Prussian War 1866; The war lasted for seven weeks. Austria was
defeated at the battle of Sadowa and was forced to surrender Holstein and
the other 39 German states to Prussia.
c) The Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871; Excuse for war against France came
from the Spanish succession. The French were against the new successor
Prince Leopold from Prussia. Word was sent to Kaiser William I to withdraw
the candidature of the throne failure to which the French would declare
war on Prussia. William I sent an EMS telegram to Bismarck who changed the
wording of the telegram. This angered the French and declared war in
1870. The French were defeated and signed the humiliating treaty of
Frankfurt.
On 10th May 1871, the Treaty of Frankfurt was signed between France and
Germany
The terms of this treaty were that;
i.
ii.
France lost the two provinces of Alsace and Lorraine
France was to pay 200 million francs compensation to the Germans.
Q3. Explain Bismarck’s home and foreign policies
Bismarck was chancellor of Germany from 1870 to 1890. He exercised great
influence in both home and foreign policies of the empire. He worked under
two Emperor William I who died in 1855 and William II in 1888 - 1918
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THE GERMANY EMPIRE
While in power, Bismarck’s first task was to suppress the Liberals. He suspended the
liberals and other who opposed his ideas of unification from the civil service. He
also declared censorship of the newspapers and books. During this period 18711890, he dominated international politics.
BISMARCK’S HOME/DOMESTIC POLICIES.
Aims of Bismarck’s home or domestic policies were;
i.
He wanted to consolidate power to himself
ii.
He wanted to eliminate all opposition
iii. He wanted to ensure Germany unity
iv. He also wanted to achieve economic development for Germany.
Bismarck was the Chancellor of Germany from 1871 to 1890. During this period, he
faced a number of political problems especially from the Catholics and the
Socialists.
RESISTANCE FROM THE CATHOLICS.
The German Catholics did not like the command position of Prussia in the new
Empire. As such, the Catholic Church at Vatican refused to recognise the power
of the state over the members of the Catholic Church.
As such the Catholic Church in 1870 preached a dogma of Papal Infallibility,
which demanded that all loyal Catholics should obey the official statements of the
Pope without question.
In 1871, a Catholic Centre Party was formed and Bismarck was politically
threatened. As a result, Bismarck launched a direct attack on the Roman Catholic
Church by doing the following;
- Bismarck broke off all diplomatic relations with the Vatican In 1871
- In 1872, he introduced suppressive laws directed against the Catholics.
i.
Priests who preached politics were arrested and charged with the “misuse
of the pulpit”.
ii. Church controlled schools were brought under Government control.
iii. Religious societies such as the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) were expelled from
Germany while others were banned.
Bismarck also introduced the May Laws of 1873, 1874 and 1875. These laws;
i. Brought the training, appointment and the work of priests under
government control.
ii. The Catholics who disobeyed or opposed the Laws were imprisoned,
dismissed or exiled.
iii. Civil Marriages were also made legal, hence reducing the authority of the
Church over family matters.
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This campaign or struggle against the Church was referred to as Kulturkampf or
Struggle for Civilisation.
Bismarck negotiated the moderate Pope Leo IV and removed most of the antiCatholic laws.
1. Resistance from the Socialists
The socialist’s party also alarmed Bismarck. The socialists believed in the
teaching of Karl Marx who advocated for the overthrowing of the Capitalist
Governments and their replacement by Governments controlled by workers.
The social democratic party condemned militarism and demanded for the
creation of a socialist state were the government would won and control major
industries on behalf of the people. After 1875, the socialists became a threat to
national security. In 1876, there were two assassination attempts on the Kaiser.
Bismarck blamed the socialists and introduced Exceptional Laws to deal with
them. Under these laws:
 All socialists meetings and publications that supported socialism were
banned.
 The socialist party was also banned
 Under exceptional laws many people were imprisoned and exiled
2. Social Reforms
In order to deal further with the problem of socialism, Bismarck promoted social
reforms to benefit workers so as to prevent them from joining socialism. He
introduced insurance schemes against sickness, old age and accidents.
3. The presence of Racial Minorities
Bismarck thought that racial minorities were an obstacle to complete Germany
unity. There were a few million non German-speaking people e.g. Danes, and
French within the Germany Empire. Bismarck tried to solve this problem of
minority races by introducing the policy of PRUSSIANISATION (GERMANISATION).
This was done to ensure unity in Germany. Some of the features of
Prussianisation were:
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Introduction of a Prussian Code of Law
The Prussian Mark became the only currency
The education system was based on the Prussian Mark
Germany was introduced as the official language in order to assimilate the
minority groups.
The government also encouraged Germans to buy up properties from nonGermans
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4. Economic Problems
German industries also faced a lot of problems as a result of stiff competition
from outside’ to ensure economic and industrial development, Bismarck
introduced the Triple Law of 1879. This was done to protect the three main
industries i.e. the manufacturing, commercial and agriculture industries against
outside importations by introducing high tariffs. Bismarck wanted to make
Germany less dependent on imported goods and make Germany as selfsufficient as possible economically.
5. Nationalisation of the railway system
The railway system became state owned so that low transporting rates were
introduced to benefit the local industries. The government also subsided the
shipping lines to enable them compete with other countries such as Britain.
These measures led to the development of Germany industries.
BISMARCK’S FOREIGN POLICY
Aims of Bismarck’ foreign policy
 To preserve the Frankfurt Treaty that led to the creation of the German
Empire
 To maintain peace in Europe by a policy of German strength and
domination militarily and economically
 To isolate France because Bismarck feared that with the help of
another country, France would attack Germany and revenge to get
back the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine
 To dominate European diplomacy with the set up of governments in
Europe
To achieve his aims, Bismarck created a system of alliances which are as
follows:
Bismarck’s Alliances
a. The three Emperor’s League or the Dreikaiserbund Treaty of 1872
In 1872, Bismarck persuaded the Emperors of Russia (Tsar Alexander)
and Austria-Hungary (Frank Joseph) to sign a treaty of friendship and
understanding with the German Emperor Kaiser William I. This alliance
was called the Three Emperors’ League or the Dreikaiserbund Treaty.
The terms of the treat were:
 All agreed to isolate France
 Agreed to crush socialism and republicanism in the three
Empires
 Agreed to consult each other on international matters
especially over the Balkan states
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b. The Dual Alliance of 1879
The members of the alliance were Germany and Austria. This was a
military alliance signed between Austria – Hungary and Germany in
1879. This was after Russia and Austria-Hungary quarrel over the Balkan
States. Bismarck held a meeting in Berlin to discuss the matter. At this
meeting, Bismarck sided with Austria. This offended Russia. The terms of
this alliance were:
 To isolate France
 To assist each other if one of them was attacked by two or
more countries but to remain neutral if attacked by only one.
c. The Re-newed Dreikaiserbund of 1881
According to this treaty, membership and terms remained the same.
d. The Triple Alliance of 1882
The members of the Triple Alliance were Germany, Austria-Hungary
and Italy. The Alliance was signed in 1882. Italy formed this alliance
with Germany and Austria-Hungary after she was offended by the
French occupation of Tunisia, which Italy considered, as her territory.
Bismarck had diplomatically encouraged the French occupation of
Tunisia. The terms were:
 To isolate France.
 To assist each other if attacked by a fourth power
 Italy also pledged not to be involved in any war against Britain
e. The secret Re-insurance Treaty 1887
Bismarck was still determined to prevent an Alliance between France
and Russia. He also wanted to avoid fighting on two fronts in case of
an outbreak of war. As a result, Bismarck secretly approached Russia
to sign the re-insurance Treaty. The terms of the alliance were:
 Germany recognised the Russian influence in the Balkans
 Russia would remain neutral if France attacked Germany and
Germany would remain neutral if Russia was attacked by Austria.
The two would help each other if attacked by two or more
countries.
 The alliance was to be renewed after three years
11.2.2. THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE UP TO 1914
Q4. Analyse the factors that led to the decline of the Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire reached its peak of power in the time between the 16 th
and 17th centuries. However, towards the beginning of the 18th century, their
WORLD HISTORY FROM 1870 TO PRESENT-BY: LIKOMENO SAMATALE KELVIN © 2021
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power across Europe began to sharply decline. This can be attributed to a
number of various developments:
 Internal factors such as:
 The loss of power and authority of the Sultan The poor state of the Ottoman economy- the economy was dwindling
and she was also weakening politically because of corruption and
embezzlement, poor collection of the poll tax, high and unnecessary
government expenditure as well as retaining of some taxes collected
by vassal governors
 Lack of good political leadership-the oppression and harsh ways of
the Turkish Sultan especially towards the Orthodox Christian aroused
nationalism in the Balkan Region.

External factors such as:
 Fear of many European nations towards Ottoman- the attitude of
European powers towards the Ottoman Empire made it appear weak
and sick, hence crowned as ‘the Sickman of Europe’.
 Decline in the Ottoman’s military strength- Turkey’s political right or
power depended on her military strength; she had conquered Asia,
Africa, and even European territories by use of force.
 The rest of western world caught up to them- the different interests of
European countries made Turkey look sick, weak, confused and a
victim of circumstances beyond her control. The European powers
controlled major rivers, seas of the Empire and continued to play
diplomatic games that made Turkey not to appear the sole owner of
these waters.
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11.2.3. THE BRITISH POLICY OF SPLENDID ISOLATION.
Q5. Assess the advantages and disadvantages of the British policy of Splendid
Isolation
Definition of Splendid Isolation This refers to enjoying the good, wonderful or beautiful state of being
without much contact with other people.
 It refers to the enjoyment of a good state of being alone (to stay aloof).
 Therefore, in this policy Britain decided not to involve herself in European
affairs.
Why Britain followed the policy (Advantages)
Britain followed the policy of isolation because of a number of factors which
included;
 Geographical position: Britain is separated from continental Europe by the
English Channel, hence by nature she was isolated. However, with a strong and
reliable navy with which she could effectively defend herself and her colonial
possessions, she chose to be isolated.
 Overseas Expansion: British wanted to continue with her overseas expansion
without interruption. During this time, the British Empire comprised of ¼ of the
world population. Therefore Britain was preoccupied with her overseas
expansion as such she needed not to take part in European quarrels so she
isolated herself.
 Self sufficiency economically and militarily: Britain enjoyed her Naval,
commercial and industrial supremacy. London was the center of the world and
banking and half the merchant shipping of the world was British. Militarily,
Britain had the strongest Navy in the world. As a result of the industrial revolution
she started, she became the richest country in Europe and she did not need
any economic help from any country.
 The French Revolution: Britain also wanted to preserve her monarchy after the
French Revolution of 1879, which brought an end to the monarchy in France;
Britain wanted to avoid a similar revolution by isolating herself.
 Crimean War of 1854 – 1856: involved Russia and Turkey over the Balkan Region.
Britain fully supported Turkey. The bitter experiences of wars and misery caused
by the war forced the British politicians and the public to urge the British
government to limit Britain’s costly commitment abroad especially in Europe.
 Lord Salisbury’s Government (1895 -1902’s regime seemed to favour isolationists
stance thus Britain maintained it under his rule.
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Why the policy was abandoned (Disadvantages)
Britain had to abandon her policy of Splendid Isolation for a number of reasons:
 The system of Alliances: other European countries were busy making alliances
in case of war. This made Britain be aware that she would be on her own if war
broke out. Britain was especially threatened when her two enemies France and
Russia signed the Dual Entente in 1894.
 The provocative foreign policies of Kaiser William II: from 1890, when Kaiser
William II became the Germany Emperor, his foreign policies provoked Britain as
follows:
a. He started challenging the British Naval, colonial and industrial supremacy
e.g. in 1902, the British introduced an advanced battleship called the
DREADNOUGHT: this was the first of its kind in Naval history. It had heavier
guns and it was faster. However, in 1907, German started producing an
imitational Dreadnought called the U-BOAT. This was a direct provocation to
Britain.
b. The Germany Government also gave moral and material support to the
Boers during the 2nd Anglo-Boer War of 1899 to 1902.
 The 2nd Anglo-Boer War of 1899 to 1902; was also significant in the abandoning
of the policy of Splendid Isolation because it revealed the weakness of the
British Army. This is because the British suffered a series of defeats by the ill
equipped Boer Army and prolonged guerrilla warfare.
 Colonial Rivalries: Britain faced colonial rivalries in North Africa from France, in
south East Asia from Russia and in the Middle East from Germany because Kaiser
William II wanted to build a railway line from Berlin to Baghdad. In addition,
Germany also challenged Britain as world leading colonial power at the Berlin
Colonial Conference.
 The Armenian Massacre of 1895: the Armenian massacre inflicted by the Turks in
1896 also acted as an eye opener for the British. This involved the killing of about
6, 000 Armenian minorities in Turkey. This was a violation of international laws.
Gladstone, the then Prime minister led a campaign against the Turks and
approached the other countries to take action. However, other countries did
not respond. As such, the British also realised that it was dangerous to be
isolated and abandoned the policy.
How the policy was abandoned
Britain abandoned the policy of splendid isolation through the signing of various
alliances with other countries which included:
 The Anglo-Japanese Alliance – 1902: was the first step that Britain took towards
the abandoning of the policy. This was a treaty that was signed by Britain and
Japan. The terms were:
a. Japan agreed to protect British possession in South East Asia against
German and Russian imperialism.
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b. Britain and Japan also promised to assist each other if two or more countries
attacked one of them.
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The Anglo-French Entente Cordiale -1904: after being angered by Kaiser
William II’s encouragement of the Boers in the 2nd Anglo-Boer and the
suspicions of increased naval competition, Britain decided to become friends
with France. Britain began to settle her differences with France in Africa over
colonies. This resulted into the signing of the Anglo-French Entente Cordial
(friendly agreement) of 1904. The term were:
 Britain recognized the French occupation of morocco and in turn, France
recognized the British occupation of Egypt and Sudan
 Agreed to hold regular talks on economic and military issues
 They also agreed to assist each other against Germany aggression.

The Triple Entente – 1907: in 1907, Britain abandoned the policy of Splendid
Isolation when she signed the Triple-Entente. France wanted her two allies to
come close together, therefore, Britain and Russia settled their differences over
Prussia, Tibet and Afghanistan.
 The treaty was anti-Germany, it prevented Germany from penetrating the
Middle East
 It was a military alliance to support each other if attacked
 The members also pledged to work together to counteract the effects of
the Triple-Entente Alliance
Conclusion
The policy Britain used at that time can be likened to what is prevailing now in
what they are calling Brexit. They have realised economically that their currency is
advantaging other currencies in the European countries henceforth their plans to
withdraw from the union. Their Splendid Isolation of 1899 –1902 was based on
avoiding spending too much on procuring ammunition and the costs involved in
managing other colonies during the wars. The current one is based on
strengthening the British economy having realised that the pound is stronger.
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11.2.5. FRANCE, 1870 – 1914
Q8. Explain the efforts France made to regain her lost provinces of Alsace and
Lorraine to Germany.
Despite the economic depression that hit the Franco-Prussian war and the Paris
commune revolt, important development took place in the domestic history of
France which aimed at healing the wounds of the French economy by giving
aid to repair France for regaining of her lost provinces of Alsace and Lorraine.
In order to regain her lost provinces, the following reforms were made:
 Political Reforms: these were established in France and there was complete
freedom of press and public meetings. Workers were given liberty to form
trade unions which would fight for workers rights. This was a positive score by
government among the French masses as this made them to cooperate
with government in the struggle to regain their lost provinces of Alsace and
Lorraine from Germany.
 Education Reforms: free and compulsory elementary education was
established for all children between the age of six and thirteen. In addition,
all citizens were to get some form of education to help them in decision
making. It would also make them aware of the need to fight and gain their
lost provinces of Alsace and Lorraine.
 Health Reforms: the public health act was passed in order to regulate
female and child labour. It was also to enforce safety measures in mines,
factories and keep proper sanitary dwellings for workers.
 The period 1870-1914 generally contributed to great commercial and
industrial development in France. Industries such as Silk, Iron and Coal
improved tremendously. Further, these developments, commercial loans
were availed to mainly farmers and industrialists. All these development
increased the wealth of France to the extent that she became one of the
sources of loans to other countries. All these aimed at creating a powerful
French economy that would provide a strong base for creating a strong
modern and well trained army that would fight or the liberation of Alsace
and Lorraine.
 Transport and Communication Reforms: the French government developed
its infrastructure such as roads, railways, canals, harbours and steamships.
This would provide easy transportation of troops during the fight to regain
the lost provinces
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 Improvement of the strict new conscription laws as well as improved training
of the regular: a great and efficient army for France was created where all
young men of both rich and poor were to serve. This was meant to create a
strong, modern and well trained French Army that would fight for the
liberation of lost provinces.
11.2.6. CHINA, 1900 – 1914
Q9. Describe China’s political, economic and social development before the First
World War
 Political Developments
China is one of the countries with a very high population in the world. By
1900, China was under the leadership of the Qing family known as the
Manchu’s. During this period, China was heavily controlled by foreign
nations and this increased civil disorder in the country.
 The Boxer Rebellion
Soon broke out in 1900, this was a semi spiritual effort to rid China of
foreigners often by riding their heads of their bodies hundreds of
Christians missionaries and their Chinese convents were killed.
 The Koumintang Nationalist Party
The main hope for survival of the United China lay with the Koumintang
or National People’s Party formed in 1912 by Dr. Sun Yat-sen who was
dismayed by the disintegration of China and wanted to create a
modern, united, democratic state. He succeeded in setting up a
government at Canton in Southern China 1917. Sun gained respect as
an intellectual state man and revolutionary leader but when he died in
1925, little progress had been achieved.
 The Revolutionary Military uprising-the Wuchang
In 1911, the Wuchang Uprising brought down the Qing Dynasty, thus
bringing to an end the longest but brief presence of Sun Yat Sen and the
turbulent warlord era, both CCP, led by Mao Zedong.
 Economic Development
 Trade- China generally was a prosperous country boosting of her
economy both at home and abroad. She was already producing rice
and wheat which she exported to outside countries. Through trade China
received world trade crops which include: tobacco, peanuts, and sweet
potatoes. However China’s economy became affected due to absence
of usable land for expansion. This was attributed to the fast growing
population. In the early 1900, western powers such as USA, Britain,
German, France and Italy seriously competed for spheres of influence in
China.
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Natural disasters such as drought and famine also hit China during the
late 19th century. Floods resulting from over reclamation of wetlands, low
lands and even mountain slopes also affected the country. To worsen the
situation, a series of revolutions rocked China during 19th century for
instance Boxer revolution. All these disrupted China’s economy.
Generally before the outbreak of the World War One, China’s economic
development was at a very low pace mainly because this was a period
of internal instabilities and foreign aggression.
Social Development
 Religious struggle- China was characterised by religious struggles.
Buddhism already existed in China. Other missionaries also entered
China. Both Protestants and Catholics had preached the gospel and
had won some followers for Christ.
 Anti-Foreign Movement- The popular anti-foreign movement and the
Boxer uprising allied at Manchu Court in Beijing and ordered for killing of
foreigners. During the Boxer rebellion, both European missionaries and
converts were killed. Despite this massive killing, it was a blessing and
gave the Christian Missions in China a TRULY ‘Golden Age’ since
Christianity spread at a high rate. Mission schools gained prestige and a
good number of elites converted to Christianity for instance, the
provisional president of the young Republic, Sun Yat-sen was baptised as
a Christian. The loss of lives clearly depicted the suffering of Christ
according to Hudson Taylor the founder of China Inland Mission (CIM).
The trends of events were moving towards Christianisation of China.
 Foot binding of young girls and women (limiting women mobility and
increasing subjugation to their husband- though it lasted for so long, it
started collapsing by the first half of twentieth century. In fact by 1908,
the majority of the Chinese elite had spoken out against foot binding and
in 1912, the practice was prohibited although this was not completely
effected in remote areas.
 The cult of widows- during the Qing period he had gained strength
especially in the educated class. Childless widows even committed
suicide. Young women whose weddings had not yet taken place
sometime refused to enter into another engagement after the death of
the fiancé instead moved to their fiancé home to serve his parents as
daughter in-law. In Confucian time, women held inferior position than
men. Even in the field of education, women were forbidden to attend
school or even writing Chinese even after 20th century. Formal education
was denied to most women. However, after the revolution of 1912,
women in urban areas began accessing education opportunities. Most
women were employed as nurses, clerical workers, teachers and sales
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
women. However, despite all this, most women were discriminated in the
work force between 1900 and 1914.
Abolishing of national and provincial assemblies- power shifted from Sun
Yat-Sen to Yuan Shikai who commanded the new army. He turned out to
be a dictator and abolished the assemblies. He further declared himself
Emperor in 1915. His subordinates were alarmed at the rate he was
carrying on his imperial ambitions and checked his dictatorship by
fiercely opposing his harsh imperial designs. In March 1916, he abdicated
and died after sensing characteristics that would lead to a rebellion. His
death left a power vacuum in China which left China to be ruled by
shifting coalitions of competing provincial military leaders. However, due
to power struggles, this ushered in the Warlord Era in China which
continued up t the end of the war and even after.
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11.2.7. JAPAN, 1900 – 1914
Q10. Describe Japan’s political, economic and social development before the First
World War
Japan is one of the few powers that currently determine the fate of the world.
The period 1900 – 1914 was historically a period of the outbreak of World War I.
During this era Japan registered political, economic and social developments.
 Political developments
Japan was under the Merji from 1900 up to 1912. In 1901, the Merji
government appointed General Taroka Tsura as prime minister. Japan
attacked Russia in 1904 resulting into the Russso-Japanese war over control
of Korea, Machuria and China. Japan destroyed Russian fleet. Japan and
Russia signed the treaty of Portsmouth in which Russia recognised Japan
protectorate over Korea.
 Economic developments
By 1900, the population f Japan was very small, about 44 million and Japan
was mostly a fishing and farming society. In 1903, taxes were imposed and
were supervised by the prefectural police. This became the rich source of
local income. Further, economic expansion was made by Japan in 1904 as
she started exporting cotton clothes, watches, perfume, ceramics, eye
glasses, and buttons to Korea. She also imported Korean foodstuffs and
other raw materials from Korea.
 Social developments
Japan’s cardinal goal before World War One was to ensure the country was
military powerful and wealth so that her independence is not threatened.
Notable social developments took place beginning with the Merji era and
these include:
 Education developments- The Japanese leaders established a new
system of education which was western based. Education was made
free as it was perceived as first capital for self reliance and improvement.
The Tokyo University was created and other private universities such as
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Shigenobu Okuma’s Waseda Fukuzawu’s Keio among others were also
built and so many foreign teachers were employed.
Infrastructure developments- The government built new roads and
renovated those in poor state. There was also inauguration of land reform
program to prepare the country for further developments.
Private enterprise- the government emerged as the chief promoter of
private enterprise, thus it provided economic conditions in which business
would flourish
Hair style- for men, short cut hair replaced the top knot while for women,
shaving eye brows and blackened teeth began to disappear and to look
outdated.
Housing style- also developed. Western style like stone building concrete
and brick buildings were all built in China e.g. the Bank of Japan, Tokyo
Central Station. Gas lighting and electricity were already in Japan’s
capital Tokyo to resemble that of Britain’s London, France’s Paris or even
USA’s New York before the World War I.
Eating habits- were also imported to Japan, though not widespread.
Sugar, soya sauce, tea, fruit and polished Rice were seriously in
consumption, meat along with beer was encouraged. There was serious
influx of Western fashions of all sorts. In addition, there was increased
social mobility
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11.2.8. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 1900 – 1914
Q11. Briefly explain America’s non-involvement in the alliance systems of Europe
before 1917,
America was not at any time involved in the alliance system of European
power’s because of the following reasons:
 She was not a European power so did not involve herself in the affairs of
another continent which would raise many questions and she would be
looked at with suspicion by other powers in the world.
 America was one of the leading powers in trade and commerce across the
world. She therefore, she needed to be on good terms with all countries
especially where she carried out her trade. The fact that America traded
with almost all European powers could not ally with some of them as this
would make members of the rival camp enemies and would affect trade
with them.
 America never wanted to reveal her secret to other powers especially those
from Europe which seemed good competitors.
 She also wanted to maintain her fame and prestige across the world.
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11.3. RIVALRY AMONG MAJOR WORLD KINGDOMS AND NATIONS
11.3.1 THE EUROPEAN ALLIANCE SYSTEMS
Q12. Describe the alliance systems that European states entered into before 1914

The three Emperor’s League or the Dreikaiserbund Treaty of 1872
In 1872, Bismarck persuaded the Emperors of Russia (Tsar Alexander) and
Austria-Hungary (Franz Joseph) to sign a treaty of friendship and
understanding with the German Emperor Kaiser William I. This alliance was
called the Three Emperors’ League or the Dreikaiserbund Treaty. The terms
of the treat were:
 All agreed to isolate France
 Agreed to crush socialism and republicanism in the three Empires
 Agreed to consult each other on international matters especially over
the Balkan states.
 The Dual Alliance of 1879
The members of the alliance were Germany and Austria. This was a secret
alliance signed between Austria – Hungary and Germany 1879. This was
after Russia and Austria-Hungary quarrel over the Balkan States. Bismarck
held a meeting in Berlin to discuss the matter. At this meeting, Bismarck sided
with Austria. This offended Russia. The terms of this alliance were:
 To isolate France
 To assist each other if one of them was attacked by two or more
countries but to remain neutral if attacked by only one.
 In 1881 and 1884, the Dreikaiserbund was renewed under the same terms of
1872 with the same members.
 The Triple Alliance of 1882
The members of the Triple Alliance were German, Austria-Hungary and Italy.
The Alliance was signed in 1882. Italy formed this alliance with Germany and
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Austria-Hungary after she was offended by the French occupation of Tunisia,
which Italy considered, as her territory. Bismarck had diplomatically
encouraged the French occupation of Tunisia. The terms were:

To isolate France. This Alliance depended the isolation of France

To assist each other if attacked by a fourth power

Italy also pledged not to be involved in any war against British
Bismarck was still determined to prevent an Alliance between France and Russia.
He also wanted to avoid fighting on two fronts in case of an outbreak of war.
Therefore, after the end of Dreikaiserbund Treaty, Bismarck indicated that Russia
could easily join France to attack Germany. As a result, Bismarck secretly
approached Russia to sign the re-insurance Treaty 1887 to reassure Germany
against an attack from France. The terms of the alliance were:

Germany recognised the Russian influence in the Balkans

Russia would remain neutral if France attacked Germany and Germany
would remain neutral if Russia was attacked by Austria. The two would
help each other if attacked by two or more countries

Agreed to isolate France

The alliance was to be renewed after three years
Other Alliances Signed includes that following;
Britain abandoned the policy of splendid isolation through the signing of various
alliances with other countries which included:
 The Anglo-Japanese Alliance–1902: was the first step that Britain too towards
the abandoning of the policy. This was a treaty that was signed by Britain and
Japan. The terms were:
c. Japan agreed to protect British possession in South East Asia against
German and Russian imperialism
d. Britain and Japan also promised to assist each other if two or more countries
attacked one of them.
 The Anglo-French Entente Cordiale -1904: after being angered by Kaiser
William II encouragement of the Boers in the 2nd Anglo-Boer and the suspicions
of increased naval competition Germany, Britain decided to become friends
with France. Britain began to settle her differences with France in Africa over
colonies. This resulted into the signing of the Anglo-French Entente Cordial
(friendly agreement) of 1904. The term were:
a.
Britain recognized the French occupation of morocco and in turn,
France recognised the British occupation of Egypt and Sudan
b.
Agreed to hold regular on economic and military issues
c.
They also agreed to assist each other against German aggression.
 The Triple Entente – 1907: in 1907, Britain abandoned the policy of Splendid
Isolation when she signed the Triple-Entente. France wanted her two allies to
come close together, therefore, Britain and Russia settled their differences over
Prussia, Tibet and Afghanistan.
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


The treaty was anti-Germany, it prevented Germany from penetrating the
Middle East
It was a military alliance to support each other if attacked
The members also pledged to work together to counteract the effects of
the Triple-Entente Alliance.
11.3.2 EUROPEAN SCRAMBLE FOR AND PARTITION OF AFRICA
Q13. State and analyse the reasons for the European scramble for and partition of Africa
MAP OF AFRICA SHOWING THE EUROPEAN EMPIRES IN AFRICA IN 1914
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Imperialism
Scramble for Africa and Imperialism definitions: The Scramble for Africa also known as the Race for Africa or Partition for Africa
was a process of invasion, occupation, colonization and annexation of African
territories by European powers during the new imperialism period, between
1881 and World War I in 1914.
 Imperialism was the extension of European economic, social and political
influences in underdeveloped areas of Africa and Asia to benefit European
countries. This was usually done through the acquisition of territories by major
European countries such as Britain, France and Germany. This new Imperialism
took place in the second half of the 29th century. Imperialism started in the 16th
century. However, between 1870 and 1914, European countries acquired
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colonies especially in Africa. This was what was referred to as the ‘scramble for
Africa’.
The Berlin Conference 1884 – 1885
The Berlin Conference was also part of Bismarck’s Foreign policy. Until the 1880s,
Bismarck was not interested in acquiring colonies for Germany. He regarded
Germany as a European Power which did not need any territories outside Europe.
He believed that Germany could be expanded within Europe. In addition,
Bismarck wanted to control European Diplomacy and prevent quarrels over
colonies in Africa to disturb the peace in Europe if war broke out
However, some sectors of the German population felt that Germany was being
left out in the colonial scramble to her disadvantage. The industrialists especially
begun to persuade Bismarck to revise his colonial policy.
To avoid war among European countries, especially Britain, Bismarck organised
and chaired the Berlin Colonial Conference 1884-1885 in Berlin. The conference
was held in order to divide the African continent among European countries
peacefully. This division of the African continent was referred to as the ‘partition of
Africa’. The result of thus Berlin Conference was:
Africa was partitioned among European countries
Europeans countries agreed to settle all border disputes between the
countries involved
There was to be effective occupation of the colonies acquired
All European countries accepted the freedom of trade on all the major
rivers and water ways
Areas already proclaimed as protectorates before 1884 were accepted
and recognized
The European countries to sign treaties with African Chiefs
The Congo free state to be given to King Leopold of Belgium
Germany also acquired South West Africa (Namibia), Togo, Cameroon and
in 1890, Tanganyika or Germany East Africa.








THE FALL OF BISMARCK
Kaiser William I who had supported Bismarck’s policies died in 1888, he was
succeeded by Fredrick. Fredrick hated Bismarck because he wanted a more
Liberal and democratic government. Fredrick died from cancer three months after
ascending to the throne.
A 28 year old Kaiser William II succeeded him. By 1890, the young Kaiser differed
with Bismarck over the following which forced him to resign.
i.
Bismarck wanted to make anti-socialist laws permanent while Kaizer
William II wanted to be friends with the socialists
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ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
Abroad, Bismarck wanted to negotiate an extension and renewal of
the Re-insurance treaty and maintain both Russia and Austria-Hungary
as friends. However, Kaizer William II was not interested in having Russia
as a friend. He wanted to treaty Austria-Hungary as a friend and not
Russia.
Kaizer William II wanted to expand the navy and colonial conquest,
Bismarck did not want to disturb Britain by embarking on a large scale
navy and colonial policy
The Kaizer was 28 years while Bismarck was 73 years old, so he thought
Bismarck was old fashioned
The Kaizer was very inexperienced in matters of running the
government
The Kaizer wanted to make the business of alliances open unlike
Bismarck who had made it a secret
They differed on ideologies.
Bismarck had high temper
Kaizer William II believed in domination of the world while Bismarck
wanted to dominate in Europe.
As a result of these differences, in 1890 Bismarck was forced to resign after being
at the centre of Germany and European diplomacy for more than 20 years. This
marked the fall of Otto Von Bismarck who later died on 30th July 1898.
Reasons for the Scramble for Africa
a. Economic Reasons-economically the 19th century saw the apex of industrial
revolution in Europe. The need for raw materials and the industrial revolution
created a stiff competition and made the European countries to think of an
alternative of rushing to Africa in order to get raw materials. In addition, the
replacement of labour with machines caused unemployment and resulted
into a social crisis.
b. Political Reasons- the other factor was nationalism and prestige. It is urged
that growing love for one’s country and a sense of belonging greatly
contributed to the scramble for Africa. Europe believed that the more
colonies a country had the more power it was considered to be. Besides
that, the greatness of any country was to be reflected in the economic
potential of the acquisition of colonies in Africa.
c. Social Reasons- the need to spread western culture; socially, the European
powers wanted to spread western culture and education.
d. Strategic Reasons- according to historians such as Professor Robinson and
Gallagher, the scramble for Africa did not take place because of mere
economic reasons but because of the British occupation of Egypt in 1882.
They argued that British occupied Egypt because of her strategic location
thus surrounded by the Red and Mediterranean Sea, access to River Nile
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(longest river in Africa) and an opening to the Suez Canal as short cut to
India where Britain had a lot of economic interests. It was still against this
background that British wanted to occupy Uganda in order to safeguard
their positions in Egypt for fear that if hostile powers did so would divert the
Nile River and make Egypt a desert.
e. Humanitarian reasons- the spreading of Christianity in Africa was a mere
disguise for promoting European economic interests. Britain only wanted to
abolish slave trade in order to protect their commercial interests.
Reasons for the low demand of African Colonies before 1870
i. Africa had no economic incentives for European countries. Most European
countries saw the acquisition of African countries as an expensive venture
because they had little knowledge about the existence of abundant
resources hence had no economic interest.
ii. Europeans had no knowledge of the African continent; they considered it as
a ‘Dark Continent’.
iii. Lack of a reliable means of transport also acted as an obstacle to
Europeans to come to Africa hence prevented penetration of the African
interior.
iv. Thick forests and bad climatic conditions also led to the low demand for
African colonies. Areas such as Niger, Congo and Zambezi were hot with
jungles and thick forests. This hindered early colonialists from acquiring
colonies in Africa.
v. Tropical diseases such as malaria, bilharzias, sleeping sickness prevented
colonialists from coming to Africa before medicines were discovered.
vi. Un-navigable rivers were also another obstacle to European acquisition of
territories. Swamps, rapids and waterfalls made most rives of African not to
be navigable. This made them believe that it is impossible to penetrate the
interior using boats.
vii. Hostile tribes: some tribes could not welcome them while others had a
reputation of being cannibals.
viii. Wild beasts such as dangerous snakes, lions, biting insects such as
mosquitoes in the jungles of tropical Africa were also a threat to them.
ix. Geographical barriers such as mountains and deserts further hindered the
colonization of Africa before 1870
Factors that facilitated the Scramble for Africa after 1870
i. Explores; through the works of explores such as David Livingstone explored
most of central Africa and De-Brazza who explored the Congo basin,
Europe became knowledgeable about African Continent.
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ii. The knowledge of transport such as the Steamship was another factor that
contributed to the Scramble for AFRICA.
iii. The discovery of medicines such as quinine to cure tropical diseases also
made it easier for Europeans to colonise Africa
iv. Men of enterprise such as Cecil Rhodes and his BSA Company also
facilitated the Scramble for Africa.
v. The discovery of modern weapons such as the Maxim gun also made it
easier to colonise Africa because resistant African Chiefs could easily
defeated.
Examples of Imperialism north of the Equator
 The occupation of Egypt – 1882
This caused conflict between France and Britain. The French were the first to
have interest in Egypt. The Suez Canal was designed by a Frenchman called
Ferdinand De Lesseps and the French government financed the building of
the Suez Canal. It was completed and opened in 1869. The Egyptian ruler
Khedile Ishmael acquired half of the shares while the French got the other
half.
However, in 1875 Khedile Ishmael went bankrupt and decided to sell 50% of
the shares to France. France hesitated and Khedive Ishmael approached
Britain. Disraeli, the British Prime Minister at that time quickly bought the
shares. The British therefore controlled part of Egypt and this created enmity
between Britain and France.
When Khedive Ishmael died, his son Khedive Tawfig became the ruler. Arabi
Pasha rebelled against him to gain his independence. Twafig asked for help
from the French colonialists but France hesitated again because they did
not want to be drawn into another war after the Franco-Prussian War 0f
1870-71. Tawfig was forced to ask for help from the British. Arabi Pasha was
defeated and Britain occupied Egypt. The French fleet was ordered to
leave Egypt. This worsened the enmity between Britain and France.
 The occupation of Sudan – 1898 (Fashoda Incidence)
The British occupation of Sudan in 1885 is also referred to as the Fashoda
Incidence. A religious fanatic called Mahdi attacked the British leading to
the killing of the British leader, General Gordon. This left the British with the
spirit of revenge.
The task of re-occupying Sudan was given to Lord Kitchener, who was given
2000 soldiers and 5 gunboats to be used on the Nile River. He was also given
instructions to lay down a railway line from Egypt to Sudan. The British were
interested in a place called Fashoda which was a fort on the upper Nile.
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The French also sent Captain Merchand over to Fashoda to occupy Sudan.
Britain claimed Sudan by right of conquest and did not want any other
country to occupy any part of the Nile valley. Britain’s other aim was to
occupy all the land from the Cape in South Africa to Cairo in Egypt.
The French also wanted to claim Fashoda because she wanted a line of
colonies from West Africa to the Gulf of Aden on the East Coast. So Fashoda
was important to both countries. Captain Merchand reached Fashoda first
and hoisted the French flag. It took Lord Kitchener some years to reach
Fashoda as he had to defeat a force of Dervishes at Omdurman and
revenged for General Gordon’s death.
The two military leaders met at Fashoda and almost fought though the
French soldiers were outnumbered and had inferior weapons. This incident
was referred to as the Fashoda Incidence of 1898.
 The occupation of Morocco – 1905 – 1906
The French occupation of Morocco created tension between France and
Britain on one hand and Germany on the other. Kaizer William II wanted to
test the strength of the friendship between Britain and France after signing
the Entente Cordiale of 1904. Kaizer William II chose Morocco as its venue.
Though Morocco was under the control of the Sultan, France was in the
process of coloniising it. Kaizer William II protested against this and declared
sovereignty of Morocco. He also pledged to support the Sultan’s rule in case
of an attack by any foreign power.
Kaizer William II also called for an international conference to discuss the
future of Morocco. The meeting was held at Algeciras in Spain in 1906. 12
nations attended and the majority supported the French occupation of
Morocco and Britain led this support. Germany suffered a moral defeat and
the conference proved the strength of the Entente Cordiale. This created
tension between the two camps in Europe.
Examples of Imperialism south of the Equator
 The First Anglo-Boer War of 1889-1881
This was a war for independence for the Boers.

The second Anglo-Boer war 1899-1902
This was a political struggle between the British and the Boers. The Brits were
determined to create their Cape to Cairo dearth while the Boers were
equally determined to maintain their independence and their own
imperialist ambitions.
Importance/significance/consequences of the Scramble
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a. The scramble for Africa brought Europeans into the interior of Africa with
their traditions, economics, political and religious beliefs.
b. It exposed Africa to an exploitative economy, Africa produced goods that
she could not consume and consumed what she could not produce.
c. It led to the destruction of African traditional subsistence economy. This led
to hunger and starvation in most African society.
d. It led to a disintegration of the pre-existing strong and isolated African State
e.g Buganda, Asante, Dahomey etc.
e. It led to the decline of African culture. This was due to the introduction of
Western Culture through Western Education.
f. Introduction of Christianity
g. Importation of European goods
h. It led to the creation of new boundaries in Africa and divisional of some
African communities into different states.
i. It led to the improvements of the means of transport and communication
system and this facilitated the exploitation of African economies and
administration of the colonies.
j. It led to the depopulation of Africa; this was due to the African resistance
against the colonial domination.
k. It led to a creation of new states in Africa
l. It paved a way to neo-colonialism and contributed to further exploitation of
the African Continent after independence African states have maintained
close relations with their former colonial masters.
END OF TOPIC QUESTIONS
1. Study the map below and answer the questions that follow.
a. What two African sovereignties south of the equator once colonized
by Portugal.
b. Name the imperial incident that occurred in area marked L in 1898.
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c. State the two European nations that were involved in the incident you
mentioned in ii above.
d. Before 1870, European Powers were not interested in African colonies.
Give one reason for the low demand for colonies before 1870.
e. Which British man dreamed to build a rail line from Cape to Cairo?
f. Mention the two territories on the map that were never colonized.
g. State one reason why European Powers rushed to Africa after 1870?
1.3.3 FIRST WORLD WAR
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Q14. Explain the causes of the
First World War
The First World War began
on 28th July 1914, when
Austria declared war on
Serbia,
and
Serbia
appealed to Russia for
help, setting in motion a
series of events which
culminated
in
what
became the First World
War.
Causes of the First World War
Main events that led to the outbreak of the First World War.
1. The First Moroccan Crisis
Morocco was the object of rival ambitions between Germany and France
because of its strategic position which Britain recognized French rights over
Morocco and rich iron ore deposits. The 1904 Entente Cordiale, in which
Britain recognized the French rights over Morocco, was tested by Germany
at Tangier Port in Morocco in 1905. Kaizer William II landed at Tangier in 1905
where he delivered an angry speech and assured Sultan of Morocco
Germany support in maintaining independence.
This was a public challenge to France but she could not go to war because
her ally Russia was weak after her defeat by Japan in 1905. She could not
depend on Britain because they had no claim for military support.
Germany also demanded for an international conference to discuss
Morocco’s future. A conference was held at Algeciras in Spain in 1906. The
British believed that if the Germans had their way it would be an
acknowledgement of Germany’s diplomatic domination.
To the amazement of Germany, the majority of the countries at the
conference supported the French demand to control Morocco. This
showed Germany that the friendship between Britain and France was
strong and that if war broke out it was clear that the two would help each
other. This created tension that led to the outbreak of the war.
2. The Bosnian Crisis 1908
The Austrians took advantage of the revolution in Turkey and annexed the
Turkish province of Bosnia. This heightened tension in Europe. Austria
annexed Bosnia in order to block the neighboring states of Serbia which
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had been hoping to acquire Bosnia since it had about 3 million Serbs
among its population. The Serbs appealed to their fellow Slavs, the Russians.
3. The second Moroccan Crisis (Agadir Incident) 1911
This was a further development in the Moroccan situation. As already
mentioned, in 1906 a conference was called in order to resolve the
Moroccan Crisis. It was held in Spain in a town called Algeciras. 12
European countries attended. Britain, Spain and Russia supported France
while Austria-Hungary supported Germany.
In 1911, there was a dispute between Germany and France over Morocco.
French troops occupied Fez, the Moroccan capital in an attempt to put
down a rebellion against the Sultan of Morocco whose appointment had
been influenced by the French.
Germany sent a war ship called the Panther to a seaport called Agadir.
Kaizer William II was also aboard. This annoyed the French and as for Britain,
she was worried in case Germany acquired a possible naval base in
Morocco which was a threat to the British trade routes.
In order to strengthen France’s resistance, David Lloyd George (British Prime
Minister) in his speech warned Germany that Britain would not stand by and
be taken advantage of especially where her interests and those of her allies
were concerned. She pledged to support France militarily. Therefore the
French stood firm and was not ready to give in to the demands of
Germany.
Kaizer William II eventually withdrew the Panther from Agadir. The Germans
agreed to recognize the French occupation of Morocco in exchange for
the part of the French Congo. This was seen as a triumph for the Entente
powers. This incident created world tension that contributed to the First
World War.
4. The First Balkan Crisis/War 1912-13
The First Balkan War broke out in October 1912 when Serbia, Greece,
Bulgaria and Montenegro (calling themselves, Balkan League of Christians)
attacked Turkey in order to destroy the Turkish/Ottoman Empire and share
the states the empire controlled. This was as a result of Turkey’s refusal to
grant good conditions to Christians in Macedonia as demanded by the
Balkan League of Christians. Turkey was defeated. Germany and Britain
organized a peace conference in London.
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The resulting settlement apportioned the former Turkish lands among the
members of the Balkan League of Christians. However, Serbia was not
happy with what was given to her. She wanted Albania which would have
given her an outlet to the sea. But Austria and Germany insisted that
Albania had to be independent. This was a deliberate move by Austria to
prevent Serbia from becoming too powerful. Turkey was expelled from
Europe but allowed to keep Constantinople.
5. The Second Balkan War 1913
The London Conference did not solve the Balkan problem. Serbia wanted
Albania which was declared independent. Greece wanted compensation
by getting Macedonia but Bulgaria regarded Macedonia as her property
so she rejected the request. Serbia supported sharing of Macedonia.
The Second Balkan War broke out in 1913 when Bulgaria was also
dissatisfied with what they got after the first Balkan war. She hoped to get
Macedonia which controlled an important sea port of Seronoka.
Bulgaria therefore attached Serbia starting the second Balkan war. The
Bulgarian plan backfired badly when Greece, Romania and Turkey
supported Serbia. The Bulgarians were defeated badly and by the Treaty of
Bucharest, Bulgaria forfeited most of her gains from the first Balkan war.
However, Serbia became more powerful and this threatened Austria. The
increasing Anglo-German influences in the Balkan created a lot Ottoman
Empire of the Ottoman Turks of international tension.
Terms of the treaty of Bucharest
- Serbia, Greece and Romania shared Macedonia
- Turkey was allowed to recover Adrianople
- Albania remained independent
General causes of the First World War
The causes of World War I could be divided into two forms: the long term and
short term:
Long Term Causes include:
a. Nationalism
This is the desire or feeling by a group of people of common customs,
language and culture to come together and live as an independent entity.
Nationalism in colonized countries was characterized by uniting small
independent states linked by language. The unification of Germany for
example, brought a great enmity between her and France. Nationalism
also made smaller states larger and stronger. This was the case after the
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unification of Germany which contributed to the outbreak of the First World
War. Nationalism also made the Balkan states especially Serbia and the 3
million Serbs in Bosnia and the murder at Sarajevo.
b. Imperialism
This is the economic control of one country by another. During the second
half of the 19th century, imperialism led to colonial rivalry among European
powers. Colonies were a symbol of power and prestige. Imperialism worked
in under developed Africa and Asia where European powers shared and
controlled areas for economic, social and political reasons. As a result of the
Industrial Revolution, European countries needed raw materials and
markets. This led to the First World War because during the process of
acquiring colonies, European powers clashed over colonies. For example,
Germany clashed with France over Morocco. Such tensions increased the
chances of war in Europe.
c. The Alliance system
Alliances were begun by Otto von Bismarck in 1872. The reaction of other
powers to these alliances was that they became suspicious and threatened.
They also started forming their own alliances. For example Britain
abandoned her policy of Splendid Isolation and started signing alliances.
Due to alliances, Europe had divided itself into two camps. The signing of
the Triple Alliance comprised of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy and the
Triple Entente of Britain, France and Russia led to suspicions one against the
other. The alliance system made weaker nations have courage of provoking
stronger nations hoping to be supported by other members. By 1907, the
two armed rival campus became suspicious of each other and threatened
world peace as they were bound to clash. This atmosphere created
chances of war.
d. The Arms Race/military rivalries
At a conference held at the Dutch capital Hague in 1899, 25 European
states that attended the meeting proposed that each country should agree
not to increase armament above the existing levels. However, the countries
which attended the meeting did not trust each other and the proposals
failed.
The countries started stockpiling weapons and ammunition in readiness for
war. Each country increased military hardware and soldiers through
conscription.
e. Naval Race
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Britain and Germany were involved in naval race. Britain made battleships
known as Dreadnoughts which had advantages over the other
conventional ships:
Had guns on rotating turrets
Had ability to fire in any direction
Had ability to fire over a distance of 9 km
Had thick armour plating
Germany on the other hand made imitation battleships known as U-boats
(Unt see Boten). This meant that Britain’s naval supremacy was challenged
by Germany. By 1914 all European countries were completely armed and
looked for an opportunity to start fighting.
f. International Anarchy
This also caused the First World War because there was no international
organisation to which countries would refer their disputes. As a result, some
small countries were at the mercy of bigger countries.
g. Newspaper press/PropagandaThis was another cause of the First World War because of the role it played.
The newspaper press poisoned the public minds through propaganda
messages that were published in all countries. This contributed to world
tension.
Short term causes
The following are the short term/immediate causes of the First World War.
a. The Sarajevo Incidence (The Murder at Sarajevo)
This was the assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand at Sarajevo on
the 28th June, 1914. This was the event that sparked off the First World War.
Archduke Franz Ferdinand was the heir to the Austrian throne. Franz
Ferdinand and his wife Sophie, was paying an official visit to the newly
acquired Austrian Territory of Bosnia. When he reached Sarajevo, the capital
of Bosnia, he and his wife Sophie were shot dead by a Serbian Nationalist by
the name of Gavrilo Princip who was a member of the Black Hand
Organisation. The Black Hand Organisation was one of the many secret
societies which were organised in Serbia whose members were dedicated
to overthrowing Austria from the Balkan Region.
The Austrian Government blamed the Serbian Government for the murder
and on 23rd July 1914, Austria handed Serbia a 48 hour ultimatum. The
following were the conditions.
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1. The Serbian Government was supposed to disband all secret societies
that were against Austria.
2. All Serbian Government officials that were anti-Austrian were to be fired.
3. The Austrian police were to be allowed into Serbia to look for the
murderers of the Archduke.
Serbia accepted the first two of the demands but rejected the third, which
required Austrian police to go into Serbia to investigate the assassination.
As such, Austria concluded that Serbia had refused and declared War on
Serbia on 28th July, 1914. This marked the beginning of the First World War.
Russia started mobilizing to assist Serbia. Germany asked Russia to
demobilize but this was ignored. On 1st August, 1914 Germany, Austria’s ally
declared war on Russia.
On 3rd August 1914, France declared war on Germany. On 4th August 1914,
Britain declared war on Germany because of violating the Belgium
neutrality according to the London Treaty of 1839.
THE SCHLIFFEN PLAN.
The Schlieffen plan was the
basis of the German war plan.
Ever since the formation of the
Dual Entente of Russia and
France of 1893, German
politicians had been worried
on how to fight a war on two
fronts (western front against
France and the eastern front
against Russia).
This was why the Chief of the
German General of Staff,
Alfred Von Schlieffen, devised
a plan in 1905 named the
Schlieffen Plan, which planned
attacking France first through
Belgium and then capture Paris within six weeks before turning to the east to
attack the slow moving Russians.
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Why attacking France through Belgium?
i. The Franco-German Border was hilly and mountainous
ii. The Franco-German Border was
heavily guarded.
iii. Belgium was neutral state
iv. French-Belgium border was flat
and fast to reach France
Stages of the Plan
- A wheeling movement across
Belgium by armies of the right
wing and then capture the
channel ports.
- Move south wards and capture
Paris, from the West.
- Push
the
French
soldiers’
eastwards towards Alsace and
Lorraine in order to surround
them and force them to surrender.
Failure of the Schlieffen Plan.
- Britain declared war on Germany on 4th August 1914 in order to defend
Belgium’s neutrality agreed upon by the Great powers in the Treaty of
London in 1839. Germanys
attack on Belgium was violation
of this treaty. Within days the
British expeditionary force was in
Belgium to fight against the
German army. This delayed the
Germany advance and gave
the French more time to prepare
- Russia mobilized quickly than the
Germans
had
expected.
Germany was forced to transfer
some troops from the western
Front to the eastern front before defeating France. This weakened the
Germany armies on the western front and they failed to defeat France
- Germany fought the war on two fronts
- The changing of the Schlieffen plan by General Von Kluck (Commander of
the Germany armies in France). He gave up the idea of going round Paris
and advanced towards the south. This left Paris and the sea ports along the
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-
northern coast of France free from attacks. This enabled France to continue
the war and British reinforcements to get to France through the northern
Belgian troops fought bravely and delayed the advance of Germany army
Distance from Berlin, the capital of Germany made it difficult to supply
equipment and food to German armies in France
The two blocks during the First World War
The Allies or Entente Powers:
- Britain and her empire (including troops from Australia, Canada, India and
New Zealand)
- France
- Russia (left December 1917)
- Italy (entered May 1915)
- Serbia
- Belgium
- Romania (entered August 1916)
- USA (entered April 1917)
- Japan
The Central Powers:
- Germany
- Austria–Hungary
- Turkey (entered November 1914)
- Bulgaria (entered October 1915)
Reasons why Germans scored early successes.
1.
Geographical Position. Germany was situated at the centre of the war
zone and this enabled her to reinforce and transport her troops to the two
battle fronts (east and west) at a much faster rate than the opponents.
2.
The armies of the Central Powers (Germany with Austria -Hungary) fell
under one command. This was an advantage over the Allied Powers
(France, Britain, Russia and later Italy and the USA who entered the war as
individual countries).
3.
Germany had the best trained army on the European continent. Her troops
used advanced weapons e.g. artillery, launcher, machine guns etc.
Germany also devised effective military tactics that the enemy found it
difficult to conquer her at early stage.
4.
The communication system i.e. roads and rails were all developed and
efficient to meet the demands of the war troops and other supplies were
transported to the battle fronts at a faster rate than it was in the case of
the allied powers.
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5.
6.
7.
Economic reasons, when Germany declared war she was economically
self sufficient. The developed economy enabled her to support her soldiers
in war. The German industrialists produced enough war materials which she
supplied to the fighting forces. There was also enough food, medicine and
troop carriers.
The unpreparedness of the Allied Powers when the war just started assisted
the Germans to become victors in the early stages of the First World War.
Germany had completed officers like Von Hindenburg and Ludendorff.
Reasons why Germany lost the First World War.
i. Germany quick victories at the beginning of the war were a disadvantage to
her. She had to control vast areas that she conquered but the Germany army
was not big enough to effectively control these areas. In an effort to control
these areas, Germany armies were thinly spread in many parts of the world.
This affected the Germany army’s effectiveness in Europe.
ii. The German advance was checked by the French and British forces. The
German forces failed to capture Paris due to the battle of Marne.
iii. Russians mobilized and came into the field earlier than had been anticipated
and this forced Germany to move some soldiers from the Western front to
counteract the Russian threat in the east.
iv. Germany was fighting a war on two Fronts. After launching an offensive on the
west, Germany was compelled to send some troops to the East to Counter the
Russian threat. On the Western front the Germany forces failed to break
through the British expeditionary force.
v. Germany had weak allies (Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Greece and Bulgaria) who
contributed to the exhaustion of her resources. The fall of Greece (1917),
Bulgaria (1918), Turkey (1918) and Austria-Hungary (1918) was a great blow to
Germany as the route to the Mediterranean was closed.
vi. The failure of the Schlieffen Plan contributed to the defeat of Germany and
her allies. This forced the Germans to fight on two fronts, this weakened the
Germany army.
vii. Britain’s Royal Air Force engaged in air raids over Germany cities leading to
the destruction of infrastructure such as roads, industries, railway lines. As a
result Germany could no longer produce goods to meet the needs of the
troops.
viii. The loss of morale among the Germany public also contributed to the defeat
of Germany. The Germany masses were no longer in support of the war
because it brought misery and the population experienced diseases,
destruction of cities, loss of lives and high crime rate. This put Germany in a
difficult situation to continue fighting the war.
ix. The control of the sea by the British Navy staged blockade of Germany ports
and supply lines. This meant that Germany was out of the international trade.
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This trade blockade meant that Germany and her allies were slowly
experiencing starvation in both food and war materials.
x. Italy also contributed to the defeat of Germany because she became
unfaithful and fought against the Central Powers. In 1915, she joined the war
on the side of the Triple Entente because she was promised by Britain and
France at a secret treaty of London to be given some land that was under
Austrian control. Germany thereafter lost the support of Italy which has an
important position in Europe.
xi. The entry of America into the First World War was the final reason for the
defeat of Germany and her allies. The U.S.A entered the war with two million
fresh solders, advanced weapons and financial assistance. As a result
Germany who was already exhausted was finally defeated.
xii. On 9th November, 1918, Kaiser William II abdicated and was arrested by the
Germans. His successor Ebert immediately signed armistice/peace agreement
with the Allied Powers on 11th November 1918. This date marked the end of
the 1st World War.
Factors that led the United States of America (USA) enter the War in 1917
The USA maintained neutrality from the time the War started in 1914 to November
1917 when declared war on Germany and the Central Powers. The following were
the reasons for USA joining the war;
i.
The American industrialists and businessmen had lent vast amounts of
money to the Allied Nations in order to supplement the cost of war. The
U.S.A feared to lose the money if they lost the war.
ii.
The U.S.A assumed the role of protector of international democracy. It
was feared that Germany would introduce world dictatorship.
iii.
America claimed that she had joined the First World War because of the
Americans that were killed by the Germany U-boats
iv.
The introduction of unrestricted submarine warfare. In 1917 Germany sunk
several US cargo vessels without warning
v.
The Zimmerman Telegram. This was a telegram written by Arthur
Zimmerman, Germany Foreign Secretary to a German diplomatic
representative. It proposed a secret alliance between Germany and
Mexico should the United States enter the war. If the Central Powers win
the war, Mexico would be free to annex New Mexico, Texas and Arizona.
It was intercepted by the British and sent to Washington. This led to the US
enter the war in 1917
Effects or Results of the First World War
The effects of the First World War are in three categories. These were social,
political and economic results.
Social Effects
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i.
ii.
iii.
It led to loss of life for both civilians and soldiers. About thirty seven million
people were affected in one way or another. More than two million
people died in Europe. People were angry and blamed Germany for the
war.
People starved and lacked social and health services.
People were left homeless. For example in Russia people left homes for
fear of being killed by the advancing Germany soldiers. This situation led
to violence and disorder in many European countries.
Economic Results
i.
European economy was badly hit by the First World War. Food
production went down especially that of potatoes.
ii.
There was destruction of property and infrastructure during the war.
Germany troops targeted industries of enemy countries and factories to
weaken them.
iii.
Production went down
iv.
It led to high unemployment levels. Europe found herself in economic
crisis.
v.
It led to huge debts since some European countries (Britain, France and
Germany) borrowed money to sustain the war
vi.
United States America (USA) emerged as the new world economic giant
of the world and not Europe
vii.
It led to high inflation especially Germany and Italy and forced these
countries to print more paper money. For example the Germany
currency depreciated by ninety percent.
Political Results
i.
It led to the failing of the Habsburg Empire. The following countries were
created from the fallen Habsburg Empire; Austria, Hungary,
Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia
ii.
It also led to the creation of new countries. The following countries were
created from Germany and Russia: Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Finland and
Lithuania
iii.
It led to revolutions in some parts of Europe. For example the March 1917
Russian Revolution which overthrew the Monarch rule of Tsar Nicholas II
and the October 1917 Revolution which overthrew the provisional
government of Kerensky.
iv.
It led to Kaizer William II abdicate, ending the Monarch rule and pave
way to a new democratic government formed by the Weimer Republic
in Germany
11.4. THE WORLD DURING AND AFTER THE INTER-WAR ERA
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1.4.1 The end of the First World War and the Treaty of Versailles
The Versailles Peace Treaty/Settlement-1919
- The Versailles Peace Settlement as a conference that was held by the Allied
Nations to discuss the future of the world after the 1st World War.
- The Peace settlement was held in France, Paris at the Versailles Palace in the
Hall of Mirrors. The defeated powers i.e. Germany and her allies were not
invited.
- Germany was only called to sign what had been agreed upon.
- At this conference, the Allied Nations were pre-occupied with two important
problems.
These were;
i.
ii.
How to punish Germany and her allies for the damages caused during the
War
To create an international organization that would ensure world peace and
security and prevent the reoccurrence of another war.
Therefore, the “Big Four” i.e. Woodrow Wilson of the USA, David Lloyd George of
Britain, George Clemenceau of France and Vittorio Orlando of Italy met in
France.
Views of the “Big Four”
1. George Clemenceau-the
French Prime Minister
Wanted
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-
Revenge on Germany. The French wanted to get back the lost provinces
of Alsace and Lorraine.
The French also wanted Germany to be severely punished and never to
rise again as a world power.
2. David Lloyd George-the British prime Minster.
- Personally wanted a fair and just settlement for that would satisfy as many
people as possible
- He also wanted Germany recover quickly so that she could resume role
as a major consumer of British goods
- But following the British public outcry, he also advocated for the
punishment of Germany but not as severely as the French wanted.
3. Vittorio Orlando-the Italian Foreign Affairs Minister.
- Wanted a settlement that favoured the punishment of Germany and her
allies.
- He also requested for the territories that Italy was promised in the Secret
Treaty of London of 1915.
- This demand was not granted as such Orlando walked out of the
Conference and did not contribute much to the final result.
- It is for this reason that the Leaders at the Conference are sometimes
referred to as the “Big Three”.
4. Woodrow Wilson-the US president and chairman of the conference.
- Before becoming the President, Wilson was not a politician but a lawyer
and historian and had spent most of his time in Universities.
- As an idealist democrat, Wilson wanted a fair and just settlement for all.
Woodrow Wilson’s 14 Points
1.
All negotiations between states were to be done in the open i.e. the end
of secret alliances.
2.
There was to be freedom in the usage of seas both in peace and war
times except for territorial waters.
3.
There should be international free trade i.e. no tariff barriers between
countries.
4.
There was to be general disarmament i.e. all nations to disarm to the
lowest possible point that was consistent with national security.
5.
The wishes of people in the colonies were to be taken into account
when settling colonial boundaries.
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6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
There was to be the evacuation of Germany troops from all Russian
territories.
Belgium was to be completely liberated and to become independent.
Alsace and Lorraine were to be given back to France.
Italy’s frontiers were to be adjusted so as to avoid quarrels with Austria
Hungary.
There was to be self-governments for the people of Austria and Hungary
which were to be separate independent states.
Serbia was to be given access to sea.
Turkey was to be made independent.
Poland was also to be established as an independent state.
There was to be the Creation of an International Organization to ensure
world peace and security and prevent an outbreak of another War
Terms/Provisions/Results of the Versailles Treaty
These were based on the economic, military and territorial terms;
Political Terms
Germany was charged with the “War Guilty” Clause article 231 of the
Versailles Treaty.
The Allied Powers forced Germany to accept responsibility for starting the
War.
This was because Germany violated Germany Neutrality when the war
started.
In addition, Germany is said to have encouraged her ally Austria to attack
Serbia.
Other Political terms were;
Germany was forbidden from Uniting with Austria.
Germany was not around to be a member of the League of Nations at the
Beginning.
A democratic Government was imposed on Germany.
Economic Terms;
As a result of the acceptance of the War Guilty Clause, Germany was
forced to make reparations for all the damages done during the 1st World
War.
The Terms were that;
i.
Germany was supposed to pay £6,600 million in cash.
ii.
A fixed number of cattle were to be paid to Belgium as compensation for
violating her neutrality.
iii. The German merchant Navy was to be handed over to Britain.
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iv.
v.
A fixed number of coals from the Saar Region of Germany were to be
handed over to France.
Trade restrictions were imposed on Germany
Military Terms;
Germany was completely disarmed as follows;
The Germany army was to be reduced from about 900,000 men to only
100,000 men.
Germany was forbidden from compulsory military service (conscription)
All war time Guns and other weapons were to be melted into scrape metal.
The Germany navy was to be cut down to only 5 light battleships and
Germany was not allowed to have Submarines in future.
Germany was not allowed to have an air force.
Germany was also forbidden from making alliances with Austria.
Territorial Terms;
Territorial terms led to German loosing territories both in Europe and outside
Europe.
German territorial loses in Europe.
i.
Alsace and Lorraine were given back to France. They were grabbed from
France after the Franco-Prussian War which completed the unification of
Germany.
ii.
The Saar Coal fields which were part of Germany were to be governed by
the League of Nations for 15years.
iii.
During this time, France was to mine the coal fields as compensation for
the destruction caused by the retreating Germany soldiers during the war.
After 15 years, the inhabitants of the region were to vote whether to
remain part of France or go back to Germany.
iv.
In the North East of Germany, more territorial loses occurred as a result of
the creation of Poland as an independent state. Poland had been under
Russia for a Century.
v.
Poland had a special corridor (the Polish Corridor) through Germany
territory which got it an outlet to sea. The reappearance of Poland led to
Germany losing over 3million citizens of whom about 1/3 or more were
German. The Polish Corridor separated East Prussia from Germany.
vi.
Other loses were as a result of the Creation of Czechoslovakia as an
independent nation which was formerly under part of Austria.
vii.
Port Danzig, an important Germany was declared an international Free
City to be administered by the League of Nations. The Poles were to use
the Port facilities.
viii.
Port Memel was to be given to Lithuania.
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ix.
x.
xi.
North Schleswig and Holstein which were seized after the Prussian-Danish
war of 1864 were to be given back to Denmark.
The Rhineland (most industrialized part of Germany) remained under
Germany but was to be permanently demilitarized and was to be
occupied by the allied forced until 1935.
Eupen and Malmedy were to be given to Belgium.
Fig 05. (Map showing Germans’ Territorial losses at Versailles peace conference of
1919).
Germany territorial losses outside Europe
i.
The League of Nations gave Germany’s territories in Africa to the Allied
Nations to administer as Mandated Territories e.g. Germany East Africa
(Tanzania) went to Britain.
ii.
German South West Africa (Namibia) was given to South Africa.
iii.
Togo and Cameroon were shared between Britain and France.
Territorial loses in the Far East were;
i.
German territories in the Far East were shared among Japan, Austria and
New Zealand. German Samoa Islands went to New Zealand.
ii.
Palestine, Jordan and Iraq were given to Britain, Syria and Lebanon.
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Germany’s reaction to Versailles Treaty
The German people were angered by the Versailles Peace Settlement
They considered it to have been unfair and unjust as a result;
They refused to accept the War Guilty clause arguing that Russia had
mobilized first and should be responsible for the war.
The Treaty was also considered to have been a Diktat (a dictated peace
treaty). The Germans had not been invited to the conference; they were
just called to sign the Treaty.
The German army officers refused to sign the treaty. A civilian politician
Erzberger who signed was later shot dead.
Germany also complained that the Economic terms were too harsh and
impossible to fulfil.
The Germans also hated the Democratic government that was imposed
on Germany. They were used to being ruled by strong Monarchs.
The Germans also found the military and territorial terms extremely
humiliating.
Therefore, the Germans started looking for an opportunity when they
would get rid of the Humiliating Versailles Treaty. This opportunity came
with the rise of Hitler and the NAZI Party.
Other treaties that were signed
1. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk-1917.
- This was a Treaty that was signed between Germany and Russia to end
the war on the Eastern Front.
- In 1917, there was the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia that led to the end
of the Monarch and the ushering in of a Communist regime under Lenin.
- The New government decided to withdraw from the 1st world War on
the side of the Allied powers.
- This was because the War had brought a lot of misery and suffering to
the Russian people especially the peasants.
- The German and Russian representatives met in a Polish Town of BrestLitovsk.
The terms were;
- Russia lost most territories acquired since the 17th Century e.g. Lithuania,
Estonia and the Eastern Part of Prussia.
- She also lost her rich provinces of the Ukraine.
- These terms were too harsh and humiliating for Russia.
- This also put the allied forces at a disadvantage because it strengthened
the Germany Army on the Western Front.
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2. The Treaty of St. Germain-1919.
- This Treaty was signed between Austria and the Allies.
The terms were;
- Austria recognized the complete independence of Hungary,
Czechoslovakia, Poland and Yugoslavia.
- Austria was also deprived of her sea ports.
- Her army was reduced to 30,000 men.
- The reparation commission was to fix her war indemnity
- Austria was also forbidden from Uniting with Germany
- As a result of this Treaty, Austria was reduced to a small republic.
3. The Treaty of Nuilley-1919.
- This Treaty was signed on the 27th November between Bulgaria and the
Allied powers.
The terms were;
- The western part of Bulgaria was given to Yugoslavia.
- Western Thrace and the Aegean coasts were given to Greece.
- The Bulgarian Army was reduced to 33,000 men.
- The Navy was practically abolished.
- Bulgaria was to pay reparations of $9 million.
- By this treaty, Bulgaria became the Weakest of the Balkan States.
4. The Treaty of Trianon-1920.
- The Treaty was signed on 20th June, 1920.
- This was between Hungary and the allies.
The terms were;
- The Hungarian army was reduced to 35, 000 men.
- Hungary was to pay a fixed amount of reparations to the allies.
- Fiume was to be given to Italy.
- Croatia was given to Yugoslavia.
- Transylvania was given to Romania.
- By this treaty, Hungary lost 1/3 of her territory and 40% of her territory.
5. The Treaty of Sevres-1920.
- This Treaty was signed between Turkey and the Allies.
The terms were;
- Armenia was created as an independent Christian republic.
- The Arab State of Hedjaz was put under British control
- Mesopotamia, Trans-Jordan, Syria and Palestine were taken away from
Turkey. France controlled Syria.
- Greece was given the Dodecanese Islands.
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Turkey was required to pay a huge war indemnity.
The Turkish army was reduced to 50, 000.
The Navy and the Air forces were also disbanded.
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11.4.2, THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC 1919 – 1933
The Weimar Republic 1919-1933.
Many people in Germany suffered because of the War. This suffering led to the
revolution of 1918 which aimed at overthrowing of the Government of Kaiser
William II. Kaiser William II abdicated on 19th November, 1918 and fled to
Netherlands where he later died at the age of 82. This marked the end of the
Monarch in Germany
Ebert, leader of the Socialist Party (SPD) set
up a provisional government and declared
Germany a Republic, signed the armistice
and called for elections in January 1919.
The new republic was called Weimar
Republic. This was a democratic government
that came to power in Germany after the
First World War.
Many political parties emerged and
elections were held in January, 1919. The
majority Socialist Party was elected with
Fredrick Ebert becoming the President and
Philip Scheidenman as Chancellor.
Due to the chaos and noise of Berlin, the new leaders went to a small German
town of Weimar to draw up a new constitution. It was here that the new
democratic government, the Weimar Republic was created and by August 1919,
the new constitution which was extremely democratic was approved.
The Weimar Republic was a democratic government that came to power in
Germany after the First World War.
Terms of the Weimar Constitution.
The Weimar Constitution was adopted on 31st July and became effective on 11th
August, 1919.
The terms were;
i.
The President was to be elected by universal suffrage, i.e. all the German
people male and female.
ii.
The President could be elected for a 7 year term but could be re-elected for
a second term. The President was also the Commander-in-chief of the
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iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
armed forces and could rule by decree if a need arose. The president could
also be forced to resign before the end of his term of office by a
referendum.
The President was also responsible for the appointment of the Chancellor
and ministers who formed a government that was answerable to the
Reichstag (parliament).
The Germany Republic was now made up of the Lander or regions which
formed local governments on proportional representation and were
required to adopt democratic forms of governance.
The Central Government was to have full control of taxation and was
responsible for education, health and defence.
Its bill of rights also guaranteed freedom of speech, legal equality and
religious freedom and a right to minimum provision of social services.
There was also a provision for a referendum on any issues which allowed the
people to take a direct role in policy making.
Problems and Weaknesses of the Weimar Republic.
There were many problems in Germany at the time. The New government wanted
to restore law and order in the country. However, the Weimar Government was
weak and faced challenges. People lost confidence in the new Government.
Many of the weaknesses and problems that led to its down fall in 1933 were;
i.
It had a weak foundation. This was associated with the place where the
government was formed, Weimar. Weimar was inferior, rural and small as such
many Germans perceived the Weimar Republic as being inferior and did not
desire to associate themselves with such an inferior place.
ii. The Weimar Republic was seen as a government of traitors therefore it lacked
support from the Germany public. The Germany people and the army
believed in the theory of the “Dochtoss” which meant “to stab in the back”.
The people believed that the cause of the loss of the war was not the failure of
the army or the Germany revolution but the political betrayal by the leaders of
the Weimar Republic. This was because it was a politician, Erzeberger who
signed the Versailles Peace Settlement with the war guilty clause and the
humiliating terms. The Germany public believed that Germany would have
won the war if the government had not signed the treaty.
iii. The Weimar Republic lacked outstanding leadership. The leaders of the
Weimar Republic were theorists who could not inspire or organize the people.
This made the government very weak.
iv. The Weimar Republic was unable to deal with opposition parties effectively.
Among this opposition were;
a. The Spartacist Revolution: This was a Marxist Revolutionary body led by
Rosa Luxemburg with the support of Karl Liebknecht. Rosa Luxemburg
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was murdered by some army officers with the collaboration of the
Weimar Republic. This angered the Germany people.
b. The Kapp Putsch ( putsch means rebellion) of March, 1920: This was an
attempt by Dr. Woolfgang Kapp and General Von Luttiwitz to
overthrow the Weimar Republic. The Situation was so bad that the
president and his cabinet had to leave Berlin. For only 4 hours, Dr.
Kapp became the Chancellor. However, this rebellion failed.
c. The Beer Hall/Munich Putsch of 1923: This was started by Hitler and his
NAZI Party. This one also failed and Hitler was imprisoned for 5 years
but only served 9 months.
Besides these revolts, the government could not deal with a group of assassins
who were targeting some of the Government leaders especially those who
were responsible for the signing of the Versailles Treaty.
- Chancellor Scheidenman was almost assassinated in 1921.
- Erzeberger, the Chairman of the committee that signed the treaty was
shot dead in 1922.
- Walter Rutherman the Foreign Affairs Minster was murdered.
These acts of terrorism and the inability of the Government to deal with the
culprits effectively weakened the Weimar republic.
v. The economic problems and the inability to deal with them further weakened
the Republic. To begin with, the Republic inherited problems such as
- inflation,
- unemployment and
- Food shortages.
To this was added the burdens of the
- Reparations to the allied powers.
- This was worsened by the loss of the Saar region in 1923, Alsace and
Lorraine to France.
However, in August 1923, Gustav Stresemann became Chancellor and Foreign
Affairs Minster. Between 1923 and 1929, Germany’s economy improved
because of the efforts of Gustav Stresemann. The government was also faced
with the problem of incompetent and a corrupt civil service that could not
implement its policies effectively.
Successes of the Weimar Republic
Achievements Of Gustav Stresemann
i. Stresemann’s immediate concern was to end the French occupation of the
Ruhr region which was an income generator for Germany. The French had
occupied the Ruhr region in 1923 after Germany had failed to pay
reparations. He achieved this through a policy of reconciliation with France.
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ii.
This led to the signing of the Locarno Pact of 1925 which Germany agreed to
respect the western borders with France and Belgium which ended the French
occupation of the Ruhr region. As a result in 1926, Germany was accepted
into the League of Nations.
iii. Stresemann’s other achievement was stabilizing the fluctuating mark by the
issuance of a new currency called the Rentenmark which ended inflation.
iv. Stresemann also embarked on rapid industrial development and the
rebuilding of economy by asking for Loans from the USA. Stresemann first set
up a Reparation Commission to study the economic conditions in Germany
and estimate her ability to pay war reparations. The committee drew up the so
called Dawes Plan. This was set up to ensure the effective payment of
reparations. The Dawes Plan was followed by the Young Plan. The aim of this
plan was the same as that of the Dawes Plan.
Among the most important recommendations of the Young Plan was that
Germany would have to pay her war debts in instalments of £100 million over a
period of 37 years.
By 1929, the economic situation in Germany had improved greatly. Employment
levels increased and the standards of living for most Germans had improved.
Opposition to the Weimar Republic also lessened.
The Collapse of the Weimar Republic
i. The death of Gustav Stresemann in 1929 coincided with the Great Economic
Depression. This spelt disaster to the German economy.
j.
The Economic depression started in the USA as a result of the collapse of the
Stock exchange Market.
k. By 1931, the effects of the Depression were been felt in Europe. Germany
especially was negatively affected because she depended on the US loans
for economic development.
l.
The loans from the US were discontinued. This led to the collapse of Germany
industries.
m. Many industries closed down.
n. The rate of unemployment increased rapidly. Germany faced food shortages
which resulted into food riots.
o. The Weimar Republic could not deal with these economic problems and the
German public became discontent with the Government.
p. It was during this chaotic situation that Hitler and his NAZI Party rose to power.
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q. Hitler took advantage of the situation to campaign against the government.
He promised the German people that if he came to power, he would improve
the situation in Germany.
r.
Hitler came to power in January, 1933.
Therefore, the Great Depression and its effects is what led to the final collapse of the
Weimar Republic
END OF TOPIC QUESTIONS
1.
Study the picture below that shows hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic.
a. Name the region which the French occupied in 1922 which
contributed the Hyperinflation
b. Why did the French occupy the region above?
c. Apart from the invasion you mentioned in (i) above, state two other
causes of the hyperinflation.
d. Why do some historians think that the recovery of the Weimar
economy after 1923 was not real?
e. Who was Germany’s leading politician in 1923?
f. State three ways in which the advice of Charles Dawes helped to
solve the problem of hyperinflation.
g. Name an American expert whose advice helped the Germany
economy to recover from the inflation crisis of 1923.
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GERMANY AND THE RISE OF HITLER AND THE NAZI PARTY 1933-1945
OUTCOMES
Q18. Discuss the circumstances that led to the rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazism
Analyze Hitler’s political career, showing his role in the Second World War 19391945
HITLER’S BACKGROUND
Adolf Hitler was born on 20th April 1889 in Braunau, Austria. His parents were from
middle class.
He was not very educated and worked for a while
as a sign painter and then joined the Germany
army in 1914. Hitler rose to the rank of corporal and
was awarded an Iron Cross for his bravery and
distinguished service during the First World War.
However, after the war, Hitler was disappointed by
the defeat of Germany.
Hitler strongly opposed the Treaty of Versailles and
its humiliating terms for Germany. He also opposed
the establishment of the Weimar Republic. As such,
Hitler set himself two aims in his political career.
i.
The first was to free Germany from the Versailles Treaty and
ii.
The second was to resurrect Germany through building a Greater
Germany with a stronger army through territorial expansion.
Hitler was also convinced that neither democracy nor communism could help
Germany. According to him, Germany needed stronger leadership.
Hitler was influenced by two political philosophers Nietzsche and Adolf Stocker.
Nietzsche’s theory of “Superman” gave Hitler the idea that the Germans belonged
to a pure Aryan race that was destined to rule other inferior races. Adolf Stocker’s
anti-Semitic (against Jews) writing made the Jews Hitler’s number one enemy.
Throughout Hitler’s political career, he maintained that Germany was not
defeated in the First World War but that she had been betrayed by her enemy the
Jews and the Communists.
STAGES OF HITLER’S RISE TO POWER.
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Hitler’s political career started in 1919 when he joined the
Germany Socialist Workers’ Party. In February 1920, Hitler
became the leader or Fuhrer of the Party. He renamed the
party as the National Socialist Germany Workers’ Party
(NAZI).
This party rose to power fast and within a decade (10
years), it became the most important and feared party in Germany. The Party
used the Swastika as its symbol.
The NAZI party was feared because of the use of violence which was carried out
by the party army the Stumabteilung also known as Storm Troopers (Brown Shirts)
and the Schuz staffel or SS who were Hitler’s personal security.
In March 1923, with the help of the Storm troopers, Hitler organized the “March on
Berlin”. However, this revolt which was aimed at overthrowing the government
failed and Hitler became frustrated.
He intensified his use of violence. On the 6th November 1923, the Nazis tried to
overthrow the government again. This revolt started in a beer Hall in Munich and it
was referred to as the Beer Hall Putsch or Munich Putsch. This revolt failed as well
and Hitler was imprisoned for 5 years but only served for 9 months.
During his imprisonment, Hitler wrote a Book entitled “Mein Kampf” (My Struggle).
This book was published in 1924 and it contained Hitler’s ideas and programs for
Germany and the world at large. This book became the NAZI bible.
Germany’s economic prosperity after 1923 caused a decline in the support for the
NAZI Party. In 1928, the NAZI party secured 12 seats in the Lower House. In 1929,
Stresemann who had been responsible for Germany’s economic development
died and there was an economic depression. This depression and the failure of the
Weimar Republic to contain its effects caused a lot of dissatisfaction among the
Germany people. This provided an opportunity for Hitler and the NAZI Party to win
support.
Between 1929 and 1932, successive Chancellors Von Papen and Von Schleitcher
failed to improve the Germany’s economic situation.
In the 1932 elections, the NAZI Party became the largest single party in Parliament
with 236 seats. Following the 1932 elections, the new German President Von
Hindenburg appointed Hitler as the Chancellor of Germany.
REASONS FOR HITLER’S RISE TO POWER
i.
Hitler’s personality contributed to his rise to power. He had a very strong
personality and was a resourceful leader. Above all, he used his gift as an
orator to win support from the German people.
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ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
xi.
xii.
xiii.
Division between the Communists and the Social Democratic Parties
weakened resistance against the strong NAZI Party.
Hitler and the NAZI Party took advantage of the absence of a strong
opposition to assume power in Germany.
The Weakness of democracy also contributed to Hitler’s rise to power.
Democracy had no deep roots in Germany. The German people were
used to being ruled by strong monarchs.
Democracy in Germany led to the establishment of many political
parties, which during the period of the Great Economic Depression
became involved in political rivalries instead of finding solutions. In
addition, the Germany people hated democracy. Therefore, Hitler
promised the Germans that he would create a stronger government that
would solve their problems.
The Nationalist aspect of Nazism also contributed to Hitler’s rise to power.
The NAZI Party promised to restore Germany to its former glory through
rearmament and territorial expansion.
The NAZI Party was supported by the middle class people and the exservice men who wanted the return of the German Empire.
The NAZI party also promised to fight communism which was responsible
for the defeat of Germany in the First World War.
The Socialist aspect of Nazism also contributed to the rise of Hitler and the
NAZI Party. The NAZI Party combined Nationalism with a vague form of
Socialism.
The Party promised to improve the people’s economic and social
conditions through the creation of employment, giving workers better
wages and improving social services. This enabled the party to win
support from many Germans especially the industrial workers and the
unemployed.
The Versailles Peace Settlement and its humiliating terms for Germany
also contributed to the rise of Hitler and the NAZI Party to power. This was
because Hitler promised that he would get rid of the treaty and
disregards its humiliating terms once he came to power. This gained Hitler
a lot of support since the Versailles Treaty was hated by the Germans.
Militarism also contributed to the rise of Hitler and the NAZI Party. The NAZI
Party spoke and acted violently. The Storm Troopers provided an outlet
for German Militarism. The ex-servicemen, youths and the unemployed
supported the NAZI Party because it promised to return and restore
Germany to its former position as one of the world’s leading military
powers through conscription and rearmaments.
Propaganda was also another reason that led to the rise of Hitler and the
NAZI Party. Hitler used propaganda to win support from the Public. This
was the distortion of the truth or the telling of outright lies in order to
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xiv.
discredit the Weimar Republic. Joseph Goebbels was put in charge of
the NAZI propaganda machine.
The Final reason for Hitler’s rise to power was the Great Economic
Depression of 1929 and its effects. In 1929, the USA was hit by an
economic depression. The depression spread to Europe and the most
affected was Germany. America’s loans and investments to Germany
were withdrawn. Suddenly many Germany companies closed down
leading to food Shortages, inflation and unemployment which rose
rapidly from 1.5 million in 1929 to 6 million by 1932. As the economic crisis
deepened, support for anti-democratic parties such as the NAZI party
and the Communist Party increased. Hitler took advantage of the
situation to rise to power.
HITLER WINS POWER IN GERMANY
In April 1932 Presidential elections, Hitler won 13 million votes to Hindenburg’s 19
million. In July 1932 the NAZI became the largest single party with 230 seats. The
November 1932 elections, the NAZI dropped to 196seats while the Communists
rose to 100.
von Papen persuaded Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as Chancellor and on 30th
January 1933 Hitler became the Chancellor (Prime Minister) of Germany
HITLER’S DOMESTIC OR HOME POLICY
Aims of Hitler’s home Policy.
- He wanted to consolidate power to himself.
- He wanted to eliminate all opposition.
- Hitler wanted to bring law and order in Germany.
- He wanted to achieve economic recovery for Germany.
Features of Hitler’s Home Policies
As soon as Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany in January 1933, he
quickly called for new elections in March 1933 with the hope of gaining an
increased majority in the Reichstag (parliament). The Storm troopers (SA) used
violence against their opponents.
Just before the elections, the Reichstag (Parliament) caught fire. Hitler blamed the
Communists and ordered for their arrests. When the elections were finally held, the
NAZI Party only managed 44% of the votes. This was below what Hitler had
expected.
Enabling Laws
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Hitler quickly made Germany a totalitarian dictatorship. In March 1933 Parliament
passed the Enabling Laws which gave Hitler the power to rule by decree for four
(4) years. This marked the beginning of the ‘Rule of Terror’ in Germany.
- All rival political parties were banned with their leaders banished from
Parliament.
- All Newspapers that criticized the NAZI Party and Hitler were shut down.
- All trade Unions were banned and replaced by the German Labour Front.
Wages and working conditions were controlled by the NAZI Party. Workers
were not allowed to go on strike.
- All the local governments were put under the control of the NAZI loyalists.
Propaganda.
Both children and adults were indoctrinated into NAZI ideas, racial theories and
anti-Semitism. Children were indoctrinated in schools and as youths, they were
required to join the Hitler Youth Movement which taught NAZI ideas and groomed
future NAZI leaders. Joseph Goebbels was the Minister of Propaganda.
The press (Newspapers, Radios and TVs) posters and political rallies were some of
the propaganda means that the NAZI Party used to indoctrinate the adults.
The role of women in Hitler’s Germany was summed up in three words, “Children,
Church and Future”. Incentives were given to women with large families and
newly married couples. According to Hitler, Germany needed a large population
to be enrolled in the army.
The Gestapo
This was a secret police force whose aim was to arrest, murder and imprison or
sent to concentration camps people who were against Hitler and the NAZI Party.
The Gestapo had members in most of the institutions in Germany.
The Night of Long Knives.
On the night of 30th June, 1934, the leader of the Storm Troopers, Ernest Rhoehm
was arrested and killed by the Gestapo. On the same night, a total number of
5,000 to 7,000 Germans who were suspected of opposing Hitler and the NAZI Party
were also arrested and murdered by the Schutz Staffel (SS). This incident became
known as the “Night of Long Knives”.
In August 1934, President Hindenburg died. Hitler combined the powers of
President and Chancellor and became the most powerful person in Germany. He
became the supreme ruler or Fuhrer.
The Jews and the Nuremberg Laws-1935.
Hitler’s Germany was not a place for one to be born a Jew because Hitler hated
the Jews. He blamed them for all the sufferings that Germans
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experienced i.e. Germany’s defeat and suffering after the First World War.
When Hitler assumed power, he made it very clear that the Jews were not
welcome in Germany. He organized anti-Jewish propaganda and gangs of NAZI
thugs to burn down Jewish Synagogues. They also smashed up Jewish homes.
Germans were ordered not to buy from Jewish shops. Life was generally bad for
the Jews in Germany.
In 1935, the Nuremberg Laws were passed. These took away many rights from the
Jews e.g. the Jews were not allowed to hold any government posts and offices.
They were not allowed to work as lawyers, or doctors in government institutions.
They were forced to wear “the star of David” so that they could easily be
identified in public.
They were made to use special buses and shops specifically made for the Jews.
Marriages between the Jews and non-Jews were forbidden. Many Jews were
forced to escape in fear for their lives. Those who remained behind were taken to
concentration camps. Between 1939 and 1945, over 6 million Jews died in German
Concentration Camps. The mass killing of the Jews in Germany was referred to as
Haulocost.
Hitler and the Church.
Hitler came into conflict with the Church over his ill-treatment of the Jews and the
passing of the Nuremberg Laws which deprived the Jews of their rights. Both the
Catholics and the Protestants were against the Nuremberg Laws. Hitler imposed
the following measures on the Church;
- The Church was deprived of its control over finances.
- Participation in church affairs was made illegal.
- Protestant pastors were arrested and sent to concentration camps and
charged with the “Misuse of the Pulpit.
Economic successes of Adolf Hitler in Germany.
- He kept industries in private hands while the state determined what was to be
produced.
- The state gave loans to industrialists at a low interest.
- He reduced unemployment from 6 million to fewer than 1 million.
- He established the National Labour Service which undertook public works such
as building of roads, bridges and railways.
- He introduced compulsory military service to provide employment in the army.
- He employed people in the arms industries that produced bombs, guns,
aeroplanes etc.
- He stopped women from working so that they could be more jobs for men.
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- He set up industries that produced synthetic products. These served as
substitutes such as for rubber. Farmers were not allowed to leave the land
- He gave Germany workers medical care and were encouraged to make
cultural visits and take cheap holidays which were organized by the state.
- The Germans were also encouraged to buy the “People’s Vehicle” the
Volkswagen.
By 1939, Germany had one of the highest standards of living in Europe and
strongest economies.
HITLER’S FOREIGN POLICIES 1933-1945
Between 1933 and 1939, Hitler followed an aggressive foreign policy that led to the
outbreak of the Second World War of 1939 to 1945.
Aims of Hitler’s Foreign Policy:
- He wanted to acquire more living space(Lebensraum) for Germany
- Hitler wanted to rearm Germany and restore it to its former glory and
prestige.
- He wanted to disregard and break the terms of the Versailles Treaty.
- He wanted a union with Austria (Anschluss).
- He also wanted to unite all Germans in Europe.
In order to achieve these aims, Hitler did the following things:
- He talked about the need to maintain peace in Europe while he rearmed
Germany.
- He openly called for the creation of a stronger Germany to help in the fight
against Communism.
- He also gave the impression that his ambitions were limited when in reality
they were not.
For many years, Hitler used the above excuses to rearm Germany and break the
terms of the Versailles Treaty and carry out acts of aggression against other
nations. The other European States such as Britain and France did little or nothing
to condemn Hitler and to control his activities. This made Hitler take advantage
and commit more acts of aggression.
Features of Hitler’s Foreign Policy.
i. He signed a Non-Aggression Pact with Poland in 1934. The Pact ended friction
between the two countries over the Polish Corridor and the Port of Danzig. This
pact was to remain in full force for 10 years. Hitler had no immediate intensions
of occupying Poland. He also wanted Poland to serve as a buffer between
Germany and Russia.
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ii.
In 1935, the people in the Saar Region held a referendum to decide whether
to be part of France or Germany. They voted in favour of Germany with the
influence of NAZI propaganda. Hitler occupied this region in defiance of the
Versailles Treaty.
iii. German Rearmament. In 1934, Germany withdrew from the Geneva
Disarmament Conference and the League of Nations. Hitler immediately
embarked on an ambitious program of rearmament.
- He built an Air Force and the construction of submarines which were
forbidden by the Versailles Treaty.
- He used conscription to expand the Germany Army.
iv. Signed an agreement with Britain in 1935 known as Anglo-German Naval
Agreement. By this agreement, Britain allowed Germany to build her navy to
1/3 of that of British Naval power. The agreement also allowed Germany to
build submarines.
v. The Occupation of the Rhineland in 1936. Hitler invaded and occupied the
Rhineland which acted as a buffer for Germany on the Western front against
France in defiance of the Versailles Treaty and the League of Nations. Britain
and other European countries did not protest against Hitler’s actions. This event
convinced Hitler that the Allied Powers and the League of Nations were weak.
vi. Alliances. During the 1936 Spanish Civil War, Hitler and Mussolini helped
General Franco to establish a Pre-fascist dictatorship in Spain. In the same
year, Germany recognized the Italian occupation of Ethiopia. This led to a
closer relationship between Germany and Italy.
This led to the signing of the Rome-Berlin Axis in 1936, a communication link
between the two dictators. In the same year, Germany and Japan signed the
Anti-Commutern Pact against Communism in their two countries
Finally, Germany, Italy and Japan came together and signed an alliance
called the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis in 1937. This was a military alliance.
vii. Union with Austria (Anschluss). In 1938, Germany attempted to unite with
Austria because Austria comprised of 80% German people and a union
between the two would ensure a more powerful Germany disregarding the
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Versailles Treaty. However, no action was taken against Germany by the
European countries. This made Hitler to commit more acts of aggression.
viii. The Occupation of Sudetenland. In 1938, Germany troops occupied
Sudetenland (rich in resources and highly industrialized), a province of
Czechoslovakia on the pretext that the Germans in Sudetenland were being
persecuted by Czechoslovakia. This was because the government had used
military force to stop a rebellion incited by Germany.
After the occupation, a conference was called in Munich, Germany and
attended by representatives from Germany, Britain and France. The Allied
Powers gave in to Hitler’s demands. Hitler therefore was encouraged to
continue with his acts of aggression against neighbouring states.
ix. The Occupation of Czechoslovakia. In March 1939, German troops occupied
the rest of Czechoslovakia to create space for Germans. Chamberlain, the
British Prime Minister condemned Hitler’s actions as he had promised not to
occupy anymore territories in Europe.
The British Prime Minister also promised to help Poland, Hitler’s next target.
France made a similar promise. The same promise was extended to Greece,
Romania and later Turkey. The British House of Lords allowed the Government
to expand the army through conscription in readiness for war.
x.
The Invasion of Poland. Before the invasion of Poland, Germany signed the
Pact of Steel with Italy on 22nd May 1939. The two countries agreed to help
each other if one went to war.
In the same year, Germany signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact with Russia. Russia was
promised eastern Poland after the defeat of Poland by Germany. Hitler drew
Russia into the alliance because he did not want Germany to fight a war on
two fronts. On 1st September 1939, Germany troops invaded Poland. This
marked the beginning of the Second World War.
APPEASEMENT
It is a diplomatic policy of making political, material, or territorial concessions to an
aggressive power to avoid conflict. In this case, this was a British policy in the 1930s
of allowing Hitler expand Germany territory unchecked. It was associated with the
British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain.
Hitler used it to expand since Britain did not react to his aggression until the
takeover of Czechoslovakia in 1939.
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Some historians state that it was bad policy since it encouraged Hitler to think he
can do anything. Others see it as practical because Britain was not ready for war
in 1938 ad needed time to re-arm.
11.4.4. ITALY AND THE RISE OF BENITO MUSSOLINI AND THE FASCIST PARTY
OUTCOMES:
1. Discuss the circumstances that led to the rise of Benito Mussolini and Fascism
in Italy
2. Analyse Mussolini’s political career, showing his role in the Second World
War, 1939-1945
PROBLEMS FACED BY ITALY AFTER THE FIRST WORLD WAR
- Government failed to get land which it was promised when it joined the
war. This made it unpopular.
- The country had borrowed heavily to finance the war and a high debt at
the end of the war
- There was no investment in industry and consequently there were shortages
of essential goods and services
- Prices of goods and services were high leading to inflation
- Strikes and demonstrations were wide spread throughout major towns and
cities
- The troops were demobilised and this made the unemployment levels to go
up
- The unemployment youths and the ex-soldiers became involved in illegal
and banditry activities. Crime rose sharply in Italy
- As a result of democracy, there was the emergence of many rival political
parties. Post war governments were short lived coalitions.
- Italy lost her traditional markets to other countries at the end of the First
World War
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-
High tax ruined the middle working class
BENITO MUSSOLINI
Benito Mussolini was born in 1883 at Dovia in Italy. He was from a middle class
family. His father was a blacksmith while his mother was a teacher. As a young
boy, Mussolini was stubborn and got expelled from one school to another due to
his violence. Mussolini also studied the works of Nietzsche on the theory of
“Superman” as well as other philosophers.
He qualified as a teacher but later left to become journalists in Switzerland. Initially
he could not find employment and ended up doing odd jobs to keep himself from
starving.
In Switzerland, Mussolini became a communist and organized strikes and
demonstrations against the government. In
1904, he was expelled from Switzerland due
to his radical views and went back to Italy
and continued as a journalist.
In 1906, Mussolini became a socialist
agitator. In 1908, he went to Trent and
continued with his journalism. He became
the editor of Avanti (Forward) which was a
newspaper for the Italian Socialist Party.
In his socialist views, Mussolini denounced
militarism, imperialism, religion and war. He
was arrested for 5 months for his anti-militarist
views.
When the First World War broke out,
Mussolini changed his views and advocated
for Italy to join the war on the side of the
Allied Powers after the signing of the Secret treaty of London of 1915. His desire
was to see Italian territory enlarged by the acquiring of Trentino and Triesse which
were promised to Italy in the treaty.
As a result of his advocacy for war, Mussolini was expelled from the Socialist Party.
In 1915, he joined the Italian army and fought in the First World War. However, in
1916, he was wounded by an accidental explosion and was discharged from the
army on medical grounds.
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Mussolini was proud of the part he played in the war and saw himself as a hero
and a survivor for his motherland. He was however disappointed by the Treaty of
Versailles for Italy and the chaos that prevailed in Italy after the war.
In 1919, he formed the Fascio-de-Combattimento (battle group). This was the
beginning of the Fascist Movement in Europe. In 1921, Mussolini formed the Fascist
Party.
REASONS THAT LED TO MUSSOLINI RISE TO POWER
Italians were disappointed with the Allied Powers at the Versailles Peace
Settlement of 1919. Italy had hoped to gain Dalmatia, Albania and some colonies
of Germany and Turkey but she only gained Tyrol, Istria, and Trentino. Mussolini’s
propaganda promise to gain colonies for Italy by force became popular
Rapid population growth and the restriction on emigration to the United States of
America (USA) worsened the problem of land shortage
The multi-party system and lack of experience in democracy led to the rise of
numerous political parties.
Coalition Governments which ruled Italy after the First World War lasted for short
period. Mussolini was seen as a strongman who could bring about political stability.
The dispute between the state and the Catholic Church over church property
seized by the state in 1870 deprived the government of the church’s support. The
Pope urged Catholic Christians not to support
the government.
Fasces
Disparity in economic development between
the Industrial north and agricultural south
produced political disunity.
Inflation, prices rose by 500% from 1915 to 1919
Unemployment
was
worsened
by
demobilisation of the army and the return of
ex-soldiers after the war.
Industrial unrest striking workers seized factories
in 1919 before they were suppressed by the army.
Rise in crime and violence, ex-soldiers turned to armed robbers (banditry and
gangsterism), the mafia of Sicily became active and bands of armed guerrillas
terrorised the rural areas especially in the southern part of the country.
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Black shirts terrorised opponents of Mussolini and broke up political rallies of the
other parties
Mussolini won the support of the Roman Catholic Church, the business community
and King Emmanuel II who feared a communist revolution in Italy.
The 1922 general strike led by the socialist party presented Mussolini with an
opportunity to seize power. The Fascist Black Shirts went on a ‘March at Rome’ to
suppress the general strike. Fearing a possible civil war between the communists
and the fascists, King Emmanuel II dismissed Luigi Facta who was the Italian Prime
Minister and appointed Benito Mussolini as a new Italian Prime Minister on 30 th
October 1922
STAGES OF MUSSOLINI’S RISE TO POWER
Italy’s post unification and post war problems provided the background for
Mussolini’s rise to power.
The stages of his rise to power were;
i.
The first step that Mussolini took to rise to power was to form a Milan
Fascist Group called the Fascio-de-Combattimento (Fighting/Battle
group) in 1919. The squad was made up of several hundreds of dismissed
workers, demobilized soldiers and jobless youths.
This group attacked the communists and broke up their meetings. They
also tortured their opponents and made them drink castor oil.
The Patriotic young men were dissatisfied with the chaos, the general
disorder and the inability by the government to deal with it. They were
willing to support any man who promised to find solutions to Italy’s
problems. Mussolini turned out to be their potential saviour.
ii.
The second step he took was that he turned the Fascio-deCombattimento into a political party called the National Fascist Party in
1921. The Party adopted Black Shirts as its symbol and uniform.
During the 1920-1922, there was confusion in the Italian Parliament
because there were many political parties that were evenly marched.
The political parties formed coalition governments which were not
effective.
In order to strengthen the fragile Italian Government, Mussolini
demanded cabinet posts in 1922 when 22 Fascist members were elected
to parliament. However, this demand was rejected.
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iii.
Mussolini’s last step in his rise to power was the famous historic “March on
Rome” in 1922. After the rejection of his demand for cabinet posts for the
Fascist representatives in the Italian government, Mussolini decided to
challenge the government by force.
He demanded for the resignation of the Italian Prime Minister Luigi Facta.
Facta refused to resign and instead recommended stern military action
against the Fascists. As a result, on 28th October, 1922, more than 100,000
Fascists volunteered to undertake a historic “March on Rome”
unopposed.
The army could not disperse the Fascists and the Italian King Victor
Emmanuel II dismissed Luigi Facta and his government and invited
Mussolini to form a new government.
Mussolini became the Italian Prime Minister on 30th October, 1922. This
marked the rise of Mussolini and the Fascist Party to power.
THE CONSOLIDATION OF FASCIST DICTATORSHIP IN ITALY
After assuming power, Mussolini took steps to consolidate Fascist rule in Italy.
i.
He combined the post of Prime Minister with that of Home and Foreign
Affairs Minsters.
ii.
He then persuaded the government to allow him to rule as a dictator for
one year under the pretext of maintaining law and order. However,
Mussolini kept these dictatorial powers until his death in 1943.
iii.
During the one year, Mussolini turned the Fascist Army into a private
army. Its main aim was to deal with opponents of Fascism.
iv.
In the same year, Mussolini increased the strength of the Italian army.
v.
He also gave key posts in the army and local governments to loyal
members of the Fascists Party.
vi.
In 1924, Mussolini decided to hold general elections in order to give
legitimacy to his government. Before the elections were held, the Acerbo
Laws were passed in 1923. These laws gave 2/3 of the seats in Parliament
to any Party that obtained the largest number of votes in the impending
elections.
In order to ensure Fascist victory, the Fascists beat up, tortured and
terrorized their political opponents. When the elections were finally held,
the Fascists rigged the elections and finally won 85% of the votes and
were given the 2/3 of the seats in Parliament.
vii.
Giacomo Matteotti was the leader of the Socialist Party and a well
known critic of Mussolini and the Fascist Party. He criticized the results and
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conduct of the 1924 elections. He also wrote a Pamphlet entitled
“Fascists Exposed” in which he brought out the evidence concerning the
violence and rigging of the elections by the Fascists.
viii.
ix.
x.
xi.
xii.
xiii.
On the 10th of June, 1924, Matteotti was murdered. Mussolini and the
Fascist Party were blamed for his death. Many political parties protested
while some withdrew from parliament and were not allowed to return.
Mussolini and the Fascist Party organized fake trials for those who were
said to have been responsible for the murder but were either acquitted
or given light sentences.
Following the death of Matteotti, there was an increase in criticism
against Mussolini and the Fascist party.
In 1925, Mussolini shut down all anti-fascist newspapers.
In towns and cities, all democratically elected mayors were replaced
with Fascists.
Mussolini began to assume more and more power, for example, he
made laws without the consent of Parliament and the King in some
cases.
In 1926, Mussolini abolished all non-Fascist organizations and this meant
that all non-Fascist political parties were banned. The Fascist Party
became the only party in Italy. By this time, Mussolini became a full time
dictator.
MUSSOLINI’S HOME/DOMESTIC POLICY
Aims
- He wanted to consolidate power to himself.
- He wanted to bring law and order in Italy
- He also wanted to achieve economic recovery and development for Italy.
Features of Mussolini’s Home Policies
1. Economic Battles.
The Battle of the South was launched in 1924. This was an economic policy
to address poverty in the southern part of Italy. This battle was extremely
unsuccessful.
The Battle of the Grain was launched in
1925. This was an agricultural policy
aimed at making Italy self sufficient in
wheat production. Awards of gold, silver
and bronze were given to farmers who
grew most wheat. This battle was very
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successful and by 1926, wheat production in Italy had almost doubled.
The Battle for land was launched in 1926 to increase the area of cultivatable
land in Italy. This Battle involved the draining of marshes and swamps,
ploughing tall hillsides and clearing forests and woodlands.
The battle for births was launched to increase the Italian population and
ultimately, the Italian Army. Many incentives were given to people with large
families’ e.g. free education and health facilities.
In 1926, the Battle for the Lira was launched. This battle aimed at restoring
the value of the fluctuating Italian currency.
2. Creation of a Co-operative State.
The establishment of a co-operatives state was one of Mussolini’s major
economic achievements. It involved the abolition of strikes and lock outs.
In 1926, Mussolini banned trade unions and employee associations and
replaced them with 22 co-operatives. The co-operatives were established
for people within an industry.
Each co-operative comprised of representatives of workers, employers and
3 members of the Fascist Party.
The co-operatives sent representatives to the General Assembly of Cooperatives which was headed by Mussolini. The Assembly made important
decisions about the country’s economic policy and about prices and
wages. These co-operatives were unsuccessful because they were dictated
by the Fascists. They were also generally ineffective and corrupt.
In 1938, Mussolini abolished Parliament and replaced it with the Chamber of
Fascists and Cooperatives.
Through the introduction of the above measures, Mussolini and the Fascists
controlled the political and economic life of the people of Italy.
3. Indoctrination and Propaganda.
To ensure that all Italians accepted and believed in Fascist ideas, a program
of indoctrination directed at both the young and adults was introduced. The
young people were bombarded with Fascist ideas in schools from textbooks
and after school; they joined the youth organizations such as Fascist Youth
Movement.
Adults were indoctrinated through newspapers, posters and rallies. The
media glorified Mussolini and the Fascism.
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4. Policy towards Religion.
Mussolini needed the support from the Pope and the Church for his
dictatorship to succeed. He therefore decided to improve the state’s
relationship with the Church. Mussolini signed the Lateran Treaty and the
Concordat with the Pope in 1929.
By these treaties;
-
The Italian state recognized Vatican as an independent State.
Considerable rights were given to the Pope and the Church
throughout Italy.
The Italian State also promised to pay the Church 1,750 million Lira as
compensation for the loss of Rome in 1870.
In turn, Catholicism became the official state religion of Italy and the
Pope and the Catholic Church recognized the Kingdom of Italy and
Mussolini’s rule.
Therefore, there was an understanding between the Church and the State and
Mussolini was assured of support and encouragement for his Fascist rule from the
Pope and the Church.
Mussolini stopped using his ordinary names and was simply referred to as “Il
Duce”(The Leader).
MUSSOLINI’S FOREIGN POLICY
Mussolini followed an aggressive and dangerous foreign policy. This foreign policy
was guided by extreme Nationalism. His aggressive foreign policy led to
international tension which contributed to the outbreak of the Second World War.
Aims of Mussolini’s Foreign Policy
- He wanted to rebuild the Roman Empire by conquering land around the
Mediterranean Sea especially in North Africa.
- He wanted to revenge Italy’s defeat by Ethiopia in the famous Battle at
Adowa in 1896.
- Mussolini also aimed at making Italy a world power through the creation of a
strong army.
- He also wanted to revisit the Versailles Treaty and get what was due to Italy.
Features of Mussolini’s Foreign Policy
1. Relationship with other countries.
At first, Mussolini desired a closer relationship with Britain and France and
was therefore careful not to offend them.
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Italy’s signing of the Kellogg and Locarno Pacts showed Mussolini’s
willingness to co-operate with Britain and France despite being unhappy
with the Versailles Treaty.
At first, Mussolini regarded Hitler with suspicion and feared a strong Germany
nation especially if seized Austria.
In 1934, Mussolini blocked Hitler’s invasion of Austria at Bremmer Pass and
joined Britain and France to form an anti-German Peace Treaty against
Hitler’s actions
However, Hitler and Mussolini became friends after 1936 when they left the
League of Nations after been branded as aggressors.
2. Corfu Crisis of 1923.
Mussolini had aggressive intensions against neighbouring Greece.
In 1923, an Italian general Tellini and 5 members of the Italian commission
were murdered by the Greeks while trying to settle a border dispute.
Mussolini accused Greece of the murder and demanded compensation
and an apology. Greece wanted the matter to be settled by the League of
Nations. Mussolini refused the League’s intervention.
Before a solution could be found, Mussolini invaded the Greek Islands of
Corfu. This incident showed the aggressive nature of Mussolini and made the
relations with Britain and France to be unstable.
3. The Italian Invasion of Abyssinia/Ethiopia.
Mussolini’s invasion of Abyssinia in 1935/1936 was a typical example of his
aggressive foreign policy. Mussolini had promised the Italians a colonial
Empire in Africa.
After the Italians occupied Somaliland and Eritrea, they wanted to expand
into the ancient Kingdom of Abyssinia. Besides, the Italians never forgot their
humiliating defeat in 1896 at the Battle of Adowa and wanted to revenge
the defeat.
Taking advantage of border incidents between Abyssinia and Italian
Somaliland, Mussolini invaded and occupied Abyssinia. The Italian air force
bombarded Ethiopia and the army seized the capital and forced the
leaders into exile. The defeat of Abyssinia avenged the Italian defeat at
Adowa and it meant further glory for Mussolini and an addition to the Italian
Empire.
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The Ethiopians appealed to the League of Nations for Italy to be punished.
The League condemned Italy and banned the shipment of economic arms
but there was no ban on oil, coal, iron and steel. The sanctions were too late
and ineffective.
Mussolini and the Italians were angered by this criticism over the invasion of
Ethiopia and especially from Britain and France, the main powers in the
League of Nations. Italy withdrew from the League of Nations in 1936 and
continued with the occupation of Italy until 1943.
These events strained the relationship between Britain/France and Italy and
also drove Mussolini and Hitler into being good friends. Hitler supported the
Italian Invasion of Ethiopia.
4. The Italian Involvement in the Spanish Civil War-1936
Mussolini’s interference in the Spanish Civil War of 1936 to 1939 also led
tensions in the world. The Spanish civil war was purely an internal matter
between the democratically elected government and its opponents led by
General Franco.
General Franco wanted to set up a Fascist type of dictatorship in Spain.
Mussolini sent about 7,000 troops and weapons to Spain in collaboration
with Hitler. Mussolini and Hitler drew closer with their joint support in the
Spanish civil war. This created tension with the Britain and France and
divided the world into two camps i.e. the dictators and the democrats.
5. Alliances
Formation of Alliances was also part of Mussolini’s foreign Policy. This also led
to world tensions.
Hitler and Mussolini became closer after they were criticized by the League
of Nations for their aggressive acts against other countries. Both left the
League and felt more and more isolated internationally. Their co-operated
in supporting the Spanish Civil War finally resulted into the signing of an
alliance called the Rome-Berlin Axis in 1936.
In 1937, Italy joined the Anti-Commutern Pact between Germany and
Japan which was formed in 1937 to fight against the spread of Communism
and the new alliance became known as the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis. This
was a military alliance and it lasted until the Second World War.
In August 1938, Italy and Germany signed the Pact of Steel. This was a purely
military alliance between the two. By this alliance, Germany and Italy
promised to support each other in an event of War. By signing this treaty,
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Mussolini sealed the fate of Italy and his own as the Second World War
brought about his down fall in 1943.
In 1945, Mussolini was captured while trying to escape. He and his wife were
shot dead by anti-fascist Italian guerrilla fighters. Their bodies were taken to
Milan and hanged upside down in the main square for all to see.
11.4.6 THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR, 1936 – 1939
Q25. Explain the causes of the 1936 – 1939 Spanish Civil War and the role played
by Francisco Franco
 The presence of both the communist or leftist wing and the capitalists or
Nationalist wing with different interests
 Franco launched a military rebellion against the popular front government
 The failure of the Republican government to prevent the barbaric actions of
the extreme leftists which included riots, assassinations, strikes, arson and
burning of churches resulted into the outbreak of civil war.
 The Spanish war was as a result of economic reasons
 The desire by both the communists and capitalist blocks to win Spain on
each other’s side.
11.4.7. CHINA FROM 1919 TO 1939
Q26. Discuss the political and economic developments in China from 1919 – 1939
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Political developments
 World war one ended when Chiang Kai- Shek was temporarily in the driving
seat in China. He lost popularity when he registered many blunders in his
administration e.g. he failed to take over the Germany possession of the Far
East.
 In 1919, the Versailles treaty was signed that concluded the war and
handed over Far East possessions to Japan. This was totally rejected by the
Chinese and caused wide spread demonstrations resulting into the Fourth
May Movement which was against Feudalism, Warlordism, autocracy,
imperialism among others. It instead advocated for democracy, freedom,
patriotic, science, and progress among others. The movement resulted into
the formation of the Chinese Communist party under Sun Yat-sen.
 In 1925, Sun Yat-sen died of cancer and Chiang Kai-Shek seized control of
the Kuomintang Nationalist Party. He succeeded into bringing most of the
south and central China under his control through a military campaign
called Northern Expedition.
 In 1927, due to some differences Chiang Kai-Shek turned against the
communists and killed them in large numbers- about 250, 000. The incidence
was termed as the White Terror.
 In 1934, the survived communists moved along a journey that covered
600miles for 385 days crossing mountains, 12 rivers and villages and
established a guerrilla base at Shensi. The movement was called Long
Match. The communists reorganized under a new leader Mao-Tse-tung or
Mao Zedong.
 In 1937, the two Chinese parties nominally formed a united front to oppose
the Japanese during the Sino-Japanese War. The Japanese forces reacted
by committing numerous war atrocities against civilians in the Alls Policy of
‘Kill All, Burn All and Loot All’ an incidence known as Nanking Massacre
Economic developments
 The pace of economic development was slow just like it was during the prewar era because Western powers especially Britain and Japan imposed
unequal treaties on China’s sovereignty and dominated the international
trade with their imperialist policies. Britain also employed a military policy
where armed mercenaries were used to force its imports on China. China
was flooded with British and Indian goods.
 China’s economy was also centered on Chinese domestic culture and
traditions. Due to this, China’s economy was in stagnation.
11.4.8. JAPAN FROM 1919 – 1939
Q27. Describe the political and economic developments in Japan from 1919 -1939
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Political developments
 After the successful annexation of Korea, Makoto Saito was appointed
governor of Korea in 1919. In June 1920 about 450 Japanese civilians and
350 soldiers were massacred on the Amur River by Partisan forces
associated.
 In 1922, Japanese Community party was founded. Due to domestic
opposition, economic and human cost in October 1922, the Prime Minister
Kato Tomosaburo withdrew Japanese forces from her far territories.
 In 1925, Wakatsuki became the prime minister, the electorate increased
from 3.3 million to 12.5
 In 1926, Emperor Taisho died and shown Emperor Hirohito took over. In 1927,
Tanaka Giichi became prime minister in April 20th.
 On 2 July 1929, Osachi Hamaguchi became prime minister but on the 14 th
November 1930 he was wounded in an assassination attempt and died in
1931. On the 14th April, 1932, Wakatsuki Reijiro became prime minister. On
13th December, same year Inukai Tsuyoshi became prime minister.
 On 29 February 1932, Henry pu yi became Emperor and in the same year
Tsuyoshi Inukai was assassinated during a coup attempt and on 5 May Saito
Makoto beame prime minister.
 On 27 March 1933, Japan left the League of Nations and took over Jeho
from China in the same year.
 On 8 July 1934 Keisuke Okada became prime minister and on 29 December
Japan withdrew from the Washington Naval Treaty
 On 9 March prince Fumimaro Konoe became prime minister replaced
Senjuro Hayashi. On July 1937, Japan captured Beijing followed by the
Nanjing Massacre on 13 December.
 In 1938, canton falls to Japanese forces on 21 October after the battle of
Taierzhuang on 24 March same year. Japan prohibited the expulsion of
Jews, in Japan, Manchuria and China basing on the spirit of racial equality.
 On 5 January 1939, Hiranuma Kiichito became prime minister followed by
Abe Mobuyuki on 30 August.
Economic developments
 The economy of Japan continued to boom even during the interwar period
despite some notable challenges that were met. Various companies of raw
materials i.e. Sumitomo electric industries, Mitsui mining, Kobe steel among
others boomed. In fact between 1907 and 1917 total net revenue of Japan
rose from 2 million yen to 15 million yen.
 In 1918, an electric company called Panasonic was founded by Konosuke
Matsushira. Generally, there was an economic boom in Japan during the
era of World War I.
 In 1920’s Japan took up developmental projects that boost education,
there was improved transport and communication, health centres and
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









roads were constructed. Harbours were renovated and generally sanitation
greatly improved.
In 1920 Mazda was founded. Technology was advancing and generally the
industrial sector grew rapidly.
However, in 1923, the pace of economic development was disrupted by the
great Kanto Earthquake which strained the economy. Kanto was the major
commercial, industrial and financial centre. Therefore, the serious damage
from the earthquake left the economy greatly affected.
Despite the effects of the earthquake, economic developments continued
to take place. Big companies such as South Seas Development Company
engaged in Phosphate mining and coconut production emerged.
By 1925 oil, timber and coal were founded in some colonies like Karafuto,
Kwantung territory also became industrialized.
In 1927, banks in Japan were in danger of collapsing and workers rushed to
withdraw their savings. It was worsened by the great economic depression
of 1929; the economy suffered greatly especially due to the collapse of
banking system. The post war depression hindered and greatly affected
both rural and urban areas.
Despite the economic depression that rocked Europe between 1929– 1933,
Japan was not so much affected like other European powers. In fact
business continued though at a slower pace. There was notable
development especially between 1912- 1932. During this period, the
standard of living improved national income per capita doubled and
generally Tokyo transformed into modern city.
The volume of trade and exports expanded. Merchant marine fleet doubled
and heavy industries develop to meet the increasing demand for producer
capital goods which included steel, coal, Iron and heavy machinery.
There was increasing employment opportunities as hydro-electric-power
increased. Industries for electrical goods developed
In 1939, Japan’s economy was at its peak. World War II had created new
opportunities for Japanese trade. This forced Britain and her allies to
withdraw from Asian markets and turned to Japan for military ammunitions.
These developments boosted Japan’s economy between 1919- 1939.
The Japanese economy during the interwar period faced chronic crisis e.g.
the financial crisis of 1927 and the depression of 1930- 1931.
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RUSSIA UNDER TSARIST RULE, 1870-1914
Background
Between mid 19th and early 20th centuries, Russia was one of the largest countries
but also backward in Eurasian. It covered ½ of Europe and 2/3 of Asia. Tsars or
Czars who belonged to the Romanov Family ruled Russia from 1613 to 1917.
The Tsars were too autocratic and their governments were oppressive and
inefficient in comparison to other monarchies in Europe. The Press was heavily
censored; freedom was limited while education and the judiciary were closely
monitored by the political secret police known as the Chekas.
In response to Tsars’ oppressive governments and dissatisfaction in rural areas,
political groups emerged in Russia with the aim of toppling the government.
Other revolutionary groups of educated people in the universities later formed
revolutionary groups which were against the Tsars. These groups were:
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1. Anarchists made up of radical Russians who advocated anarchy and called
for the complete destruction of the state, the Tsar’s family, law and other
institutions.
2. Nihilists, who aimed at eradicating the leadership of the Tsar, rejected all
traditions and believed in the building of a completely new Russian society.
3. Social Democratic Party (SDP) formed in 1898 and mainly appealed to
industrial and factory workers by pointing out how the government had
brought suffering on them
4. The Social Revolutionary Party (SRP) formed in 1901 with the aim of seizing all
land from the large land Lords and redistribute it to the peasants. It carried
out assassinations of important people as well as members of the ruling
family.
RUSSIAN ECONOMY BEFORE 1900
Economically, Russia was an agricultural backward country whose majority of its
population lived in rural agricultural communities. Most of the Russian farmland
was divided into large estates owned by Russian nobles and worked by peasants
and Serfs (slaves).
Serfs worked on the land owned by land Lords or the Nobles. Mostly, peasants
cultivated the land and their farming equipment was too primitive (wooden
ploughs). These Serfs did not own the land of their own but kept on supplying
labour on the estates of their land Lords and made payments through working for
staying on the land.
RUSSIAN EFFORTS AT INDUSTRIALIZATION
By 19th century, few industries existed in Russia around St. Petersburg and Moscow.
Industrial development occurred during the reigns of Alexander III and his
successor. In 1892, de Witte became Minister of Finance and worked hard to
Industrialize Russia. Money to finance industrial growth came from France in terms
of loans.
The following industries developed in Russia between 1890 and 1905:
(i) Trans-Siberian and Chinese Eastern Railways
- Financed by loans from France and began in 1891.
(ii) Iron and steel plants were created in St Petersburg and areas in modern
Ukraine and Poland.
(iii) Production of oil in the Caucasus increased five-fold between 1885 and
1905.
- By about 1900, Russia had some three million factory workers.
EMANCIPATION OF SERFS IN 1861
Alexander II passed the emancipation edict of freeing the peasants hence
bringing an end to Serfdom. This gave the Serfs freedom like:
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i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Free to leave the estates of their land Lords
No longer tied to the land hence were now free to move to towns.
Nobles could no longer flog a peasant to death or force troublesome
serfs to join the army as part of punishment.
Could now marry freely without being told whom to marry.
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR- 1904-05
It was fought between Russia and Japan and lasted from 1904 to 1905.
Tsar Nicholas II thought Russia was going to record a quick and easy victory
against Japan hence the latter a “nation of little apes”.
Causes
1. Russia attacked Japan in an attempt to annex Manchuria which the
Japanese had colonial interests as well.
2. Russian failure to withdraw troops sent to Manchuria during the Boxer
Uprising.
3. Tsar Nicholas II wanted to expand Russian territory eastwards despite her
slow industrial development.
4. Russian penetration of Korea which Japan had colonial interests in hence
the latter felt ready to test themselves against the Russians.
5. Russia attacked Japan in an attempt to rally the people behind the Tsar and
prevent the possible occurrence of looming revolutions aiming at toppling
the Tsarist government.
6. Tsar Nicholas wanted to acquire a warm-water of Port Arthur on the pacific
for Russia.
COURSE OF THE WAR
Efforts to settle the war peacefully failed, so in 1904, Russia sent its war fleets to the
pacific. In reaction, Japanese forces made a quick attack on Port Arthur on
January 1, 1904 and destroyed the Russian cruise ship called Varyag.
By 1904 December, the Japanese forces met little resistance at Port Arthur hence
the Russian forces easily surrendered. At the battle of Tsushima in 1905, the
Japanese forces defeated the Russian Baltic Sea fleet.
RESULTS OF THE WAR
i.
The Treaty of Portsmouth was signed in September 1905 in which Russia
recognized Japan’s special position in Korea hence ending Russian
expansion in Asia.
ii.
Japan obtained Port Arthur and Dalianwan.
iii.
Russia lost land to Japan on Liaotung peninsula.
iv.
Both Russia and Japan agreed to withdraw their troops from Manchuria.
v.
Karafuto, the southern half of the island of Sakhalin was ceded to Japan.
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vi.
vii.
viii.
It also exposed the weaknesses of the Russian army with its outdated
weapons.
The loss of the war gave morale to the revolutionary movement which
aimed at removing the Tsar from power.
Russian railway (South Manchurian railway) and mining rights were given
to Japan.
LENIN AND THE BOLSHEVIKS
Lenin was born in April 1870 and spent most of his
years in exile especially between 1900 and 1917. His
real names weres Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov but
adopted a revolutionary name of Lenin in order to
evade the Tsar’s attempts on his life.
Lenin became part of the revolutionary movement
at the age of 16. Lenin’s older brother, Alexander
belonged to a terrorist organization that plotted to
kill Tsar Alexander III. He was arrested, proudly
admitted his role in the plot, and was hanged in
May 1887.
After his brother’s death, Lenin himself became a revolutionary. In 1896 he was
arrested and sent to Siberia for three years. From Siberia he went into exile in
Switzerland where he became the leader of the Bolsheviks in 1917.
In 1917, the Germans allowed Lenin to return to Russia because they hoped that
he would incite a revolution and take Russia out of the war. At first, Lenin led a
Social Democratic Party (SDP) which later split into two i.e. Mensheviks (minority)
and Bolsheviks (majority) due to misunderstandings in the manner the revolution
was to be achieved.
The Mensheviks were in favour of the Tsar’s gradual reforms and willing to
cooperate with the regime in Russia while the Bolsheviks on the other hand insisted
on the use of force to overthrow the existing regime in Russia (Tsarist Government).
Lenin believed in Marxism by emphasizing that workers would never be free until
the capitalist and their governments had been overthrown by violent revolutions.
However, the workers needed to be organized and led by professional
revolutionaries-the Bolsheviks. Unlike Marx, Lenin believed that revolutions could
occur in industrially underdeveloped countries such as Russia hence fitted the
theory to reality.
THE 1905 RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
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It took place on the 9th January 1905 and is also known as the Workers’ Revolution.
Although it failed to overthrow the Tsar’s government, the 1905 Russian Revolution
was a very important event in the Russian history where opposition to the Tsar was
concerned.
Causes
Autocratic rule of Tsar Nicholas II
Just like his predecessors, Tsar Nicholas II was very autocratic. He was too
repressive and the press was heavily censored. He ruled the country alone without
the Duma (Parliament) to check his unlimited powers.
Peasants’ Grievances
The peasants were the main producers of food but had no rights of their own. They
had no rights to the land on which they grew crops. Peasants had no political
rights and remained poor at the mercy of the rich land Lords who used them as
tools of production.
Poor working conditions of factory and town workers
Factory and town workers worked long, over 12 hours but received low wages.
They lived in poor accommodation with poor water and sanitation facilities. Their
working places, the factories, were in sub-human conditions.
Such conditions greatly reduced workers’ nutrition, morale and standard of living.
The workers were also very discontented with Tsar’s government that did not
protect them from the capitalists who exploited them. The Tsar’s government
appeared to be in support of industrialists in exploiting the workers.
Workers’ and Peasants’ exposure To Karl Marx Revolutionary literature and ideas
Karl Marx revolutionary ideas stated that there is class struggle in society at every
time in history between the ruling class and the ruled; between the bourgeoisie
and proletariats (workers) and between the land Lords (nobles) and the peasants.
Marx therefore argued that a time would come when the proletariats rise in a
revolution and topple the Bourgeoisie, they would seize the factories and take full
control thereby creating a classless society. The proletariats (workers) will then form
a proletariat government called the ‘Soviets’ after a Proletarian Revolution. Such
materials greatly influenced them to take up arms and revolt against the
autocratic government.
Russian defeat by Japanese Forces in 1905
The defeat of Russia by Japan in 1905 was very shameful to the ordinary Russians
as it showed the Russian people how weak militarily their government was.
According to Lenin, the defeat of Russia was a defeat of the Tsar and the
humiliation of the army but the victory for the Russian people. Lenin also claimed
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that Russian failure during the war symbolized the fall of Tsarism in Russia and the
rise of Communism hence he encouraged Russians to rise against the Tsar.
COURSE OF THE WAR
Started on 3rd January 1905 when over 100, 000 workers at Putilov Works in St
Petersburg went on strike because of four of their fellow workers were dismissed by
management.
It later spread to other cities hence affecting industrial, business and public life as
thousands of unemployed people in towns joined and supported the strikers.
Real revolution started a week later on 9th January 1905 when a priest by the
name of Father Gregory Gapon led a procession of peaceful workers, women
and children to Winter Palace at the Palace Square to present a petition to the
Tsar demanding economic, social and political changes (a peaceful protest
against poor working and living conditions).
Instead, Father Gregory Gapon and workers were shot at by the Winter Guards
and over a thousand of them died and many were wounded at the Palace
Square. This incident came to be known as ‘Bloody Sunday’ since it took place on
Sunday.
On 10th January, 1905, there were strikes and violent demonstrations all over the
country against the Tsar. Workers seized a printing company and printed
thousands of revolutionary materials inciting people to take up arms and
overthrow the Tsar and establish their own government. However, the revolution
was quickly put down by Tsar’s government.
Results
Though not very successful, the following took place:
- Tsar Nicholas II for the first time in the history of Russia allowed the formation of
the Duma (parliament) with legislative powers and elected franchise.
- The Tsar lost some autocratic powers although it only lasted for a short time.
- Freedom of speech began with at least less censorship of the press.
- Nicholas II allowed the constitution to be set by October 1905. However, the
gains did not last long because Nicholas II dismissed all the liberties achieved.
Also, the 1905, 1906 and 1907 Dumas were all dismissed while the pre-1905
revolution rule was restored.
RUSSIA DURING THE FIRST WORLD WAR
On 1st August 1914, Russia entered the WWI on the side of Serbia. This war caused
a lot of problems to the Russian people. Russia was poorly equipped and had
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weak generals. By 1915, four million Russians had died, there were food shortages
and massive inflation in the country.
To deal with this, Tsar Nicholas II moved his headquarters to the war front and left
his wife Tsarina Alexandria in charge of the government. Tsarina ignored the
advice of the chief advisors instead confided in the monk Rasputin.
Grigori Rasputin was a religious mystical leader,
a bogus monk from Siberia who claimed to
have some mystical powers as a holy man. He
healed Prince Alexis (son of Tsar Nicholas II) who
was a haemophilic, a blood disease. The
healing of the Tsar’s son by this man increased
his reputation such that the Tsar invited him to
be staying at the Winter Palace.
Soon, this man became so influential and
began participating in policy making which was
supposed to be done by the members of the
royal family. However, the Tsarina came to rely on Rasputin’s advice. Worse still, in
the absence of the Tsar, Rasputin developed an intimate relationship with the
Tsarina which later disgraced the respect which the royal family had enjoyed.
The Tsarina and Rasputin worsened things as the latter became an indirect ruler of
the country hence both the Tsarina and Rasputin were hated by every Russian.
Due to his bad influence on the Tsarina, Rasputin was assassinated by Prince
Yusupov, a member of the Imperial court in 1916.
THE FEBRUARY/MARCH 1917 RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
The March 1917 Russian Revolution was a very important event in the Russian
history because it removed the Tsar’s government from leadership. It also brought
political changes and a new form of government different from the Tsarist
government. It was well organized by the Bolsheviks, Mensheviks and the rich Land
Lords, businessmen and few workers.
Causes
- The weak leadership of Tsar Nicholas II
- Widespread discontent among all social classes; everyone was suffering
from heavy taxes, poor working conditions, lack of land etc
- The propaganda of the revolutionaries who rallied the masses to revolt e.g.
the Bolsheviks
- The embarrassment caused by the defeat in the Russo-Japanese war
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-
The events surrounding the Bloody Sunday in 1905 left people bitter and
showed the ruthlessness of the Tsar
There were many strikes and riots in Russia which showed that the monarchy
was no longer working
The immediate cause was the WWI. The war severely affected the economy
of Russia and the losses were humiliating.
Course
In March 1917, women started looting bakeries and food shops when hunger
increased. The Tsar called out the troops to restore order in Petrograd (Former St.
Petersburg). However, the police and soldiers joined the hungry rioters whom they
armed with weapons and the revolution spread throughout the country.
Without the army’s support, the government became powerless and within days it
collapsed. In the country side, the peasants also looted and burned houses, crops
and destroyed any reachable property of land Lords.
Results
- Tsar Nicholas II tried to escape but was arrested together with his family in
March 1917 and was forced to abdicate the throne in favour of his brother
Mkkhail who also refused to take up the position
- Tsar Nicholas II and his family were shot dead by the firing squad.
- The February/March 1917 Revolution managed to end the Romanov rule
but it did not bring down the Bourgeoisie who controlled the means of
production in towns.
- The fall of the Tsarist government ushered in a new government called the
Provisional Government (Interim government) under the leadership of
Alexander Kerensky.
ALEXANDER KERENSKY
He was Russian lawyer and a revolutionary leader. He was born on 4th May 1881
and one of the key figures in the 1917 Russian Revolution. He spent most of his life
in exile in Paris and New York. He joined the newly formed Russian Provisional
Government as Minister of Justice then a Minister of war. He was overthrown by
the Lenin led Bolsheviks in the October Revolution. He died in 1970.
THE PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT
After the fall of the Tsarist government, the Petrograd politicians in the Duma
declared Russia a new Republic. They set up a Provisional Government (temporal
government) as they waited for elections later in 1917. Alexander Kerensky was
appointed to lead the Provision Government. From the start, the Provision
Government was not popular among the many Russians.
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Reasons why the Provisional Government was hated and later overthrown by the
Bolsheviks
- Many hated it because it appeared to be a government of the Mensheviks.
It was only for the rich land lords, businessmen and very few workers and
peasants hence it was not the type of the revolution many anticipated.
- Alexander Kerensky himself refused the peasants to take over land in the
country side.
- He also wanted to go ahead with the hated war to please Britain and
France despite that the soldiers were tied fighting and wished to go back
home.
- Kerensky also failed to address the problem of food shortages for workers in
towns.
- He again delayed to make the much anticipated reforms after the fall of
the Tsarist government hence forcing the Bolsheviks to stage another
revolution in October 1917.
THE OCTOBER REVOLUTION OF 1917 (THE BOLSHEVIKS REVOLUTION)
The October 1917 Revolution or the Bolsheviks Revolution brought an end to the
Provisional Government and ushered in Communism in Russia.
Lenin came back from exile in Switzerland in 1917 soon after the overthrow of the
Tsarist government. He believed that the March 1917 Revolution was not a
complete one as he felt it was organized and executed by the Mensheviks who
were the minority.
He quickly mobilized the Bolsheviks and became the leader. He came up with
slogan of ‘Peace, Bread and Land’. For soldiers on the battle front, he promised
them peace that he would bring an end to the unpopular war by bringing them
back home. He promised bread to workers and everyone in towns. He also
promised land to be given to the peasants in the countryside.
Soldiers and workers also had set up Soviets (Councils) to run factories and towns.
This made Lenin add to his slogan that “All power to the Soviets”! He also got
support from those Councils in Petrograd the capitals of Russia.
In few months, Lenin was known throughout Russia because he ordered the Soviets
not to cooperate with the Provisional Government. As a result, demonstrations
broke out against the Provisional Government across Russia hence Alexander
Kerensky (leader of the government) blamed these on the Bolsheviks and called
Lenin a German agent.
Kerensky therefore issued arrest warrants for all Bolshevik leaders. In Petrograd,
Lenin set up his own fighting wing known as the Red Guards (Red Army) controlled
by his friend a trained Army Commander by the name of Leon Trotsky.
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By 20th October, 1917, the Petrograd Soviet was determined to seize power so it
worked hand in hand with the Moscow telephonists and the Sailors of the Aurora.
On 6th November 1917, the Bolsheviks called for a strike. Soldiers and Sailors
mutinied in the barracks and in ports against the Provisional Government. On the
same day, Trotsky and the Red Guards marched on Government buildings in
Petrograd and took over key buildings and installations such as Railway stations
and telephone exchange centres.
Trotsky and the Red Guards arrested all Provisional Government officials while
some were killed except Kerensky who escaped abroad. They took over
government with less resistance and two days later, the All- Russian Congress of
Soviets met in Petrograd.
Those who opposed the Bolsheviks walked out and this left control of the Soviets in
the hands of the Bolsheviks. Later, Trotsky turned to the Tsar and killed him together
with his family.
By 17th November 1917, Lenin was installed as a new leader of Russia and
changed his party from the Bolshevik to Communist Party and adopted a red flag
with a new symbol of a Hammer and Sickle, symbolizing union between workers
and peasants.
RUSSIA UNDER LENIN
Once Russia came under Lenin in 1917, he faced a number of problems. These
were;
- Dealing with the country’s economy
- Dealing with the Tsar’s supporters
- What to do about Russia’s participation I the war
- A civil war took place in Russia from 1918 to 1920 due to opposition from
loyalist.
As a new Russian leader, Lenin immediately came up with the following economic
reforms aiming at improving the collapsed economy:
1. He grabbed land from the rich land lords (Nobles) and distributed it to the
peasants to produce more food and bread for the starving masses in the
country.
2. Factories and workshops were seized by the state without compensation
and given to the workers.
3. Private ownership of property was abolished hence factories were
nationalized and became government property.
4. Labour was made compulsory in government factories to produce more
food.
5. The public debts of the previous governments were cancelled.
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6. The Russian Orthodox Church was abolished.
7. He introduced Communism and Russia became the Union of the Soviet
Socialist Republic (USSR). The Bolsheviks Party changed its name to
Communist Party and the capital moved from St. Petersburg (Petrograd) to
Moscow.
8. He introduced the New Economic Policy in 1921 which introduced limited
capitalism to recover the economy. The NEP had four main features;
a. Peasants were allowed to sell surplus produce
b. The government kept control of major industries and banks but
allowed private ownership of small business
c. Traders could buy and sell freely
d. The Chekas stopped confiscating food
9. To fulfill the promise for peace, the Bolshevik Government pulled Russia out
of war by asking Germany for an armistice (end to war). In March 1918, a
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed between Germany and Russia in which:
i. Russia lost one-quarter (1/4) of her best Ukrainian wheat producing
agricultural land to Germany.
ii. Russia lost her railways and some industrial areas which included coal
and iron ore fields.
iii. Russia had to pay 300 million gold rubies in reparation to Germany.
The terms of the treaty represented the cost of peace.
Lenin died from stroke on 21st January 1924. He was succeeded by Joseph Stalin.
THE USSR UNDER JOSEPH STALIN
Stalin was born on 18th December 1978 in Georgia as Joseph Dzhugashvili. He
became involved in politics at a young age and changed his name to Stalin
meaning, ‘Man of steel.’
He was an underground agitator in the Bolsheviks party who engineered robberies
and beating up of people and was arrested many times. In 1921, Lenin appointed
him to serve on the Central Committee and in 1922 he became the party’s
Secretary General.
When Lenin died, he killed founding members such as Trosky and became the
most powerful man in the Soviet Union.
Stalin’s Home Policy
Aims.
- He wanted to consolidate power to himself.
- Eliminate all opposition
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e. He introduced totalitarian, a government that has complete power over
every aspect of public and private life. In 1934, he launched the Great
Purge, a campaign of terror where he killed 8-13 million people for crimes
against the Soviet Union
f. There was censorship of the press (TVs, radios, books, art and newspapers
g. He embarked on the geographical expansion of his country and by 1953;
Latvia and Lithuania were added to the Soviet Union. This increased land for
settlement and agriculture
h. He controlled education from pre-school to university and introduced
communist ideas at all levels
i. He abolished churches by killing or sent to labour camps church leaders
j. From 1928, he introduced the five year economic plans by modernizing
industries
k. In 1938 he introduced collectivization policy where 90% of all peasants lived
on collective farms. They were given tractors and other farming implements.
Production almost doubled. Those who refused were killed or sent to Siberia
l. Women received equal rights and performed the same jobs as men. By 1950
75% of all doctors were women
Stalin’s Foreign Policy
Aims.
- Extend Communism across eastern Europe
a. In 1939, he signed a Non-Aggressive Pact with Hitler. He annexed Poland,
Romania, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Finland where he introduced
Communist dictatorships
b. He established Communist governments in Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia
c. He adopted the scorched earth policy when she was attacked by Germany
in 1941. This helped Russia defeat Germany at the battle of Stalingrad.
d. He participated in the Tehran (1943), Yalta (1945) and Potsdam (1945)
conferences to discuss life after the WWII
e. He made the atomic bomb in 1949
f. He supported North Korea and China in the Korean War (1950-53)
Stalin died of a stroke on 5th March 1953. At the time of his death, Stalin had made
USSR a world supper power on the same level as the USA.
He was succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev who began the policy called
Destalinisation.
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THE CAUSES OF THE UNITED STATE OF AMERICA (U.S.A.)’S DEPRESSION OF 1929.
MEASURES TAKEN BY PRESIDENT FRANKLIN DELANO ROOSEVELT TO SOLVE THE
PROBLEMS BROUGHT BY THE DEPRESSION?
WHY THE MEASURES WERE OPPOSED BY THE SUPREME COURT.
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The Depression was an economic slump or crisis which started in the U.S.A and
later spread to the rest of the World.
The Great economic depression had both remote and immediate causes: one of
the remote causes was over production of goods. The use of improved methods of
production, use of labour saving machinery and wide spread use of electricity led
to over production of goods. This was more prevalent in the Agricultural Sector.
This led to a decline in prices. Consequently farmer’s income was reduced.
In addition, changes in the eating habit and life style also contributed to the
depression. To some extent, the common man in the U.S.A was responsible. In the
1920’s people’s life style changed in such a way as to reduce the farmers’ income
drastically for example, people preferred artificial fabric cloth to cotton cloth and
ate fruits, vegetables and drunk milk instead of eating meat and bread, because
of this wheat local market dwindled and the problem was further worsened by a
decline in international trade. Many farmers were compelled to abandon their
farms as some fell behind with their mortgage loans. Many farmers sought
employment but unfortunately, the industrial sector was having its own problems
and farmers could not find employment.
The industrial sector also experienced reproduction of goods but wealth was
concentrated in only a few hands. In relation to prices of goods wages remained
stagnant while prices kept on rising; consequently the workers purchasing powers
weakened and most of the workers resorted to hire purchase but could not pay in
time. This meant that businessmen could not make enough profit and little capital
to expand their firms.
Another contributing factor to the causes of the depression was trade restriction.
As result of over production of industrial goods in the late 1920s many European
countries introduced high tariff on the imported goods. To some extent, it was in
response to American’s trade restrictions of European produced goods. American
imposed tariffs on these goods.
This introduction of high tariffs severely affected American business as this
contributed to the decline of U.S.A. international trade. During the First World War,
the U.S.A enjoyed a favourable balance of trade. The European powers that
were at war (1914 – 1918) brought American goods within a few years. After the
war these nations became trade rivals rather than customers. Argentina and
Canada began competing with the U.S.A in the production of meat and wheat
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respectively. America’s loss of foreign trade as a result of rivals and trade
restrictions was such that by 1928, she experienced an unfavourable balance of
trade. This development contributed greatly to the depression.
The other contributing factor was the failure by Britain and France to pay back
American loans, the U.S.A had given out loans to Britain and France to help them
in their war efforts. These counties accumulated such heavy debts that they failed
to pay back in time. Worse still, between 1924 and 1929 under Dawes plan,
America gave out large sums of money to Germany. A lot of money was leaving
the country and little was coming into the U.S.A reserve Bank. This had an adverse
effect on the economy. Many banks ran out of the money and while long queues
of people trying to withdraw their money became common.
The immediate cause of the depression was the collapse of the Wall Street Stock
market in 1929. By October, 1929 share prices had fallen so low that many people
chose to sell their shares. The Reserve bank had encouraged a policy of easy
money and also encouraged credit inflation.
President Roosevelt (1932-45) came to power at the height of the Great
Depression of 1929-1933.He introduced the New Deal as a solution to the
American people. Upon resuming the economic restoration programme he came
up with Hundred Days plan (4 March – 16 June 1933) Here radio chats to restore
morale of the people and win their confidence were put in place. A list of
proposal for new laws were drafted and presented to the Congress. These new
laws passed by Congress set up new schemes for tackling the social and
economic crisis.
One of the New Deal Laws and Schemes was the Emergency Banking Act.
Through this act banks on the verge of collapse were provided with Federal
Government funds to keep them in business. This created confidence in the
Banking Industry.
Secondly was the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA).It aimed at reducing output
but modernize methods; to avoid overproduction. Farmers who cut production
were given a subsidy.
Thirdly, the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) was set up to give cash
relief to the poor and to help Local Authorities with their poor relief schemes.
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Fourthly the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC): was set up to provide work for the
unemployed. By 1940 two million people aged 18 – 25 years were employed by
the Civilian Conservation Corps. They planted trees and cleared swamps.
Furthermore, The Civil Works Administration (CWA): was set up to provide work on
public works. In 1935 it was replaced by Works Progress Administration (W.P.A). It
built schools, roads and hospitals.
A National Recovery Administration Act (NIRA) was set up by the NIRA It abolished
child – labour, shortened the working week and fixed minimum wages. It also
allowed workers to form Trade Unions.
The Wagner Act forced employers to recognize Trade Unions. It set up the National
Labour Relations Board to handle Labour disputes.
The Social Security Act introduced old age pensions and insurance against
unemployment. Relief for the poor, the handicapped and dependent children
Through National Housing Act government provided money for building more
houses at low rents affordable to the poorest families. As if this was not enough a
Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (H.O.L.P) was set up to help house – owners to
pay back mortgages (house loans). Through this loans for paying mortgages at
low rates of interest were given.
Lastly, Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) was set up to build dams to control floods;
to general electricity; to provide water for irrigation and to create employment
opportunities in the Tennessee River Basins. The scheme served seven American
States
The Supreme Court is the guardian and defender of the Constitution of the USA. It
hears cases brought before it by people who believe that an act passed by
Congress is a violation of the Constitution.
The Supreme Court declared several measures introduced by Roosevelt as
interference in individual freedoms of the employers and their business firms.
The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) and the National Recovery Administration
(NIRA) were declared invalid by the Court in 1935 and 1936 respectively
Roosevelt was said to be a Marxist Revolutionary who believed in State Controlled
economy by his opponents.
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11.4.9. THE SECOND WORLD WAR 1939-1945
The Second World War took place between 1939 and 1945. It was much more
destructive than the first because it was fought on many fronts. The Second World
War was also referred to as the Second European War.
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The causes of the Second World War were similar to those of the first. However,
historians have agreed that the Second World War was a war of revenge initiated
by Germany under Hitler.
Long term causes of the Second World War
The Versailles Treaty-1919;
The Treaty of Versailles was one of the factors that led to the Second World War.
The terms of the treaty were very unfair to Germany, Italy, Austria and Hungary.
Germany especially was badly treated. She was forced to sign the “War Guilty”
clause. She suffered territorial losses, forced to pay reparations and her army was
dismantled.
These unfair terms forced Hitler to seek revenge when he came to power in 1933.
Hitler followed an aggressive foreign policy that led to the outbreak of the World
War II.
The Establishment of Dictatorships in Europe;
In 1922, Mussolini established a dictatorship in Italy. In 1933 Hitler established one in
Germany and General Franco established one in Spain with the help of Hitler and
Mussolini in 1936.
This divided Europe into two camps of dictators and democracies i.e. Italy,
Germany and Spain on one hand and Britain and France on the other. This division
represented a conflict of ideologies because democratic states stood for the
maintenance of status quo while the dictators had expansionist aims and
demanded additional territories on grounds of prestige, glory and strategy. This led
to aggressive acts by Germany, Italy and Japan.
The System of Alliances;
The dictators also formed alliances against other countries. As a result of their
common interests;
- Mussolini and Hitler signed the Rome-Berlin Axis in 1936.
- In the same year, Germany signed the Anti-Commutern Pact with Japan.
- In 1937, the three dictators signed the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis.
- In August 1939, Hitler and Mussolini signed the Pact of Steel.
These military alliances that were signed led to the division of the world into two
camps; Allied Powers and the Aggressive Powers. These camps started preparing
for War.
The Failure of Collective Security;
The failure of collective security under the League of Nations also contributed to
the outbreak of War. The main purpose of the League of Nations had been to
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eliminate any possibilities of an outbreak of War. However, the outbreak of the
Second World War was due to the League of Nations failure to carryout effective
disarmament and stops the aggressive acts of some of its major member countries
e.g.
- the Japanese Invasion of Manchuria in 1931
- Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia in 1936 and
- the many acts of aggression committed by Hitler.
When the League of Nations condemned such actions, the aggressors left the
League to commit more acts of aggression.
The Policy of Appeasement;
This was a policy that was followed by Britain and France which also contributed
to the outbreak of the Second World War. The Western democracies allowed Hitler
and Mussolini to carryout acts of aggression in the name of stopping the
Communism.
The Communist Soviet Union was seen as a worst enemy as compared to Fascist
aggression. This policy of appeasement was clearly seen at the Munich
Conference of 1938 and the consequent German occupation of Czechoslovakia.
The other reason for following this policy was that Britain and France were not yet
ready for another war and did not want to provoke Hitler. By following this policy,
they were buying more time.
The other reason was that Britain and France felt guilty for the way they treated
Germany at the Versailles Peace Settlement. The Policy of appeasement allowed
Hitler and Mussolini to carryout acts of aggression against weaker democracies. In
allowing this, Britain and France underestimated Hitler’s ambitions and abilities.
Therefore, the Second World War was as a result of the miscalculations of the
statesmen of the democratic countries.
The 1929 World Economic Depression;
The depression also acted as cause of the Second World War because it led to the
collapse of Democracies and the rise of Dictatorships e.g. the collapse of the
Weimar Republic and the Rise of Hitler and the NAZI Party in Germany.
Imperialist Policies of Japan, Italy and Germany;
As a result of the loss of territories in the Versailles Treaty, the colonial world was
divided between Britain and France. Therefore, Germany and Italy wanted to
recapture what they had lost in Africa and Europe. Japan on the other hand had
increased her imperialist ambitions after First World War and these mostly targeted
China.
Arms Race;
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After Hitler pulled out of the Geneva Disarmament Conference in 1934 and started
rapid re-armament, the other countries were threatened and also started
preparing for war. This created an atmosphere for war just like what happened
during the First World War.
Immediate or short term causes of the Second World War
German Invasion of Poland;
Germany invaded Poland on 1st September, 1939. When Hitler invaded Poland,
Britain and France gave an ultimatum to Germany to withdraw her troops by 3rd
September, 1939. When this ultimatum expired, Britain and France declared war
on Germany.
COURSE/STAGES OF THE WAR
The Second World War was fought on many fronts like;
The Western Front;
In 1939, Germany attacked and defeated Poland within 6 weeks. At first, there
was no actual fighting between Britain and France and Germany. This was
because Britain and France were not ready for War. From September 1939 to April
1940, the two sides were still organizing themselves. This period was referred to as
the period of the “Phony War”
However, after April 1940, Germany used “Blitzkrieg” which meant “War of
Lightening”. This was a plan that Hitler formulated to quickly defeat and occupy
Denmark, Norway, Belgium and France. The invasion of these countries was code
named “Operation Yellow”.
After the defeat of the above mentioned countries, in September 1940, Germany
launched “Operation Sea Lion”. This was the code name for the Germany invasion
of Britain. Hitler used the German Air Force called the Luftwaffe to bombard Britain
in order to weaken her. The main assault i.e. Operation Sea Lion was supposed to
have been an attack from the sea. The resulting fighting between Germany and
Britain was referred to as the “Battle for Britain”.
However, Germany failed to defeat Britain because by this time, Britain had
prepared adequately for the war.
The Mediterranean, Middle East and North Africa.
In 1940, Italy was certain that Germany would win the war. She therefore joined
the war on the side of Germany. Italy invaded Greece, Yugoslavia, Crete, Malta,
Egypt and Libya. Italy owed her victories in these battles to the help she was given
by Germany but by 1943, Germany was unable to provide help to Italy. This
resulted into Italy’s defeat.
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The Eastern Front.
The main war on the Eastern Front was between Germany and Russia. The code
name for the German invasion of Russia was “Operation Barbarossa”. Germany
invaded Russia in 1941.
By 1942, Germany troops had advanced in Russia as far as Stalingrad and were
almost certain of victory over Russia.
In 1943, Russia entered into a Lend/Lease Scheme with the USA. This Scheme
enabled Russia to obtain tanks and other war materials from the USA.
This Scheme greatly enhanced Russia’s progress in the war. By 1945, the Russians
managed to drive the Germans out of Russia and captured East Germany. The
success of the Russian troops in 1945 was partly due to the fact that the German
troops were not adequately prepared for the severe Russian winters.
War in the Pacific and Asia.
War in the Pacific and Asia was perpetuated by Japan. Japan wanted to expand
her Empire and win major areas of oil, rice and other resources for her allies. Before
the outbreak of the Second World War, Japan had occupied Manchuria (1931)
and North China (1937).
In 1941, Japan captured Indo-China and on 1st December the same year, she
attacked the US naval base in the Pacific called Pearl Harbour in Hawaii. On 5th
December, 1941, the USA officially declared war on Japan, Germany and Italy.
Britain also declared war on Japan. During the year that followed, Japan
captured the Gawnwake Islands, and the US held Philippines.
In 1942, Japan also captured Burma, Malaysia, the Dutch East Indies and
Singapore also surrendered to Japan.
ALLIED VICTORY IN THE SECOND WORLD WAR
Allied Victory in Europe.
In 1943, the tide of war changed in favour of the Allies, with the entry of the USA in
to the war. The USA entered the war with fresh soldiers, advanced weapons and
financial assistance. The USA also took over the Allied Leadership.
In the summer of 1943, the Allied Powers conquered and liberated North Africa
from Italian occupation.
In autumn of 1943, Italy was defeated. Just before the Italian defeat, there was a
revolution in Italy against the Fascists. Mussolini was arrested but managed to
escape. In September 1943, Italy surrendered unconditionally. Mussolini was again
captured in 1945 and was shot dead by the Italians themselves.
Between August and September 1944, France was liberated from Germany
occupation. The liberation of France was launched on 22nd June, 1944 at
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Normandy, a small French coastal town. This day was referred to as the “D-Day”.
In 1945, the Russians drove the German troops out of Russia and occupied the
eastern part of Germany.
On 8th May, 1945, some of Germany’s smaller allies such as Bulgaria, Rumania and
Finland were also defeated.
In May, 1945, the allied powers launched a final attack on Germany which was
code named “Operation Jubilee”. Hitler committed suicide and Germany made
an unconditional surrender and Berlin was occupied by the allied forces.
Allied Victory in the Pacific and Asia.
Between 1942 and 1945, Japan lost most of her territorial gains in the Pacific and
Asia to the USA. In 1942, the USA sank Japanese Aircraft carriers and ships in the
Coral and Midway Islands. Between 1943 and 1945, American troops captured the
Islands of Lwo, Jima and Okinawa while the British captured Burma.
After the fall of Italy and Germany, the allies turned their full force on Japan. By
February, 1945 it was clear that Japan was losing the war as she had been
surrounded by the Allied Powers. The allies demanded that Japan should surrender
unconditionally but Japan rejected the demand.
On the 6th and the 9th of August, 1945, the USA dropped Atomic Bombs on
Hiroshima and Nagasaki respectively. On 14th August, 1945, Japan surrendered
and the Second World War ended.
Reasons for initial victories for Germany and Her Allies
During the initial stages of the War, Germany and her allies achieved Initial
Victories due to the following;
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Germany Generals were skilled in war while the troops were brave and
efficient.
Hitler had carefully planned and prepared for the war since he rose to
power in 1933.
The swiftness with which the Generals carried out the war enabled them to
achieve early victories. (War of Lightening-Blitzkrieg).
The Allied powers were not ready for the War. As a result, they were involved
in a Phony War. This gave Germany an advantage.
Germany and the Axis Powers maintained an element of surprise in all their
attacks. This ensured victory in all the wars they fought.
Reasons for the Final Defeat of Germany and the Axis Powers
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i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
Germany’s victory in the Second World War was dependant on the success
of Blitzkrieg. The Survival of Britain in 1940 kept the Western front alive until
the USA entered the War.
After 1943, the allies knew how to counteract Blitzkrieg using air support and
aircraft carriers. They also built up air and naval supremacy which enabled
them to win battles in the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans. They also used
this advantage to slowly starve the Axis Powers of essential supplies.
The Axis Powers took on too much. They fought the war against too many
countries at the same time e.g. Hitler’s war against Britain involved not only
Britain but her entire colonial Empire and at the same time, Hitler was
fighting Russia on the Eastern Front.
The entry of the USA also contributed to the final defeat of the Axis Powers.
The USA brought with it financial relief and fresh soldiers when Britain was
completely exhausted while Germany and the Axis Powers did not have
such help.
Towards the end of the War, German soldiers became undisciplined and
Hitler lost popularity while the allied forces were fully supported by their
people.
Germany had weak allies such as Bulgaria, Rumania and Finland and these
could not help much towards the end of the War.
The Axis Powers were not as advanced as the Allied powers technologically
and scientifically e.g. the allied forces’ invention of the Radar and Atomic
Bomb.
From the beginning of the war, the allied forces used what is referred to as
“Total Warfare”. This was using all the available material and human
resources for the war. But Hitler did not use women initially.
Results/Effects of the Second World War
Loss of human life
During the Second World War, it is estimated that about 12 million people died in
the U.S.S.R, 8 million in Germany, 6 million in Poland, 4 million in France and about
2.5 million in Britain.
Destruction of property;
The worst property damage was recorded in Russia and was worth £30 million.
Most of the European cities were also destroyed especially in Britain.
Emergency of two Super Powers, the USA and the USSR.
This was because the balance of power in the World was upset.
This was due to the fact that before the Second World War, the balance of power
had been concentrated in Europe i.e. in Britain, Germany and France. The Second
World War led to the destruction of these powers.
Emergency of the Cold War
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The war also led to the emergency of the Cold War which was characterized by
tensions and conflicts between capitalist USA and the Communist USSR and their
respective supporters.
Environmental Impact;
The Second World War also had serious environmental impact as a result of the
nuclear weapons and especially the dropping of the Atomic Bombs on Japan.
West and East Germany
The Second World War also led to the division of Germany into East and West
Germany.
Formation of United Nations
The war also led to the formation of the United Nations.
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5
THE COLD WAR 1945-1991
Definition:
The Cold War was an international situation or environment that was
characterized
by
persistent
tension
and
conflicts
between
the
democratic/Capitalist World and the Communist Camp in general or between the
USA and the USSR in particular.
The Cold War was not a state of armed conflict but a struggle for superiority in
national defence, economic growth, diplomacy, science and technology and
ideology through the use of hostile words and actions.
Origins of the Cold War
Some historians state that the Cold War can be traced to the 1917 Bolshevik
Revolution in Russia when the Communists clearly declared their intensions to
control and dominate the World. However, the origins of the Cold War can be
clearly traced to the period of the Second World War when the USA and the USSR
formed a grand Alliance against Germany and Japan.
There were a lot of differences and mistrusts between the two. By 1947, the Cold
War was clearly in existence when the USA and the USSR formalized their
differences during the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences.
THE YALTA CONFERENCE, FEBRUARY 1945
This meeting was held in Russia
(in the Crimea) and was
attended by the three Allie
leaders;
Winston Churchill
(Britain), David Roosevelt (USA)
and Joseph Stalin (USSR). The
three met to plan what was to
happen when the war ended.
What happened at Yalta?
- The Allies agreed to divide
Germany into four zones;
each one would be occupied by one of the four allies.
- Berlin would also be divided into four sectors
- Stalin agreed to accept France as one of the powers – this was after much
persuasion by Churchill.
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-
Poland would be given land in the west, which would be taken from
Germany and would lose land to the USSR.
Stalin agreed that some members of the Polish government in exile (the
London Poles) would be allowed to join the Polish government that he had
set up (the Lublin Poles). Free elections would be held.
The USSR would declare war on Japan three months after the end of the
war with Germany.
Stalin promised to allow free elections in the countries of Eastern Europe,
which had been occupied by the Soviet army.
It was agreed that Nazi war criminals would be tried at the International
Court of Justice (ICJ).
The Big Three agreed that a conference at San Francisco in April 1945
should formulate plans for a new world body – to be called the United
Nations. Its aim would be to keep peace.
However, no agreement could be reached about reparations.
THE POTSDAM CONFERENCE, JULY/AUGUST 1945.
The Potsdam Conference (south
east Berlin) was held on 15th July
1945 to discuss the future of
Germany after the Second World
War.
In
attendance
were
Clement Atlee (Britain), Harry. S
Truman (USA) and Joseph Stalin
(USSR
The Potsdam conference was the
last of the conferences between
the leaders of the allies during
the Second World War.
President Roosevelt (USA) died on 12 April 1945 and was succeeded by Harry. S.
Truman who took a much tougher line with Stalin. By July, the USA had developed
the atomic bomb, which meant that Truman no longer needed to rely upon the
Soviet
During the conference, Churchill was replaced by Clement Attlee, who had
become Britain’s new Prime Minister following the July general election.
What was decided at Potsdam?
- Germany was divided into four zones. Each zone would be occupied by
one of the four Allies, Great Britain, France, the USA and the USSR. Berlin was
divided into four sectors too.
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-
-
-
Germany was to be de-militarized. All German naval and merchant ships
were to be given to the Allies.
The Nazi Party would be dissolved. War criminals would be tried and
punished. Nazis were removed from important positions and leading Nazis
were to be put on trial for war crimes. These trials were held in Nuremberg
during 1946.
There would be free elections in Germany, freedom of speech and a free
press.
Germans living in Eastern Europe would be transferred into Germany.
Germany would pay reparations for the damage caused by the war. Most
of this would go to the USSR, either in money or goods.
All the Allies agreed to take part in the United Nations.
Poland’s frontier was to be moved westwards to the rivers Oder and Neisse
But there were also disagreements at Potsdam.
- The new US president, Harry Truman tried to force the USSR to allow free
elections in the countries of Eastern Europe, which had been occupied after
the end of the war.
- Stalin was angry that the USA had not told him about the atomic bomb,
which he knew that the USA had developed.
- This was the beginning of the ‘Cold War’. During 1945-46, Stalin’s policies
showed that he did not trust the West and he kept control of those countries
of Eastern Europe that had been liberated from Nazi rule. This led to Winston
Churchill coining the term ‘Iron Curtain’.
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Reasons for the Cold War
Many reasons have been given for the emergency of the Cold War.
Ideological Differences;
Though the USA and the USSR cooperated during the Second World War, they
mistrusted each other due to ideological difference. Since 1917, the USSR had
developed a Communist system which was a natural enemy of the Capitalist
economy of the USA. The democratic states hated communism and its leaders.
Suspicion;
Suspicions and mistrust over each other’s military strength also contributed to the
emergency of the Cold War. At the end of the Second World War, the USA and
the USSR emerged as super powers.
The secrecy over the atomic bomb created suspicions between the two.
Therefore, a new kind of arms race in nuclear weapons emerged between the
two.
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The Spread of Communism;
This also contributed to the emergence of the Cold War. Even before the end of
the Second World War, the USSR imposed communist governments in Eastern
Europe i.e. in Poland, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary and Yugoslavia.
Communist Eastern Europe was divided from Capitalist Western Europe by an
invisible demarcation called the “Iron Curtain”. This was the term used by the then
British Prime Minister Winston Churchill to describe the invisible separation that now
existed between Eastern and Western Europe.
The USSR wanted to spread communism to Western Europe. The USA took it upon
itself to stop the spread of Communism. This created tension between the USA and
the USSR.
ASPECTS OF THE COLD WAR
The Truman Doctrine;
This was a belief that was started by the US President Harry Truman. According to
him, it was the duty of the USA to use her technological and financial superiority to
help stop the spread of communism in Europe.
In March 1947, Truman obtained $400 million to assist in fighting communism in
Europe.
The Policy of Containment;
The Truman Doctrine was translated into a government policy of Containment.
This was a policy that was formulated to stop the spread of communism by using
America’s technological and financial superiority.
The Marshal Plan;
This was formulated in June 1947 to implement the Policy of Containment and the
Truman Doctrine. The Marshal Plan was created to implement the injection of
American Money into European Economic recovery.
This was meant to improve the social, economic and political situation in Europe
by fighting hunger, poverty, desperation and chaos. On 5th June, 1947, American
Secretary of State General George Marshal announced the European Recovery
Program which became known as the Marshal Plan.
By this plan, supplies of food, fuel, machinery and raw materials valued at $13
Billion were sent to Europe to combat the spread of communism.
The Comintern:
This was set up by Stalin, the USSR president in 1947. All communist countries were
supposed to be members. The aim of this organization was to draw all communist
countries together. It was also an economic organization to encourage industrial
development and trade among communist countries.
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REGIONAL DEFENSE ORGANISATIONS
In order to combat the spread of Communism, Western Europe countries decided
to form defensive alliances against the Soviet Union. In 1947, Britain and France
decided to form a 50 year Treaty of cooperation. In 1948, the BENELUX countries
(Belgium, Netherlands and Luxemburg) joined Britain and France and the Treaty
signed and became known as the Brussels Treaty of 1948.
However, the members of the Brussels Treaty were not strong enough to stop any
Communist attacks from the Soviet Union, only the USA was and the USA no longer
wanted to be isolated hence, the formation of NATO.
NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANISATION (NATO)
The USA joined Western Europe to form an alliance of defence against
Communism. In April 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was
formed. The members of the new organization were; USA, Britain, France, Norway,
Denmark, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxemburg, Canada, Iceland, Italy, and Portugal
while Greece, Turkey and West Germany joined in 1951.
NATO became a military alliance aimed at defending Western Europe and North
America from a possible Soviet military attack. It was stated in the treaty that an
attack against any member country would be considered as an attack on all
member states. NATO had a joined military force. The first commander of the
NATO forces was an American, General Eisenhower.
NATO states also agreed to;
i.
Firmly support the United Nations Charter.
ii.
Make peaceful settlements of all disputes amongst themselves for
international peace, Security and Justice.
iii.
Encourage Economic cooperation.
NATO was successful in checking the spread of communism because the
communist made no further territorial gains anywhere in Europe after April 1949.
NATO forces were ready to meet any communist challenges. The NATO Air and
Naval Forces were well equipped and backed by the American Atomic power.
The headquarters of NATO were based in France, Paris.
THE WARSAW PACT
In 1955, the Soviet Union formed the Warsaw Pact in response to the formation of
NATO. The Warsaw Pact was a military alliance formed against a possible attack
from the Western countries on the Soviet Union and its satellite states. The members
of the Warsaw Pact were Russia, East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary,
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Romania, Bulgaria and Albania. Yugoslavia was not a member of the Warsaw
Pact though she was a Communist country.
The Warsaw Pact like its rival organization NATO, provided for a joint command of
armed forces whose headquarters were in Moscow.
The members of the Warsaw Pact agreed to;
a. Resist the attacks of the Capitalists/Imperialist states jointly.
b. Participate in mutual economic and cultural collaboration.
c. Accept the Russian Command of the forces.
THE COLD WAR CRISIS 1948-1963
The crises that took place between 1948 and 1963 worsened the hostilities and
rivalries between the Communists and the Capitalist states and intensified the
Cold War.
These were;
The First Berlin crisis/Berlin Blocade-1948.
After the Second World War, Germany was divided into four zones under the USA,
Britain, France and the USSR. Berlin, the capital of Germany was also divided into
four corresponding zones. However, Berlin was in the USSR zone.
The crisis started
over money. The
old
Germany
currency
had
become worthless
and this created
problems for the
Capitalists
who
wanted
to
develop
their
western side of
Germany.
The
Capitalist
Allies
tried to persuade
the Soviet Union to
introduce a stronger currency but the situation suited the Russian Communist. USA,
Britain and France created a new currency for West Germany which the Russians
did not accept in Berlin.
The Russians reacted by blocking off Berlin from the rest of West Germany. On 23rd
June, 1948, all roads, railways and canal links between Berlin and the border with
West Germany were closed.
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This blockade was a clear challenge to the Allies. The Allies responded to the
blockade by airlifting essential commodities such as food, fuel, and medical
supplies. By May 1949, all line of communication was opened up by the
Communist Russia. However, the Berlin Blockade of 1948 created tension between
the communists and the capitalists and intensified the Cold War.
The Second Berlin crisis of 1961.
The Berlin crisis of 1948 and the resultant Berlin airlift crashed any hopes of a United
Germany. In 1956, the Allies combined their different zones and formed the
Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany).
The Russians also created the German Democratic Republic. This created further
divisions. However, since 1948, many East Germans were escaping into West
Germany by crossing from East Berlin into West Berlin. To prevent this, a 2,900 km
long border made of bricks was built by the Communists. This became known as
the Berlin Wall. This wall was completed in August 1961.
This did not please the Allies in West Berlin. American troops were sent to Berlin and
this created tension between the two sides. Both sides were getting ready for war
but the UN intervened.
The Korean Crisis/War 1950-1953.
After 1910, Korea was a Japanese territory. However, after the defeat of Japan, it
was divided into South and North Korea which was under the USSR.
The two Koreas were divided by a 38° line of latitude and North Korea comprised
of 2/3 of the population while South Korea only had 1/3. After the withdrawal of the
American troops in 1949, the Communist North Korean troops invaded the
Capitalist South Korea with the support of Communist Russia and China.
This conflict was resolved by the UN who sent troops to South Korea to evacuate
the North Korean Army. The UN troops were under the command of General Mc
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Auther. The North Korean Army was driven back to the 38° line of Latitude. This
incident worsened the hostilities between the communists and the capitalists.
The Congo Crisis-1960.
After independence in 1960, Congo faced a number of problems. The American
Government had supported the new democratic leaders while the Soviet Union
supported the Rebels who were against the government such as Kasavubu and
Patrice Lumumba.
The Soviet Union openly supported the rebels by sending vehicles, aircrafts and
other war materials to Congo. The presence of the American CIA was heavy in the
Congo. Congo became a battle field for the USA and USSR between 1960 and
1961. This was because both sides wanted to control the rich resources found in
the Congo. The internal conflict in the Congo was resolved by the UN. This incident
also escalated the Cold War.
The Cuban Missile Crisis-1962.
Before 1959, America had economic interests in Cuba as they owned a large
section of the Cuban strategic industries. In 1959, Fidel Castro became the Cuban
president after he overthrew the democratically elected and American supported
Fulgericio Batista.
Fidel Castro introduced economic reforms by which he nationalized all strategic
industries most of which were owned by the Americans. He introduced a
Communist kind of
government.
The
Americans
responded by not
buying Cuban sugar
and
withholding
financial aid.
The President of
Russia
who
succeeded
Stalin
was
Nikita
Khrushchev. He took
advantage of the
situation to make
Cuba a satellite
state. The Russians offered Cuba $100 million in aid and offered to buy Cuban
sugar.
The Americans reacted by helping the former dictator Fulgericio Batista to
overthrow Castro. The US president J.F Kennedy authorized the invasion of Cuba at
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a place called the Bay of Pigs. However, there was a leak in the CIA and Castro
was able to defeat the Americans at the Bay of Pigs on 18th April, 1961. This was an
embarrassment to the USA and a victory to the USSR. After this incident, Cuba
became closer to the USSR.
In order to prepare for another attack from the USA, Cuba asked for military
assistance from Russia. The Russians sent Intermediate Range Ballistic Missiles and
technical staff to Cuba to set up Missiles sites. Through the CIA, President Kennedy
announced that there were Soviet Missile sites in Cuba. Through air surveillance,
the Americans discovered USSR ships taking missiles to Cuba with a range of 4000
km and most of the American Major cities were within this range.
This alarmed the USA. Strong counter measures were taken. The American fleet
was ordered to blockade Cuba and stop any Soviet ships carrying military
equipment. In October 1962, the American president accused Khrushchev of
being an aggressor.
However, Khrushchev denied the accusations while the whole world waited
anxiously for a nuclear war. The Soviet Union was told to dismantle missile sites in
Cuba and was warned that any missile launched at the USA from Cuba would be
treated as having been launched from the USSR and that the USA would retaliate
by attacking the USSR.
However, Khrushchev later admitted to the presence of Soviet Missiles in Cuba for
her protection and accused the USA of being an aggressor. Khrushchev also
stated that the USSR would continue shipping missiles to Cuba. As a result, the USA
government ordered troops to Florida and prepared 156 rockets to be fired at the
USSR.
Some were set up in some West European countries such as Greece. At this point,
nuclear war threatened mankind. At this critical stage, both the USA and the USSR
began to back down. They started negotiations that ended the Cuban Missile
Crisis.
They established a line of communication called the Hotline. This paved way for
future negotiations that contributed to the end of the Cold War.
THE END OF THE COLD WAR
After the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, it was realized by both the Communists and
the Capitalists realized that any nuclear war between them would lead to Mutual
destruction. Khrushchev and Kennedy settled their differences over Cuba and
established a line of communication between them called the Hotline to prevent
any future misunderstandings. As a result of this new development, hostilities
between the communist and the capitalists were reduced.
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This gradual reduction or relaxation of hostilities between the two was referred as
Détente. This new situation resulted into the signing of treaties such as the Nuclear
Test Ban Treaty of 5th August, 1963.
By this treaty, all nuclear tests in the atmosphere or under water were banned.
Jimmy Carter who became the USA president in 1977 continued with the process
of Détente. He continued negotiations with the USSR.
These became known as the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT). By SALT, both
the USA and USSR were willing to limit their production and expenditure on nuclear
weapons while staying super powers.
The change of leadership in the USSR also contributed to the end of the cold war.
In October, 1964, Khrushchev was forced to resign and was replaced by Leonid
Brezhnev. This new president wanted the international acceptance of the Soviet
Union’s sphere of influence. In August 1975, a treaty called the Final Act was
signed by European statesmen in which Western European countries recognized
the existing boundaries and promised more trade with the Communist countries.
THE DISINTERGRATION OF THE COMMUNIST BLOCK
The disintegration of the Communist bloc also contributed to the end of the Cold
War. From 1953 onwards, the Soviet Union started facing a lot of discontent and a
lot of challenges from its satellite states. These discontents and challenges were
mostly as a result of the economic policies and the operations of the Warsaw Pact.
By 1991, the USSR had undergone a series of revolutions that led to the
establishment of democratic governments in Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia and
Hungary.
From 1990, the new Russian President Mikhail Gobarchev introduced reforms that
brought the Cold War to an end.
Gobarchev’s aim was to transform the Soviet Society to the same level as that of
the Western European Capitalist society. He blamed the backwardness of Russia
and its economic problems on the Communist System. To this effect, he
introduced two reforming policies that led to the end of Communism and
consequently the Cold War.
These policies were Perestroika and Glasnost. Perestroika was introduced in
October 1985; it was an economic policy that introduced reforms with the aim of
reducing central planning and restructuring the economy.
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Perestroika introduced a market economy and free enterprise. Russians were now
allowed to own businesses and by August 1986, foreign investments especially
from the USA were being allowed into the Soviet Union.
Glasnost was a political policy that was introduced to pave way for democracy.
This was a policy of open and public discussions of issues affecting the USSR. This
policy allowed the free flow of information, in Newspapers, on radios and national
television, unlike during Communism.
In 1990, during the May Day Celebrations, the Russians marched to the streets and
demanded the end of Communism. On 25th December, 1991, the Union of the
Socialist Soviet Republic ceased to exist. This marked the end of the Cold War.
11.5 ATTEMPTS AT WORLD PEACE AND BALANCE OF POWER, 1919 TO PRESENT.
LEAGUE OF NATIONS
Explain the origin (Establishment) of the League of Nations.
It was initiated in 1919 by Woodrow Wilson president of the United States of
America (USA). He became a leading member and designer of the League. The
League was established in 1920 with its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland.
The Covenant of the League was the written constitution to which all member
countries had to adhere
Membership of the League of Nations
It was divided into two parts.
1. Permanent Members: Britain, France, Japan and Italy
2. Temporary Members: For a period of 3 years and varied from session to
session e.g 4 in 1920, 10 in 1936
What were the aims of the League of Nations?
The aims of the League of Nations (as enshrined in the Covenant) were as follows;
i. Preservation of world peace and security i.e. National disputes was to be
settled peacefully. This was the most important aim of the League of
Nations.
ii.
To guarantee political independence and territorial integrity to great and
small nations
iii.
To ensure a general disarmament to the lowest level for national security.
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iv.
To establish an international force (army) under the supervision of the
League, to help in implementing and enforcing the decisions of the League
of Nations.
v.
To respect treaties and publish them.
vi. To encourage friendships among members countries.
vii. To encourage international co-operation among member countries in
solving social, political and economic problems.
viii. To impose economic and political sanctions against any member country
committing acts of aggression.
Q. 30 Describe the organization of the League of Nations.
The League of Nations had the following main organs:
League council
Secretariat
General
Assembly
The permanent court
Mandate council
Of international justice
Various
Committees
c
Disarmament
WHO
ILO
Slavery
refugees
The Structure/Organisation of the League of Nations
It comprised of 5 main Organs plus a number of Commissions.
Organs of the League of Nations
General Assembly (Legco or International Parliament;
- Made up of all permanent and temporary members. It was a world parliament
where each member country had a right to send 3 to 5 representatives but
when voting, each member country had only one vote.
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- The members met once every year in September. Decisions were made on a 2/3
majority.
Functions
- Make laws to govern the League i.e. it was a legislative body.
- Approved the budget of the League
- Debated on issues concerning member states
- Appointed the temporary members of the League Council.
- Responsible for the appointment of the Secretary General on recommendation
from the League Council.
The League Council (Police force);
- It was the League Executive body which was made up of 9 members.
- The 5 permanent members were Britain, France, Italy, Japan and the USA whose
seat remained vacant.
- It also elected 4 non-permanent members on a 3 year rotational term. Members
met at least 3 to 4 times a year though they could be summoned any time if
there was any emergency that threatened world peace.
- Decisions in the Council were made unanimously.
- The 5 permanent members had the right to veto, meaning they could refuse
any decision made by the Council.
Functions
- Carry out general disarmament
- Responsible for the maintenance of world peace and security.
- Recommended the appointment of the Secretary General and the admission
of new members.
- Responsible for imposing sanctions (economic/military) on disobedient member
countries.
The League Secretariat (Exco or International Civil Service)
- It was an international civil service. It was made up of the Secretary General
and about 500 members from member countries.
- This was the administrative wing of the League
- Its headquarters were based in Geneva, Switzerland.
- The first Secretary General was an Englishman, Sir Eric Edmund.
Functions
- Implemented the League’s decisions.
- Carried out research and provided factual information on issues needed by the
League Assembly and Organs.
- Kept records for the League.
- Translated documents in all the major world languages.
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- Sent reminders for meetings to all member countries
- Supervised the work of the Commissions of the League.
The Permanent International Court of Justice;
- It acted like an international judiciary.
- Its headquarters were based in the Netherlands at The Hague.
- Established in 1922 and consisted of 15 judges who were drawn from member
countries and elected by the League Assembly on recommendation from the
League Council.
Functions
- Settle disputes among member countries. (However, it had limited powers since
it could not enforce its decisions).
- Gave legal advice to other Organs.
- Interpreted international documents.
By 1939, the court had settled 70 major cases and had helped to arrange 400
international agreements.
The Mandate Council
- It looked after the future of the former Germany colonies. The mandates
were controlled by countries such as Britain and France
- It also looked after various committees such as WHO, ILO, Child Welfare and
disarmament.
Commissions of the League
The League Commissions complemented the work of the 5 main organs in
achieving the aims of the League of Nations.
These were;
The International Labour Organization (ILO);
- It was made up of representatives from governments of member countries;
employers, employees and trade unions.
- Its headquarters were based in Geneva Switzerland.
Function
- Worked for the improvement of workers’ conditions of services through an 8
hour working day and a working week of 48 hours.
- Workers to have annual paid holidays.
- Encouraged workers to belong to trade unions
- Published international agreements which member countries were to rectify.
The World Health Organization;
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- Ensured that people in member countries enjoyed good health.
- Carried out research to find vaccines and cure for contagious diseases such as
smallpox and measles.
The Food and Agriculture Organization;
- Ensured that there was food security in the world.
- Carried out research on how to improve production and made information
available to member countries.
- Gave loans for the improvement of food production to member countries.
- In times of drought and famine, it provided food relief to the affected countries.
The Drug Commission;
- It drew attention to the dangers of certain drugs and introduced measures of
controlling drug trafficking.
The Minorities Commission;
- It drew attention to the ill-treatment of minority groups in major countries and
devised ways of protecting them.
The Disarmament Commission;
- Dealt with the reduction of arms in all member countries to the lowest level
(However, this commission had the least success).
The Economic and Social Commission;
- Dealt with social and economic problems in member countries.
- Carried out research on problems in member countries and made
recommendations on how to solve them.
Refugee Commission;
Dealt with the repatriation and resettlement of refugees from the First World War since
many people had lost their homes
Attitudes of some member countries towards the League of Nations
Russia;
- She was not invited to join the League of Nations because the Western powers
feared the new communist regime in Russia.
- According to them, Russia encouraged bloody revolutions and communism.
- However, Russia only joined in 1934 and was expelled in 1939 when she invaded
Finland.
United States of America (USA)
- Although Woodrow Wilson was the founder of the League of Nations, the US
senate refused to rectify the League Covenant and never became a member
of the League.
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France;
- She saw the League of Nations as an agency of enforcing the terms of the
Versailles Treaty.
- She wanted the League to guard her security against the dangers of the
emerging Germany power after Hitler came to power.
Britain;
- She expected the League to solve world problems peacefully.
- Britain was not willing to send its forces to act on behalf of the League. People’s
memories in Britain were still fresh with memories of the slaughter of the First
World War.
- Such that they were not willing to engage in another way.
Germany;
- She had joined the League of Nations in 1926. Germany ruled by Hitler from 1933
withdrew from the League of Nations when the disarmament conference
proved to be a failure in 1934
- Hitler then embarked on Acts of Aggression in Europe and disregarded all the
terms of the Versailles treaty and undermined the League of Nations
Q. 31. Assess the successes and failures of the League of Nations
Successes of the League of Nations
i.
It succeeded in settling disputes among member countries. E.g. Turkey
and Iraq over Monsul which was given to Irag and Turkey benefitted from
oil revenues
ii.
The League intervened in the murder of 5 Italians engaged in the settling
of a frontier dispute between Albania and Greece in 1923. This led to the
Italian seizure of the Greek Islands of Corfu. However, the League
secured the withdrawal of Italian troops and the payment of
compensation by Greece.
iii.
The League stopped the Yugoslavian invasion of Albania in 1921
iv.
The League organized economic aid for Austria and Hungary whose
economies were on the verge of collapsing
v.
It scored successes on the repatriation of refugees e.g. about £10 million
was given to Greece to assist in the settlement of refugees
vi.
It succeeded in combating post war epidemics such as typhoid in
Poland and Russia where there was an outbreak
vii.
It made a strong effort in suppressing drug trafficking.
viii.
It was partly successful in protecting the rights of minority groups in
various countries
ix.
It scored a lot of successes in Labour welfare through the work of the ILO
x.
There was an increase in the membership from 42 in 1920 to 60 by 1936
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xi.
xii.
xiii.
xiv.
xv.
xvi.
xvii.
xviii.
xix.
xx.
During its most successful period 1920-1929, several Treaties and pacts
were signed e.g. 1925 the Locarno Pact and the 1928 Kellogg Pact
It acted as a base from which the United Nations Organisation was
formed
It repatriated war prisoners on exchange basis after World War 1. 400, 000
prisoners of war returned home
It organized the injured and sickness benefits for the workers
It played a major role in the organisation of Trade Unions by workers and
old age pensions
It controlled the spread of contagious diseases and spreading of good
methods of hygiene through education
Organized governments of free cities such as Memel and Danzig
Wooing big powers into the league to give it importance. Germany
became a member in 1926 and Russia in 1934
It tried to maintain peace by settling disputes. For instance the league
settled disputes between Finland and Sweden
International co-operation was established in such things as transport
and telegraph. Meetings for exchanging ideas were arranged between
Scientists of different nations
Failures of the League of Nations
i. It was unable to prevent the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939. This
failure was due to the fact that the League of Nations could not stop the
aggressive acts of some of its major member e.g.
- The Japanese invasion of Manchuria of 1931. After condemnation from
the League of Nations, Japan withdrew from the League membership.
- Also Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1933 and many acts of aggression
committed by Germany under Hitler. When condemned, these countries
withdrew from the League to commit more acts of aggression.
ii. It did not have an international army or force to reinforce the League’s
decisions. As such, the League was perceived to be a “toothless”
organisation as it had no mechanism to reinforce its decisions. This weakness
made the aggressive countries to take advantage of and carry out more
acts of aggression.
iii. It failed to carry out complete disarmament. It only emphasized on the
disarmament of the defeated powers especially Germany, while the other
powers kept their arms. As such, when Hitler came to power, he started rapid
re-armament and the other powers responded by starting to rearm. This
started the Arms race again
iv. The absence of major world countries from the beginning also contributed to
the failure of the League. Though the League of Nations was founded by
Wilson, the US president, the US senate refused membership. Other countries
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especially the defeated countries such as Germany and Russia were not
members of the League in 1920. As such, the League of Nations was seen as
a “victors club”. This weakened the foundation of the League of Nations.
v. The Principle of Nationalism was much stronger than that of internationalism.
Nations were not ready to put the interests of the League of Nations before
their own national interests. This meant that the League of Nations received
minimal co-operation from member countries.
vi. The League of Nations was also perceived to have been a European
organisation by countries of other continents. This lack of international
standing contributed to the failure of the League of Nations.
vii. The rise of dictatorships in some European countries also contributed to the
failure of the League of Nations. The dictators in Italy, Germany and Spain
started carrying out aggressive acts that the League could not control.
viii. The Smaller members lost confidence in the League’s ability to protect them
against aggressors as they felt vulnerable and withdrew their support from the
League.
ix. Big powers left the league when their services were needed most. For
example Japan and Germany left the league in 1933 and Russia in 1939.
x. The league was born out of war and the chaos which followed the war, and
in a hurried atmosphere of the peace conference. It acquired features which
weakened it as it grew.
xi. Britain and France disagreed on how the league should attempt to carry out
its primary task of maintaining peace and security.
xii. League was weakened by constitutional defects, for example the Assembly
met only once a year
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THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANISATION.
The United Nations Organisation (UN) came into existence during the Second
World War as a result of the
failure of the League of
Nations. The League of
Nations had failed in its most
important task of maintaining
world peace and security. As
such, there was need to
establish
another
World
Organisation to maintain
peace after the defeat of
the Axis powers in the
Second World War.
President F.D Roosevelt of the
USA initiated the idea for a
world
organisation
to
th
maintain world peace and security. The UN came into existence on 26 June, 1945
after 50 countries signed the United Nations Charter at the San Francisco
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Conference in the USA. However, the UN started its operation on 24th October,
1945 with its headquarters in New York.
Steps that led to the formation of the U.N.O.
Plans for the formation of the UN were laid down long before the Second World
War ended. This was done through a series of meetings and conferences among
the Allied Nations. These talks were initiated by President Roosevelt of the USA.
The First step leading to the formation of the UN was the signing of the Atlantic
Charter of August 1941. This agreement was signed between President Roosevelt
of the USA and the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill. This meeting took place
on board a British Battleship called the “Prince of Wales”. By this Charter, the two
leaders agreed to create a more permanent system of general security that would
ensure freedom for all people and international cooperation between all nations
after the defeat of the Axis Powers.
The signing of the Atlantic Charter was followed by the Washington Declaration of
January 1942. This was a speech by President Roosevelt outlining the terms of the
Atlantic Charter which had laid down guidelines for the formation of a “United
Nations”. The Washington Declaration was signed by 26 countries who also
pledged to aid in the achievements of the Atlantic Charter and the defeat of the
Axis Powers.
In October, 1943, the Moscow Conference was held in the USSR. The Conference
was attended by President Roosevelt, Churchill of Britain, Stalin of the USSR and the
host and Chiang Kai Shek of China. The leaders discussed details of the plans of
the work of the UN.
The Moscow Conference was followed by series meetings between August and
October 1944 at Dumbarton Oaks Conference near Washington D.C. The aim of
this Conference was to prepare ground work for the final formation of the UN. At
this conference, the countries represented agreed on the main Structure of the UN
and paying particular attention to the Security Council.
In February, 1945, another meeting was held in the USSR which came to be known
as the Yalta Conference. Among the issues discussed were the voting procedures
and eligibility to join.
From 26th April to 25th June, 1945, a very important and final conference was held
in San Francisco, USA. 50 countries attended this conference and signed the
drafted UN Charter. The signing of the UN Charter marked the official formation of
the UN, on 26th June, 1945. Unfortunately, president Roosevelt, who had initiated
and coined the term “United Nations” did not live to see the final formation of the
UN as he died on 12th April, 1945. The UN started its operations on 24th October,
1945 and its headquarters are based in New York, USA.
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Aims of the United Nations Organisation.
- To bring international peace and security in the world.
- To achieve international cooperation in solving economic, social and
political issues and problems.
- To promote the respect for fundamental human rights and freedoms.
- To promote friendships among member countries.
- To preserve the independence of member countries.
- To complete disarmament under effect control.
ORGANISATION/STRUCTURE OF THE UNITED NATIONS.
The UNO’s structure comprises of 6 main organs plus specialized agencies that
help in achieving the aims of the UN. These are;
The General Assembly.
The General Assembly is the World Parliament of the UN. It has representatives from
all member countries. Each member country sends up to 5 representatives but
when it comes to voting, each country had one vote regardless of the status or
size of a country. The General assembly meets annually every September for 3
months. Decision making in the General Assembly is based on a 2/3 majority.
Functions:
- It is the main law making body of the UN.
- Discusses and debates on all matters affecting the UN
- Appoints the Secretary General based on recommendations from the
Security Council.
- Appoints/elects members of the other organs e.g. non-permanent members
of the Security Council.
The Secretariat:
The Secretariat is the Civil Service or the database of the UN. It carries out all the
paper work of the UN. It comprises of the Secretary General who is the Chief
Administrative Officer of the UN. It also comprises of about 500 other members
drawn from member countries.
The Secretary General was chosen from a non-allied member country, had to be
impartial and to have great experience in international relations.
Since 1945, there has been 9 Secretary Generals. These have been;
1. Trygve Lie, from Norway (1945-1953),
2. Dag Hammarskjold, from Sweden (1953-1961)
3. U Thant, from Burma (1961-1971)
4. Kurt Waildheim, from Austria (1972-1981)
5. Javier Perez de Cueller, from Peru (1982-1992)
6. Boutros Boutros Ghali of Egypt (1992-1997)
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7. Koffi Annan, from Ghana (1997-2007)
8. Ban Ki Moon, from South Korea (2007-2016) and
9. Antonio Guterres, from Portugal (2016 to present).
Functions:
- Sends reminders for meetings
- Carries out research on issues and produces documents.
- Keeps records for the UN
- Translates documents into the main world languages.
- Carries out decisions of the General Assembly.
- Supervises the work of the specialized agencies.
- It is responsible for the everyday running of the UN
The Security Council:
The Security Council is the most important organ of the UN whose aim is to keep
peace and security in the World. The Security Council comprises of 5 permanent
and 10 non permanent members who are chosen for a two year rotational term.
The 5 permanent members are Britain, France, China, USA and Russia. The 5
permanent members have the power to veto i.e. they can stop any motion before
the council or stop any action the Security Council wanted to take.
Functions:
- It recommends the appointment of the Secretary General to the General
Assembly.
- It recommends the admission of new members.
- It is responsible for general disarmaments.
- It also recommends political and economic sanctions on offending member
countries.
- It is also responsible for sending peace Keeping forces to war torn areas.
The International Court of Justice:
This is the international Judiciary. The headquarters of the International Court of
Justice are based at the Hague in the Netherlands. The I.C.J comprises of 15
judges who are elected by the General Assembly from member countries.
Functions:
- To settle disputes referred to it by member countries through legal means
than resorting to war.
- To give legal advice to other organs of the UN.
- To interpret legal documents and treaties.
However, the ICJ cannot enforce its decisions and a country can choose to
accept or refuse its decisions thereby risking diplomatic isolation.
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The Economic and Social Council:
It comprises of 18 member countries who are elected for a 3 year term of office by
the General Assembly.
Functions:
- To initiate studies and produce reports on international social, economic,
culture and political issues in member countries.
- To ensure protection of human rights and freedoms in member countries.
- To offer recommendations and financial assistance for the improvement of
socio-economic situations in member countries.
The Trusteeship Council:
The Trusteeship Council was created to look after the interests of the people in the
mandated colonies of the League of Nations.
Functions:
- Ensure that the administering powers of the mandated colonies are not to
exploit them.
- To ensure that all the mandated colonies attained self-independence.
SPECIALISED AGENCIES OF THE UNO.
The specialized agencies were created to facilitate and compliment the work of
the UN organs. Among the specialized agencies are;
The United High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR)
The main function of this agency is to give assistance to refugees by providing
shelter, medical help, education, clothing, clean water and ensuring that the
refugees are repatriated to their countries of origin.
The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)
FAO works in close collaboration with the World Food Program. The aim of FAO is
to ensure food security by increasing food production throughout the world. This is
achieved through educating farmers about more effective agriculture methods.
FAO also gives loans to poor countries to improve their food production and
sometimes donate food.
The United Nations Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)
This agency provides scientific research and produces and disseminates
information on educational methods. UNESCO also aims at promoting freedom of
the press and the training of teachers.
World Health Organisation (WHO)
The main aim of this agency is to improve health standards in all member
countries. It also aims at promoting good health for all as a basic human right.
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WHO also carries out research work to eradicate contagious diseases like TB,
measles, cholera and currently working hard to find a cure/vaccine for the
HIV/AIDS and COVID 19.
The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (I.B.R.D/World Bank)
The World Bank gives loans for developmental projects to member countries such
as the rehabilitation of schools, hospitals, roads etc. The World Bank also provides
member countries with expert advice and assistance to identify and prepare
developmental projects to make their economies more productive.
International Labour Organisation (ILO)
The ILO was formed by the League of Nations after the First World War and it was
continued after the formation of the UNO. ILO aims at improving the working
conditions of all workers in member countries. It is also instrumental in the
formulation of labour laws throughout the world.
ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE UNO
The UN has scored a number of achievements since its formation in 1945. These
have been;
The UN has been Successful in its major task of peace keeping in some cases since
its formation in 1945. This has been done through;
- Persuading conflicting Nations to Negotiate e.g. in 1946, Iran formally
charged the USSR with interference in her internal affairs. The Security
Council asked the two countries to settle their differences by direct
negotiations. On 23rd May, 1946 the two reached an agreement which led
to the evacuation of Soviet troops from Iraq.
- Sending observer /fact finding missions to conflicting Nations.
- Sending peace keeping forces to conflicting nations from member states to
help prevent further conflicts or the re-occurrence of fighting between
parties.
- The UN has also been successful in resolving conflicts between or within
member states. Some examples of these are;
i. The Congo Crisis in 1960: when there was a conflict in the Congo after
independence, the UN Secretary General organized an operation in
the Congo. The UN intervened in the Congo and helped in uniting
Congo. The UN also helped in restoring peace in a country that was
torn apart by rebellions, mutiny and civil war. (More recently, Charles
Taylor and the Rebels in Liberia).
ii.
The Korean War 1950-3: The UN was also able to resolve the war in
Korea. Korea was a Japanese colony since 1910. After the Second
World War, it was divided between the Capitalist USA and the
Communist USSR. This led to the creation of North and South Korea.
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This led to a conflict between the two sides as to the kind of
government to install in Korea.
Under pressure from the UN, the two powers were forced to withdraw
from Korea. However, in 1950, the Communist North Korea invaded
the Capitalist South Korea. The UN intervened by sending UN troops to
evacuate N. Korean troops from South Korea in 1953. (Give examples
of more recent events if possible).
-
-
The UN has also been successful in its efforts at achieving disarmament. The
UN has succeeded in discouraging armaments since its formation. The main
focus of the UN has been in discouraging the use and production of nuclear
weapons. This has been achieved through the creation of a disarmament
commission and the UN Nuclear Weapons Inspectorate. In 1982, the UN
launched a World Disarmament Campaign that has been quiet successful
though the UN still faces problems from the more powerful member states
especially the super powers.
The UN has also been extremely successful through the work of its
specialized agencies. It has been able to improve the social, political and
economic conditions of its member countries. This has been done through
technical and financial assistance to member countries (Give examples).
FAILURES OF THE UNO
- The UN has failed in tackle issues of collective security in some areas i.e.
conflicts still prevail between and among countries in Africa and the Middle
East such as in Palestine and Israel and the current Russia-Ukraine War
-
The UN has also failed to control the acts of terrorism in the world especially
from extremist Islamic groups e.g. the September 11 attacks on the USA and
suicide bombings in Iraq and the Middle East.
-
The UN has also failed to be completely autonomous or independent from
the USA and other big powers. This has been due to the fact that the big
powers are the financiers of the operations of the UN. This led to the big
powers to disregard the recommendations of the UN Security Council and
the General Assembly e.g. the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
-
The UN has also failed to completely eradicate some socio-economic
problems threatening humanity today e.g. the issue of the HIV/AIDS and the
complete eradication of poverty in the third World countries.
-
The UN has also failed to completely disarm and impose effective sanctions
on offending member countries especially the big powers.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE UN
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Secretariat
International
Court of justice
General
Assembly
Trusteeship
Council
Security Council
Economic and
Social council
Specialized
Agencies
ILO
WHO
UNHCR UNESCO
IMF
UNICEF
THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT.
Non-Aligned movement was formed in 1955. This was a movement where Africans
and Asians were called upon to stay neutral. Not to fall on the Eastern side that is,
Communist tendencies of USSR or Western Capitalist tendencies of USA.
Objectives.
- Enhancing social and economic development in the third world. Ensuring
that Africa, Asia and Latin America got loans from USA and USSR and use
them to develop their economies.
- Maintaining a closer link between Africans, Asians and part of Latin America
to enhance cultural promotion.
- Act like a mediator between the superpowers so as to end rivalry between
them.
- Ensuring that colonialism and all its manifestation was completely rejected in
the third world.
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-
Promoting human rights throughout the world as stipulated in the universal
declaration of human rights in 1948.
Create a fertile ground which would allow Africans, Asians and Arabs
engage fully in world politics.
Ensure that the culture of the third world is respected by the big powers.
Fight neo-colonialism in new states.
Avoid any military alliances with either the capitalist or socialist block.
OTHER INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS
THE COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS
This is made up of Britain, her former colonies,
protectorates and dominion states. Its headquarters is
in London. It has 53 member states.
Objectives
- Unite Britain and all her former colonies,
Queen Elizabeth Head of
protectorates and dominions under one
Commonwealth
umbrella.
- Promote good governance and democracy among member states.
- Carry out joint ventures in trade and resolve political conflicts.
- Provide market for industrial and agricultural products.
- Uplift the standard of living among member states
- Enable member states to exploit their resources fully in order to promote
industrialisation.
- Promote education, sports, agricultural and health standards.
THE EUROPEAN UNION
It was formerly called the European Economic Community or Common market. It
was formed in 1958 with its headquarters in Brussels, Belgium.
Objectives
- Promote good governance and
democracy among member
states.
- Provide market for industrial and
agricultural products of member
states.
- Promote education, sports,
agricultural and health standards
especially among member states.
- Help developing countries by extending loans and grants to them.
- Unite all European countries under one umbrella.
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-
Ensure development of all European countries socially, economically and
politically.
Have a joint venture in trade and to resolve political conflicts.
Uplift the standard of living among member countries
Enable member countries to exploit it.
THE CARIBBEAN AND PACIFIC STATES
This was created by the George Town Agreement in 1975 composed of African,
Caribbean and pacific states. The total membership is 79.
Objectives
- Attain sustainable
development of
member states
- Ensure peace and
stability of the
member states.
- Promote unity and
co-operation
among member states.
- Eradicate extreme poverty from member states.
- Defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of member
states.
- Consolidate unity and solidarity among member states.
- Ensure free and democratic environment in which member states will
operate.
- Defend the human rights of people of member states.
- Increase the welfare and general standards of living of people of member
states.
- Seek solution to common political, economic, and social problems affecting
people of member states.
THE ORGANISATION OF AFRICAN UNITY (OAU)/AFRICAN UNION (AU)
OAU was formed on 25th May, 1963 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. It was transformed to
African Union (AU) in 2002.
Objectives
- Promote unity and solidarity for all African
states.
- Eradicate all forms of colonialism and neocolonialism from the African continent.
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-
Promote international co-operation in respect to the requirements of the
United Nations charter.
Spearhead economic development all over the continent.
Defend the independence, territorial integrity and sovereignty of all African
states.
Provide and improve the standards of living amongst African people
through provision of basics like food and shelter.
-
END OF TOPIC QUSTIONS
1.
Study the emblem below and answer the questions that follow
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
What do the letters OAU stand for?
When was the association you mentioned in i formed?
What is the current name of the association in i?
When was the name of the association in i changed to the one in
ii?
Where is its headquarters
List down the objectives of this association
Mention weakness of this association
Mention the first country in Africa to gain her independence from the
colonialists.
Name the association to which most of the European states belong
to.
THE ORGANISATION OF AMERICAN STATES (OAS)
OAS is an intercontinental body that unites all the
Southern States of America. It was founded in 1948
with its headquarters in Washington D.C, United State.
Initially, it had 21 members but now they are 35.
Objectives
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-
Strengthen solidarity and co-operation among member states.
Defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of member
states.
Strengthen peace and security of the continent.
Seek solution to political, judicial and economic problems that may rise from
member states.
Eradicate extreme poverty from member states.
Promise co-operative action towards economic social and cultural
development.
Promote and consolidate representative democracy, with due respect from
principle of non-intervention.
Provide a common action on member states in the event of aggression.
Prevent possible causes of difficulties to member states and to ensure
settlement of disputes that may arise among member states.
Control production of military weapons by member states and instead
develop efforts towards economic and social development.
THE ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATES (ECOWAS)
ECOWAS had its origin in 1972 when Nigeria and Togo signed a bilateral
agreement. It was established on 28th May 1975 with total membership of 15 states.
Cameroon and Chad did not become members.
Objectives
- Free trade and open common market for the member states.
- Promote economic co-operation and integration of West of African States.
- Developing, modernizing, and harmonising agriculture among member
states.
- Bringing about economic independence of the member states.
- Coordinating industrial development.
- To improve transport and communication network in West Africa.
- Putting in place the West African parliament and the West African court of
justice.
- To revive African culture that had been undermined by the colonialists
- Improve on the provision of social services of all member states.
- Promote trade and boost the economic development of member states
that made ECOWAS.
- To protect economic resources of West Africa, minerals, forests among
others.
THE OBJECTIVES OF THE MAGHREB UNION
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The Maghreb Union
Arab
Maghreb
countries of North
Africa.
Member
states
include
Algeria,
Libya,
Tunisia, Mauritania
and Morocco. The
union was founded
on 17th February
1989. A programme
was laid on which
the
union
was
going to operate during the Marrakech submit
is a trade agreement of the
Objectives
- Obtain an economic and political unity among Arab countries of the
Maghreb.
- Guarantee co-operation among member countries.
- Ensure industrial, agricultural, commercial and social development of
member states.
- Realise free movement of people, services, goods and capital between
member states.
- Ensure progress, improved standard of living and well being of people of the
member states.
- Ensure respect of human rights of member countries
The Maghreb Union has ten main institutions and these are:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
The Presidency
The consultative council
The monitoring committee
The meeting of the Prime Ministers
The Council of Foreign Ministers
The Ministerial specialised commissions
The Maghreb Bank for investment and foreign Trade (BMICE)
The Judicial organ
The University of Maghreb
The Headquarters are in Rabat, Morocco, Chairmanship is rotational.
THE OBJECTIVES OF THE ARAB LEAGUE
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This is a regional organisation of Arab countries in North Africa, Horn of Africa and
South West Asia.
The league was
formed on 22nd
March, 1945 in
Cairo, Egypt.
Currently
membership is 22
but with suspension
of Syria there are
21 countries.
The headquarters is
in Cairo, Egypt.
Member states
have oil, natural
gas and fertile
land.
Objectives of the Arab League
- To promote social, political and economic development of member states.
- To consolidate unity and solidarity among members states.
- To safe guard the independence and sovereignty of member of member
states.
- To defend the human independence and sovereignty of members states.
- To defend human rights of people of member states.
- To consider the affaires and interest of the Arab countries.
- To strengthen and co-ordinate the political, cultural, economic and social
programs of the member states.
- To mediate conflicts among member states.
- Increase the welfare and general standard of living of people of member
states.
- To ensure peace and stability in the region.
- To eradicate extreme poverty among member states.
- To seek solution to common problems affecting member states.
- To ensure a free and democratic environment in which members operate.
- To promote, encourage and facilitate bilateral trade between the Arab
world and its trading partner, UK.
THE ASSOCIATION OF SOUTH EAST ASIAN NATIONS
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This is an alliance
promoting political,
economic, cultural
social development and
co-operation among
member states. ASEAN
was formed on 8th
August 1967 by five
member states which
included Malaysia,
Indonesia, Singapore,
Philippines and Thailand.
Later, Cambodia, Laos,
Burma, Vietnam and
Vrunei joined forming
ten member states.
Objectives
- To promote political, social, cultural and economic development of
member states
- To protect regional peace and stability
- To create a conclusive environment for member countries to discuss their
differences peacefully.
- To increase the welfare of people in the region both economically and
culturally.
- To promote unity and co-operation among member states.
- To seek solution to political, economic and social problems that may arise in
the region.
- To eradicate extreme poverty from member states.
- To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of member
states.
- To provide a common action on member states in the event of aggression.
- To defend human rights of people of the member states.
The association has three pillars namely
- the political, security community,
- the economic community and
- the social- cultural community.
On 15th December 2008, the ASEAN charter entered into force and it become an
international organization.
THE COMMON MARKET FOR EASTERN AND SOUTHERN AFRICA (COMESA)
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COMESA was established in December 1994. It replaced the preferential Trade
Area (PTA). Current membership is over twenty countries. It has population of
about 400 million.
COMESA’s treaty states
that, it is “an organisation of
free independent sovereign
states which have agreed
to
co-operate
in
developing their natural
resources for the good of all
their people”.
Objectives and functions of
COMESA
- To offer a common
and
competitive
market
- To
promote
and
encourage industrial
productivity
- To promote and encourage modernization of agriculture and food security.
- To promote and encourage balanced exploitation of natural resources.
- To seek to harmonise the financial decision within the region.
- To promote and encourage reliable transport, infrastructure and
communication.
Organizational Structure
The Authority of Heads of State and Government
- Highest policy- making organ of COMESA
- Meet once a year (meeting is called the summit)
- Monitors and gives direction to the organisation.
Council of Ministers
- It is made up of government ministers from the member states.
- Prepares the agenda for the summit.
- Ministers monitor and review the financial and administrative management
of the organisation.
The COMESA Court of Justice
- Judicial organ which handles all legal matters among member states.
- Decides on matters referred to it concerning the COMESA treaty.
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Headed by the chairperson and four other members who are qualified
lawyers.
The Inter-Government Committee
- It is made up of permanent secretaries from the member states.
- These permanent secretaries fall under the ministries of finance, trade,
customs, and transport, industry and legal affairs.
- They make development programmes and action plans for the
organisation.
Secretariat
- The administrative body of COMESA
- Headed by the Secretary General who is appointed by the authority.
- Elected for a period of four years but can renew for another four year term.
- The headquarters of COMESA are in Lusaka.
- Its current Secretary General is Chileshe Kapwepwe, a Zambian.
The Committee of Governors of Central Banks
- Organ formed by the governors of the central banks from the member
states.
- Responsible for overseeing the proper implementation of the monetary and
financial programmes of the organisation.
- Determines the maximum debit and credit limit to the organisation.
COMESA has specialized institutions such as :
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
COMESA trade and development Bank in Nairobi, Kenya.
COMESA Re-insurance Company, Nairobi, Kenya.
COMESA clearing house in Harare, Zimbabwe
COMESA leather institute in Ethiopia
COMESA Association of commercial banks, Harare, Zimbabwe.
THE SOUTHERN AFRICA DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY (SADC)
SADC was transformed from the Southern Africa Development Co-ordination
conference (SADC) set up in 1980. It had nine regional members (Zambia, Malawi,
Mozambique, Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Tanzania, Zimbabwe and Swaziland).
SADC wanted to reduce dependence on South Africa because of its apartheid
policy and to set up programmes that would benefit member states. It was
transformed from a Conference to the “Community” in 1992 August, in Namibia.
The headquarters of SADC are in Gaborone, Botswana and the official languages
are English and Portuguese
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Principles of SADC
- Sovereign equality of all member states.
- Solidarity, peace and security
- Human rights, democracy, and the rule of law
- Equity, balance and mutual benefit
- Peaceful settlement of disputes
Objectives
- To cause development and economic growth among the member
countries.
- To develop and strengthen the common political values and good
governance.
- To promote and defend political stability, security and peace in the region.
- To promote collective self-reliance and interdependence of the member
states.
- To strengthen the long standing historical, culture and social relations
among the peoples of the member states.
- To maximize the exploitation of the natural resources as well as protecting
the environment.
Organisational Structure
The Summit
- This is made up of Heads of state and government.
- Highest policy – making organ
- Controls the direction and the functions of the community.
- Chairperson is usually a President of a member state
The Troika
- Consists of the chairperson of SADC
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The system came into being in order to speed up the implementation of
decisions made by the summit.
The Politics, Defence and Security Organ
- Concerned with the promotion of political stability, defence and security in
the region.
- The organ reports to the chairperson of SADC
The Council of Ministers
- This is the organ that is made of foreign ministers from each member state
- It is responsible for overseeing the operations and development of SADC.
- It ensures that decisions of the organisation are properly implemented
The Integrated Committee of Ministers
- It is responsible for monitoring the four major areas which are: Trade,
Industry, Finance and Investment.
- Others are infrastructure and services; Food, Agriculture and Natural
Resources (FANR); Social and Human Development and Special Each
Programmes.
- Each member state has a representation of two ministers.
- The organ is under the council of ministers.
The Tribunal
- It ensures that all the member states stick to principles and regulations of
SADC.
- It helps to settle disputes among the member countries that have been
referred to it.
SADC National Committees
- Special committees made up of the individuals representing
governments, private sector and civil society from member countries.
of
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES
DECOLONISATION
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Decolonisation was the action or process of a state withdrawing from a former
colony, leaving it independent. It can also be defined as the process by which
colonies became independent of the colonising country or the process of a
country becoming independent from the colonial master. It can also be the fight
against colonial rule to become independent from the colonial masters.
Most of the African countries were colonies of European powers. However by the
1950s and 1960s, most African countries became independent or decolonised. The
first country to be independent in Africa was the Gold Coast which became
known as Ghana at independence in 1957 and Kwame Nkrumah became the first
president.
The leaders of independent African countries therefore formed an organisation
known as Organisation of African Unity (OAU), now African Union (AU) and every
year, 25th May is a day set aside to commemorate such initiative.
Examples of leaders, who fought for decolonisation in Central Africa, were Dr.
Kamuzu Banda of Malawi, Kenneth David Kaunda of Zambia and Robert Mugabe
of Zimbabwe, among many others.
FACTORS THAT LED EUROPEAN POWERS GIVE INDEPENDENT TO THEIR COLONIES
- Nationalist aspirations increased by the Second World War especially the
defeat of the white man by the Japanese, so colonies did not wish to return
to pre-war situation
- There were many educated indigenous Africans in Africa to run
governments
- The onset of industrialization also created an urban working class who were
very receptive to the ideas of nationalism
- The Labour Government of 1945-1951in Britain was ideologically sympathetic
to the aspirations of independence
- The independence of India in 1947 from Britain was a great boost to many
colonies wanting to become independent
- The Eden Conservative Government recognized the legitimacy of nationalist
aspirations
- Macmillan’s 1960 wind of change speech motivated many nationalists to
demand for their countries independence
- Socialist countries like USSR pressurized decolonization by training guerilla
campaigns, for example in Zimbabwe
- It was very expensive to run colonies
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The UNO gave platform to nationalist leaders, e.g. in South Africa and
Zimbabwe
Self-confidence by Africans formed mass parties and mobilize them
Great Britain and to a lesser extent, France engaged in a process that led
through internal self-government to full independence.
PROBLEMS OR CHALLENGES FACED BY MOST AFRICAN COUNTRIES AT
INDEPENDENCE
- Economically, most independent African countries were weak and most of
them depend upon a single crop or single extractive industries, e.g. Copper
in Zambia
- The terms of trade have been against primary producers of raw materials
- Industries are mostly poorly developed and there is no industrial discipline
amongst the workforce
- There has been lack of investment
- Lack of administrative skills by the new states to run schools and other
departments
- Dangers of tribalism and different cultures hamper development
- Problems of urban drift leaving rural areas underdeveloped
- Corruption
- Drought and famines
- Religious conflicts e.g. Lumpa Church led by Lenshina in Zambia
- Manipulation of constitutions by leaders to perpetuate their hold to power
- Substandard communication systems
- Barotseland Question
- Few Primary and Secondary schools
- No or few universities
- Colonial governments still clings to the mineral concessions. They do not
want to surrender them to the African Governments, e.g. in Zambia
- Regionalism
- Poor transport facilities
- Unskilled manpower
- Lack of manufacturing industries
- Poor agricultural policies
- No value addition on agriculture, mining and industrial good produced
- Neo-colonialism
- Poor leadership that wants to stay in power forever
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Coup d’etats
Civil wars
Rapid population growth
Unplanned or poor planning of towns and cities
Poor water systems in towns and cities
Poverty
High illiteracy levels
MAJOR CAUSES OF CONFLICTS AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES IN THE MODERN WORLD
Conflict is a misunderstanding or quarrel, struggle or fight between two or more
individuals, communities, societies or countries. Conflicts occur when the ideas,
needs, interests of individuals groups of people or nation differ.
Causes of Conflicts
History - Research has revealed that historical reasons have contributed to the
emergency of conflicts. For example, conflicts between Christians and Moslems
dates back to the first Millennium AD.
Ethnicity – This is when people belonging to different cultural groups refuse to
accept each other as citizens belonging to the same country. For instance, Eritrea
broke off from Ethiopia.
Refugees - As the number of refugees increase, so is the pressure on local
resources of host communities. Sometimes, refugees use these areas as
springboards for attacking their government forces. This may result in the invasion
of foreign troops into the host communities and may lead to fighting.
Poverty, Illiteracy and Unemployment – In many third world countries poverty and
inequality in accessing goods and services increase tensions that leads to conflicts
in urban areas. The Lumpen Proletariat is usually easy targets for war recruiters and
political extremists.
Injustice – Wherever there is injustice peace can never prevail. Civil wars are
caused by injustice practices of the existing governments, e.g. the Apartheid
policy in South Africa in which the whites mistreated the Bantu.
Consequences
- Killing of many innocent people, especially children, women, the disabled
and old people. Also women are also sexually harassed.
- Increase in the number of refugees. Zambia, Tanzania and Uganda have a
lot of refugees.
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-
Infrastructure is badly damaged, bridges, airports, seaports and railway lines.
For instance, The Benguela railway line in Zambia going to Angola was
destroyed during the Angola war of independence.
The economy of any country is negatively affected. Agriculture and trade
decline.
Insecurity stops investors from establishing industries in the countries
experiencing conflict.
During armed conflict there is disruption of health and food supplies.
In times of war, there is an emergence of child soldiers.
EFFORTS APPLIED IN CONFLICT RESOLUTION AND MANAGEMENT IN THE MODERN
WORLD.
Conflict resolution is the settlement or avoidance of disputes between individuals
or groups through solutions that avoid violence. It is a means of maintaining
peace.
Efforts applied in resolving conflicts:
Negotiation - Conducted by a reliable and skilled negotiator directly between the
disputing parties. Dispute can be resolved if the concerned reach a mutually
acceptable solution that can be implemented.
Mediation - Method of conflict handling by a neutral third party acceptable to the
disputing parties. Two sides accommodate each other’s views before reaching a
solution.
Arbitration - This is where the disputing parties appoint an arbitrator to resolve their
differences. The arbitrator provides a binding decision after listening from the
disputing parties, which is usually in written form. Implementation depends on both
parties accepting the final decision.
Litigation - This allows the parties who have failed to accept the decision of the
arbitrator to proceed to the public courts of law. The judge is empowered to make
and implement decisions. Conflicts between countries are taken to the
International Court of Justice (ICJ) at the Haque to be resolved.
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THE MIDDLE EAST CRISIS
THE CREATION OF STATE OF ISRAEL 1948
ORIGIN:
The state of Israel was created on 14
May 1948 to settle the Israelites’
descendants the Jews who had faced
persecution in many parts of the
world. This state was established after
the division of Palestine into two parts
one inhabited by the Israelites (Jews)
the other part by the Arabs. The Arabs
of Islamic religion protested against
the idea of a Jewish state because
they had lived in this area thousands
of years before the Israelites came.
This led to a number of wars between
Israel and Palestine between 1956
and1973.
The history of the Israelites can
properly be understood by looking at
their background from the Bible in Old Testament. God had promised the Israelites
land in the Middle East around the
Red Sea. God loved them and for
this reason the Israelites were the
chosen people.
After their freedom from Egypt in
which they were slaves, the Israelites
settled in Palestine where a Temple
to worship their God was build in
Jerusalem and considered this place
their Holy Land.
While in Palestine, the Jews or
Israelites had stopped worshipping
true God. A number of prophets
were sent by GOD to warn them
against idol worshiping but they did
not listen .The last prophet Jesus
Christ was crucified.
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Because of this God decided to punish them and the Israelites found themselves in
the hands of many foreign rulers who persecuted them.
The major incident happened in 70 A.D about 2000 years ago when their Temple
at Jerusalem was destroyed by the Romans a situation which made many Jews
scatter from their home in Palestine to foreign countries in the Middle East and
Europe for safety. Most of them went to live in France, Germany and Russia where
they were regarded as foreigners. Wherever they went the Jews were not
welcomed as they were accused of being responsible for the death of Jesus Christ
and were hated as enemies of Christ.
Some countries expelled them from their territories. Others made them live apart
mostly in special suburbs called Ghettos and were expected to wear budges for
identification as Jews. In certain countries particularly Russia, they were massacred
by groups of people.
Jews were not allowed to hold positions such as Lawyers, Doctors or soldiers and
were forbidden to marry non-Jews. Despite these restrictions, most of the Jews
ended up becoming Traders and Bankers. This type of occupation made them
even more successful and increased their hatred. This hatred for the JEWS is called
Anti-Semitism.
Because of the problems that the Jews had faced in many countries, they began
to think of returning back to Palestine to establish what they would call a Jewish
Home.
A Jewish movement Called Zionism was formed by Theodore Herzl at Basle in
Switzerland in 1897. Theodore and others who believed that Jews needed to return
home in Palestine were known as Zionists.
Herzl organized the first Zionist Conference in 1897. In 1900, a Jewish Colonial Trust,
a bank was formed to provide money for the Jews to return to Palestine.
During the First World War (1914-1918) Jews were persuaded by countries in which
they lived to fight in the war on the side of those countries. Because of this, the
Jews who lived in Germany for example fought on the side of Germany, those
who lived in France did the same. The Jews expected those countries to support
their aim of going back to Palestine after the war was over.
On 2 November 1917, a British Minister Arthur Balfour promised the Zionist leaders
that the British Government was in support of their idea of establishing “a national
home for the Jews in Palestine” This declaration came to be called the Balfour
Declaration.
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At the same time, the British had promised independence to the Arab population
already living in Palestine as long as they helped Britain and her allies win the war
against Turkey who were the foreign rulers of Arab countries at a time.
The Arabs thought this could mean independence and kept remembering this
promise, the Jews also kept on remembering the promise by Britain.
But as far as the Arabs were concerned, they were already living in Palestine as
their home and Jerusalem was their Holy city as Muslims. The Jews who also kept
their history from the Old Testament considered Jerusalem as their holy City and so
both groups were expecting the same land to belong to them.
After the end of the First World War, a number of Jews began to return to Palestine
in large numbers running away from persecution in Europe.
The Arabs who were already living in Palestine protested against the large influx of
European Jews into their land. They feared that their land would be taken by the
Jews and wondered what would happen to the Arab population if the state of
Israel was to be set up.
The Jews on the other hand argued that they could not see any reason why the
two groups could not live together.
However, the religious differences between the two groups were the main reasons
why they could not live in peace. The Arabs were Muslims who followed Islam as
their religion and the Jews followed Judaism and some were Christians.
More Jews arrived in Palestine following Hitler’s persecution in 1933 when a
number of them were killed. Every year an average of 50,000 Jews arrived and
began to occupy land in Palestine. By 1936, half of the population in Palestine was
Jews.
In 1937, The British Peel Commission proposed to create two separate states
between the Arabs and Jews this was rejected by the Arabs.
During the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, Palestine was given as a mandate
territory to Britain on behalf of the League of Nations and the British were obliged
to fulfill their wartime promise to both the Arabs and Israelites. But the British
suggested to partition the land of Palestine into half one for the Arabs the other for
the Israelites. The Arabs protested against the suggestion.
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During the Second World War in 1945, more Jews were massacred by Hitler of
Germany. This further caused more influx of Jews to Palestine, causing more
protests among the Arabs.
The United States of America suggested to Britain to allow at least 100,000 more
refugees in Palestine.
In due course the British who were tired of war surrendered the problem of Jews
and Arabs to the United Nations Organization so that it could deal with it and
announced their withdrawal from Palestine on 14 May 1948.
In 1947, the United Nation Organization (UNO) Committee visited the country and
proposed it should be divided between Jews and Arabs. The Arabs protested
again but before this could be done, the JEWS took matters into their own hand
and proclaimed the independent State of Israel on 14th May 1948.
David Ben Gurion became the first Prime Minister of the new State of Israel. The
state was immediately attacked by Arab countries; Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan
and Iraq. The attack was the beginning of a series of wars between the Arabs and
Israelites from 1948 to 1973.
THE ARABS
Arabs have several things in common. They all speak the Arabic language, they
are nearly all Muslims (followers of the religion known as Islam), except for about
half the population of Lebanon, who are Christian; and most of them wanted to
see the destruction of Israel so that the Palestinian Arabs could get back the land
which they feel is rightfully theirs.
Many Arabs wanted to see the unity carried much further into some sort of
political and economic union, like the European Community.
Several attempts were made to increase unity among the Arab states. The Arab
League, founded in 1945, included Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Iraq Lebanon, Saudi
Arabia and Yemen; membership later expanded to include 20 states in 1980.
However, it achieved very little politically and was constantly hampered by
internal squabbles. In the mid 1950s Arab unity (sometimes known as Pan-Arabism,
‘Pan ’meaning ‘all’) received a boost with the energetic leadership of Colonel
Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, who gained enormous prestige in the Arab world
after the 1956 Suez Crisis.
In 1958 Syria joined Egypt to form the United Arab Republic, with Nasser as
president. However, this only lasted until 1961 when Syria withdrew because of
resentment at Nasser’s attempts to dominate the union.
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After Nasser’s death in 1970, his successor, President Sadat, organize loose union
between Egypt, Libya and Syria, known as the Federation of Arab Republics; but it
never amounted to much.
In spite of their similarities, there were too many points on which the Arab states
disagreed for unity ever to be really close.
ARAB-ISRAEL CONFLICTS 1956-1973
REASONS WHY ISRAELITES CLAIM OWNERSHIP OF PALESTINE?
- God gave this land to Abraham (the ancestor of the Israelites) and his
offspring according to Genesis 15:18
- According to the Balfour Declaration of 1917 Palestine was promised to the
Jews as a national home by Britain.
- Hitler’s persecution of the Jews made it possible to have a Jewish homeland.
- Palestinian refugees can be absorbed in other Arab states.
- Jews found Palestine a barren desert but made it a prosperous place.
WHY ARABS OPPOSED CREATION OF THE STATE OF ISRAEL
- The Arabs who were 93% by 1918 feared that Jewish immigrants would
become 51% of the population and thought that they would be squeezed
out of their own homeland; they began terrorist activities against the Jews.
- Arabs and Jews had different religions and could not live together.
- Arabs claimed Palestine was land of their ancestors, among them Abraham
and Ishmael.
- Arabs had lived in Palestine for close to 2000 years while Jews had been
away from Palestine for the same number of years.
- Jews gained possession over most land in Palestine through purchase of
land from Arabs.
- Arabs maintain that they did not deserve to suffer for Hitler’s persecution of
the Jews.
The 1948-49 Arab-Israel War
This was the first of the series of conflicts between the Arabs and Israelites. The war
started after the creation of the state of Israel in 1948. The Israelites defeated the
Arabs and even captured more land in Palestine than the UN partition had given
them.
They ended up with about three-quarters of Palestine plus the Egyptian port
Eilaton the Red Sea. The Israelis won because they fought desperately, and many
of their troops had gained military experience fighting in the British army during the
Second World War (some 30 000 Jewish men volunteered to fight for the British).
The Arab states were divided among themselves and poorly equipped.
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The Palestinians themselves were demoralized, and their military organization had
been destroyed by the British during the uprisings of 1936-9.
The most tragic outcome of the war was that the Palestinian Arabs became the
innocent victims: they had suddenly lost three-quarters of their homeland and the
majority were now without a state of their own. Some were in the new Jewish
state of Israel; others found themselves living in the area-known as the West Bankoccupied by Jordan.
After some Jews had slaughtered the entire population of an Arab village in Israel,
nearly million Arabs fled into Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan and Syria, where they had to
live in miserable refugee camps.
The city of Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan. The USA, Britain and
France guaranteed Israel’s frontiers, but the Arab did not regard the ceasefire as
permanent. They would not recognize the legality of Israel, and they regarded this
war as only the first round in the struggle to destroy Israel and liberate Palestine.
The Suez War/Crisis 1956
The Suez War took place in 1956 between Israelites and Egyptian Arabs. After the
defeat of Arabs by Israel in 1948, Egypt hated Israel so much that she began to
raid Israelites’ settlements.
The new Egyptian President Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser made sure that the
Israelites were denied access to use the Suez Canal, Egypt and other Arab
countries refused to buy Israeli goods.
The Suez Canal was a shorter route linking Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea to
the Far East. The canal was constructed with the help of France and Britain who
financed the project. Even though it passed through Egypt, it was run by a
company whose shareholders were British and French. Therefore, it was supposed
to be kept open for all shipping without any restrictions.
But in 1956, the Egyptian ruler Abdel Nasser nationalized the canal so that he
could use the funds from the canal to construct the Aswan High Dam. The move
to nationalize the canal annoyed the British and French who began to plan an
attack on Egypt. Meanwhile, Israel had already decided to launch their attack on
Mt Sinai of Egypt.
Therefore, the French, British and Israelis co-operated in a war against Egypt in
1956. The three countries agreed at a meeting that when Israel attack Egypt ,
France and Britain would send troops under the excuse of keeping the two sides
apart and the canal open for shipping.
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Course of the war
The war began on 29 October 1956, when Israeli Army attacked Sinai the Egyptian
territory. In six days, their soldiers scattered the Egyptian army and destroyed its
bases. Two days later, the British and French government ordered the Egyptians
and Israelis not to fight within 16 kilometers of the canal. This order was accepted
by the Israelis but rejected by the Egyptians.
Two days later, the British attacked Egyptian airfield and thereafter British and
French troops landed at Port Said on the Mediterranean Sea. The Egyptians were
defeated even though they managed to upset the British and French army by
blocking the canal and sinking the ships.
The Six Days War 1967
The Six Days War took place in 1967. Nasser the Egyptian President remained the
leading figure in the Middle East and played a big role in the breakout of the war.
Using his influence, he encouraged other Arab states to unite in an effort to
destroy Israel.
The Arab countries formed an organization called Palestine Liberation
Organization (PLO), with Yasser Arafat as one of its leaders.
Egypt had support of Iraq and Syria and began a series of attacks on Israelis. The
Egyptian leader Abdel Nasser began to move troops up to the frontiers in Sinai
and closed the Gulf of Aqaba. While Syria, Jordan and Lebanon also moved
troops along their frontiers with Israel, and contingents from Iraq, Saudi Arabia and
Algeria joined them. Israel’s situation seemed hopeless. Abdel Nasser had all the
Arab world helping him to defeat Israel
Russia promised that they would send help if war came. On the other hand, Israel
was not alone she was supported by the United States of America (USA).
The Syrians also began to bombard Jewish settlements from the Golan Heights,
which overlooked the frontier. The Israelis decided that the best policy was to
attack first rather than wait to be defeated.
On 5 June 1967, they launched a series of devastating air strikes which destroyed
most of the Egyptian air force on the ground. Israeli troops moved with remarkable
speed, capturing the Gaza Strip and the whole of Sinai from Egypt, the rest of
Jerusalem and the West Bank from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria.
The Israeli troops then moved to capture Sharm-el-sheikh on the Red Sea and the
Jordanian army was driven out of old Jerusalem. Therefore, within six days Egypt
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had lost all her territory in Sinai and about half of Jordan was occupied by Israelis.
The war ended with the UN cease fire order 10
The Yom Kippur War 1973
Yom Kippur is a Jews religious celebration which is held in October. It is during this
cerebration that Jews ask God for forgiveness of their sins.
The Arabs wanted to attack the Israelites by surprise during this day when the
Israelis where very busy with their cerebration. It is for this reason that the war is
named after this holy cerebration as Yom Kippur War
The new Egyptian ruler Anwar Sadat who took over after Nasser’s death in1970
was more than willing to destroy Israel. He organized an attack on Israel.
On 6 October 1973 the Jewish Holy Day called Yom Kippur; Syria attacked the
Golan Heights and received help from Jordan, Iran and Saudi Arabia. On the
other hand, 200 Egyptian planes and 2000 guns attacked Israeli defensive lines on
the Suez Canal.
The Egyptian troops crossed the canal into Sinai. In the North, Syria attacked along
the Golan Heights and Israelis were near to total defeat.
However, the Israelis regained their strength and recaptured Mount Hermon. The
war ended with the UN cease fire on 25 October 1973.
The result of the war led to increase in fuel price by Arab countries. This was to
force America to persuade Israel to give up some of the land she conquered
during the previous wars. The increase in oil price led to industrial depression in
many European countries.
MAO ZEDONG AND THE CHINESE COMMUNIST PARTY (CCP)
The early years
The party had been officially founded in 1921; at first it consisted mostly of
intellectuals and had very little military strength, which explains why it was willing to
work with the Kuomintang (KMT).
Mao Zedong, who was present at the founding meeting, was born in Hunan
province (1893) in south-east China, the son of a prosperous peasant farmer.
After spending some time working on the land, Mao trained as a teacher, and
then moved northwards to Beijing where he worked as a library assistant at the
university, a centre of Marxist studies.
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Later he moved back to Hunan and built up a reputation as a skilful trade union
and Peasant Association Organizer. He worked hard to increase the party’s
popularity by winning mass support among the peasants.
In 1931 Mao was elected chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the
Party, and from then on, he gradually consolidated his position as the real leader
of Chinese Communism.
Mao and his supporters spent most of their energies on survival as Chiang carried
out five ‘extermination campaigns’ against them between 1930 and1934. They
took to the mountains between Hunan and Kiangsi provinces concentrated on
building up the Red Army.
However, early in 1934 Mao’ base area was surrounded by KMT armies poised for
the final destruction of Chinese Communism. Mao decided that the only chance
of survival was to break through Chiang’s lines and set up another power base
somewhere else.
In October 1934 the breakthrough was achieved and almost 100 000 communists
set out on the remarkable Long March, which was to become part of Chinese
legend.
They covered about 6000 miles in 368 days. Eventually the 20 000 survivors found
refuge at Yenan in Shensi Province: this was the last surviving communist base in
China and was controlled by the guerrilla leader Kao Kang.
Mao was able to control the provinces of Shensi and Kansu. During the ten years
following the Long March the communists continued to gain support, while Chiang
and the KMT steadily lost popularity.
WHY DID MAO AND THE COMMUNISTS GAIN SUPPORT?
The inefficiency and corruption of the KMT in government
- The KMT had little to offer in the way of reform, spent too much time looking
after the interests of industrialists, bankers and landowners, and made no
effective attempts to organize mass support.
- On the other hand the KMT administration was inefficient and corrupt, much
of its American aid finding its way into the pockets of officials.
- Its policy of paying for the wars by printing extra money resulted in high
inflation, which caused hardship for the masses and ruined many of the
middle class.
- Its armies were poorly paid and were allowed to loot the countryside.
- This provided the main opportunity for Mao and the communists to win
support.
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There was little improvement in factory conditions
- Poor industrial working conditions continued, in spite of laws designed to
remove the worst abuses, such as child labour in textile mills.
- Often these laws were not applied: there was widespread bribery of
inspectors and Chiang himself was not prepared to offend his industrial
supporters.
There was no improvement in peasant poverty
- In the early 1930s there was a series of droughts and bad harvests which
caused widespread famine in rural areas.
- At the same time there was usually plenty of rice and wheat being hoarded
in the cities by profiteering merchants. In addition there were high taxes and
forced labor.
- In contrast, the land policy followed in areas controlled by the communists
was much more attractive: at first in the south, they seized the estates of rich
landlords and redistributed them among the peasants return China to its
oppressive imperial past.
The KMT put up no effective resistance to the Japanese
- This was the crucial factor in the communist success.
- The Japanese occupied Manchuria in 1931 and were obviously preparing to
bring the neighboring provinces of northern China under their control.
- Chiang seemed to think it was more important to destroy the communists
than to resist the Japanese, and moved into south Shensi to attack Mao
(1936). Here a remarkable incident took place: Chiang was taken prisoner
by some of his own troops, mostly Manchurians, who were incensed at the
Japanese invasion
- When full-scale war broke out with Japan in 1937, the KMT forces were
quickly defeated and most of eastern China was occupied by the
Japanese as Chiang retreated westwards.
- The communists put up a strong resistance against the Japanese.
- This won them massive support among the peasants and middle classes,
who were not happy with the Japanese arrogance and brutality.
- Whereas in 1937 the CCP had 5 base areas controlling 12 million people, by
1945 this had grown to 19 base areas controlling 100 million people.
- In January 1949 the communists took Beijing, and later in the year, Chiang
and what remained of his
forces fled to the island of
Taiwan, leaving Mao Zedong in
command of mainland China
- In
October
1949
Mao
proclaimed the new People’s
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Republic of China with himself as both Chairman of the CCP and President
of the Republic.
The Rule of Mao-Zedong
 The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in China under Mao Tse-tung or Mao
Zedong came to power after the end of Chiang Kai-shek’s Kuomintang
government.
 Mao who was the leader of the Party became the chairman of the new
Peoples’ Republic of China on 1 October 1949.
Mao inherited many problems when he became Chairman of China, most roads,
railways and bridges were damaged during the Second World War. Industries did
not produce enough goods; there were therefore shortage of commodities in the
country. Prices were high and money had lost its Value
In order to solve all these problems, Mao introduced a Communist system in China
just like in Russia. To begin with, he impressed the peasants who had supported his
political party by giving them land.
- Large estates were broken up and given to these peasant farmers.
- All trading companies, heavy industries and banks were nationalized, prices
and wages were fixed.
- Newspaper, radio and stations became government property and were
used to explain communist policy.
- Those who refused to support government, or criticized state actions were
executed or taken to labor camps where they were made to work long
hours and forced to study communist political ideas.
REFORMS INTRODUCED BY MAO
Mao introduced several Social and economic reforms based on communism as
follows
Five year plan (1952)
The first five year plan was introduced in 1952. Under the reform,
- Country people were made to put their resources and share machinery and
equipment.
- The people were then required to form co-operatives or collective farms for
the benefit of all peasants. The plan was that these cooperatives were to
grow crops for the state. In spite of some resistance from some peasants, the
plan was successful, industry increase production and many individuals
record amount of work
Great- Leap Forward (1957)
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Under this economic policy, Mao aimed at depending on two things, namely
Industrial and Scientific
Under this Policy, the country was organized into
- 26,000 large collective farms called Communes. Each commune had its
own schools, hospitals, road and its own army.
High targets were set for industry, everybody worked hard, even peasants
produced materials like pig-iron
The Cultural Revolution (1966)
Mao introduced the Cultural Revolution in 1966. These were basically the change
of old China’s way of life and adopt a complete new attitude towards life
He recruited the youths as Red Guards or Red Army to march the streets of China
to force people to adopt new way of life that is hard work, living simple life and
helping the poor, above all sharing possession. Those who liked foreign things were
attacked by the red army
He hated schools as a worst of time and for two years, schools remained closed
whilst teachers and students went to help with farming and industrial projects.
Though the activities of the Red army led to complaints and riots, by the time of
Mao’s death in 1976, many Chinese accepted the new direction of China
CONFLICTS IN THE MIDDLE EAST
The Middle East is compromised of countries like Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Iraq, Yemen,
Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and Israel. Before the beginning of the twentieth century,
the Middle East countries were under the control of the Ottoman Empire. In the
early 1960’s the Arabs with the help of the British rebelled against the Ottoman
Empire.
Causes of the Conflict
a. During World War One, the British promised Arabs political independence.
This was an empty promise and it resulted into militant nationalism in the
region.
b. The Balfour declaration of 1917 which saw the creation of the Jewish state of
Israel in 1948. Left many Palestinians displaced.
c. This caused endless battles between the Jews and Palestinians who wanted
the state of Israel to be erased from the World map.
d. Failure by neighbouring states to officially recognise the state of Israel
caused conflicts, despite the 242 UN resolutions which gave Israel official
recognition.
e. This forced Israel to spend more on Military hardware on its national budget.
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f. Territorial disputes have caused conflicts. For example, the Lebanon – Syria
war. Syria claimed some territories from Lebanon.
g. Nationalism of the Suez Canal in 1956 and the blocking of port Akaba from
being used by Israelites ships sparked conflict (Sinai Campaign).
h. The British did not honour the 1917 Balfour declaration in which they
promised to establish a national home in Palestine for the Jews.
i. The British withdrew from Palestine in 1948 as they failed to resolve the
conflict between the Jews and Arabs. The Jews declared independence to
themselves and this has remained a source of conflict in the Middle East.
j. The use of expatriates to extract oil from the Middle East countries has led to
the importation of their home conflicts in the region.
k. Embracing of Western Culture by some nationals in the region has caused
conflict. Norms like alcoholism, prostitution and smoking are contrary to the
teaching of Islam.
l. The emergency of new and young radical leaders like Nasser (Egypt) and
Gadaffi (Libya), whose unfair actions like expansionist policies angered
Islamic revolutionalists. This increased conflict in the region.
m. The influence of cold war politics between the USA and USSR. These wanted
to control the energy resource found in the region. As a result each group
financed its supporters creating political unrest in the region.
Effects
- Slow pace of the economic development. Constant fighting’s in the region
scare investors. This has negatively affected the economies world over.
- The continued funding of rebel groups, the Western powers and their plans
of overthrowing rulers who try to block them from enjoying benefits from the
oil, has increased hatred towards the western countries.
- Increased sale of military arms especially by the USA, France and Britain to
the region has encouraged continuous fighting. Hence, the Middle East is
the most Militarized region in the world.
- The Middle East crisis has contributed to increased terrorist activities in the
world. In the Middle East people attribute their suffering to Western powers
particularly USA. This has led to the formation of Islamic militias as terrorist
groups. For instance, Al-Qaeda terrors attack on 11/09/2001 which has put
the world to fear.
- Middle East crisis has made international politics more complex. Initially, the
USA dominated politics but now it is challenged by China and Russia.
11.7.2 DR CONGO REGIONAL CONFLICTS
- Since independence DRC has failed to stabilize.
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- Constant wars have caused insecurity in the region.
Causes
- The presence of various minerals in DR Congo such as gold, copper,
diamond and Zinc has caused conflicts in the region. Armed insiders and
outsiders engage themselves in the exploitation of these resources, creating
instability and insecurity in the country.
- The size of DR Congo is another cause of conflicts. The country is extremely
big in size. It is equivalent to Western Europe. Its natural forests harbour rebel
groups. It’s hard for the government to exercise effective control.
- The general weakness of the successive governments since independence.
DR Congo has never had a strong leader. Hence, rebel groups took
advantage of it to enter DR Congo and disturb peace.
- Lack of National Unit is another cause of conflict. Since independence from
Belgium various states of DR Congo became isolated from each other. This
becomes hard for the government in power to exercise effective control.
- After the Rwandan genocide, the post-war Tutsi government invaded DR
Congo in the search of the extremist Hutu militias who had escaped into
Congo. This later resulted into conflicts.
Effects of Dr Congo Regional Conflicts
- Violation of human rights as a result of conflict. Rape cases by rebels against
the local people.
- Family break ups as a result of conflict. Some people left their country and
crossed to neighbouring countries. In this manner some families broke up
never to meet their loved ones again.
- The Congo conflict has resulted into displacement of so many Congolese.
According to the international rescue committee some 3.4 million people
were forced to flee their homes between 1997 – 2003.
- As the result of the conflict 5.4 million people were killed from 1997 – 2003. In
2006 conflict over 3.3 Congolese were killed.
- The conflict has bought insecurity in the region. Due to constant fighting DR
Congo has become insecure.
- The conflict retarded economic development in the region. Agriculture,
mining and trade disrupted by the constant fighting.
- Many Congolese have continued to suffer various diseases that result from
war. For example, Cholera, Typhoid and Dysentery.
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There has been theft of countries resources by various rebel groups. Copper,
gold and diamonds have been stolen.
The conflicts have strained relationships between DR Congo and her
neighbouring countries, especially Rwanda and Uganda.
11.7.3 THE RWANDAN GENOCIDE 1994
- Genocide is a deliberate and systematic extermination in whole or in part of
an ethnic, racial, regions or national group.
- In relation to Rwanda, genocide can be defined as the mass extermination
of the Tutsi by the second republic led by Habyarimana.
- The Rwandan Genocide was a gradual process which started in the first
republic of Gregory Kayibanda. It reached its climax in 1994.
Genocide ideologies developed through the use of the media, training and rearming interahammwe purposely to kill the Tutsi. To exterminate the Tutsi across the
globe, discriminate them in education and issuing discriminative identity cards or
“Indangamuntu”.
Causes of the Tutsi Genocide
- Genocide ideology was one of the causes of Tutsi genocide. Radiotelevision stations and newspapers were used to inform Rwandese that they
were different despite living in the same geographical area. Hatred
gradually developed within Rwanda leading to the 1994 genocide.
- Effect of colonialism led to genocide. The Belgians and Germans sided with
one group against another. Hence, there was no room for social, economic
and political cohesion. It just created genocide ideologies.
- The death of president Habyarimana in the Aircraft clash was the spark of
the mass massacre of the Tutsi. Government leaders in the Habyarimana’s
regime falsely accused the Tutsi’s for having participated in massacre of the
president. This eventually led to the mass massacre of the Tutsi’s.
- Anti government activities. Rwandan’s in exile attacked the Habyanimana
regime for mismanagement of the social, political and economic systems
and failure to implement the Arusha accord. The government also claimed
that the Tutsi were secretly giving economic, social, political and moral
support to rebels intending to overthrow the Habyanimana regime. The
government secretly decided to exterminate any Tutsi in Rwanda.
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The second republic influenced the rise of genocide through the training of
Interahamwe. The youth were trained in skills and knowledge of
extermination. They were also equipped with machetes to exterminate
Tutsi’s who had been labelled the term “Inyenzi” meaning cockroaches
invading the government.
The role of the media led to genocide. Newspapers, radio stations,
magazines, television talk referred to the Tutsi as enemies of the country. So,
the Rwandan genocide in 1994 broke out to exterminate the enemies of the
country.
Consequences/Effect
- It led to massive loss of life. About one million people died.
- It created anarchy and insecurity in the country.
- Many Rwandans took refuge in neighbouring countries were they suffered
from social and political challenges.
- There were many widows, widowers in Rwanda which became a challenge
to the post regimes in Rwanda. A nine years basic education was launched
to equip them with knowledge and skills of self sustenance.
- Genocide resulted into the rise of traumatisation. Rwanda was reviewed as
a battle field. However, the role of the nationalists like major general Paul
Kagame and late Fred Reigyema helped the image of Rwanda to restore
quickly.
- The genocide depopulated Rwanda as many people died.
- The war revealed the weakness of OAU (AU). It withdrew its troops in 1994 at
the height of the crisis on the excuse of financial hardships. Hence it failed to
affect the Arusha resolution to stop the war.
- It attracted the evacuation of foreign nationals from Rwanda.
- The beginning of the war created political upheavals within the great lakes
region. For example, the second Republic in Rwanda accused Uganda for
harbouring rebels. But Uganda was facilitating the creation of a new
government based on true pillars of democracy.
- The end of the revolution ushered a new government which laid a ground
for social, economic and political reconstruction of Rwanda.
- It enabled the Rwandan exiles to return home.
11.7.4 THE LAND ISSUE IN ZIMBABWE
Reasons or causes or need for land reform in Zimbabwe:
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The need for equitable distribution of land between disenfranchised Blacks
and the minority Whites. By 1979 Whites were five percent of the population
and owned seventy percent of the most fertile land. Native blacks were
ninety five percent of the population but only owned thirty percent of the
land which was unfair.
Colonial government policies on land favoured whites. For instance, loan
guarantee systems, grants, funding of agricultural research all benefited the
minority whites. Majority blacks were extended to less fertile areas with
unreliable rainfall.
Lack of individual title to land also created the need for land reform. This
often resulted into land wrangles since there was no clear demarcation of
land.
Need for ethnic balance of land ownership also created the need for land
reform. Land needed to be equitably distributed to all ethnic groups in
Zimbabwe to achieve this, the land apportionment act of 1930 was signed
to handle the case.
Consequences/Effects of the Land Issue or Land Reforms in Zimbabwe
- Socially the land reform programme boosted the growing of business in rural
areas. Fifty percent of those who received land were peasants who worked
hard to improve their lives.
- Economically, the land reform was continuously affected the economic
stand of Zimbabwe negatively. Tobacco is the country’s top foreign
exchange earner whose production dropped by forty three percent from
2000 to 2009. Few years after the reform, Zimbabwe lost her position as the
second largest exporter of tobacco.
- The land reforms resulted into famine, starvation and malnutrition among
Zimbabwean population because primary beneficiaries lacked experience
and practical skills. This resulted into a drop total farm output.
- Unemployment has increased since the land reform. More than 300,000 farm
workers were chased by land owners.
- As a result of land reform, poverty increased in Zimbabwe. According to the
Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee (ZIMVAC) report, seventy
two percent of the urban population was below the poverty line.
- Socially a big number of Zimbabwean natives have suffered various
injustices since the land reform. Most Zimbabweans were harassed by war
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veterans especially those in Mashona land some were kicked, raped and
punched.
Politically the land reform increased hatred towards the government of
Robert Mugabe. The losing government reacted by harassing and
intimidating its critics like media civil society and members of the opposition.
Land reform resulted in the rise of the Movement for Democratic Change
(MDC).
MDC led by Morgan Tsvangirai advocated for change and won many
followers.
Politically the land reform exposed the true colours of President Robert
Mugabe who decided to increase the violation of human rights.
11.7.5 INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM
- The term terrorism comes from a
French word terrorism which is
also derived from a Latin verb
terreo which means to “frighten”.
- Used to describe the inhuman
actions of the Jacobin club
during the “Reign of terror” in the
course of the French Revolution
of 1989.
- International terrorism refers to
the terrorist activities done across
the world.
- Terrorism is characterised by
killing of innocent people for political purpose; causing death or body harm
to civilians, psychological torture and psychological repression beyond the
target group.
- Political in aims and objectives as they do not wear uniforms for easy
identification.
- Terrorist is a person who engages him or herself in terrorist activities. Common
terrorist groups in the world include; Al-Qaeda in Arab countries, Yeman,
North Africa, book Haram in Nigeria, West Africa, Alshabaab in Somalia and
Al Nusrah front ANF; Syria.
Causes
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Opposition to western policies led to most terrorist activities. Fanatic Islamic
terrorists oppose alliance with western Christian powers in order to protect
Islam from contamination. EG, Al Qaeda.
Lack of satisfaction from the government of countries where terrorist groups
exist. Some terrorists groups where members in the governments of those
countries where they live but only broke away their governments due to
political disagreements. These kill civilians and bomb government buildings.
For example, Al Shabaab in Somalia.
Terrorism occurs because there is sure support from various groups or
countries. Iran, North Korea, Cuba, Sudan and Syria sponsor terrorists. They
are alleged to own weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD). They are also
funded by Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs).
Terrorism is also partially due to the ideological reasons. Some terrorists are
intentionally sent and supported by the leftwing to attack the rightwing and
vice-versa.
The need for political recognition. Some terrorist groups carry out various
terrorist activities so as to become known. The Boko Haram group in Nigeria
for instance was not popular before it started suicide, killing civilians and
kidnapping over 200 school girls from school.
The need for funds by some terrorist groups to finance their activities. Some
groups may kidnap a very important person in government and demand for
a lot of money from the government with an ultimatum of which failure to
meet it, the person is either terrorised or killed.
When terrorists are caught by government due to their activities like suicide
bombing, fellow terrorist put up tough conditions for their release. Failure to
comply often leads to suicide bombing, killing innocent civilians and
kidnapping important people as a way of revenge.
Some terrorist activities are linked to the historic rivalry between Hindus and
Muslims in the Indian continent.
Consequences/Effects
- It has resulted into serious loss of lives across the world. For instance, the Al
Qaeda operatives on 11th September, 2001 attacked the twin tower
building in USA killing and injuring many during the suicide bombing.
- It has led into serious destruction of valuable property.
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In some countries like Nigeria terrorism has scared the education of the girl
child. The kidnapping of over 200 girls by Boko Haram has scared girls and
has affected their education and fear that they might be attacked.
It has resulted into environmental degradation. Bombs used are made of
dangerous chemicals which include poison gas. The poisonous smoke that
comes out of bombs contaminates the fresh air in the atmosphere.
International terrorism has increased international expenditure to combat
terrorism. USA for instance has almost doubled her defense budget in order
to counter terrorist activities. Other countries have embarked on training
anti-terrorist groups ready to fight terrorists and financing anti-terrorist patrol.
It has increased fear among people and seriously increased tension in the
world.
International expenditure on victims of terrorism has increased. A lot of
money is spent to nurse severe injuries and those killed by suicide bombers.
It has resulted in psychological torture by the victims of terrorism. Relatives of
those killed or kidnapped are psychologically and emotionally affected.
END OF TOPIC QUESTIONS
1.
Read the passage below and answer the questions that follow
On September 2001, 19 militants associated with a named Islamic extremist
group, hijacked four airplanes and carried out suicide attacks against
targets in the United States. Two of the planes were flown into the twin
towers of the World Trade Centre in New York, a third plane hit the
Pentagon just outside Washington, D.C., and the fourth plane crushed in a
field in Pennsylvania. Almost 3,000 people were killed during the 9/11 terrorist
which triggered major U.S initiatives to combat terrorism.
m.
n.
o.
p.
q.
r.
s.
t.
u.
Who was the president of United States of America when this attack
took place?
Name the terrorist group that carried out this attack.
Name the leader who financed this terrorist group.
Give two reasons why this group attacked the United States.
What was the year the leader you mentioned in iii above killed?
What do you understand by the term, terrorism?
State two characteristics of terrorism.
Name the terrorist group operating in West Africa
What name is given to the terrorist group operating in Somalia?
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11.7.6 DISCUSS THE EFFECTS OF HIV/AIDS IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT.
HIV is a virus that causes a disease known as AIDS.
- It affects white blood cells that protect the body against diseases. HIV
means Human Immune-Deficiency Virus.
- White blood cells are killed the body becomes defenseless and many
diseases can weaken it.
- Where HIV is responsible for the destruction of the Immune system condition
is called HIV/AIDS. AIDS means Acquired Immune deficiency Syndrome.
- People who have HIV in the bodies are said to be HIV Positive.
- HIV lives in body fluids like semen, lymph, breast milk, blood and vaginal
fluid.
11.7.6 CAUSES/SPREAD OF HIV/AIDS
- Through sexual intercourse
- Sharing skin cutting objects, safety pins, razor blades
- Through mother to child transmission at birth
- From infected mother to unborn child
- Through blood transfusion
- Through breast feeding
Economic development refers to a situation where a country utilises her resources
and labour force in order to develop her economy. HIV/AIDS has the following
effects on economic development:
- HIV/AIDS affects people who are between 15 – 49 years who are the largest
energetic and most productive labour force. Therefore, the country has
been denied of its productivity labour which strains her economic
development.
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Both skilled and unskilled people contribute to the economic development
of their countries. This is through providing labour, payment of taxes and
delivery of services. When they get infected and die it retards economic
development.
The government and the private sector including families spend a lot of
money to train and equip skills in their people. Trained people include
teachers, lawyers, Engineers, doctors, soldiers and police force. If such
trained people die, it strains economic development.
HI/AIDS is a dangerous disease. The government spends heavily on
prevention, care and treatment through counseling services, HIV testing,
HI/AIDS awareness, programmers on Radio and Television stations, news
papers, awareness seminars and Workshops.
Provision of Anti-retrial drugs, training special medical personnel and
building health centers for treating the infected tend to be costly.
The government spends a lot of money on continuous research about
HIV/AIDS, training, counseling and buying laboratory equipment. It spends
on transport and accommodation.
11.7.7 Discuss major causes and effects of Environmental Degradation
Environmental degradation is spoiling or destroying the environment. The
environment comprises of land, air and water.
Causes of Environmental Degradation
Natural Causes
- Flooding is the natural cause of environmental degradation. The water
stagnates in the area and becomes dangerous to soil, human and animal
life. Floods contaminate water believes like wells and sometimes kills living
organism that live in soil which help in soil formation.
- Draught is another cause of environmental degradation. Its a long sunny
period which causes water bodies to dry up and makes water in the soil to
dry. This leaves soil from supporting crop growth and in this way soil is
degraded.
- Volcanic eruption is another cause of environmental degradation. Some
active organic mountains sometimes erupt throwing out very hot larva and
burning rocks. These blusterous plants, animals and peoples life. Dust, ash
and other particles are released into the air resulting in air pollution.
- Earthquakes also cause environment degradation due to the earth’s
movements. It deforms the earth’s surface and also destroys life and
property.
- Siltation causes environment degradation. Here soil and other substances
begin to be deposited into rivers, wells and dams. They tend to make these
water bodies shallow and in turn reduce the volume of water
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Man-Made Causes
- Deforestation. That is massive cutting of trees in an area. This reduces rain
due to a reduction in the rapid evaporation of moisture from the forest. It
also results in soil erosion.
- Poaching is another cause of environmental degradation. This is the illegal
hunting of wild animals in gazetted areas like national parks and game
reserves, poaching reduces the number of animals and may lead to
extinction of some spices.
- Poor farming practices for instance over cultivation, mono-cropping, bush
burning and improper dumping of non-bio-degradable waste result in
environment degradation.
- Improper handling of waste materials like faeces, waste from industries like
soap, medicine, solid waste and dust from construction sites result in
environmental degradation.
CONTROL AND PREVENTION
- Environmental degradation can be controlled through the process of
protecting the environment. This is referred to as environmental
conservation.
- Conservation of forest is one way of preserving the environment. This is
mainly done by the government issuing strict laws against tree harvesting
and poaching.
- A forestation is another way of controlling environmental degradation. This is
the planting of trees in places where they are absent.
- Rural electrification can control pressure on forests.
- Re-a forestation. Planting of trees to replace the cut ones. For every one tree
cut it is advisable to plant two or three.
- Proper management of solid waste. The bio-degradable and nondegradable wastes may be regarded into manure and be resold to farmers.
The treatment of industrial waste is another way of preserving the
environment. This makes them harmless. The government should ban the use
of vehicles which emit a lot of smoke which is harmful to human health and
pollutes air.
- Over fishing and fishing of young ones should be controlled. Only allowed
fishnets should be used.
- Good farming methods such as mulching crop rotation, contour ploughing
and application of manure prevent soil erosion and soil exhaustion.
- Use of law to protect wetlands and game parks. Strict laws forbidding
hunting of game animals should be passed.
- The use of wood fuel saving cooking equipment for instance charcoal
stoves.
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11.7.8 Discuss the effects of Child Labour and Abuse to Children
Child abuse is a form of mistreatment and misuse of a child by an adult.
FORMS/TYPES OF CHILD ABUSE
- PHYSICAL ABUSE-Any form of act or aggression that results in physical injury.
Actions can be beating, hitting, slapping, kicking, pinching, throwing and
burning. This can result in to cuts, bite marks, burns, bruises and wounds.
- CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE-This is any sexual act between an adult and a child.
This may include penis penetration, incest, rape, sodomy, touching a child’s
genitals spying on a naked child and telling sexual stories.
- CHILD EMOTIONAL ABUSE (PHYSCHOLOGICAL ABUSE)-This is a pattern of
behaviour intended to communicate to a child that he or she is unloved
and unwanted. This can be done by isolation, rejection, scorn, terrorism and
neglect.
- CHILD NEGLECT-Failure to provide for a child’s basic needs. This can be
physical, medical, educational and emotional.
Effects of Child Labour and Abuse
- Traumatises children, victims of abuse become dehumanised which affects
their social well being.
- It results in children becoming hardcore criminals. Pain received as a result
of torture makes children lose a sense of humanity and end up becoming
criminals since it looks normal to them.
- It also results in to street children, continuous torture and punishment both at
home and school makes children to hate their homes and school.
Eventually, they run away and find themselves on streets as a way of getting
relief.
- It denies children a chance to like work. They see work as a means of
torture.
- It prevents children from appreciation of social values like love, care and
empathy, some children even become tough to others.
- It even results into school drop outs. Children can hate school due to
corporal punishments and end up dropping out of school for relief.
- It undermines relationship between parents or teachers and the children. It
makes children believe that parents and teachers are responsible for their
suffering. As a result they will hate both of them.
- It affects children’s health especially cases of serious torture, for example
burning, rape and beating.
11.7.9 Describe possible solutions to human trafficking.
Human trafficking is the illegal way of carrying human beings from one place to
another with the intention of taking advantage of them.
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Possible Solutions
- Strict spy network should be employed by the security agencies of every
country in order to get those involved in human trafficking.
- Awareness programmes should be available on radio and TV stations to
alert people on what is happening.
- People should be alert and conscious about con-men and report them to
the nearest police station.
- There should be serious co-ordination and co-operation of all security bodies
internationally on issues concerning human trafficking.
- Tough punishments should be given to whoever is caught in human
trafficking .For instance, life imprisonment.
- Worldwide abolition of human trafficking through law enforcement bodies.
- Tightening security within nations and on the borders.
- Immediate action should be taken where to police are alerted on
suspected people dealing in human trafficking.
- Tricks used by people dealing in human trafficking should be
communicated to people through various channels of media.
- Security groups in every country must be strict on immigrants or foreigners
and their travel documents. They should make follow ups on what they do
and where they stay.
11.7.10 Discuss Gender Based Violence (GBV)
Gender-based violence is that directed against a person on the basis of gender.
- Physical or emotional force involving men and women in which the female
is usually a victim.
-
Mostly it is men who inflict violence against girls and women. Physical
violence is often used by raping and battering them.
-
Violence can be referred to as all acts of gender violence that can bring
about psychological, physical, social and economic harm or suffering to an
individual.
Women are one of the vulnerable groups of people whose rights are
abused on daily basis due to their gender.
Women are beaten by their husbands in homes. This is called battering and
is part of domestic violence.
-
DRUG TRAFFICKING AND ABUSE
Drug trafficking
- This is the illegal way of carrying
drugs from one place to another
with the intention of selling them to
get money.
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Drugs may be carried from one country to another.
Drug abuse refers to the using of drugs that are forbidden by the law.
Drug trafficking is a major international problem.
Drug trafficking includes a range of people from powerful international drug
barons to street dealers.
Money laundering is common in drug trafficking.
Drug abuse
- This is the using of drugs that are forbidden by law.
- Drugs are harmful to the body.
- Socially, they interfere in relationships with other people.
- Common drugs include Marijuana, Cocaine, Tobacco, Mirungishisha
among others.
- Some of these drugs are smoked, chewed, inhaled or even drunk.
Classification of substances
These fall under two categories. These are over the counter and controlled
substances.
- Over the counter substances can be bought over the counter such as
panadol, asprin, cafenol and fansidar. These substances can be bought
without a prescription.
- Controlled substances can only be obtained if one has a prescription.
Examples are morphine, valium, pethidine, mandrax, cocaine and
marijuana.
Classification according to chemicals
- Depressants. These are also known assedatives or hypnotics. Examples are,
alcohol and mandrax.
- Stimulants. These stimulate the central nervous system. Examples are, tea,
coffee, chocolate and coca cola.
- Hallucinogens. These distort the way the brain translates messages. The brain
may produce images with no basis in reality called hallucinations. Examples
are, cocaine and magical mushrooms.
- Narcotics or opiates. These substances make the senses dull and relieve
pain by depressing the cerebral cortex. Narcotics are derived from the
opium poppy plant. Examples are raw opium, morphine and heroin.
- Inhalants or solvents. These are household products such as glue, perfume
sprays and fuel gases. Once inhaled entry to the brain is fast and the
intoxicating effects are intense.
Consequences
Money obtained illegally is used to destabilize governments through corruption,
intimidation, violence and buying votes. It causes inflation in the nation.
Governments spent a lot of money to eradicate drug trafficking.
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Possible solutions
Law enforcement agencies with international police (Interpol) provide information
about international criminals and their activities. They detain suspects and
sometimes hand them over to law enforcement agencies of their respective
countries.
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