Research about the Ground Effect Concept in Formula 1
Giovanni Losito
Department of English, Old Dominion University
English 211C, Writing, Rhetoric and Research
Ms. Bauers
March 28, 2025
Research about the Ground effect Concept in Formula 1
The Formula 1 motorsport championship is the most prestigious among all the
motorsports. The history of F1 is rich with iconic figures that are known worldwide, such as
Michael Schumacher and Ayrton Senna, who contributed to the development of the motorsport’s
image. Through the years, Formula 1 has undergone major changes, as the FIA, Federation
Internationale de l’Automobile, issued regulations on the aerodynamics of the cars to enhance
the spectacularity during the races. In fact, the FIA issued new regulations in 2022, that
comprehend a return of the ground effect and the Venturi Tunnels. The reason behind this change
in the regulations was that with ground effect aerodynamics, the cars should be able to follow
each other more closely and create more shows with an increased number of overtakes. I really
enjoy this motorsport as it is very competitive and the engineers have to push themselves to the
limit in order to find innovative aerodynamic solutions to create the best performing racing-cars.
Moreover, I took advantage of this assignment to enhance my understanding of the ground effect
and the Venturi Tunnels in the Formula 1 cars. In fact, I found several scholarly sources that
explain the ground effect concept, including the role of the wings, the wake effect and the
Venturi Tunnels.
Scope of Research
In order to gather all the necessary information, I researched scholarly sources across the
web. I found several sources relevant to my topic, each discussing a different aerodynamic
component of the F1 car under the new regulations. For instance, I was able to find sources that
examined the Venturi Tunnels and the diffuser component, sources that compared the different
rear wing design used in 2021 and 2022, sources that analyzed and discussed the optimal
distance from the ground that the car should have in order to minimize the drag, sources that
investigated how the ground clearance affects ground effects and its impact on the aerodynamics
of the trailing racing cars, and sources that examined the front wing of the new generation of
cars. The scope of this research is to better understand the ground effect concept, the reason why
it was reintroduced in Formula 1, and if it actually fulfilled the objective of the FIA in enhancing
the spectacularity of the races, through more overtakes.
CFD, Computational Fluid Dynamics
All the scholarly sources used the CFD, Computational Fluid Dynamics, in order to
analyze the single-seater in Formula 1, particularly focusing on the performance of each
aerodynamic components. According to L. Mendez (2023, page 2), the CFD is a numerical
simulation tool used to examine heat transfer phenomena and fluid flow. Moreover, the CFD
relies on mathematical models and algorithms in order to solve the fundamental equations
governing the fluid motion, including the conservation of energy, mass and momentum.
Furthermore, since 1990 the CFD has become a crucial tool in the development of the F1 singleseaters racing cars. In fact, by using the CFD simulation, engineers can evaluate and refine the
aerodynamic design of the racing-car, including aerodynamic components. Additionally, the
CFD allows the engineers to analyze the interactions between the racing-car and the track, such
as the airflow behavior around track corners, or understand how crosswinds impact the stability
of the car. In F1, CFD has become essential in the design process, allowing teams to innovate
and test new ideas virtually before implementing them on the physical car.
History of Formula 1 Ground Effect
The new set of regulations issued by the FIA for the seasons 2022-2026, brought back the
ground effect concept that had been banned in 1983. According to the author V. Pothamsetti,
(2024, page 29) the ground effect concept works by shaping the car’s underbody in order to
create a low-pressure zone that will increase the grip on the race track through aerodynamic
downforce. However, this concept was already introduced in Formula 1 in 1978 by the Lotus
team as mentioned by D. Nafrìa (2022, page 19). The purpose of the team was to convert the car
into an inverted wing. This generation of cars used physical barriers, called skirts, that extended
from the cars body to the ground in order to seal the underbody and have more downforce. In
fact, the engineers used springs to make the skirts adapt to the asphalt unevenness. However, this
concept was banned in 1983, because it was very dangerous as if a skirt was not working
properly, the car was losing the downforce and consequently grip on the asphalt, with possible
catastrophic result. Therefore, with the 2022 regulations the FIA reintroduced this concept, but in
order to seal the underbody, the cars use the air and not physical skirts. This means engineers
have to design the floor and the underbody aerodynamics of the car so the vortices created by the
car itself on the border of the floor will seal it, preventing high-pressure air entering laterally the
underbody of the car.
Wake Effect
According to the research conducted by D. Nafrìa (2022, page 43), when a single-seater
races on the circuit, due to its shape, it generates behind the vehicle a turbulent flow composed of
vortices, called Wake Flow, shown in Figure 1. According to the researcher H. Tshikalange
(2023, page 6), the wake flow affects the downforce of the trailing cars by decreasing it, and it
affects the tire wear management as well. This turbulent flow is a result of the detachment of the
boundary level, a thin layer of fluid that forms near the surface of an object moving through a
fluid. By the principles of fluid dynamics, the airspeed is correlated with its energy. The
researcher D. Nafrìa (2022, page 43) states that the wake flow is generated because the airflow
that travels close to the surface of the vehicle moves slower and has less energy compared to the
airflow in the outer layers that travels faster with a higher energy. The outer layers are the
regions of airflow that are farther away from the surface of the object. The detachment of the
boundary layer occurs when the airflow near the surface of the object does not have enough
energy to continue to be stuck to the surface of the object. Furthermore, the wake flow or
vorticity is defined to have a repeating, alternating pattern of vortex shedding over time. Between
regions of high and low pressure vortices are generated, as the air naturally moves from highpressure zone to low-pressure one, generating a strong swirling motion, according to the
principle of fluid dynamics. In Formula 1, the wings in the rear section of the vehicle creates a
trailing vortex, making it difficult for other cars to follow. In order to overcome this issue, the
FIA released a new generation of regulations in 2022, with the aim to reduce the size of the wake
flow. In fact, the new generation of cars have a design that creates a reduced wake flow behind
the vehicle, especially due to the shape of the entire bodywork and the disruption caused by the
rear wing.
Figure 1.
Wake Flow.
Note. Image showing the Wake Flow generated behind the car from the Study of the
Aerodynamic Behaviour of a Formula 1 Front Wing Following the 2022 Technical Regulation by D.
Nafrìa, 2022, page 43.
Venturi Effect
The Venturi Effect was discovered by the Italian scientist Giovanni Battisti Venturi. In
the Venturi tunnel, when the fluid travels with a high velocity, it generates a low-pressure zone
around the area. As it is discussed by D. Nafrìa (2022, page 39), the Venturi effect is a theorem
that is based on the Bernoulli principle, which states “Any 2 points of a steady-state
incompressible fluid inside a tube will maintain the relation between its velocity V and sectionarea A”. (Nafrìa, 2022, page 39). The Venturi effect is be described as “The fluid with initial
pressure � 1 and velocity � 1 flows through a tube with cross section �1. When the fluid
reaches the narrowing, whose cross section is �2, there is a change of the speed � 2 and
pressure �2. Hence, narrowing the section of the pipeline will make moving the flow faster
inside”. (Nafrìa, 2022, page 39). This principle is described and shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2.
The Venturi Effect.
Note. Image taken from the Study of the Aerodynamic Behaviour of a Formula 1 Front Wing
Following the 2022 Technical Regulation by D. Nafrìa, 2022, page 39.
Following the research of T. Hu (2023, page 697), the cars that we use every day have an
Airfoil shape. This is a shape that is adopted in planes. In fact, following the principles of fluid
dynamics, at high speed this shape lifts. Cars that we use daily have the same shape and the same
principle, however, it is safe because people drive cars relatively slowly, at a speed where the
airfoil doesn’t lift. However, in motorsports, racing-cars need to go very fast through straights
and corners, and if they adopt this shape, it would be very dangerous for the drivers as there are
more risks of crashes. To overcome this problem, engineers came up with the Diffuser, shown in
Figure 3, an aerodynamic component positioned with vertical fences mounted on the rear chassis
of racing cars. However, the diffuser can produce strong vortices on the rear of cars, and these
vortices will diffuse into the air along the rear wing and beam wing, two aerodynamic
components. These vortices will increase the drag force of the trailing cars, making it harder to
follow each other, and the high-energy spinning flow of the vortices can create a low-pressure
zone as well. Furthermore, the diffuser is a key component of the racing-cars as the difference
between the atmospheric pressure and the pressure generated near the diffuser can generate
downforce that will stick the racing-car on the ground. The diffuser creates downforce only in
the rear of the racing-car, creating instability at the front that often is compensated by the front
wing. According to the researcher H. Tshikalange (2023, page 7), the diffuser, with the process
of pressure recovery, allows that the fluid to lower the speed with a gradual transition from the
throat of the diffuser to the local stream, a larger section-area, by increasing the pressure back to
its atmospheric state as it exits it. Moreover, continuing with the research, the author states that
there are three ways to generate downforce from the diffuser. The diffuser un-sweep, a method
that consists of having a converging duct that channels the airflow. The diffuser groundinteraction, which consists of having the throat component in the diffuser where the airflow is
accelerated, resulting in low pressure. And the diffuser pumping method, which consists of
having a diverging duct section that provides the gradual transition of the airflow in order to slow
it down as it exits. Continuing with the research conducted by T. Hu (2023, p. 698), the 2022
ground effect Regulations reintroduced the Venturi Tunnel. The chassis of the Formula 1 racingcars under these new regulations have a shape of a spoon, as it is shown in Figure 4, a shape
reminiscent of the Venturi principle. According to the Bernoulli principle, the velocity of the
fluid will increase when the section-area where it travels decreases, making the air pressure
decrease in that area. Following this principle, the atmospheric pressure will apply a force on the
car that will keep it stuck to the ground. The Venturi Tunnel is effective to generate downforce
on the whole car instead of one specific section, and it reduces the defects of vortices. However
there are some challenges with that principle, because the downforce of the car highly relies on
the chassis shape and integrity, as any small damage or bumps will dramatically alter the
downforce of the car making it very dangerous, increasing the risk of a crash.
Figure 3.
Diffuser of the F1 racing-car.
Note. Image of the diffuser of an F1 racing-car taken from Analysis of The Venturi Tunnel and
Ground Effect by Hu, 2023.
Figure 4.
The shape of the underbody of the car, and the Venturi Tunnels.
Note. Image of the underbody of an F1 car with Venturi tunnels, taken from Study of the
Aerodynamic Behaviour of a Formula 1 Front Wing Following the 2022 Technical Regulation by D.
Nafrìa, 2022, page 40.
Front wing
The study of the researcher D. Nafrìa, (2022, page 56) observed how the front wing
affects the ground effect in the new regulations in Formula 1. The front wing is one of the most
important aerodynamic components as it is the first element in contact with the air. The main
purpose of this component is to generate downforce in the front axle of the vehicle, and manage
the air flows along the body of the racing-car. Figure 5 shows the elements of the front wing
under the new regulations.
Figure 5.
2022 Front Wing components
Note. Image showing the components of a 2022 Front Wing, taken from the Study of the
Aerodynamic Behaviour of a Formula 1 Front Wing Following the 2022 Technical Regulation by D.
Nafrìa, 2022, page 56.
The first and bigger component of the front wing is defined as the main-plane. Usually, it
has a neutral attack angle as it is the first element in contact with the airflow. The proximity to
the ground makes it a crucial component, as it is used to generate downforce and lead the airflow
to the underbody of the vehicle. The flaps are the wing element profiles located behind the mainplane. The flaps are the aerodynamic component of the front wing that generates the most
downforce, and often vortex generators are mounted on the flaps in order to better manage the
airflow. Furthermore, these flaps can be adjusted based on the vehicle set-up for different tracks
or conditions. Often, the flaps are adjusted in order to balance the car, correcting oversteering or
understeering, or for the high-speed or low-speed tracks configurations. The end-plate is the
aerodynamic component that is mounted on the sides of the main-plane, and it connects all the
flaps. The primary use of the end-plate is to remove the trailing vortex generated at the wingtips.
Moreover, under the new set of regulations, the end-plate also mounts the dive-plane, little wings
that are used to create an outwash airflow around the wheels. The main purpose of the
regulations issued in 2022, is to allow racing-cars to retain grip when following closely other
racing-cars. There are several changes from the 2021 front wing, with the major one being the
different management of the front wing airflow. Figure 6 shows the difference between the 2021
front wing and the 2022 front wing.
Figure 6.
Comparison between the 2021 Front Wing and 2022 Front wing.
Note. Image showing the difference between the 2021 Front Wing and the 2022 Front Wing,
taken from Study of the Aerodynamic Behaviour of a Formula 1 Front Wing Following the 2022
Technical Regulation, D. Nafrìa, 2022, page 57.
In his research, D. Nafrìa (2022, page 57), appoints that the front wing design is different
under the new regulations, as the tires increased from 13-inches to 18-inches. The wheel covers
were introduced in order to limit and control the turbulence generated by the spinning wheel. The
study concluded that the 2022 front wing design is less complex yet more efficient at managing
and minimizing wake turbulence. Additionally, the 2022 front wing demonstrated lower air
resistance, lower drag, and a decreased downforce compared to the 2021 front wing design.
Therefore, the simulation results align with the objectives set out by the FIA with the new set of
regulations.
Rear Wing
F1 cars are designed to operate with a laminar flow, and the wake flow generated behind
the cars limits the trailing cars as their efficiency is compromised, making it difficult to overtake,
according to the research of L. Méndez, (2023, page 3). However, the regulations issued in 2022,
restricted the rear and front wings, limiting the outwash flow produced. The outwash flow is the
air that is intentionally directed around the outside of the front tires, with the intent of managing
the turbulence flow generated by the wheels, as it helps to keep the airflow clean along the
racing-car body improving the efficiency of other aerodynamic components. In fact, before the
2022 regulations, the majority of downforce was generated by the wings, as they had complex
designs. However, with the new regulations, the downforce is generated from the underbody of
the racing-car. Furthermore, L. Mèndez (2023, p. 3) researched and evaluated the quantity of
wake turbulence generated by the 2021 rear wings, and 2022 rear wings, using the CFD.
The 2022 rear wing has a very simple and softer design, as shown in Figure 7. In fact, the
main wing elements blend into the sides of the design.
Figure 7.
2022 Rear Wing.
Note. Image showing a geometric 2022 Rear Wing, and the F1-75 Rear Wing, from Quantifying
the Impact of the 2022 Formula One Technical Regulations on Wake Turbulence: A Numerical Analysis,
Méndez, 2023, page 5.
This geometry is very distinct from the 2021 Rear Wing design, shown in Figure 8. In
fact, in the previous set of regulations, the wing elements are directly attached to the end
plates of the wing with an angle of 90-degrees.
Figure 8.
2021 Rear Wing.
Note. Image showing a geometric 2021 Rear Wing, and the Mercedes W12 Rear Wing, from
Quantifying the Impact of the 2022 Formula One Technical Regulations on Wake Turbulence: A
Numerical Analysis, Méndez, 2023, page 6.
Continuing with his research, the author L. Méndez (2023, page 3) simulated with the
CFD both the wings, and quantified the wake turbulence that each wing created. In fact, in his
research he states that there are an increased number of overtakes under the new regulations, and
according to the data from Pirelli, there were 599 overtakes in the 22 races during the 2021
season, while during the 22 races of the 2022 season, the number of overtakes increased to 785.
Comparing these numbers, they clearly indicate that under the new regulations the number of
overtakes increased by 30%, fulfilling the objective of the new set of regulations, increasing the
spectacle during the races. However, the author states that it is unclear if the raised number of
overtakes derives only from the new aerodynamics of the car, but he suggests that is highly
probable as the aerodynamics was the major focus of the new set of regulations. However, the
results of the simulations show that the 2022 regulations fail to reduce the quantity of the
turbulence flow. In fact, in the 2021 rear wings the peak turbulent kinetic energy is 18% lower
than the 2022 rear wings. In fact, according to the data collected in the simulations, at one car
length behind the 2022 rear wing, the trailing car would experience 125% more turbulence with
respect to the 2021 rear wing. However, the turbulence dissipation is the same for both the
wings.
Ground Clearance
Under the new regulations with the ground effect, in order to have an underbody that
works better and generates more downforce, the height of the car from the ground should be
minimal. In fact, V. Pothamsetti (2024, page 29) conducted an investigation about the
aerodynamic interactions between the wake turbulence generated by the wheels, and the
underbody of an F1 racing-car, focusing on the ground effect optimization and on the drag
reduction at the variation of the car’s height from the ground. According to the author
Pothamsetti (2024, page 29) the optimal ride height has to be between two main areas of the
aerodynamic concept, minimizing the wake generated by the wheels, and maximizing the
Venturi effect, which decreases the drag and increases the downforce. The author also discusses
past research in order to better understand the ground effect. In fact in his paper, he cites
Diasonisis et al. (2017), a researcher that investigated the aerodynamic interaction at the varying
of the car’s height of the front wing and the wheels. The conclusion of his research was that at
lower riding heights the turbulence is increased and it disrupts the streamlined airflow, enhancing
the downforce while potentially increasing the drag. Furthermore, he cites another research,
Mokthar (2008), that suggested that at very low riding heights, the interaction with the ground
boundary layer increases resulting in a decrease in aerodynamic downforce. In fact, following
with the simulation, there are findings that demonstrate that at extremely low ride heights the
downforce increases, however, the risk of higher drag increases as turbulent interactions lead to a
reduction in aerodynamic efficiency. He conducted three height simulations, 1mm, 30mm and
130mm. The simulation results are shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9.
Simulation results.
Note. This image shows the airflow patterns, and velocity at different riding heights, 1 mm, 30
mm and 130 mm. Image from Reducing Drag by Optimizing the Underbody with Ride Height in
Formula 1 by Pothamsetti, 2024, page 32.
The simulations that he conducted provided several data. The findings of this research
suggest that the search for the right balance is very delicate, as it is required to adjust the car’s
height in order to find the best compromise between both drag reduction and downforce.
Moreover, the findings suggest that the medium ride heights, 30 mm, offer the best solution as it
provides a balance between the wake flow generated by the wheels, and the effective use of the
ground effect. The researcher H. Tshikalange (2023, page 17) conducted a study of the wake
effect by varying the riding height. He used CFD to simulate the ground effect. The conclusions
of his investigation are that the ground clearance affects the ground effect and has a key role in
the new generation of cars, as depending on the ride height it generates different levels of
downforce. Furthermore, the study showed that a smaller ground clearance resulted in more
downforce but a stronger wake effect, while larger ground clearance resulted in less downforce
but a weaker wake effect.
Conclusion
The topic that I researched is highly relevant for the people that follow F1 motorsport,
and want to deepen their knowledge in order to understand motorsport better. From my research
I reached several key conclusions, most notably that the ground clearance directly affects the
wake turbulence and the following ability of the racing-cars to engage in overtakes. In support of
this, according to the data from Pirelli, there was an increase of 30% of overtakes with the new
set of regulations issued in 2022, successfully aligning with the FIA’s expectations of improving
on-track action and the spectacularity of the races. For future research, I would recommend
investigating sources based on real-world data from actual F1 single-seaters, rather than only
relying on simulations. While CFD and other simulation tools are highly accurate and essential
in the car design process, they do not fully account for unpredictable real-world factors such as
track surface irregularities, or temperature variations. This research experience has significantly
enhanced my understanding of the ground effect in Formula 1. Additionally, this project has
taught me valuable academic skills, such as how to evaluate sources, extract relevant information
efficiently, and approach research with patience and critical thinking.
References
Hu, T. (2023). Analysis of The Venturi Tunnel and Ground Effect. Highlights in Science,
Engineering and Technology TPCEE 2022, 38, 695-698.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/369464725_Analysis_of_The_Venturi_
Tunnel_and_Ground_Effect
Méndez, L. A. (2023). Quantifying the Impact of the 2022 Formula One Technical
Regulations on Wake Turbulence: A Numerical Analysis [Honors thesis,
University of Dayton]. University Honors Program. Quantifying the Impact of the
2022 Formula One Technical Regulations on Wake Turbulence: A Numerical
Analysis
Nafría D., I. (2022). Study of the Aerodynamic Behaviour of a Formula 1 Front Wing
Following the 2022 Technical Regulation, [Bachelor’s thesis, Universitat
Politècnica de Catalunya].
https://ecommons.udayton.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1425&context=uhp_th
eses
Pothamsetti, V. (2024). Reducing Drag by Optimizing the Underbody with Ride Height
in Formula 1. American Journal of Student Research, 2(4), 29-33.
https://doi.org/10.70251/HYJR2348.242933
Tshikalange, H. (2023). The Effects of Wake Due to Ground Clearance of a 2022
Formula 1 Car. University of the Witwatersrand.
https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.34605.26082