DOST JLSS SCHOLARSHIP
REVIEWER
PREPARED BY: JOMARIE TAMONDONG
1. SCIENCE
MACROMOLECULES: PROTEINS
-
Made from amino acid monomers – “Building block of protein”
Proteins are use to build cells, act as hormones and enzymes, and do
much of the work in a cell
MACROMOLECULES: NUCLEIC ACIDS
ATP – Cellular Energy
1.1 BIOLOGY
1.1.1 Chemistry of Life: Biomolecules
MICRO AND MACRO MOLECULES
Micro molecules
Small organic molecules such as amino acids, sugars, fatty
acids.
Ex. Amino acids – Tyrosine, Sugar – Glucose, Fatty Acids –
Glycerol
Serve as the framework for macromolecule.
Macromolecule
Large organic molecules called polymers
Built from smaller molecules (micro molecules) called
monomers1.1
Ex. Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids
MACROMOLECULES: CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates include:
Small sugar molecules in soft drinks
Long starch molecules in pasta and potatoes
C6H12O6 - GLUCOSE
Monosaccharides
Simple sugars
Fructose, glucose, and galactose
Main fuel that cells use for cellular work - Glucose.
Disaccharides
Made by joining two monosaccharides.
Sucrose (Table Sugar) – Glucose + Fructose
Lactose (Milk Sugar) – Glucose + Galactose
Maltose (Grain sugar) – Glucose + Glucose
Polysaccharides
Complex carbohydrates
Composed of many sugar monomers linked together.
Polymers of monosaccharide chains
Kinds of Polysaccharides
Starch – polysaccharide in plants
Ex. Potato, rice
Glycogen – stored form of sugar
Stored in skeletal muscles and liver.
Cellulose – a dietary fiber
Found on plant walls, a major wood component.
Humans can’t break it down.
-
ATP is used by cells for energy.
Adenosine Triphosphate
Made of a nucleotide with 3 phosphate groups
Energy is stored in the chemical bonds of ATP (Phosphate bonds)
when use up, becomes ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate)
1.1.2 Basic Cell Structure and Function
Why cell is the basic unit of life?
Cell is the smallest matter that exhibits all living
characteristics.
Characteristics of Living Organisms
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Made of cells
Require energy (food)
Reproduce (species)
Maintain HOMEOSTASIS (balance)
Can exhibit high level of organization.
Respond to environment.
Grow internally and develop.
Exchange materials with surroundings (water, wastes, gases)
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
Non-living Levels
1. Atoms
2. Molecules
3. Organelles
Living Levels
4. Cells
5. Tissues
6. Organs
7. Organ System
8. Organism
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Population (one species
in an area)
Community
(several
populations in an area)
Ecosystem
(forest,
prairie…)
Biome (tundra, tropical
rainforest…)
Biosphere (all living an
nonliving things on
Earth)
CELL SIZE AND TYPES
Three basic cell types include:
Prokaryote
Eukaryotes
Bacterium
Plant Cell
Animal Cell
Some examples of viruses. Are they living or nonliving?
Viruses are non-living.
MACROMOLECULES: LIPIDS
-
Do not mix with water – hydrophobic (water-fearing)
Includes fats, waxes, steroids, oils.
Function: Store energy, insulates the body, cushions and
protects the organs.
Kinds of Fatty Acids
Saturated Fatty Acids
Usually animal fats, exist as solids at room temperature
(butter, margarine, shortening)
Unsaturated Fatty Acids – plant oils tend to be low in saturated fatty
acids & exist as liquids at room temperature.
Steroids
Cholesterol is the “base” steroid from which your body
produces other steroids.
Ex. Testosterone, estrogen, progesterone.
Synthetic Anabolic Steroid – variants of testosterone that
athletes use to bulk up quickly
NUMBER OF CELLS
Unicellular
Composed of one cell
Ex. Bacteria, protozoa, ciliates, etc.
Multicellular
Composed of many cells that may organize into tissue, etc.
ANIMAL CELL FORMS
Cells in multicellular organisms can exhibit different forms or shapes.
Common Cells of the Human Body
Leukocytes (white blood cells)
Haematids/erythrocytes (red blood
cells)
Thrombocytes (platelets)
Ovum (females sex cell)
Sperm (male sex cell)
Sarcomeres (striated muscle tissue)
Enterocytes (intestinal cells)
Neurons (nerve cells)
Osteocytes (bone cells)
Hepatocytes (liver cells)
Cell Specialization
Cells in multicellular organisms become specialized; differentiation
MEIOSIS
Interphase
CELL OR PLASMA MEMBRANE
composed of double layer or phospholipids (phosphate head + lipid tail)
o
to allow small molecules (oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water to enter)
an outer covering of cells
controls what enters or leaves the cell with the help of cell membrane protein.
Cell membrane in plants helps to maintain cell shape.
CELL WALL
Nonliving layer
Found in plants, fungi, and bacteria.
Made of cellulose in plants, peptidoglycan or phospholipid in bacteria, chitin in fungi
Supports and protects cell.
Found outside the cell membrane.
CYTOPLASM
Gelatinous or colloidal substance enclosed by cell membrane.
Provides a medium for chemical reaction to take place.
Contains organelles and sub-organelles to carry out all specific functions.
Protein-bound and non-protein-bound
NUCLEUS
The cell’s control center
Contains the DNA in chromosomes.
Bounded by a nuclear membrane w/ pore.
Each cell has fixed number of chromosomes carrying genes or DNA coding for proteins to
form all structures and cell functions.
NUCLEAR MEMBRANE
Double membrane surrounding nucleus.
Contains nuclear pores to control materials to enter and leave nucleus.
Connected to the rough ER.
NUCLEOPLASM
The genetic material (DNA) is found in the nucleoplasm where they are packed by histones
(proteins) as chromosomes.
NUCLEOLUS
Dark staining body inside nucleus
Forms the RNA molecules for synthesis of ribosomes.
CYTOSKELETON
Netlike framework of microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments inside
cells that help maintain shape, internal organization, provide mechanical support, division,
and movement.
CENTRIOLES AND MITOTIC SPINDLE
Found only in animals’ cells as paired structure near nucleus made up of bundles of
microtubules.
Appear during cell division; mitotic spindle controls chromosomes movement to ensure
equal division of chromosomes and cells.
VACUOLES
Fluid filled sacs for food and water storage.
Small or absent in animal cells.
Plant cells have a large central vacuole.
No vacuole in bacterial cells.
In plants, it acts as storage of sugars, proteins, minerals, lipids, wastes, salts, water, and
enzymes.
1.1.3 Cell Cycle
INTERPHASE
G1 (Gap 1 Phase)
G0 (Resting Phase)
S Phase (Synthesis
Phase)
G2 Phase
(Gap 2 Phase)
In this phase, the cell is metabolically active and
continues to grow without DNA replication.
The cell is neither dividing nor preparing for
division.
DNA replication takes place during this phase.
RNA, proteins, and other macromolecules required
for multiplication of cell organelles, spindle
formation, and cell growth are produced.
MITOTIC PHASE
CELL CYCLE
MITOSIS
MEIOSIS
A process by which a cell replicates
its
chromosomes
and
then
segregates them, producing two
identical nuclei in preparation for
cell division.
A process where a single cell
divides twice to produce four cells
containing half the original amount
of genetic information.
MITOSIS
- centrosome, chromosome
PMAT I
CELL PARTS
Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I & Cytokinesis
PMAT II
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II & Cytokinesis
- chromosomes pair up
- chromosomes line up at equator
- chromosomes pulled apart
- cell pinches in the middle
- two daughter cells
- chromosomes line up at equator
- sister chromatids pulled apart
- cell pinches in the middle
- four granddaughter cells
1.1.4 Cell
Transport System
1.1.5 Energy
Transformation
*read
1.1.6 Organismal
Biology
*read
1.1.7 Genetics
MENDELIAN GENETICS – certain patterns of
how traits are passed from parents to offspring.
PUNNETT SQUARE
First Three Postulates
1. Unit Factors in Pairs
2. Dominance and
Recessive
3. Segregation
Each diploid individual receives one factor
from each parent; controls the genetic
characteristics.
The trait in the F1 generation is determined by
the dominant unit factor while those that are not
expressed is controlled by the recessive trait
factor.
The paired unit components randomly separate,
or segregate, to ensure that each gamete has an
equal chance of receiving one or the other.
1.1.8 Evolution
*read about the evolution (Britannica)
1.1.9 Prokaryotic (Unicellular) vs. Eukaryotic (Multicellular)
Organisms
EXAMPLES OF PROKARYOTIC ORGANISMS
ARCHAEBACTERIA
Oldest living organisms of the earth
Can tolerate high temperatures, high salinity, high gas content,
extreme environments in general.
EUBACTERIA
True bacteria.
Have rigid cell wall.
CYANOBACTERIA
Autotrophic bacteria that obtain energy through photosynthesis.
3. Will and Seth decided to make experiments between algae and radioactive phosphorus.
They placed the specimen in a jar with radioactive phosphorus, they placed it in a box
where sunlight cannot pass through.
After some days, they observed the algae appeared to be radioactive. What does this
implicate?
a)
Algae cells are permeable to radioactive substances only in the dark.
b)
Algae become permeable to radioactive substances.
c)
The jar affected the permeability of algae cells to radioactive phosphorus.
d)
Radioactivity can take place as long as there are algae.
4. Almer is a statistician who wants to conduct a survey regarding the spent hours of
students in social media and their academic performance.
1.1.10 Cell Division and Cell Reproduction
Cell Reproduction
Process of forming new cells of the same kind.
Consist of 2 cell reproductive process
o Mitosis and Meiosis
1.1.11 Krebs Cyle
•
Krebs cycle is also known as CITRIC ACID CYCLE
•
It happened in mitochondrial matrix.
•
It undergoes in 2 turns.
Product of Krebs Cycle
4 CO2
6 NADH
2-3 ATP
2 FADH
2 ATP
2 ATP
1.1.12 Sampling Technique
Sampling Technique
It is strategy employed to ensure that the sample used in your
research accurately reflects the population from which it was drawn.
Probability
Sampling
NonProbability
Sampling
Two Types
- samples are acquired through an unbiased random process,
thereby involving randomization.
- generally referred to as random samples.
- samples are gathered randomly, chosen intentionally, or
selected as volunteers.
- probabilities of selection are unknown.
- should not be utilized for drawing statistical conclusions.
Basic Sampling Techniques under Probability Sampling
Simple
- assigns equal probabilities of selection to each possible
Random
sample, simple random samples.
Sampling
- this is preferable when the population is geographically
concentrated and relatively homogenous in its
characteristics.
Systematic - it is achieved by choosing every k-th person from the
Random
population.
Sampling
- this is recommended when the population order is mostly
random and when there are multiple strata in the data.
Stratified
- it is obtained by dividing the population into distinct
Random
groups, known as strata, and then taking a random sample
Sampling
from each of these groups.
- information in the sampling frame must categorize
individuals into strata. Each stratum should specify the
number and identify of its member from the population.
Cluster
There is no requirement to create a list of individual units in
Sampling
the population; only a list of clusters is necessary.
Basic Sampling Techniques under Non-Probability Sampling
Quota
- individuals are selected non-randomly based on preSampling
defined quotas or characteristics to ensure the sample
represents certain demographics or traits.
Convenience - it involves quickly and conveniently selecting people to
Sampling
gather immediate reactions.
Purposive
- it relies on specific criteria set by the researcher, with
Sampling
interviews conducted only with individuals who meet
these criteria.
PRE-TEST QUESTION
2. Joriz and his classmates decided to conduct a thesis regarding the relationship between
bacteria and radioactivity. A population of bacteria was subjected to radioactive materials.
Some of the bacteria’s offspring were immediately killed, while others survived. The
surviving bacteria were re-exposed to radioactive materials, yielding similar results. This
cycle was repeated multiple times, each time with an increased intensity of radioactive
exposure. This method of developing bacteria that are resistant to radiation is known as:
a)
Fission
b)
Budding
c)
Conjugation
d)
Natural selection
What type of sampling method should he employ without considering the natural grouping
of students based on their program to generate a representative of population.
a)
Simple Random Sampling
b)
Stratified Random Sampling
c)
Convenience Sampling
d)
Purposive Sampling
5. Ces and Felix are particularly concerned with the pulse rate of patients who take a
prescribed medication. They want to test whether the pulse rate will be different from the
mean pulse rate of 82 beats per minute.
What is the null hypothesis of the study?
a)
Pulse rate > 82
b)
Pulse rate < 82
c)
Pulse rate = 82
d)
Pulse rate ≠ 82
8. Winmark is currently studying the first form of life on Earth as part of his biology class.
Why can’t viruses be the first form of life?
a)
They need living cells to reproduce.
b)
They are neither prokaryotic nor eukaryotic.
c)
They do not have proteins.
d)
They do not have cells.
9. Josie is born with type-B blood and has an offspring with Trevor. Trevor decided to test
his own blood type and the results yielded the type-AB. What could possibly be their
offspring’s (even multiple children) blood type?
a)
Type-B and Type-AB
b)
Type-AB, Type A, Type B, and Type O
c)
Type-A and Type-B
d)
Type-A, Type-B and Type-AB
12. Entropy is a measurement indicating the level of disorder within a system. It also
signifies the amount of energy within the system that is unavailable for performing work.
As the disorder within a system increases, so does its entropy, consequently reducing the
portion of the system’s energy that can be utilized for work. The equation for the change
𝑄
in entropy, ∆𝑆, 𝑖𝑠 ∆𝑆 = . What is the SI unit for entropy?
𝑇
a)
b)
c)
d)
Joules (J)
Calories per degree Celsius (°𝐶)
Joules per Kelvin (J/K)
Joules per mole-kelvin (K/mol-K)
13. Various organisms, ranging from insects to mammals, maintain their body temperature
within a suitable range despite the often-extreme fluctuations in their external
environments.
Which of the following statements is incorrect based on their adaptation?
a)
By altering their metabolic
b)
Through behavior such as seeking shade or sunlight
c)
By adjusting their body size
d)
Using physiological adaptations like sweating or panting
20. Which of the following best describes the primary function of cholesterol in the cell
membrane?
a)
Facilitating the active transport of ions across the membrane.
b)
Serving as a primary energy source for cellular activities.
c)
Regulating the fluidity and stability of the membrane.
d)
Acting as a signal molecule for intracellular communication.
21. During what phase of meiosis do sister chromatids separate?
a. prophase I
b. telophase I
c. telophase II
d. anaphase II
26. During the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle), which molecule undergoes multiple redox
reactions, resulting in the production of a high-energy carrier that contributes significantly
to the electron transport chain?
a. ATP b. NADH c. FADH2 d. CO2
27. In a dihybrid cross involving two heterozygous individuals (AB blood type), what is
the likelihood of producing an offspring with the OO blood genotype?
a. 0% b. 25% c. 50% d. 75%
28. In a thorough study examining the relationship between education level and income,
researchers categorize the population into distinct groups based on demographic factors
such as education, occupation, location, and socioeconomic status.
Within each group, samples are systematically selected to ensure representation across
demographics and capture various educational backgrounds and income levels. Which
advanced sampling method are they likely utilizing?
a. Simple random sampling
b. Systematic sampling
c. Stratified sampling
d. Cluster sampling
1.2 CHEMISTRY
1.2.1 Inorganic chemistry
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
31. Living organisms utilize various processes to adapt and thrive in different
environments. In what way are cellular respiration and photosynthesis nearly opposite
processes?
a. Photosynthesis generates energy, whereas cellular respiration conserves energy.
b. Photosynthesis absorbs carbon dioxide from the air, while cellular respiration releases
it.
c. Photosynthesis generates energy, while cellular respiration uses up energy.
d. Photosynthesis depletes oxygen from the air, and cellular respiration replenishes it.
32. Over countless years, humans have adapted their use of resources to maximize
efficiency and sufficiency. Why are fossil fuels categorized as non-renewable energy
sources?
a. They are easily accessible.
b. They fulfill all energy consumption needs.
c. They necessitate costly machinery.
d. They take millions of years to regenerate.
37. During a laboratory activity, a student examined an electron micrograph and observed
a significant concentration of mitochondria near a cell's plasma membrane.
Based on this observation, the student might hypothesize that the cell utilizes energy for
what purpose?
a. Diffusion
b. Osmosis
c. Active Transport
d. Facilitated Diffusion
52. During meiosis, a cell undergoes various stages leading to the production of gametes.
Suppose a cell at the beginning of meiosis has a diploid number of 8 chromosomes (2n=8).
During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes separate, and during meiosis II, sister
chromatids separate. Considering this process, what will be the chromosomal content of
each resulting gamete?
a. Each gamete will have 8 chromosomes.
b. Each gamete will have 4 chromosomes.
c. Each gamete will have 2 chromosomes.
d. Each gamete will have 1 chromosome.
53.A biologist observes a cell under a microscope and notes the following characteristics:
it has a cell wall, a large central vacuole, chloroplasts, and lacks centrioles.
Based on these observations, which type of cell is the biologist most likely examining?
a. Animal cell
b. Plant cell
c. Bacterial cell
d. Fungal cell
55. What principle states that it is impossible to simultaneously know both the position and
momentum of a particle with absolute certainty?
a. Pauli Exclusion Principle
b. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
c. Schrödinger Equation
d. Bohr's Model
57. What type of reaction is represented by the equation: 2H₂ + O2 → 2H₂O?
a. Synthesis reaction
b. Decomposition reaction
c. Single Displacement reaction
d. Double displacement reaction
*additional notes on ppt
*familiarize the arrangement of elements in the periodic table.
Metallic Bond
• Electrostatic attraction between electron clouds and metal
nuclei.
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
a) Chemical Properties
If the property involves a change in the substance's identity
or composition, it is a chemical property.
E.g., toxicity, oxidation states, heat of combustion, chemical
stability, flammability, coordination number, reactivity,
possible chemical bonds, enthalpy of formation
b)
-
Physical Properties
If the property can be observed or measured without
changing the substance's identity, it is a physical property.
-
If the property is independent of the quantity of the
substance, it is an intensive property.
E.g., boiling point, color, temperature, luster, hardness
-
If the property depends on the quantity of the substance, it
is an extensive property.
E.g., volume, mass, size, weight, length
ATOMIC THEORY
Dalton’s Theory
1. Atoms are tiny, indivisible particles. (Subatomic Particles)
2.Atoms of one element are all the same. (Isotopes)
3. Atoms of different elements are different.
4.Compounds form by combining atoms.
Atomic Theory Timeline
Democritus
~450 BC
Greek philosopher
All matter around us is
made of indivisible
tiny
particles
–
“atomos”
John Dalton
1803
English schoolteacher
Dalton’s Atomic
Theory
1. Element are made of
tiny particles called
atoms.
Michael Faraday
1839
English chemist
The structure of atoms
is somehow related to
electricity.
2. Atoms of one
element are identical
while
atoms
of
different elements are
different.
J.J. Thomson
1896
English physicist
Discovered
atoms
have negative particles
(electrons) using a
cathode ray tube.
Discovered electron’s
charge to mass ratio:
1.76 X 108 C/g
Electron’s
charge:
1.60 x 10-19C
Electron’s mass:
9.11 x 10-28g
Thomson’s Plum
Pudding Model, 1990
Electrons
are
dispersed in a uniform
positive charge.
Niels Bohr
1911
English scientist
Rutherford student
Moseley’s Atomic #
Each element contains
a unique number of
protons. (atomic #)
Danish physicist
Bohr’s Orbit Model
*Electrons orbit the
nucleus.
*Model based on the
hydrogen atom
*Energy of the
electrons is quantized.
THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS
Period – each represents a different energy level or shell in which
electrons of the elements resides.
*have a copy of the Periodic Table of Elements
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Ernest Rutherford
1909
New Zealand Scientist
Rutherford’s
Nucleus Theory
Positive charge is not
like a pudding, but
concentrated in the
nucleus as shown in
the Gold Foil (alpha
particle) experiment.
*Most of an atom is
empty space.
Henry Moseley
(1887-1915)
mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons = atomic
number + number of neutrons
•
•
3. Conservation of
atoms – rearrangement
in RXN (Lavoisier
previously
stated
thisin terms of the Law
of Conservation of
Matter)
4. Different atoms
form compounds in
constant ratios.
(Proust
previously
stated this in terms of
the constant mass
ratios)
Robert Millikan
1909
American physicist
University of Chicago
Measured the charge
of an electron using oil
droplets.
Mass number (A) is the total number of neutrons and protons present
in the nucleus of an atom of an element.
*1919- named positive
charge the proton (+1)
*1932- Rutherford and
James
Chadwick
discover neutron in
nucleus (no charge)
Louis de Broglie &
(Schrodinger)
1924
French graduate
student
Wave Mechanical
Model
*Electrons can act like
particles and waves
(just like light)
*Electrons
occupy
orbitals. Orbitals are
nothing like orbits.
They are areas of
probability (90% of
electron probability)
*Clinton Davisson and
Lester
Germer
performed
experiments to support
the wave mechanical
model.
ATOMIC NUMBER, MASS NUMBER, ISOTOPES
Atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the
Atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus of each
atom of an element.
Elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number.
Elements that exhibit similar properties are arranged in the
same row or columns as others.
Dmitri Mendeleev – inventor of the modern periodic table.
94 elements are occurring in nature. Other elements are
strictly human made.
Technetium – first element to be made artificially. Lightest
element that has only radioactive isotopes.
IUPAC – International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry
The rows of the periodic table are called periods.
Columns distinguish groups in the periodic table.
Mendeleev’s Periodic table – arranged in order of increasing
atomic weight.
Modern Periodic Table - arranged in order of increasing
atomic number.
Group
1
Name
Alkali Metals
2
13
Alkaline Earth
Metals
Transition
Metals
Boron Group
14
Carbon Group
15
16
Nitrogen
Group
Oxygen Group
17
Halogens
18
Noble Gas
3-12
Characteristics
Soft, shiny metals with low melting points.
Highly reactive with water
Shiny, silvery-white metals with higher
melting points than alkali metals
Typically metals with high melting points,
good conductors of heat and electricity.
Contains metals, metalloids, and nonmetals.
Includes elements with varied properties.
Contains elements with diverse properties:
metals, nonmetals, and metalloids
Includes nonmetals, metalloids, and metals.
Nitrogen is a diatomic nonmetal gas.
Contains nonmetals, metalloids, and a metal.
Oxygen and sulfur are common members.
Highly reactive nonmetals that form diatomic
molecules.
Colorless, odorless gases with low reactivity
due to filled valence electron shells.
ATOMS, MOLECULES, IONS
Molecules Vs. Ions
An ion is an atom or a group of atoms that has a net positive or negative
charge.
*study the PTE.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. Which nuclide contains 11 protons, 11 electrons, and 14 neutrons?
Choose one answer.
a. Silicon-11
b. Silicon-14
c. Sodium-11
d. Sodium-25
MASS NUMBER
A = protons + neutrons = 11+14=25
2. The molecular formula for chloric acid is _______.
a. HCLO
b. HCLO2
c. HCLO3
d. HCLO4
*Study on how to name compounds.
3. For the reaction below, X could represent which element?
2X + F2 → 2XF
a. Strontium
b. Potassium
c. Magnesium
d. Gallium
Potassium typically forms compounds where it has a +1-oxidation
state.
Potassium fluoride is KF, which fits the formula XF.
4. Use the solubility rules. Which salt is soluble in water?
a. Fe(OH)3
b. AgCl
c. CaCl2
d. BaSO4
Solubility Rules
AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
All solutes that dissolve in water fit into one of two categories:
electrolytes and nonelectrolytes.
(a) A nonelectrolyte solution does not contain ions, and the lightbulb
is not lit.
(b) A weak electrolyte solution contains a small number of ions, and
the lightbulb is dimly lit.
(c) A strong electrolyte solution contains a large number of ions, and
the lightbulb is brightly lit.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Types of Chemical Reaction
Addition/ Combination / Synthesis Reaction:
a reaction where atoms or groups of atoms are added to a
molecule resulting in a single product.
Elimination / Decomposition Reaction:
a reaction where a molecule loses atoms or groups of atoms,
resulting in the formation of a double or triple bond.
Substitution / Replacement Reaction:
In a substitution reaction, one atom or group in a molecule
is replaced by another atom or group.
Combustion Reaction:
A combustion reaction involves the reaction of a substance
with oxygen, usually producing heat and light.
Reactant: Hydrocarbon and Oxygen
Product: Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and Water (H20)
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. In which reaction type does the number of σ-bonds (single bonds) in the
substrate decrease as new π-bonds (double or triple bonds) are formed? Choose
one answer.
A. Elimination
B. Substitution
C. Addition
D. Combustion
2. In which of the following reaction types does the number of σbonds in the
substrate molecule increase? In addition, in this reaction type, one or more πbonds are usually lost. Choose one answer.
A. Elimination
B. Addition
C. Substitution
D. Combustion
3. Which type of reaction is characterized by replacement of an atom or group
by another; in this reaction type, the number of bonds does not change except
for the added groups? Choose one answer.
A. Elimination
B. Addition
C. Substitution
D. Free radical
4. The combustion of methane gas forms _________ and water.
Choose one answer.
a. oxalic acid
b. carbon monoxide
c. carbon suboxide
d. carbon dioxide
Combustion Reaction:
Complete Combustion - occurs when a fuel burns in presence of sufficient
oxygen.
a. Products: Carbon Dioxide and Water.
Incomplete Combustion - occurs when there is not enough oxygen to allow
fuel to react completely.
a. Products: Carbon Monoxide, Soot, Water, Unburned Hydrocarbon
When dissolved in water...
Does the solution conduct electricity? If yes, is it dim or
bright? If dimly lit, it is a weak electrolyte, otherwise it is a
strong electrolyte.
Does the solution conduct electricity? No, then it is
nonelectrolyte.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. Acetic acid is a weak electrolyte, because it does which of the
following? Choose one answer.
a. Becomes miscible with water
b. Forms hydronium and hydroxide ions in aqueous solution
c. Lowers the freezing point of water
d. Ionizes only slightly in aqueous solution
ELECTROLYTIC PROPERTIES
a. Becomes miscible with water: This is true for acetic acid, but it does
not explain why acetic acid is a weak electrolyte.
b. Forms hydronium and hydroxide ions in aqueous solution: Acetic
acid primarily forms hydronium ions (H₃O⁺) and acetate ions
(CH₃COO⁻), not hydroxide ions (OH⁻).
c. Lowers the freezing point of water: This is a colligative property
related to the presence of solute particles, but it does not explain why
acetic acid is a weak electrolyte.
d. Acetic acid is a weak acid, because it does not completely ionize
in water. it produces a small concentration of hydronium ions and
acetate ions.
2. Which one of the following compounds is a nonelectrolyte when
dissolved in water? Choose one answer.
a. Sodium chloride
b. Calcium chloride
c. Copper sulfate
d. Sugar
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLUTES IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
- Among the four, sugar (an organic compound) is nonelectrolyte.
- Electrolytes are substances that ionizes in a solution, commonly these
are ionic compounds.
ACIDS AND BASES
QUANTUM THEORY
Acids
Acids have a sour taste. (Vinegar,
lemons, citric acid)
Acids causes color change. (Litmus
paper: blue to red)
Acids react with certain metals such
as zinc, magnesium and iron
producing hydrogen gas.
Acids reacts with carbonates and
bicarbonates such as NaHCO3,
CaCO3 producing carbon dioxide
gas.
Aqueous acid solutions conducts
electricity. (H+)
Bases
Bases have a bitter taste.
Bases feel slippery. (Soaps)
Bases causes color change. (Litmus
paper: red to blue)
Aqueous base solutions conduct
electricity. (OH-)
Three Major Rules in Filling Electron Orbitals
Aufbau Principle
Hund`s Rule
Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
Focuses on the transfer of protons (hydrogen ions, H+) between
chemical species.
•
Acid: A substance that donates a proton (H+) to another
substance.
•
Base: A substance that accepts a proton (H+) from another
substance.
Lewis Acids and Bases: Focuses on electron pair transfer.
Focuses on the transfer of electron pairs between chemical species.
•
Acid: A substance that accepts an electron pair.
•
Base: A substance that donates an electron pair.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
What is a Lewis base? Choose one answer.
a. A proton donor
b. A proton acceptor
c. An electron pair acceptor
d. An electron pair donor
What is a Brønsted-Lowry acid? Choose one answer.
a. A proton donor
b. A proton acceptor
c. An electron pair donor
d. An electron pair acceptor
OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTION
Fill in the blank. When a piece of iron is left outside, it will rust. In this
situation, the iron atoms are _______________.
Choose one answer.
a. Losing electrons
b. Gaining electrons
c. Staying neutral
d. Combining with nitrogen gas from the air
The iron atoms are oxidized as they lose electrons. The oxygen atoms
are reduced as they gain electrons.
•
Iron atom acts as reducing agent as it donates (loses)
electrons to oxygen and causes oxygen to be reduced.
•
Oxygen atoms acts as oxidizing agent accepts (gains)
electrons causing iron to be oxidized.
Reducing Agent: Donates electrons, undergoes oxidation.
Oxidizing Agent: Accepts electrons, undergoes reduction.
Pauli Exclusion
Principle
The element represented by this orbital diagram is
Choose one answer.
a. lithium.
b. carbon.
c. silicon.
d. nitrogen.
How many electrons does the diagram depicts?
Carbon has 6 electrons which corresponds to the electron configuration
in the diagram 1s² 2s² 2p².
TRENDS IN PERIODIC TABLE
Atomic radius: The atomic radius is the distance from the nucleus of
an atom to the outermost electron shell.
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract electrons in a
chemical bond.
Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from
an atom in the gaseous state.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
Which element has the largest ionization energy? Choose one answer.
a. Fluorine
b. Chlorine
c. Bromine
d. Iodine
IONIZATION ENERGY
- Fluorine (F): Group 17 (halogens), Period 2.
- Chlorine (Cl): Group 17 (halogens), Period 3.
- Bromine (Br): Group 17 (halogens), Period 4.
- Iodine (I): Group 17 (halogens), Period 5.
Among these elements:
- Fluorine is at the top of the group and has the smallest atomic radius.
- Fluorine has the highest ionization energy because its electrons are
closest to the nucleus and experience less shielding.
Which element has the smallest atomic radius? Choose one answer.
a. Indium
b. Gallium
c. Boron
d. Aluminum
ATOMIC RADIUS
Boron (B): Group 13, Period 2.
Aluminum (Al): Group 13, Period 3.
Gallium (Ga): Group 13, Period 4.
Indium (In): Group 13, Period 5.
Among these elements:
- Boron is at the top of Group 13 and in the second period.
- As we move down Group 13 from boron to indium, each element has
an additional electron shell compared to the one above it, which
increases the atomic radius.
What is the reactivity order of halogens from most reactive to least
reactive? Choose one answer.
A. Cl, F, Br, I
B. Cl, Br, I, F
C. F, Cl, Br, I
D. I, Br, Cl, F
HALOGEN REACTIVITY
Halogen Reactivity:
- The reactivity of halogens decreases as you move down the
group in the periodic table.
- As you move down the group, the atomic radius increases
and the effective nuclear charge experienced by the outermost
electrons decreases. This makes it harder for the atom to
attract an additional electron.
CHEMICAL BONDING
For the nitrite ion structure below, what is the formal charge on the
nitrogen atom?
a. 1+
b. 1c. 2+
d. There is no charge on the nitrogen.
FORMAL CHARGE
Formal charge = (Valence electrons)−(Non-bonding electrons)− 1/2 x
(Bonding electrons)
- Valence electrons of nitrogen (N): 5
- Non-bonding electrons on nitrogen: 2 (one lone pair)
- Bonding electrons around nitrogen: 3 bonds (one double bond to
oxygen and one single bond to another oxygen) = 6 bonding electrons
The Valence-shell electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) model accounts for the geometric arrangements of electron pairs around a
central atom in terms of the electrostatic repulsion between electron
pairs.
A represents the central atom.
X indicates that the bonding pairs of electrons (number of atoms
bonded to the central atom).
E indicates that there is one lone pair of electrons on the central atom
The AX3E structure notation best describes which molecule? Choose
one answer.
a. H2O
b. SF4
c. NH3
d. XeF4
VSPER THEORY
NH₃ (ammonia):
- NH₃ has 3 hydrogen atoms bonded to the central nitrogen atom and
1 lone pair on the nitrogen atom.
- This corresponds to AX₃E, which fits the given notation.
What is the molecular geometry of BCl3? Choose one answer.
a. square planar
b. octahedral
c. tetrahedral
d. trigonal planar
According to molecular orbital theory, which molecule is the most
stable? Choose one answer.
a. N2
b. C2
c. B2
d. Be2
BOND ORDER
According to molecular orbital
theory, the stability of a
molecule depends on the bond
order.
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
London Dispersion < Dipole-dipole < Ion-dipole <
Hydrogen bonds
What is the term used to describe the electrostatic attraction of the
electrons of one molecule or atom for the nuclei of another? Choose
one answer.
A. Van der Waals attraction
B. Hydrogen bonding
C. Ionic bonding
D. Covalent bonding
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
Van der Waals attractions are weak intermolecular forces that occur
between atoms or molecules due to temporary fluctuations in electron
distribution, leading to temporary dipoles.
Fill in the blank. The strongest type of intermolecular force occurring
between neutral molecules is the __________________. Choose one
answer.
A. Covalent bond
B. Ionic bond
C. Van der Waals force
D. Hydrogen bond
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
Hydrogen bonds are a specific type of dipoledipole interaction that
occurs between a hydrogen atom bonded to a highly electronegative
atom (such as nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine) and another
electronegative atom in a nearby molecule.
CHEMICAL KINETICS
A species that changes the rate of a reaction but is neither consumed
nor changed in that reaction is a(n) ________________. Choose one
answer.
a. Catalyst
b. Activated complex
c. Intermediate
d. Reactant
A catalyst speeds up a chemical reaction by providing an alternative
pathway with a lower activation energy, thus increasing the rate of
the reaction.
Fill in the blank. A high energy transition state must be reached for
chemical bonds to be broken and products formed in a chemical
reaction. The amount of energy needed to reach this transition state is
known as the _________________. Choose one answer.
A. Trans energy
B. Static energic
C. Kinetic energy
D. Activation energy
The amount of energy needed to reach this transition state.
To be effective, a collision requires which of the following? Choose
one answer.
a. Enough energy
b. Favorable orientation
c. A reaction mechanism
d. Both A and B
COLLISION THEORY
Effective collision - one in which the colliding particles approach each
other at proper angle and with the proper amount of energy.
When the products of a chemical reaction are more stable energetically
than the reactants, energy is released as heat. This type of reaction is
referred to as which of the following? Choose one answer.
A. Exothermic
B. Endothermic
C. Analgesic
D. Endodermic
The prefixes eth-, but-, hex-, and hept, represent hydrocarbon chains
having how many carbon atoms? Choose one answer.
A. 2, 4, 6, 7, respectively
B. 2, 6, 4, 7, respectively
C. 4, 2, 7, 6, respectively
D. 2, 7, 6, 4, respectively
Entropy is ______________. Choose one answer.
a. The degree of disorder of a system
b. The degree of energy of a system
c. A type of noncovalent bond
d. A type of covalent bond
Laws of Thermodynamics
What is the product of a rearrangement reaction called? Choose one answer.
A. A free radical
B. A carbocation
C. An isotope
D. An isomer
Zeroth law
First law
Second law
Third law
•
•
States that if two bodies are individually in equilibrium
with a separate third body, then the first two bodies are also
in thermal equilibrium with each other
Law of Conservation of Energy: States that energy can
neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be change from
one form to another.
States that the entropy in an isolated system always
increases. Any isolated system spontaneously evolves
towards thermal equilibrium – the state of maximum
entropy of the system.
States that the entropy of a system approaches a constant
value as the temperature approaches absolute zero.
What are molecules that are non-superimposable mirror images called? Choose
one answer.
A. Enantiomers
B. Diastereoisomers
C. Meso compounds
D. Racemates
Entropy – measure of the number of possible arrangements
the atoms in a system can have.
Enthalpy – is the measurement of energy in a
thermodynamic system.
1.2.2 Organic chemistry
1.2.3 Biochemistry
BIOMOLECULES
Biomolecules are large molecules that are essential for life and are
found in living organisms.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
Carbohydrates are also known as ____________. Choose one answer.
a. Sugars
b. Starches
c. Fats
d. A and B
FUNCTIONAL GROUP
Carbonyl
C=O
Hydroxyl
-OH
Carboxyl
-COOH
Amide
-CONH₂
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
Alcohols contain a _________ group. Choose one answer.
a. Hydroxyl
b. Sulfur
c. Phenol
d. None of the above
What is the general name given to hydrocarbons with double bonds?
Choose one answer.
a. Alkenes
b. Alkynes
c. Alkanes
d. Aromatic hydrocarbons
Sucrose, aka table sugar, is composed of ____________. Choose one answer.
a. Glucose
b. Fructose
c. Both A and B
d. Neither A or B
Both DNA and RNA are composed of three important parts, which are:
a. Glucose, side chains, phosphate group
b. Nitrogenous base, phosphate group, sugar
c. Nitrogenous base, peptide bond, lipid
d. Phosphate group, sugar, side chain
Fatty acids contain ________________. Choose one answer.
a. A carboxyl group and hydrocarbon chain
b. A phosphate group and hydrocarbon chain
c. A sugar group and hydrocarbon chain
d. Only a hydrocarbon chain
The __________ is a hub of cellular metabolism because it links the oxidation
of carbohydrates, fatty acids, and proteins to ATP synthesis. Choose one answer.
a. TCA/citrate cycle
b. Urea cycle
c. Glycolysis cycle
d. Pentose pathway
TOPICS PROVIDED BY NADS
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND MEASUREMENTS
RULES
All non-zero digits are significant.
3.4251 has 5 SFs
Captive zeroes are significant.
2054.980 has 7 SFs
Trailing zeroes in the absence of a decimal point are not significant.
305,900,000 has 4 SFs
If a number is less than 1, leading zeroes to the right of decimal
point prior to the first non-zero digit are insignificant.
0.0000055409 has 5 SFs
Trailing zeroes in the right side of a decimal point are significant.
0.000509000 has 6 SFs
If the measurement is greater than 1, all numbers to the left and right
of the decimal place are significant.
12.010600 has 8 SFs
Scientific Notations can be used to express the number of
significant figures
2 800 000 express in 3 SFs
2.80 X 106
OPERATIONS
Addition and Subtraction
When adding/subtracting, the answer should have the same number
of decimal places as the number with the least decimal places
Multiplication and Division
When multiplying/dividing, the answer should have the same
number of significant figures as the number with the least number
of significant figures.
Logarithmic and Antilogarithmic
The number of significant figures in the decimal part (mantissa) of
the logarithm (log) equals the number of significant figures in the
original number.
log (8.98) = 0.953
log (24.3 = 1.385606274) = 1.385
antilog (-1.12) = 10-1.12 = 0.0758577575 = 0.076
SI UNITS
BASE UNITS
Time = seconds (s)
Length = meters (m)
Mass = kilograms (kg)
Temperature = kelvin (K)
Electric current = Ampere
Amount of Substance = Moles
Luminous Intensity = Candela
COMMON CONVERSIONS
LENGTH
VOLUME
1km = 1000m
1L = 1000 mL
1mi = 1.609km
1cu cm = 1mL
1 in = 2.54 cm
1yd = 3 foot
1 foot = 12 inches
PRESSURE
TEMPERATURE
1 atm = 760 torr
C to K = C + 273.15K
1 atm = 1.01325 barr
C to F = (9/5 x °C) + 32
1 atm = 101325 pascal
F to C = (F - 32) (5/9)
1 atm = 14.7 psi
MASS
1000g = 1kg
1lb = 2.2 kg
1oz = 28.35g
SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. If the mass of the lead ball is 23.5 g and the volume is 3.5 mL, what
is the density of the lead ball?
𝑚
𝑝=
𝑣
2. 3.5 mph (miles per hour) to feet per second
3. Convert 3.58kg/m3 to density that is expressed in g/cm3.
4. If gold’s density is 19.32 g/ml, how much would a 0.333 L sample
weigh in grams?
5. What is the pOH of a 6.50 X 10-3 M KOH solution?
STOICHIOMETRY
30. A researcher is investigating the combustion of propane (C3H8).
By adjusting experimental conditions, he aims to achieve complete
combustion, leading to the formation of carbon dioxide (CO2) and
water (H2O) as products. To optimize the combustion process, he
doubles the flow rate of oxygen (O2) while keeping the propane flow
rate constant. Now determine the coefficient for oxygen (O2) required
to balance the combustion reaction equation under these improved
conditions.
C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O
a) 2
b) 3
c) 4
d) 5
Balance the ff.
CS2 + O2 → CO2 + SO2
KNO3 + H2CO3 → K2CO3 + HNO3
MOLES
Standard unit for the amount of substance
Represented by NA or the Avogadro’s Constant (6.022 x
1023)
Mass per mole is called the MOLAR MASS.
The numerical value of the mass in amu and in g/mole are
equal – only that in amu you are representing the mass of
one entity (atom, molecule, ion, formula unit, while in
g/mole, you are representing one mole)
Calculate the mass in g of a single Al atom to 2 SFs (MM: 26.982
g/mol)
MOLECULAR WEIGHT
Term for formula weight refereeing to the weight of
molecular substances or non-ionic substances
FORMULA WEIGHT
The sum of the molar masses of the elements in the formula
each taken the number of times the element occurs
How many (a) moles, and (b) molecules are contained in 60.00 g of
ozone, O3?
Determine the Mass Percent of O in water (H2O)
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑋
%𝑋 =
𝑥 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑛𝑑
SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY
Concentrations
Molarity
Molality
Dilution
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑚𝑜𝑙
C1V1 = C2V2
𝑀=
𝑚=
𝐿
𝑘𝑔
TITRATION
Equivalence Point
Point in titration at which the amount
of titrant added is just enough to
completely neutralize the analyte
solution.
Indication
A compound that changes color at a
specific pH value or in the presence
of a particular substance.
What is the concentration of a 20.0-mL sulfuric acid sample if it
requires 10.0 mL of 0.200M NaOH to reach the endpoint?
H2SO4 + 2NAOH → 2H2O + NA2SO4
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
A balloon is filled with helium and its volume is 2.2 L at 298 K. The
balloon is then dunked into a thermos bottle containing liquid nitrogen.
When the helium in the balloon has cooled to the temperature of the
liquid nitrogen (77 K), what will the volume of the volume of the
balloon be?
PRE-TEST QUESTION
18. A blimp holds approximately 200,000 ft³ of hydrogen gas. If the gas is at
20° C and 0.95 atm, what mass of hydrogen is in the balloon? The molar mass
of hydrogen is 2.016 g/mol.
a) 450.7 kg
b) 421.6 kg
c) 531 kg
d) 480 kg
19. When balancing equations, is it acceptable to alter the subscripts and
coefficients in the chemical formula, or both?
a) It is acceptable to change BOTH the coefficients and the subscripts
in the chemical formula.
b) It is acceptable to change the subscripts in the chemical formula but
not the coefficients.
c) It is only acceptable to change the subscripts to ensure the equation
is balanced.
d) It is acceptable to change the coefficients, but not the subscripts in
the chemical formula.
39. Which of the following factors does NOT typically influence the solubility
of a solid solute in a liquid solvent?
a. Pressure
b. Surface area of the solute
c. Temperature
d. Polarity of the solvent
GAS LAWS
IDEAL VS. REAL
They differ in IMFAs. Real Gas molecules collide not in an elastic
manner as they have intermolecular forces that can hold them together.
BOYLE’S LAW
Pressure and Volume are inversely proportional given that the
temperature and quantity are kept constant.
P1V1 = P2V2
GAY LUSSAC’S LAW
Pressure and Temperature are directly proportional given that
quantity and volume are kept constant.
𝑃1
𝑃
= 2
𝑇1
𝑇2
𝑇1
𝑇2
𝑛1
𝑛2
𝑃1 𝑉1
= 22
CHARLE’S LAW
Volume and Temperature are directly proportional given that
pressure and quantity are kept constant.
𝑉1
𝑉
= 2
AVOGADRO’S LAW
Volume and Number of moles are directly proportional given that
pressure and temperature are kept constant.
𝑉1
𝑉
= 2
COMBINED GAS LAW
𝑇1
IDEAL GAS LAW
𝑃𝑉
𝑇2
PV = nRT
STANDARD CONDITIONS
VARIABLE
Temperature
Pressure
Volume
Number of moles
Gas Constant
VALUE
273.15 K
1 atm
22.4 L
1 mol
0.08206 L atm/mol K
49. What is the molar mass of 1.5 g of a gas that occupies a volume of 0.68 L
at 0.85 atm and 301 K.
a. 67.20 g/mol
b. 57.28 g/mol
c. 72.50 g/mol
d. 75.00 g/mol
50. Given the atomic masses: S = 32.07 amu, O = 16.00 amu, N = 14.01 amu,
H = 1.008 amu, and C = 12.01 amu. Calculate the molecular mass (in amu) of
the compound caffeine (C8H10N4O2).
a. 194.20 amu
b. 178.56 amu
c. 189.75 amu
d. 165.84 amu
1.3 PHYSICS
1.3.6 Gravitational Force
1.3.1 Unit Conversion
According to Newton’s universal law of gravitation, the force of attraction between any
two bodies is directly proportional to the product of their masses and is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Derived SI Units
Area – m2
Force – Newton, N =
3
𝑘𝑔 ⋅𝑚
𝑠2
𝑁
Volume – m
Pressure – Pascal, Pa =
Velocity – m/s
Acceleration – m/s2
Energy – Joules, J = N * m
Power – Watts, W = J/s
Giga
Mega
Kilo
Hector
deka
deci
centi
milli
Micro
nano
G
M
K
H
Da
d
c
m
µ (mc)
n
F∝
1, 000, 000, 000
1, 000, 000
1, 000
100
10
1/10
1/100
1/1,000
1/1,000,000
1/1,000,000,000
Imprecise Units of Time
1 year
12 months
1 year
52 weeks
1 year
365 days
1 month
30 days
Units of Time in the MS
In astronomy, Kepler’s Laws of planetary motion are three scientific laws describing the
motion of planets around the sun.
1.3.8 Density
Density is calculated by dividing the mass of an object. It is calculated by multiplying the
object’s mass by its velocity.
•
Kepler’s first law – the law of orbits
“All the planets revolve around the sun is elliptical orbits having the sun at
one of the foci.”
•
Kepler’s second law – the law of equal areas
The speed at which the planets move in space continuously changes. The
second law helps to explain that when the planets are closer to the Sun, they
will travel faster.
•
Kepler’s third law - the law of periods
“The square of the time period of revolution to a planet around the sun in an
elliptical orbut is directly proportional to the cube of its semi-major axis”
1 second
1000 milliseconds
1 second
10 microseconds
1.3.9 Fluids
1 second
109 nanoseconds
•
•
1.3.2 Motion
•
MOTION – change in position of an object with respect to its surroundings in a given
interval of time.
Can be described in terms of the ff.
Distance, displacement, speed, velocity, time, acceleration.
Fluid is a substance that does not possess a definite shape and easily yields
external pressure.
Fluid is any liquid or gas or any material that unable to withstand a shearing
or tangential force, when at rest.
Fluid dynamics – the study of the flow of fluids at motion.
Is air fluid?
Yes, air is fluid. Any substance that flows is termed as fluid.
1.3.10 Waves
A wave is a disturbance in a medium that carries energy without a net movement of
particles.
*Read types of motion.
LAWS OF MOTION by Newton
First Law – any object will remain in its existing state of motion or rest unless a net
external force act on it.
Second Law – if an object has a certain mass, the greater the mass of this object, the greater
will the force required to be to accelerate the object.
F = ma
Third Law – for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
1.3.3 Friction
Friction is the force that resists motion when the surface of one object comes in contact
with the surface of another.
Frictional Force is the force generated by two surfaces that contact and slide against each
other.
Symbol: Newton (N)
F = 𝝁N
𝜇 – friction coefficient
N = mg
m - mass
g – gravity (9.8 N/kg)
*read different types of waves
Wave speed Formula
Wave Speed = Distance Covered/Time taken
Electromagnetic waves – are the disturbance that does not need any object medium for
propagation and can easily travel through the vacuum. They are produced due to various
magnetic and electric fields.
1.3.11 Sounds
•
•
•
•
A sound is a vibration that propagates through a medium in the form of
mechanical wave.
Sound travels fastest in solids, relatively slower in liquids, and slowest in
gases.
Sound wave – pattern of disturbance caused by the energy travelling away
from the source of the sound.
Sound waves are longitudinal waves.
1.3.4 Energy
Energy – is the ability to do work.
•
The International System of Units of measurement of energy is Joule.
•
Th unit is named after James Prescott Joule.
Different Types of Energy
Kinetic Energy
- energy associated with the object’s motion.
𝟏
K. E = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐
*read different types of KE.
Potential
- energy stored in an object or system of objects.
Energy
- Can transform into a more obvious form of kinetic energy.
Potential Energy = m x g x h
*read different types of PE.
Both potential energy and kinetic energy form MECHANICAL ENERGY.
𝟏
Mechanical Energy = 𝒎𝒗𝟐 + mgh
𝟐
4 Ways through which energy can be transferred:
•
Mechanically – by the action of force
•
Electrically – electrically
•
By radiation – by light waves or sound waves
•
By heating – by conduction, convection, or radiation.
Kilowatt-hour – commercial unit of energy.
1.3.5 Momentum
Momentum = Mass x Velocity
•
•
𝑟2
1.3.7 Kepler’s Law
Unit of Mass/Weight in the Metric System
1 gram (g)
1000 milligrams (mg)
1 kilogram (kg)
1000 grams (g)
1 metric to (t)
1000 kilograms (kg)
Precise Units of Time
1 week
7 days
1 day
24 hours
1 hour
60 minutes
1 minute
60 seconds
(𝑚1 𝑚2 )
𝑚2
p = mv
Momentum is considered a vector quantity because velocity, which is one of
its components, is a vector while mass is scalar.
The SI unit of momentum is kilogram – meter per second (kg∙m/s)
C=
𝑑
𝑡
Speed of Sound
d is the distance travelled by sound
t is the time taken to cover the distance
1.3.12 Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law states the relationship between electric current and potential difference.
Formula to find Power
Power (P), Current (I), and Voltage (V)
When the values for voltage and current
When the values of current and voltage re
are given,
given, the formula for finding power is,
P = VI
P = VI
When the values for voltage and
When the values of power and voltage are
resistance are given,
given, the formula for finding current is,
I = P/V
P = V2 ÷ R
When the values for current and
When the values of power and current are
resistance are given,
given, the formula for finding voltage is,
P = I2R
V = PI
1.3.13 Mirror Optics
Law of Reflection – states that when a ray of light is made to fall on the reflecting surface,
the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the surface of the mirror all lie in the
same plane and the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
TYPES OF MIRRORS
Plane
The images formed are reflected images in their normal proportions but
Mirror
reversed from left to right.
Convex
These are spherical mirrors that are curved outward, and the image
Mirror
obtained is virtual, diminished and erect for a real object.
Concave
These are spherical mirrors that curved inward, and the image obtained
Mirror
from these mirrors depends on the placement of the object.
1.3.14 Capacitors
•
A capacitor is defined as passive component which is used for storing
electrical energy. It is made of two conductors. One plate is for positive
charge, while the other plate is for negative charge.
•
Capacitance – the effect of the capacitor.
C = Q/V
Q = Electric Charge (coulombs)
C = capacitance (farad)
V = voltage (volts)
1.3.15 Propagation of Light
•
•
•
•
Optics – branch of physics which is concerned with light and its behavioral
pattern and properties.
Types of Reflection of Light (Regular reflection/specular, diffused reflection,
multiple reflection)
Interference – is the phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form the
resultant wave of the lower, higher, or same amplitude.
Dispersion – property of light, where the white light splits into its constituent
colors. Dispersion can be observed in the form of a prism.
1.3.16 Snell’s Law
The Law of Refraction – Snell’s Law
Discovered by Willebrord Snell in 1612
•
Refraction is caused due to the change in speed of light when it enters from
one medium to another.
•
The refraction index is influenced by the (1) Temperature, (2) Wavelength.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Kyle enjoys hiking on a mountain every weekend. One day, while standing
on a cliff, he dropped a stone to estimate the cliff’s height.
What happens to the potential energy of the stone as it falls to the ground?
a) The potential energy increases.
b) The potential energy is lost.
c) The potential energy was changed to kinetic energy.
d) It was stored as potential energy.
15. In a football game, one of the team members, Roger is heading directly
north toward the goal at a velocity of 8.30 m/s relative to the ground. A
teammate passes the ball to him. The ball has a speed of 14.0 m/s and moves in
the direction east of north, relative to the ground.
What are the magnitude and direction of the ball’s velocity relative to Roger?
a) 8.71 m/s and 20.7° north of east
b) 8.70 m/s and 45.6° east of north
c) 12.0 m/s and 30.1° north of east
d) 10.5 m/s and 50.3° east of north
16. Beginning at rest at a bus station, a bus accelerates for 18.0 at a rate of 1.84
m/s2. For 45.0 s, it operates at a steady velocity before slowing down at a rate
of 5.35 m/s2 until it comes to a stop at the next station.
Calculate the total distance traveled by the bus.
a) 1650 m
b) 2154 m
c) 1891 m
d) 1956 m
17. Given the circuit shown below, which
consists of a 2 mA current source and a 4.7 kΩ
resistor: Calculate the voltage across the 4.7 kΩ
resistor and determine the power dissipated by
the 4.7 kΩ resistor.
a) 9.0 V and 18.0 mW
b) 10.30 and 22.7 mW
c) 8.64 V and 15.2 mW
d) 9.4 V and 18.8 mW
22. Given the scenarios below, which of the following scenarios is possible?
I. An object moves with constant velocity and constant acceleration.
II. An object moves with constant velocity and changing acceleration.
III. An object moves with changing velocity and constant acceleration.
IV. An object moves with changing velocity and changing acceleration.
a. I only
b. IV only
c. III and IV
d. I, III, and IV
23. In an electrical circuit, a power supply of 24 V is connected to a variable
resistor. The resistor is adjusted to allow a current of 2 A to flow through the
circuit. This setup powers a device that requires exactly 48 W of power to
operate efficiently.
Suddenly, the power supply voltage is halved, but the resistance is left
unchanged. Given this change in voltage, determine the new current in the
circuit, and the new power output assuming the resistance remains constant.
a. 1 A and 12 W
b. 2 A and 10 W
c. 1 A and 10 W
d. 3 A and 13 W
24. In a high-precision laboratory experiment, scientists are studying the
conductivity of various materials. They want to use the material with the highest
number of free electrons available for conduction, which ensures the highest
electron mobility and minimizes resistive losses.
Given that resistive losses are critical in high-frequency applications, which of
the following materials would be the best choice for their experiment?
a. Silicon b. Graphite c. Copper d. Wood
25. A 10 kg box placed on a frictionless surface, such as a smooth ice rink.
Initially, a person applies a constant horizontal force to the box by pushing it
steadily. This force causes the box to accelerate uniformly at a rate of 2 m/s².
Now, another person joins and helps push the box with an additional force,
effectively doubling the total force acting on the box. The box then encounters
a slight breeze of air resistance, opposing its motion as it accelerates. Given
these conditions, determine how the new acceleration of the box changes when
the applied force is doubled.
a. 2 m/s² b. 4 m/s² c. 6 m/s² d. 3 m/s²
34.The power rating of a 25,000-ohm resistor is 4 watts, (1) What is the
maximum allowable potential difference across the terminals of the resistor?
(2) We need a 50,000-ohm resistor to be connected across the potential
difference of 250V, so what power rating is required?
a. 316.23 V and 1.25 W
b. 317 V and 1.3 W
c. 316 V and 1 W
d. 317.23 and 1.25 W
35. In the context of electrical circuits, Ohm's Law describes the relationship
between three fundamental electrical quantities.
What are these three quantities, and how are they related according to Ohm's
Law?
a. Voltage, Current, Power
b. Current, Resistance, Voltage
c. Resistance, Voltage, Energy
d. Power, Voltage, Current
38. In material processing, there's a linear relationship between processing and
performance. What type of materials have a significant number of partially
independent free electrons from their parent atoms, enabling rapid transfer of
electric charge and thermal energy?
a. Metallic Materials
b. Ceramic Materials
c. Polymeric Materials
d. Composite Materials
43. Arthur has two containers. He filled the first one with feathers, while the
other one with sand. Then, Arthur submerged the both of them in water. In
which container has a greater buoyant force?
a. Container filled with feathers
b. Container filled with sand.
c. Both have the same buoyant force.
d. Cannot be determined.
44. Roselle travels from V. Mapa to Pureza by bicycle to attend her class in
PUP. However, she noticed that her bike tire is flat. As she pumps up the bike
tire, she observes that as she pumps with vigor, the pump itself appears to be
warm. Why does this happen?
a. Because of the friction of the pump.
b. The work being done in compressing heats the air.
c. Many air molecules collide because of increased pressure.
d. None of the above.
46.Kennedy is currently tasked to create a simple circuit involving copper
wires, a switch, and a lightbulb. However, while doing the model, the copper
wires were accidentally dropped in boiling water. What does heat do in a copper
wire and its electric resistance?
a. Electric resistance increases.
b. Electric resistance remains the same
c. Electric resistance decreases.
d. None of the above.
4. A concave mirror with a focal length of 12.0 cm creates a real image 36.0 cm
away on its principal axis; the corresponding object is located how far from the
mirror?
a. 16 cm b. 18 cm c. 15 cm d. 13 cm
47. A small flashlight bulb draws 350 mA from its 1.50-V battery. If the battery
becomes weak and the voltage drops 1.20-V, how would the current change?
a. 0.27 A b. 0.28 A c. 0.35 A d. 0.15 A
5. After the Christmas and New Year celebrations, there are many food leftovers
in your fridge. For spaghetti to maintain its taste after being refrigerated for
three days, you decided to heat it in a microwave. What type of heat transfer is
involved when heating dinner in a microwave.
a. Conduction b. Radiation c. Convection D. None of the above
48. What is the magnitude and direction of the electric field at a point p which
is 30 cm to the right of a point charge Q = -3.0 x 10⁻⁶ C?
a. E = 3.00 x 10⁶ N/C, points to the positive x-axis
b. E = 30 x 10⁵ N/C, points to the positive x-axis
c. E = 3.00 x 10⁵ N/C, points to the negative x-axis
d. E = 30 x 10⁶ N/C, points to the negative x-axis
51. If you hold a heavy bag of groceries in your hand at rest, you do no work
on it. How does it happen?
a. You do exert a force on the bag, but the displacement of the bag is zero, so
the work done by you on the bag is zero.
b. You exert an upward force on the bag equal to its weight. But this upward
force is perpendicular to the horizontal displacement of the bag and thus is
doing no work.
c. You start walking, there is a horizontal acceleration and you do briefly exert
a vertical force and does do no work on the bag.
d. All of the above.
6. A ball weighs 1 kg and is travelling at a speed of 15 m/s. Calculate its kinetic
energy.
a. 112.5 x 103 J b. 112.5 x 103 N c. 112.5 N d. 112.5 J
7. Consider the projectile shown in Figure 1. Assuming that there is no air
resistance, which of the following statement is true:
a. velocity at point Z is zero
b. speed at point X is equal to the speed at point P.
c. acceleration at point Z is zero.
d. Velocity at point Y is equal to the velocity at point W.
8. When velocity is doubled:
a. Kinetic energy is doubled.
b. Potential energy is doubled.
c. Momentum is doubled.
d. Acceleration is doubled.
56. What is the first law of thermodynamics also known as?
a. Law of Inertia
b. Law of conservation of energy
c. Law of thermal expansion
d. Law of heat exchange
9. ______ is a type of friction force that works against the motion of falling
objects.
a. Gravity b. Free Fall c. Air Resistance d. Terminal Velocity
58. What is the resistance of a wire if a voltage of 12 V causes a current of 3 A
to flow through it?
a. 2 Ω b. 3 Ω c. 4 Ω d. 5 Ω
A body is taken from the earth to the moon:
a)
Its mass and weight will be different.
b)
Its mass will be different, but weight will remain the same.
c)
Its mass will remain the same, but weight will be different.
d)
Both mass and weight will be different
59. A gas is kept in a container at a pressure of 2 atm and a volume of 4 liters.
If the volume is increased to 8 liters at constant temperature, what is the new
pressure?
a. 0.5 atm b. 1 atm c. 1.5 atm d. 2 atm
As the voltage across a resistor is increased, what happens to the resistance of the resistor?
a)
It decreases.
b)
It increases.
c)
It remains constant.
d)
No answer.
The resistance of a resistor is not affected by changes in current and voltage.
PHYSICS PROBLEMS
PNU SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. A truck travels 87 kilometers north in 2 hours and then 147 kilometers south
in 5 hours. Suppose that the truck is 2,800 kilograms, calculate its average
speed.
a. 8.57 km/h b. 8.57 m/s c. 9.28 m/s d. 33.42 m/s
2. From rest at a constant rate of 2.5 m/s2 for 10 seconds, a truck speed up. How
fast is it moving after 10 seconds?
a. 625 m/s b. 630 m/s c. 25 m/s d. 10 m/s
3. A flashlight has four identical 2.5 volts batteries arranged in a chain to give a
total of 10 volts. Current passes through battery A, then through battery B, then
through battery C, and battery D, on its way to the bulb. When flashlight
operates, the batteries provide power to the current and they gradually use up
their chemical potential energy. Which battery will run out of chemical energy
first?
a. battery A and B
c. battery a because it is the first one
which the current passes through.
b. battery C and D
d. all batteries will run out
According to the law of conservation of momentum, when two objects collide in the
absence of outside forces,
a)
The objects have more momentum after they collide than did before.
b)
The objects have the same momentum before and after they collide.
c)
Velocity increases
d)
Velocity decreases
The ancient Greeks studied waves in the context of:
a)
Earthquakes
b)
Music
c)
Geometry
d)
Astronomy
Many Ancient Greek philosophers were interested in music. They hypothesized that there
was a connection between waves and sound, and that vibrations, or disturbances, must be
responsible for sounds.
It is easier to roll a barrel than to pull it because:
a)
The surface area of the barrel in contact with the road is more in case of
pulling.
b)
None of these.
c)
Rolling friction is much less than sliding friction.
d)
The full weight of the barrel comes into play when it is pulled.
A battery operated DVD player uses 12 volts from AA batteries and draws a current of 3
amperes. What is the resistance?
a. 4 ohms b. 9 ohms c. 36 ohms d. 15 ohms
The diagram shows part of a circuit. What is the reading
displayed on the voltmeter?
a. 6.5 V B. 60 V C. 5.4 V D. 17.7 V
The universal law of gravitation was propounded by:
a)
Nicolas Copernicus
b)
Johannes Kepler
c)
Isaac Newton
d)
Galileo Galilei
Which of the options below is an example
of velocity?
a)
20 East
b)
200 km/h
c)
20 m/s East
d)
20 m/s
A person weighs more in an elevator,
which is:
a)
Accelerating downward
b)
Moving down with constant
velocity
c)
Moving up with constant
velocity
d)
Accelerating upward
According to the Law of Universal Gravitation, the force of gravity between two objects is
inversely proportional to
a)
The mass of earth
b)
The product of the masses of the objects.
c)
The square of the distance between the objects.
d)
The gravitational constant.
The force of gravity decreases exponentially as the distance between two objects increases.
The force of _______ is a type of friction that works against the motion of falling objects.
a)
Gravity
b)
Free fall
c)
Terminal velocity
d)
Air resistance
The Law of Universal Gravitation was the result of the work of
a)
Robert Hooke
b)
Isaac Newton
c)
Henry Cavendish
d)
Albert Einstein
The Law of Universal Gravitation not only applies to objects near the surface of the Earth
but also to large distant bodies such as planets.
The amplitude of a wave is a measure of its
a)
Height
b)
Period
c)
Speed
d)
Length
The amplitude (A) of a wave is the maximum displacement of a particle from its equilibrium
position – or the height of the wave.
The frequency of a wave is measured in units of
a)
Meters
b)
Meters per second
c)
Seconds
d)
Hertz
Wave frequency is measured in cycles per second, or hertz (Hz). If the period of a wave is
10 seconds (i.e., it takes 10 seconds for the wave to complete one cycle), then the frequency
is 0.1 Hz. In other words, the wave completes 0.1 cycles every second.
If a car is rolling down a ramp, the force between the tires and the ramp is an example of:
a)
Air resistance
b)
Balanced force
c)
Kinetic friction
d)
Static friction
A force is a ______
a. speed
b. net force
c. push or pull
d. motion.
The force of gravity on a person or object on the surface of a planet is called?
a)
Free fall
b)
Terminal velocity
c)
Weight
d)
mass
Sound of frequency below 20 Hz is called:
a. supersonic b. infrasonic
a)
b)
c)
d)
c. audio sounds
d. ultrasonic
One finds it more difficult to walk on ice than on a concrete road because:
there is more friction on the ice than on concrete
none of these
ice is soft and spongy where as concrete is hard.
The friction between the ice and the feet is less than that between the concrete and feet.
According to Newton’s third law of motion, when a hammer strikes and exerts force on a
nail, the nail –
a)
Moves at a constant speed.
b)
Exerts equal and opposite force on the hammer.
c)
Disappears into the wood.
d)
Creates a friction with the hammer.
The weight of a body is:
a)
The same everywhere in the surface of the earth.
b)
More on the hills than in the plains.
c)
Maximum at the pole.
d)
Maximum at the equator.
A sound wave is an example of a _______ wave.
a)
Rayleigh
b)
Interrupted
c)
Longitudinal
d)
Transverse
Where the individual particles (air molecules) vibrate back and forth in the direction that
the sound is travelling.
A cart rolls down an inclined plane with constant speed as shown in
the diagram below. Which arrow represents the direction of
frictional force?
a. A b. D c. B c. C
A satellite in space is exactly halfway between Earth and the moon. Earth’s mass is
calculated to be 5.98 x 1024 kg, while the moon’s mass is 7.35 x 1022 kg. Is the force of
gravity stronger between Earth and the satellite or the moon and the satellite?
a)
Gravity is stronger between Earth and the satellite than between the moon and
satellite.
b)
Gravity is equal since the satellite is exactly midway between Earth and the
moon.
c)
Gravity is stronger between moon and the satellite than between the Earth and
satellite.
d)
There is not enough information to tell.
The distance is the same from the satellite to the Earth or the moon. In the two scenarios,
only the mass of the Earth and the mass of the moon are different, so the force of gravity
will be stronger between the satellite and the body with the greater, in this case the Earth.
Using Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation, a scientist could predict which of the ff?
a)
All of the answers are correct.
b)
The location of a planet in the solar system
c)
The mass of a planet’s moon
d)
The force of gravitational attraction between two people in a room.
Using Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation, scientists can predict the mass of a large
body in space, the location of planets, and the gravitational force between objects.
A dart hits a dartboard and stops in 0.060s. The net force on the dart is 14N during the
collision. What is the magnitude of the change in momentum of the dart.
a)
0.84 kg∙m/s
b)
0.95 kg∙m/s
c)
0.85 kg∙m/s
d)
0.80 kg∙m/s
A skydiver with a mass of 70 kg accelerates to Earth at a rate of 9.8 m/s 2 due to gravity.
What is the force on the skydiver?
a)
686 Newtons
b)
79.8 Newtons
c)
714 Newtons
d)
0.14 Newtons
Of the planets below, which has the largest number of satellites?
a)
Neptune
b)
Jupiter
c)
Pluto
d)
Mercury
Acc. to the Law of Universal Gravitation, the force of gravity between two objects is
directly proportional to
a)
the product of the masses of the objects
b)
the distance between the objects.
c)
the mass of Earth
d)
the gravitational constant.
The greater the masses of two objects, the greater the product of their masses will be and
the greater the force of gravity between the two objects. Likewise, the smaller the force of
gravity between them. This is direct proportion.
The roller coaster has the most kinetic energy at position a) Y b) X c) W d) Z
A wave with a frequency of 1000 Hz has a period of
a)
0.01 seconds
b)
0.1 seconds
c)
0.001 seconds
d)
0.0001 seconds
Hertz (Hz) measures cycle per second, so a wave with a frequency of 1000 Hz completes
1000 cycles every second. The period of a wave is the number of seconds it takes for the
wave to complete one cycle. Therefore, the period of this wave is one thousandth of a
second, or 0.001 seconds.
In a transverse wave, the motion of the particle is _____ the wave’s direction of
propagation.
a)
Opposite from
b)
Parallel to
c)
Along
d)
Perpendicular to
One should not connect a number of electrical appliances to the same power socket
because:
a)
this can damage the electrical meter.
b)
this can damage the domestic wiring due to overloading.
c)
this can damage the appliances due to overloading.
d)
the appliance will not get full voltage.
A 60 kg skydiver parachutes from a stationary helicopter at a height of 2,000m above the
ground. After the skydiver reaches a predetermined speed, the parachute opens, slowing
the skydiver down. With the parachute open, the skydiver reaches a terminal velocity of
85m/s. Calculate the work done by air resistance during the descent from the heigh of the
helicopter to the ground.
a)
3,000 J
b)
1.575.5 J
c)
2,167.5 J
d)
2,125.0 J
As shown in the figure below, Cindy rushes 30m toward her truck. She notices she forgot
her lunch and returns back to the house. Her total travel time is 90s. What is Cindy’s
average speed over the 90s period?
a)
0.90 m/s
b)
0.67 m/s
c)
1 m/s
d)
0.85 m/s
If a 10 kilogram object accelerates suddenly at 15 m/s2, how much force was applied to the
object?
a)
150 Newtons
b)
150 kilograms
c)
15 newtons
d)
100 kilograms
Peanut ran 50 meters in 10 seconds. What was Peanut’s average speed?
a)
5 m/s
b)
5 m/s North
c)
5 km/h
d)
2 m/s
In a longitudinal wave, the motion of the particle is _____ the wave’s direction of
propagation.
a)
Along
b)
Perpendicular to
c)
Opposite from
d)
Parallel to
If the distance between the Earth and the sun were twice what it is now, the gravitational
force exerted on the Earth by the sun would be:
a)
One-fourth of what is now.
b)
Twice as large as now.
c)
Four times as large as it is now.
d)
Half of what it is now.
What was the main contribution of James Joule to our understanding of energy?
a)
He was the first to carefully prove that mechanical energy can be converted to
thermal energy, demonstrating they were not caused by different essences.
b)
He gave us the energy unit Joule, which he named after himself.
c)
He built the first electric generator, showing the world that energy can change
forms.
d)
He was the first to show that microorganisms in beer brewing were
responsible for the alcohol content.
A physics major is cooking breakfast when he notices that the frictional force between his
steel spatula and his Teflon frying pan is only 0.200 N. Knowing the coefficient of kinetic
friction between the two materials is 0.04, what is the normal force?
a)
4N
b)
1N
c)
5N
d)
2N
Optic fibers are mainly used for which of the following?
a)
Weaving
b)
Food industry
c)
Musical instruments
d)
Communication
What is the current in this circuit?
a. 6A b. 2A c. 18A d. 0.5A
The gravitational force with which the sun attracts the Earth:
a)
Is constant throughout the year
b)
Is same as the force with which the Earth attracts the sun.
c)
Is more than the force with which the earth attracts the sun.
d)
Is less than the force with which the earth attracts the sun.
Rate of change of velocity is called:
a)
Acceleration
b)
Speed
c)
Weight
d)
Momentum
Any force that causes an object to move in a circle is called a(n)
a)
Unbalanced force
b)
Balance force
c)
Centripetal force
d)
Gravitational force
As shown in the figure below, April enters a race. She runs leftward 100m to her horse,
then she rides 500m to her truck, then she drives 1000m in a total time of 120s. What is
April’s average speed over the 120s period?
a)
15 m/s
b)
13 m/s
c)
20 m/s
d)
10 m/s
Which of the following statements about energy is incorrect?
a)
Energy cannot be destroyed or created; it can only change forms.
b)
Work is performed by expending energy.
c)
Mechanical energy cannot be converted into electrical energy.
d)
The chemical energy stored in objects can be used to drive machines.
Michael Faraday discovered that he could convert mechanical energy into electrical
energy and vice versa. In fact, it is possible to transform all forms of energy into any other.
Which statement is correct?
a)
Energy can be destroyed but not created.
b)
Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
c)
Energy cannot be created but never destroyed.
d)
Energy is always created but never destroyed.
1.4 EARTH SCIENCE
1.4.1 Rock
Rocks are mineral aggregates with a combination of properties of all mineral traces.
Types of Rocks
Igneous
Formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.
Intrusive (Plutonic) Rocks – below the surface
Extrusive (Volcanic) Rocks – on the surface
Ex: Basalt, Diorite, Granite, Mica and quartz
Sedimentary
Formed by the deposition and subsequent cementation of that
material within bodies of water and at the surface of the earth.
Sedimentation – the process that causes various organic materials
and minerals to settle in a place
Ex: Halite, Limestone, Sandstone, Siltstone
Metamorphic
Make up a large part of the Earth’s crust and are classified by texture
and by chemical and mineral assemblage.
Arise from the transformation of existing rock types, in a process
called metamorphism, which means “change in form.”
Ex: Marble, Slate, Quartzite, Phyllite.
1.4.2 Minerals
Minerals are substances naturally formed in the Earth. Minerals are typically solid,
inorganic, have a crystal structure and are formed by geological processes naturally. A
mineral may consist of a single chemical element or a compound more usually.
Rocks are made of minerals. Minerals are not made of rocks.
1.4.3 Continental Drift Theory
Continental Drift is the theory that the Earth’s continents have moved relative to one
another over geological time, giving the appearance of “drifting” across the ocean floor.
On the coastlines of continents, fossils of similar plants and animals have been discovered,
indicating they were connected.
•
Prof. Alfred Wegener proposed that around 250 million years before the present there
was one single vast continent called ‘Pangea’ surrounded by oceans on all sides
called Panthalassa.
*read about the continental drift theory.
1.4.4 Volcanos
•
There are approximately 1,500 potentially active volcanoes worldwide. Most are
located around the Pacific Ocean in what is commonly called the Ring of Fire.
A volcano is defined as an opening in Earth’s crust through which lava, ash, and
gases erupt.
Heat does not easily escape from large bodies such as Earth by the process of
conduction or radiation. Instead, heat is transferred from Earth’s interior largely by
convection – that is, the partial melting of Earth’s crust and mantle and the buoyant
rise of magma to the surface.
Pyroclastic flows – most dangerous and destructive aspect of explosive volcanism.
•
•
•
1.4.5 Rock Deformation
•
Rock deformation is the process by which rocks change shape or size in response
to stress.
•
Stress is a force applied per unit area.
Rocks can deform in two main ways:
•
Brittle Deformation – occurs when rocks break or fracture under stress.
•
Ductile Deformation – occurs when rocks bend or flow under stress.
BRITTLE DEFORMATION – most common in the upper crust of the Earth, where temp
and pressure conditions are relatively low. Produce variety of features, including:
Faults
Are fractures in rocks along which there has been displacement. Caused by
a variety of stresses, including compression, tension, and shear.
Joints
Fractures in rocks that do not show any displacement. Caused by cooling
and drying rocks.
Breccia
Made up of angular fragments of other rocks. Formed by brittle
deformation of rocks.
DUCTILE DEFORMATION – common in lower crust and mantle, where temp and
pressure conditions are relatively high. Features includes:
Folds
Bends in rocks. Caused by compression and tension.
Foliation
Layering that seen in metamorphic rocks. Caused by alignment of
minerals in the rock during ductile deformation.
Lineation
Linear features that can be seen in some metamorphic rocks. Caused by
the alignment of minerals or elongated grains in the rock during DF.
Tensional Stress
Compressional Stress
Shear Stress
KINDS OF STRESS
When rock is stretched apart.
When the rock is pressed together.
Rocks slip in a horizontal direction. Rock is pulled in
opposite directions but on different ends.
•
Fracture – which is when the change is irreversible and rock breaks.
* look some pictures showing rock deformation and identify the ff.
1.4.6 Earthquakes
*read
1.4.7 Soil Formation and Erosion
*read
1.4.8 Water Cycle
*read
1.4.9 Earth/Earth History
*read
1.4.10 Philippine Geology
36. Natural resources play a crucial role in meeting contemporary human needs.
Which type of mineral resources involves accumulations of valuable minerals
formed from hot waters circulating in Earth's crust through fractures?
a. Residual Ore Deposits
b. Magmatic Ore Deposits
c. Silica Ore Deposits
d. Hydrothermal Ore Deposits
54. A city plans to reduce its carbon footprint and is considering different
renewable energy options to replace its coal power plant.
Which option is most suitable if the city is located in a sunny desert region?
a. Solar Power b. Wind Power c. Hydroelectric Power d. Geothermal Power
1.5 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
1.5.1 Natural Environment
1.5.2 Natural Resources
1.5.3 Human Impact on the Environment
1.5.4 Emerging Threats and Environmental Management
33. In your Chemistry Lab, the professor has tasked each group with performing
an experiment on an assigned chemical by answering the required questions on
your given lab paper. Your group has been assigned a chemical called titanium
dioxide.
Titanium dioxide is used in products such as sunscreens, UV filters, and food
pigments. However, when your group looks at the Safety Data Sheet, one of its
hazard statements indicates it is suspected of causing cancer. What
classification of GHS pictograms is the assigned chemical?
a. Exclamation Mark and Corrosion
b. Health Hazard and Exclamation Mark
c. Health Hazard
d. Skull and Crossbones
40. Ultra-Plinian eruptions are among the most explosive and impactful
volcanic events, characterized by high eruption columns and significant
volumes of pyroclastic material. The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the
Philippines is a prime example of such an event and is considered one of the
largest eruptions of the 20th century. The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) is a
logarithmic scale from 0 to 8 used to measure the explosiveness of volcanic
eruptions based on several factors, including the volume of erupted material,
eruption column height, and the duration of the eruptive activity. The Mount
Pinatubo eruption produced an eruption column that reached the stratosphere,
and it ejected vast quantities of ash and pyroclastic material, causing significant
climatic impacts worldwide. Considering the criteria used to classify eruptions
on the VEI scale, which VEI rating accurately describes the 1991 eruption of
Mount Pinatubo?
a. VEI-3, characterized by eruption columns up to 15 km and erupted volumes
less than 0.1 km³
b. VEI-4, characterized by eruption columns up to 25 km and erupted volumes
between 0.1 and 1 km³
c. VEI-5, characterized by eruption columns up to 35 km and erupted volumes
between 1 and 10 km³
d. VEI-6, characterized by eruption columns exceeding 35 km and erupted
volumes between 10 and 100 km³
42. In June 2024, multiple Philippine news outlets reported that scientists from
the University of the Philippines (UP) announced that the corals in Sabina
Shoal, also known as Escoda Shoal, are now "almost 100% dead". Besides the
tampering and prohibited relocation of these corals from their original habitat,
what other factors contribute to their demise?
a. Increased algal competition due to nutrient runoff
b. Coral bleaching caused by thermal stress and UV radiation
c. Disruption of symbiotic relationships with zooxanthellae
d. All of the above
45.On June 3, 2024, Mt. Kanlaon in Negros occidental erupted and residents
within proximity were ordered to evacuate immediately. The flow of lahar
caused roads to be no longer passable and different farmlands were covered by
ashfall leaving a huge impact on the livelihoods of the residents. Moreover, a
huge steam of gas was observed and pre-existing solid rock were expelled upon
eruption of the volcano. What type of eruption did Mt. Kanlaon emit?
a. Phreatic Eruption
b. Plinian Eruption
c. Pelean Eruption
d. Hawaiian Eruption
PRE-TEST QUESTION
14. On February 17, 2006. A devastating landslide struck the Philippine
province of Southern Leyte, leading to extensive destruction and loss of life.
This catastrophic landslide, triggered by heavy rainfall over a 10-day period and
a minor earthquake measuring 2.6 on the moment magnitude scale, resulted in
an official death toll of 1,126. The disaster occurred in Guinsaugon, Saint
Bernard, Southern Leyte, Philippines.
The landslide involved a rapid and downhill movement of a large volume of
rock, soil, and debris, forming a debris flow that surged through the village of
Guinsaugon. The speed and force of the debris flow caused expensive
destruction, burying the village under meters or mud and debris. The geology
of the area, with its steep slopes, weathered rock, and susceptibility to erosion,
played a significant role in the occurrence and severity of the landslide. What
is the type of landslide that occurred?
a) Rockslide-debris avalanche
b) Rock slope failure
c) Creep
d) Slumping
OTHER BRANCHES OF SCIENCE
PROVIDED BY NADS
TAXONOMY: CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS
INTRODUCTION TO TAXONOMY
•
Taxonomy is the science of classifying organisms.
•
It involves organizing species into hierarchical categories
based on shared characteristics.
•
Helps in understanding the relationships among organisms
and provides a universal naming system.
Homo sapiens
“HOMO” means man,
“SAPIENS” means wise.
feel special! You’re a wise man, that means you can be an iskolar bc ar wise:)
TAXONOMIC HIERACHY
•
Domain
•
Kingdom
•
Phylum
•
Class
•
Order
•
Family
•
Genus
•
Species
MNEMONIC!! Dear, King Philip Came Over For Good Soup
Common Scientific Names
Homo sapiens
Humans
Panthera leo
Lion
Panthera tigris
Tiger
Canis lupus
Gray Wolf
Canis lupus familiaris Domestic dogs
Felis catus
Domestic cat
Gallus domesticus
Chicken
Equus caballus
Horse
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
6. Reinier has a pet seahorse in his aquarium. In a taxonomist’s perspective, in
which group should the seahorse be classified in?
a) Corals
b) Sea stars
c) Milkfish
d) Shrimps
Branches of Science and Its Etymology
BRANCHES OF SCIENCE
Natural Sciences
Physics
Study of matter, energy, and fundamental forces
Chemistry Study of substance, their properties, and interactions
Biology
Study of living organisms and life processes
Earth
Study of the Earth’s physical structure, processes,
Science
and history.
Astronomy Study of celestial objects, space, and the universe as
a whole.
PHYSICS
Greek “physis,” meaning nature.
Sub-branches: Classical mechanics, quantum mechanics,
thermodynamics, optics, etc.
CHEMISTRY
Egyptian “k𝒆̅me,” meaning earth.
Sub-branches: Organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry,
physical chemistry, analytical chemistry, etc.
BIOLOGY
Greek “bios,” meaning life and “logos,” meaning study.
Sub-branches: Zoology, botany, microbiology, genetics,
ecology, etc.
EARTH SCIENCE
Combination of words “earth” and “science”.
Sub-branches: Geology meteorology, oceanology,
climatology, etc.
ASTRONOMY
Greek “Astron,” meaning star and “nomos,” meaning law.
Sub-branches: Astrophysics, cosmology, planetary science,
observational astronomy, etc.
“-ology” (study of)
“-ics” (related to)
“-metry” (measurement of)
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. What does the prefix “bio- “mean in scientific terms?
a) Earth
b) Life
c) Mind
d) Animals
2. Which branch of science deals with the study of rock and minerals?
a) Geology
b) Anthropology
c) Archaeology
d) Meteorology
3. The term “entomology” refers to the study of:
a) Insects
b) Stars and planets
c) Ancient civilizations
d) Fish and marine life
Groundbreaking Scientific Discoveries
1. Who is credited with inventing the first writing system known as cuneiform?
a) Egyptians
b) Greeks
c) Sumerians
d) Romans
The Sumerians invented cuneiform, the earliest knowing writing system, using
wedge-shaped symbols on clay tablets.
2. When did Isaac Newton publish his groundbreaking work “Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica”?
a) 1543
b) 1687
c) 1859
d) 1905
Newton’s “Principia” was published in 1687, laying the foundations for
classical mechanics and the laws of motion.
3. Who co-discovered the cell theory along with Matthias Schleiden, proposing
that all organisms are composed of cells?
a) Theodor Schwann
b) Rudolf Virchow
c) Gregor Mendel
d) Carl Linnaeus
Theodor Schwann, along with Matthias Schleiden, proposed the cell theory in
1839, revolutionizing our understanding of living organisms.
4. Who discovered the structure of DNA, known as the double helix?
a) James Watson and Francis Crick
b) Gregor Mendel
c) Rosalind Franklin
d) Linus Pauling
James Watson and Francis Crick elucidated the double helix structure of DNA
in 1953, a milestone in genetics and molecular biology.
5. Who developed the theory of evolution by natural selection?
a) Louis Pasteur
b) Charles Darwin
c) Sigmund Freud
d) Nikola Tesla
Charles Darwin proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection in 1859,
explaining the diversity of life through gradual change and adaptation.
PRE-TEST QUESTION
7. What is the name of the first Cube Satellite of the Philippines which in one
of its primary missions is to collect remote data through the store-and-forward
mechanism?
a) Diwata – 1
b) Diwata – 2
c) Agila – 1
d) Maya – 1
10. Plutonium is considered as one of the most dangerous elements found in the
periodic table. In December 1940, Glenn, Seaborg, Arthur Wahl, Joseph
Kennedy, and Edwin McMillan first synthesized element 94 (plutonium) at
Berkeley, California.
They achieved this by bombarding uranium-238 with deuterium nuclei (alpha
particles), initially producing neptunium-238, which has a half-life of two days.
Neptunium-238 then decayed by beta emission to form plutonium. In what
significant event was the Plutonium harnessed to create a weapon capable of
destroying an entire city?
a) Los Alamos Project
b) Manhattan Project
c) Chicago Project
d) Atomic Project
11. Dr. Rodolfo, a seasoned geologist, was deep in the heart of the newly
discovered oil fields in the Philippines, meticulously analyzing the stratigraphic
layers reveled by their drilling operations. Each layer told a story of ancient
environments, from prehistoric seas to riverbeds and deserts. One morning, as
he examined a core sample from a new well, he noticed a sequence of dark shale
indicating an ancient marine environment, likely a source rock for oil.
…. What could Dr. Rodolfo be specializing in?
a) Stenography
b) Physical Geology
c) Mineralogy
d) Stratigraphy
29. In the binomial nomenclature system, identify the correct scientific name
for the domesticated dog, which distinguishes it from its wild ancestor, taking
into account the principles of subspecies classification and the genetic
divergence between domesticated dogs and their wild counterparts.
a. Felis catus
b. Canis lupus
c. Canis lupus familiaris
d. Panthera leo
30. A researcher is investigating the combustion of propane (C3H8). By
adjusting experimental conditions, he aims to achieve complete combustion,
leading to the formation of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) as products.
To optimize the combustion process, he doubles the flow rate of oxygen (O2)
while keeping the propane flow rate constant. Now determine the coefficient
for oxygen (O2) required to balance the combustion reaction equation under
these improved conditions.
a. 2 b. 3 c. 4 d. 5
60. Who proposed the heliocentric model of the solar system, where the planets
orbit the Sun?
a. Ptolemy
b. Galileo Galilei
c. Nicolaus Copernicus
d. Johannes Kepler