FOOD SAFETY HAZARDS
IN FISHERIES AND
AQUACULTURE
PRODUCTS
Esther Garrido Gamarro
Fishery Officer
Food Safety and Quality – Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN
CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD SAFETY HAZARDS
Hazard: a biological, chemical or physical agent that is likely to cause illness or injury in the
absence of its control
CHEMICAL HAZARDS
BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS
PHYSICAL HAZARDS
Elements or compounds that
can cause illness or injury due
to immediate or long-term
exposure (e.g. heavy metals)
include harmful bacteria,
viruses or parasites
(e.g., salmonella, hepatitis A
and trematodes) and their
metabolic products
(e.g. Cl.botulinum toxin)
include foreign objects in food
that can cause harm when
eaten, such as glass, metal or
fish bones fragments.
Many conditions are undesirable: presence of insects, hair, filth or spoilage, economic fraud,
mis-labelling, but may not be directly related to food safety.
CHEMICAL HAZARDS IN FISH
PROCESSING
CONTAMINANTS
• Acrylamide & furans
• Polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH)
NON-BIOLOGICAL
PACKAGING
CONTAMINANTS
• Bisphenol A
• Phthalates (such as
di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate
DEHP)
UNAUTHORISED
ADDITIVES
• Melamine
CHEMICAL HAZARDS IN FISH
ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTAMINANTS
• Dioxins and PCBs
• Heavy metals
VETERINARY
RESIDUES
• Antibiotics
NON-BIOLOGICAL
PESTICIDE
RESIDUES
• Organochlorine
pesticides
• Organophosphorus
pesticides
80
HEAVY METALS IN FISHERY PRODUCTS
MERCURY
Hg
48
Cd
82
Pb
• Methylmercury [CH3Hg]+
• Non-organic Hg is not generally toxic
• Bio-accumulates
• Highest levels in flesh of certain large pelagic fishes such as
tunas, sharks and swordfishes
Sources
•
•
•
industrial processes
burning of fossil fuels and incinerators
natural sources such as volcanoes, forest fires and mercury-bearing rocks
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY
Import notifications related to Mercury
Species
Number cases
Swordfish
182
Shark
61
Marlin
20
Tuna
18
80
Hg
Mercury import notifications were 311. They have been recorded only in the European Union.
Import notifications in Australia (2019-2023), the European Union, Japan, and the United States
of America (2016-2023) – By hazards and species
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY
80
HEAVY METALS IN FISHERY PRODUCTS
Hg
48
Cd
82
Pb
• Bio-accumulates
CADMIUM
• Highest levels in flesh and viscera of crustacea and cephalopod
molluscs, also and in the flesh of certain large pelagic fishes such
as tunas, sharks and swordfishes
Sources
•
by-product from mining, smelting, and refining sulfide ores of zinc
•
widely distributed in the earth’s crust, present naturally in seawater
48
Import notifications related to Cadmium
Species
Squid
Octopus
Shrimp
Cuttlefish
Cd
Number cases
41
10
10
6
Cadmium import notifications were 90.
They have been recorded only in the European Union.
Import notifications in Australia (2019-2023), the European Union, Japan, and the United States
of America (2016-2023) – By hazards and species
80
HEAVY METALS IN FISHERY PRODUCTS
LEAD
•
Cd
82
Pb
•
Not substantially bioaccumulative
•
Lead concentrations are usually highest in benthic organisms
living close to point sources (pollution)
Sources •
Hg
48
burning fossil fuels
mining
82
Import notifications related to Lead
Species
Seabream
Octopus
Pb
Number cases
2
1
Lead import notifications were three and they have been recorded only in the
European Union.
Import notifications in Australia (2019-2023), the European Union, Japan, and the United States
of America (2016-2023) – By hazards and species
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY
HEAVY METALS CONTROL
• Cannot reduce heavy metal content
• Main control is to target sizes, species and
fishing zones not affected with the hazards
• To allow effective targeting, sampling and testing
Consumer advise on
species and consumption
frequency is key,
of fish should include data on:
especially for targeted
- SPECIES
- CATCH LOCATION
populations such as
- SIZE
- SEX
pregnant/lactating women
or infants.
(i.e. traceability)
CARCINOGENS IN SMOKED FISH
3,4 benzpyrene is a marker for the occurrence and effect of carcinogenic
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in smoked foods
Derived from partial combustion of wood
Consumption of smoked food implicated in bowel and liver cancer
Unresearched public health issue in many countries
Import notifications related to PAH
Species
Sprat
Tuna
Sardines
Catfish
Number cases
4
4
2
1
PAHs import notifications were 14 and they have been recorded only in the European Union.
Import notifications in Australia (2019-2023), the European Union, Japan, and the United States
of America (2016-2023) – By hazards and species
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY
VETERINARY RESIDUES
HUMAN HEALTH HAZARDS FROM RESIDUES
• Toxic substances (carcinogenic, teratogenic, genotoxic and mutagenic)
• Antimicrobial resistance
CONTROL BY
• Good aquaculture practices
Source
•
misuse of veterinary medicine
Import notifications related to veterinary drugs
Species
Number cases
Shrimp
683
Eel
191
Tilapia
159
Undefined fish
138
Import notifications due to the presence of residues of veterinary drugs were 1 388 and they
have been recorded only in Australia (76 cases), in the European Union (86 cases), in Japan
(165 and in the United States of America (1 061 cases).
Import notifications in Australia (2019-2023), the European Union, Japan, and the United States
of America (2016-2023) – By hazards and species
CHEMICAL HAZARDS IN FISH
SHELLFISH TOXINS
Brevetoxins
Domoic acid
Okadaic acid toxins
Saxitoxins
CIGUATOXINS
BIOLOGICAL: TOXINS
• Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP)
• Amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP)
• Diarrhoeic shellfish poisoning (DSP)
• Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP)
SCOMBROTOXIN (HISTAMINE)
• Azaspiracid shellfish poisoning (AZP)
TETRODOTOXIN
• Ciguatera poisoning (CP)
MARINE BIOTOXINS
Ciguatera fish poisoning
More than 425 species of fish have been
linked to ciguatera events.
CFP caused by Gambierdiscus and
Fukuyoa
Barracuda (Sphyraenidae), amberjack
(Seriola), grouper (Serranidae), snapper
175 gastrointestinal, cardiovascular and (Lutjanidae), po’ou (Labridae spp.), jack
neurological symptoms. Impacts the
(Carangidae spp.), trevally (Caranx spp.),
sodium channel.
wrasse (Labridae spp.), surgeon fish
(Acanthuridae spp.), moray eel
Increasingly affecting the tropical and
subtropical regions of the Pacific Ocean, (Muraenidae spp.), roi (Cephalopholis
spp.), and parrotfish (Scaridae spp.).
Indian Ocean and Caribbean Sea.
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY
Import notifications related to ciguatera fish poisoning
Species
Grouper
Red snapper
Wahoo
Number cases
3
3
1
Ciguatera poisoning import notifications were seven and they have been recorded
only in the European Union.
Import notifications in Australia (2019-2023), the European Union, Japan, and the United States of
America (2016-2023) – By hazards and species
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY
MARINE BIOTOXINS
Paralytic
Diarrhetic
Shellfish poisoning (PSP) caused by 20
toxins all derivatives of saxitoxin, produced
by the marine dinoflagellates of the
Gonyaulax species (also known as red
tide).
Shellfish poisoning (DSP) caused by range
of toxins including okadaic acid, the
dinophysis toxins, the pectenotoxins, and
yessotoxin.
Impacts on membrane permeability to
sodium.
This group of toxins is produced by
dinoflagellates of the species Dinophysis
and Prorocentrum. Potent inhibitor of
some protein phosphatases.
Import notifications related to paralytic shellfish poisoning
Species
Clams
Scallops
Cockles
Oysters
Mussels
Number cases
3
2
1
1
1
Paralytic shellfish poisoning import notifications were 8 and they have been
recorded only in the European Union and Japan.
Import notifications in Australia (2019-2023), the European Union, Japan, and the United States
of America (2016-2023) – By hazards and species
Import notifications related to diarrhetic shellfish poisoning
Species
Mussels
Clams
Cockles
Scallops
Undefined fish
Number cases
18
11
6
6
2
Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning import notifications were 43 and they have been
recorded only in the European Union and Japan.
Import notifications in Australia (2019-2023), the European Union, Japan, and the United States
of America (2016-2023) – By hazards and species
MARINE BIOTOXINS
Neurotoxic
Amnesic
Shellfish poisoning (NSP) caused by
brevetoxins, produced by the dinoflagellate
Karenia brevis.
Shellfish poisoning (ASP) caused by
domoic acid toxic amino acid, produced by
Pseudo-nitzchia.
Impact on sodium channels in nerve and
muscle.
Impact on sodium channels in nerve and
muscle.
Import notifications related to amnesic shellfish poisoning
Species
Scallops
Mussels
Cockles
Oysters
Number cases
5
4
1
1
Amnesic shellfish poisoning import notifications were 11 and they have been
recorded only in the European Union.
Import notifications in Australia (2019-2023), the European Union, Japan, and the United States
of America (2016-2023) – By hazards and species
Import notifications related to azaspiracid shellfish poisoning
Species
Mussels
Oysters
Number cases
1
1
Azaspiracid toxin import notifications were two and they have been recorded only in
the European Union.
Import notifications in Australia (2019-2023), the European Union, Japan, and the United States
of America (2016-2023) – By hazards and species
TOXINS CONTROL
CUMULATIVE OVER TIME
CONTROL BY:
• Defining harvest areas
LEVELS NOT AFFECTED BY
DEPURATION FOR BACTERIAL SAFETY
• Monitoring phytoplankton levels and
HEAT STABLE
(TOXICITY NOT AFFECTED BY COOKING)
• Monitoring toxicity of fish and shellfish
NO CHANGE IN ORGANOLEPTIC
CHARACTERISTICS
species in seawater
(bioassay, HPLC, GC)
• Closure of the area
HISTAMINE (SCROMBOTOXINS)
Amino acid – histidine present in Scombrid (mackerels, tunas, and bonitos),
Clupeid (herrings) and Carangid (jacks)
Action of bacterial enzyme – histidine decarboxylase
Histamine-forming bacteria: Klebsiella, Pseudomonas etc
Growth stopped by freezing/cooking
Enzymic activity not stopped by freezing
HISTAMINE CHARACTERISTICS
Heat stable (even canning)
Typical allergic reactions: • cutaneous (rash, urticaria, oedema, localized inflammation),
• gastrointestinal (nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea),
• haemo-dynamic (hypotension),
• neurological (headache, tingling, oral burning and blistering
sensation, flushing and perspiration, itching).
Potentiated by other amines
Import notifications related to histamine
Species
Tuna
Mahi mahi
Sardines
Undefined fish
Anchovy
Mackerel
Herring
Marlin
Bonito
Seabream
Swordfish
Snapper
Number cases
188
78
24
23
23
19
9
6
3
3
3
1
Histamine import notifications were 380
and they have been recorded only in the
European Union and the United States
of America.
Import notifications in Australia (2019-2023), the European Union, Japan, and the United States of
America (2016-2023) – By hazards and species
HISTAMINE CONTROL
RAPID CHILLING AFTER HARVEST:
• fish should be placed in ice or in
refrigerated seawater or brine at 4.4°C
or less within 12 hours of death
• fish exposed to air or water
temperatures above 28°C should be
placed in ice or in refrigerated seawater
or brine below 4.4°C or less within 6
hours of death;
CHECK BY TEMPERATURE
AND TIME MONITORING
MAINTAIN TRACEABILITY
RECORDS
NATURALLY TOXIC FISH SPECIES
Tetraodontidae (puffer fish)
Molidae (molas or ocean sunfishes)
Diodontidae (porcupine fish)
Canthigasteridae (sharpnose puffers)
Ruvettus pretiosus (oilfish)
Lepidocybium flavobrunneum (escolar)
PHYSICAL HAZARDS IN FISH
TYPICALLY HARD OR SHARP OBJECTS
THAT CAN RESULT IN INJURIES SUCH AS:
• Broken tooth;
• Lacerations (of the mouth, tongue, throat,
intestines); and
• Choking.
MOST COMMON ITEMS:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Glass;
Metal;
Plastics;
Stones;
Fish bones;
Shell/pits; and
Wood.
SOURCES AND CONTROL OF
POTENTIAL PHYSICAL HAZARDS
PHYSICAL HAZARDS MIGHT ARISE FROM:
•
Contaminated raw materials
•
Poorly designed or maintained facilities
•
Faulty procedures during production
•
Improper employee practices
•
Certain processes/operations
•
Metal-to-metal contact
•
Glass filling operations
•
Fishhooks, knives
Species
Cod
Undefined fish
Mackerel
Shrimp
Trout
Number cases
2
2
1
1
1
CONTROL VIA:
• GMPs/metal detection/X ray
BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS IN FOODS
Biological hazards are living organisms
that can cause potential health hazards to
the consumer.
THEY MAY BE:
•
Bacteria
•
Virus
•
Parasites
•
Yeasts and molds
BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS IN FOODS
• Many microorganisms occur naturally in the environment where foods are produced
(especially foods of animal origin).
• Biological hazards are commonly associated with contamination of food from the food
production environment or from humans.
• Fish (hunted, cold-blooded, aquatic environment) is generally low risk (cf. terrestrial farmed
mammals/birds).
• Filter feeder organisms are generally higher risk.
• Most organisms are killed or inactivated by cooking, and a number can be minimized by
adequate control of handling and storage practices (hygiene, temperature and time).
BACTERIAL PATHOGENS
Bacterial foodborne disease can be classified as either infections or intoxications.
INFECTIONS
Caused by viable pathogenic organisms entering the body and colonizing the body.
There are two types of foodborne infection:
• penetration of the intestinal mucosa (or other organs such as the liver) by the infecting
organisms and multiplication therein, e.g. Salmonella; and
• release of enterotoxins by an infecting organism as it multiplies, eg Vibrio cholera,
Clostridium perfringens.
BACTERIAL PATHOGENS
INTOXICATION
Caused by the ingestion of toxic metabolic products released onto food by the growth of certain
bacteria, eg. Clostridium botulinum toxin, Aspergillus spp. (mycotoxins).
FACTORS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT OF PATHOGENICITY
Pathogen must be present in the food and multiply sufficiently to cause an infection or
to produce toxin.
The food must be capable of supporting growth of the pathogen.
Enough of the food must be ingested to exceed the threshold of susceptibility.
Some pathogens (eg E.coli 0157:H7) have very low infective doses and their
presence alone constitute a hazard.
The pathogen or toxin must survive digestive enzymes (infectivity).
Parasites and viruses cannot multiply in foods.
Import notifications
related to bacteria
Clostridium botulinum
Species
Roach
Sardines
Number cases
3
1
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY
Salmonella
Species
Shrimp
Undefined fish
Tuna
Lobster
Tilapia
Mahi mahi
Crab
Snapper
Sardines
Squid
Octopus
Barracuda
Grouper
Mussels
Crayfish
Anchovy
Clams
Marlin
Herring
Seabream
Carp
Oysters
Eel
Cockles
Corvina
Croaker
Haddock
Trout
Number cases
528
373
253
96
87
62
59
52
42
41
32
31
20
17
13
12
12
12
11
11
9
4
3
2
2
2
2
1
Import notifications
related to bacteria
Escherichia coli
Species
Mussels
Shrimp
Clams
Mackerel
Oysters
Undefined fish
Cockles
Squid
Octopus
Pangasius
Salmon
Scallops
Tuna
Sardines
Crab
Tilapia
Marlin
Milkfish
Swordfish
Number cases
46
33
28
13
12
11
10
7
5
5
4
4
4
3
2
2
1
1
1
Listeria
monocytogenes
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY
Species
Salmon
Undefined fish
Herring
Squid
Shrimp
Tuna
Trout
Crab
Crayfish
Pollack
Flounder
Scallops
Cod
Mackerel
Eel
Octopus
Swordfish
Marlin
Mussels
Seabream
Halibut
Caviar
Butterfish
Lobster
Oysters
Sea bream
Tilapia
Number cases
155
90
26
26
17
16
12
10
10
9
7
6
5
5
4
4
4
3
3
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
Import notifications related to bacteria
Vibrio spp.
Species
Number cases
Species
Vibrio cholerae
17
Shrimp (15 cases) and prawns (2cases)
Vibrio parahaemolyticus
9
Crab (5 cases) and shrimp (4 cases)
Vibrio vilnificus
2
Shrimp (2 cases)
Vibrio alginolyticus
1
Oysters (1 case)
Vibrio spp.
1
Mussels (1 case)
Vibrio spp. import notifications were 30 and they have been recorded only in the European Union.
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA
VIRAL AGENTS
Viruses account for less than 10% of foodborne illness but are equally important.
EXAMPLES OF VIRAL
AGENTS INCLUDE:
• Norovirus
• Hepatitis A and E
• Rotavirus
•
Viruses are unable to reproduce outside a living cell. They
cannot replicate in food, can only be carried by it.
•
Foodborne viral disease results from faecal contamination
of food (contaminated live bivalve molluscs eaten raw, or
poor personal hygiene of food handlers).
Import notifications related to virus
Norovirus
Species
Oysters
Mussels
Clams
Tellins
Hepatitis A
Number cases
57
6
4
2
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND
Species
Tuna
Clams
Crab
Number cases
40
5
1
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY
CONTROL OF BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS
MOST COMMON CONTROLS FOR BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS INCLUDE:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
microbiological or other specifications for raw materials or ingredients
time/temperature applications (cooking, freezing, holding, cooling rates, refrigerating,
thawing, etc
preservative factors of the food (pH, aw, etc.)
prevention of cross-contamination
food handling practices
employee hygiene
packaging integrity
storage, distribution display practices
consumer direction for use (to prevent abuse) – intended use
equipment /environmental sanitation
sanitation programs in the case of bivalve molluscs
PARASITIC AGENTS
• Parasites are animal host-specific and can include humans in their life cycles.
• Parasitic infections are commonly associated with undercooked meat products or
contaminated ready-to-eat food.
• Parasites in products that are intended to be eaten raw, marinated or partially cooked
can be killed by effective cooking or freezing techniques.
PARASITIC AGENTS
EXAMPLES OF PARASITIC AGENTS ASSOCIATED
WITH FISHERY PRODUCTS INCLUDE:
• Opisthorchis viverrini and Opisthorchis felineus
(trematodes
in
temperate
freshwater
fish
-
cyprinids such as carps)
• Anisakis simplex
• Ascaris lumbricoides (roundworm – temperate
marine waters - herring)
• Diphyllobothrium latum (tapeworm – freshwater,
temperate regions – salmon species)
These Photos by Unknown Authors are licensed under CC BY-SA-NC
Import notifications related to parasitic agents
Anisakis
Species
John Dory
Scabbard fish
Hake
Undefined fish
Scorpionfish
Mackerel
Flounder
Anchovy
Salmon
Number cases
14
14
9
8
5
4
2
1
1
Anisakis import notifications were 58 and they have
been recorded only in the European Union.
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY
CONTROL OF PARASITES
MOST COMMON CONTROLS PRACTICES FOR PARASITES INCLUDE:
•
•
specifications for raw materials
time/temperature applications (cooking, freezing)
In the case of Anisakis simplex:
heating (60 °C for one minute) and freezing (–20 °C for 24 hours)
Thank you