Progress in Natural Science: Materials International 35 (2025) 51–64
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H O S T E D BY
Progress in Natural Science: Materials International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/pnsmi
Advances in purification technologies and applications of high-purity
quartz resources
Min Liu a, Guifang Wang b, Fanyue Zhao b, Wenfeng Li b, Gan Zhu c, Guangchuan Liang c,
Wei Jian a, Libing Liao b, Guocheng Lv b, ＊
a
School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, 100083, China
Engineering Research Center of Ministry of Education for Geological Carbon Storage and Low Carbon Utilization of Resources, Beijing Key Laboratory of Materials
Utilization of Nonmetallic Minerals and Solid Wastes, National Laboratory of Mineral Materials, School of Materials Science and Technology, China University of
Geosciences, Beijing, 100083, China
c
School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning, 530004, China
b
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords:
High purity quartz
Purification
Resource distribution
Quartz is a critical non-metallic mineral resource, with high-purity quartz sand playing a pivotal role in advanced
industries such as semiconductors, solar energy, electric light sources, and special glass. In particular, 4N8-grade
quartz sand (99.998 % purity and above) is indispensable for producing quartz crucibles, which are essential for
semiconductors and solar energy applications. However, the global supply of high-quality quartz raw materials is
limited, posing a challenge to meet the growing industrial demand. Furthermore, different industrial products
utilize varying physicochemical properties of quartz, leading to distinct requirements for quartz raw materials and
purification processes. Herein, this paper presents a comprehensive review of high-purity quartz, focusing on
purification technologies and their applications. The principles, process flows, advantages and disadvantages of
various purification methods are examined, with particular emphasis on chemical and physical purification
techniques. The effectiveness of these methods in achieving higher purity levels and reducing impurities is
critically analyzed. Furthermore, future trends in purification technologies and their potential impact on the highpurity quartz industry are discussed, offering insights for future research and applications in this field.
1. Introduction
high-purity quartz products. In academic research, definitions of purity
vary. Some classify quartz with a ω(SiO2) content of 3N (i.e., 99.9 %) or
higher as high-purity, while others reserve the term "ultra-high-purity"
for quartz exceeding 4N. Another common classification places
high-purity quartz in the 3N–5N range, and ultra-high-purity quartz between 6N and 7N. Synthesizing previous research and current international standards, high-purity quartz can be broadly defined as possessing
a ω(SiO2) between 3N and 5N, and a ω(Fe2O3) content of less than 1 ×
10-5 [4–6]. In this classification, 'N' represents the purity level, where 1N
equates to 90 % SiO2, 2N to 99 %, 3N to 99.9 %, and so forth. It is worth
noting that the preparation process of high-purity quartz necessitates
stringent control over the content of various impurity elements to ensure
it meets the required purity standards [7]. The stringent purity requirements are crucial for applications in advanced technologies such as
optical fibers, semiconductor manufacturing, and photovoltaic cells. The
elimination of impurities, particularly metal ions like iron and titanium,
necessitates advanced purification techniques. Ongoing research is
Quartz (SiO2), primarily referring to alpha-quartz, is a silicate mineral
known for its hardness, chemical stability, and translucent appearance.
With a Mohs hardness of 7 and a relative density of 2.65 [1], high-purity
quartz not only exhibits these properties but also requires a very high
SiO2 content and minimal impurities. This high-purity form is crucial in
advanced technological applications, where contaminants can significantly affect performance. Quartz is chemically stable, being insoluble in
most acids except hydrofluoric acid (HF), and only slightly soluble in
potassium hydroxide (KOH). Its melting point ranges from 1710 ° C to
1756 ° C, and upon cooling, it transforms into quartz glass [2].
High-purity quartz is meticulously processed from natural quartz
mineral resources, where the defining requirement is an exceptionally
high SiO2 content with minimal tolerance for impurities such as iron,
titanium, chromium, zirconium, lithium, potassium, sodium, as well as
fluid inclusions [3]. Currently, there is no unified national standard for
＊ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: guochenglv@cugb.edu.cn (G. Lv).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnsc.2024.11.008
Received 24 October 2024; Received in revised form 20 November 2024; Accepted 21 November 2024
Available online 13 December 2024
1002-0071/© 2024 Chinese Materials Research Society. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and
similar technologies.
M. Liu et al.
Progress in Natural Science: Materials International 35 (2025) 51–64
focused on developing innovative purification techniques, driven by the
increasing market demand for high-purity quartz in high-tech industries.
The formation of quartz is closely related to geological processes,
typically occurring in igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks
[8–10]. Recent studies have introduced new approaches to understanding quartz distribution. For example, Wang et al. [11] applied machine
learning to predict geological environments conducive to quartz formation, demonstrating that such models can accurately map quartz distribution across various geological settings, thus aiding mineral
exploration. Additionally, Götze et al. [12] explored the differences in
chemical composition and crystal structure of among various quartz
samples through a review of quartz mineralogy and mineral chemistry,
revealing the importance of quartz as a geological and geochemical indicator. For instance, cathodoluminescence (CL) microscopy with fluid
inclusion studies is an ideal way to associate quartz cementation with
formation or dissolution events of other authigenic minerals, and to
obtain information related to the temperature and salinity of the fluids
during precipitation processes [13–15].
Beyond geology, quartz shows great promise in high-tech applications. Patimisco et al. [16] reviewed quartz-enhanced photoacoustic
spectroscopy (QEPAS), highlighting its high sensitivity and selectivity for
detecting trace gases. This technique is particularly useful for environmental monitoring and industrial process control. Similarly, Alassi et al.
[17] reviewed the electronic interface systems of quartz crystal microbalances (QCMs), emphasizing their potential in biosensing and chemical
sensing for gas and liquid environments.
The applications of quartz extend beyond sensing and spectroscopy,
attracting significant interest for its potential in the high-purity materials
market. Vatalis et al. [18] analyze the growing demand for high-purity
quartz in optical fibers, semiconductor manufacturing, and photovoltaic cells. These high-tech industries require increasingly higher quartz
purity and processing standards, driving the development of more sophisticated purification technologies. In addition to its traditional uses,
quartz is being explored for environmental and agricultural applications
[19,20]. For example, Machado et al. [19] presented an innovative
method to synthesize zeolites from quartz and aluminum sludge waste,
offering a sustainable solution for sludge disposal and demonstrating its
potential as agricultural fertilizer.
Over the past decade, quartz has attracted significant attention across
multiple disciplines. Research has advanced our understanding of its
properties and applications, making important contributions to mineralogy, geochemistry, materials science, and industrial technologies. This
comprehensive review offers insights into quartz purification technologies and their applications, providing valuable references for future
research and industrial use.
3. Quartz ore and its impurity properties
3.1. High-purity quartz raw materials
In the early stages, the production of high-purity quartz primarily
relied on first- and second-grade natural crystals as raw materials.
However, as high-tech industries rapidly expanded, the limited reserves
and gradual depletion of natural crystals could no longer meet the
growing demand. Since the 1970s, various countries have explored
alternative quartz minerals for high-purity quartz. Specifically, as shown
in Fig. 1, the United States mainly utilizes granitic pegmatite, Japan
utilizes fine-grained pegmatite, while Russia and Germany choose
metamorphic quartzite and vein quartz as raw materials for processing
high-purity quartz [24,25]. Currently, natural quartz minerals have
become the primary raw material for producing high-purity quartz,
reflecting both the diversification of sources and advancements in purification technologies to meet changing market demands.
2. Resources and markets for quartz ore
3.1.1. Mineralogical characteristics of high-purity quartz raw material
Quartz possesses a stable silicon-oxygen tetrahedral structure
(Fig. 1F), which contributes to its high purity in nature. The stability of
the silica-oxygen tetrahedral structure allows silicon dioxide (SiO2) to
maintain a high purity in nature. Due to the compactness and stability of
the silica-oxygen tetrahedral structure, it is difficult for impurity atoms to
enter the SiO2 crystal lattice, allowing quartz to maintain a SiO2 content
of over 99.99 %. High-purity quartz sand, at its highest grade, contains
aluminum (Al) impurities of less than 10 μg g-1 and total impurities
below 25 μg g-1. However, the quality of high-purity quartz is not solely
dependent on the overall impurity levels, but rather on the ability to
remove these impurities, which is determined by the mineralogical
characteristics of the raw material [26]. Notable differences exist in the
mineralogical features of various quartz deposits, which play a crucial
role in determining the purification strategies and final product quality.
Specifically, impurity elements in quartz raw materials commonly occur
in two main forms: the mineral composition and the distribution of
quartz and gangue minerals. Co-occurring gangue minerals, which are
the main carrier minerals of impurities, can easily become mineral inclusions within quartz during geological mineralization process, significantly limiting the final quality of quartz product [27]. Additionally, the
distribution of these gangue minerals directly impacts the degree of
quartz monomer dissociation, which is critical for efficient beneficiation
and purification. As quartz undergoes more intense diagenesis and
metamorphism, the distribution differences between quartz and gangue
minerals become more pronounced. These impurities shift from being
adjacent to quartz, to slit-like, and eventually become encapsulated. This
increases the difficulty of separating the quartz during crushing, thereby
reducing the likelihood of producing high-purity quartz [28].
In China, high-purity quartz raw material mines mainly consist of
vein quartz and crystal, primarily distributed in regions such as Hubei,
Jiangsu, Anhui, Sichuan [21]. However, the global position of China in
high-purity quartz resources is limited due to the relatively small total
resource volume, scattered distribution, low-grade quality, and the
complex purification processes required. This highlights the scarcity of
high-quality quartz raw materials in China. Despite being a major consumer of high-purity quartz, China has a surplus of low-to mid-end
products, some of which are exported, while high-end products still rely
on imports [22]. With the rise of industries such as new energy and
advanced materials, the demand for high-purity quartz has continued to
grow, leading to an overall increase in imports [23]. In the future, China
could meet its demand for high-purity quartz, including its application in
the field of energy storage and conversion, through strategies such as
enhanced exploration, improved purification technologies, expanded
import channels, and international cooperation.
3.1.2. Chemical composition, distribution state of impurity elements, and
mineral composition
The chemical composition of quartz reflects the types and quantities
of elements present, but it is insufficient for accurately assessing the
potential of quartz raw materials for high-purity processing. Quartz raw
materials exhibit a diverse range of impurities, with varying concentrations and modes of occurrence [29]. We will explore the types of impurities in more detail below. Mineralogy, which examines the chemical
composition, internal structure, external morphology, physical properties, formation, and classification of minerals, helps to explain the relationships between these factors. Iron, aluminum, and other impurity
minerals are the primary carriers of impurities in quartz and often
become inclusions during geological processes, which significantly limits
the quality of the final quartz product [30,31]. Additionally, the intergrowth patterns between quartz and gangue minerals play a crucial role
in determining the degree of quartz particle liberation, directly impacting
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Fig. 1. Classification of quartz ore (A: crystal; B: granitic pegmatite; C: alaskite; D: metamorphic quartzite; E: vein quartz) F: silicon-oxygen tetrahedral structure.
the efficiency of mineral processing and purification. As quartz experiences more intense diagenesis and metamorphism, the intergrowth disparities between quartz and associated gangue minerals become
progressively more evident. This transformation manifests in a gradual
shift from contiguous to fissure-like, and ultimately to encapsulated
intergrowth patterns [32]. Consequently, this evolution significantly
complicates particle liberation during comminution process, thereby
diminishing the probability of obtaining high-purity quartz through
subsequent processing.
localized charge imbalances in the crystal structure, potentially affecting
both optical and electrical behavior. For example, when exposed to
bright light, oxygen vacancies may trap electrons, forming "color centers"
that alter the optical absorption properties of quartz. Non-metallic impurities also affect the mechanical performance of quartz. Hydrogen, for
instance, can cause quartz to soften at high temperatures, while oxygen
vacancies may initiate crack formation, reducing the mechanical strength
of quartz. These effects are critical in applications such as optical windows for high-power lasers, where even minimal amounts of
non-metallic impurities can degrade or damage components under
intense laser irradiation.
3.1.3. High-purity quartz impurity type
Quartz impurities typically include iron minerals (e.g., hematite,
limonite), aluminum minerals (e.g., feldspar, mica), and other impurity
minerals such as sodium feldspar, calcite, and clay minerals [33–37].
These impurities not only reduce quartz transparency, but also lead to
crystal defects or crystallization at high temperatures, reducing its thermal and chemical stability [38]. For example, iron impurities reduce the
light transmittance of quartz, which is critical in optical applications.
Aluminum impurities can cause crystal defects during high-temperature
processes, which negatively affect the performance of quartz in optical
glass and fiber optics [39]. In addition, alkali metal impurities, such as
sodium, lower quartz glass's chemical resistance and thermal stability,
further limiting its use in high-precision applications [40].
3.1.3.3. Fluid inclusions. Fluid inclusions are common in minerals and
rocks, with concentrations ranging from 102 to 109 per cubic centimeter
and typical diameters under than 50 μm. These inclusions, classified by
the state of the encapsulated material, such as pure gas, pure liquid, gasliquid mixed, or three-phase inclusions (Fig. 2), significantly impact the
quality of high-purity quartz [43]. As trapped fluids cool, minerals such
as halite, potassium salts, and certain silicates may precipitate, introducing impurities such as Na, K, and Ca, which are major sources of
contamination in high-purity quartz products [44–47]. Furthermore,
fluid inclusions, often containing water, nitrogen, argon, carbon dioxide,
and even liquid hydrocarbons, all of which can negatively impact quartz's
high-temperature stability and processing [48]. Despite ongoing research
aimed at reducing fluid inclusions, removing gas-rich and microscopic
inclusions remains challenging. Therefore, selecting raw materials with
few or no fluid inclusions is essential for producing high-purity quartz.
Moreover, the composition of fluid inclusions provides valuable insights
into the environmental conditions during quartz formation, offering geologists important clues about the geologic history.
From the perspective of material application, fluid inclusions in
quartz impact its performance in several key aspects:
First, fluid inclusions significantly affect the high-temperature stability of quartz. When heated, the fluid inside these inclusions expands,
creating internal pressure. This pressure may lead to the formation of
microcracks or even cause the crystal to fracture. This is a common issue
in the production of quartz glass, requiring special heat treatment processes to mitigate.
Second, fluid inclusions can affect the optical properties of quartz.
The inclusions have different refractive indices from the surrounding
3.1.3.1. Metallic impurities. Metallic impurities in quartz include elements such as aluminum (Al3⁺), iron (Fe3⁺), titanium (Ti⁴⁺), gallium (Ga3⁺)
and germanium (Ge4+). These metal cations typically enter quartz crystals by replacing silicon (Si⁴⁺) in the lattice or by occupying gaps within
the crystal structure [41]. Aluminum is the most common impurity in
quartz, while iron and titanium notably affect the color, mechanical
properties, and performance of quartz [42]. For example, these elements
may increase the hardness of quartz, but also reduce its toughness, make
it more brittle. In high-temperature applications, metallic impurities may
become weak points, concentrating thermal stresses and reducing the
high-temperature stability of quartz.
3.1.3.2. Non-metallic impurities. In addition to metal cations, quartz may
contain nonmetallic impurities such as boron (B3⁺), hydrogen (H⁺), and
oxygen vacancies, all of which can alter its optical, electrical, and mechanical properties [18]. Oxygen vacancies, in particular, create
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Fig. 2. Fluid inclusions in quartz: (A) Densely populated fluid inclusions in quartz; (B) Three-phase fluid inclusion consisting of liquid H2O, liquid CO2, and vapor CO2;
(C) Two-phase fluid inclusion consisting of liquid H2O and vapor H2O; (D) Multi-phase fluid inclusions consisting of liquid H2O, liquid CO2, and trapped solid phases.
quartz crystals, which can lead to light scattering and diffraction,
reducing the transmittance and optical uniformity of the quartz. This is
particularly problematic in precision optical application, such as lenses
for astronomical telescopes or optics for high-power lasers.
Additionally, fluid inclusions pose challenges during quartz processing. For instance, during cutting or polishing, inclusions may be exposed,
resulting in tiny holes or irregular surface structures that degrade processing quality and product performance. In highly specialized applications, such as quartz ware used in semiconductor manufacturing, fluid
inclusions may release trace impurities, which is unacceptable given the
stringent purity requirements in these processes. It's worth noting that
while fluid inclusions are typically regarded as undesirable, they can
have positive effects in certain contexts. For example, in geological
studies, fluid inclusions provide valuable information about the conditions of rock formation. Additionally, some research suggests that a
controlled distribution of tiny fluid inclusions could enhance the
toughness of certain materials [49].
3.2. Removal of impurities
Effective impurity removal methods depend on the form in which
elements are present and involve a combination of physical and chemical
processes. When iron, aluminum, and titanium exist as independent
minerals, they can be separated from quartz using physical methods such
as gravity separation, flotation, and magnetic separation, which exploit
differences in density, surface properties, and magnetic susceptibility. If
these elements are present as inclusions within the quartz, fluoric acid
leaching can be used. This process typically involves grinding the material to a specific particle size or exposing inclusions through water
quenching and calcination, followed by removal through flotation,
magnetic separation, or other techniques. The fluoric acid disrupts the
quartz crystal structure, reacting with the inclusions to expose and
remove them. When aluminum and titanium are present as lattice impurities, fluoric acid leaching also facilitates their removal by breaking
down the quartz crystal structure [51]. Another approach is chlorination
roasting, where high-temperature phase transformations in quartz
disrupt the crystal structure, allowing Cl- and Al3+ to react with
aluminum to form low-boiling-point chlorides, which are easily removed.
However, titanium dioxide is more stable than titanium tetrachloride,
making the removal of chloride ions more challenging. For iron impurities in the form of hematite, magnetite, or goethite, high-gradient
magnetic separation (HGMS) is effective. HGMS leverages the small
differences in magnetic susceptibility, using high-intensity magnetic
fields to separate strongly magnetic impurities from weakly magnetic
quartz.
3.1.3.4. Radiation defects. Radiation defects are a special class of impurities or structural defects in quartz formed under radiation exposure.
These defects arise from the interaction of energetic particles or electromagnetic radiation with quartz crystals, with oxygen vacancies and
silicon over-coordination being the most common. While these defects
may go unnoticed in typical environments, they can become highly significant in specific conditions, such as nuclear radiation or space environments [50]. An oxygen vacancy occurs when an oxygen atom is
removed from the lattice, leaving a vacancy. This defect alters the local
electronic structure and can form an "E'-center", a type of
radiation-induced defect that traps electrons or holes, changing the optical and electrical properties of quartz. Silicon over-coordination, by
contrast, occurs when a silicon atom bonds with more than four oxygen
atoms, resulting in local lattice distortions that affect the mechanical and
thermal properties of the material.
4. Quartz purification
To eliminate the above impurities, quartz purification methods are
generally divided into two categories: physical and chemical purification.
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4.1. Quartz purification technology
4.1.1. Physical purification methods
Physical purification methods primarily include crushing, screening,
magnetic separation, and flotation [52–55]. These techniques are
cost-effective, easy to operate, and are widely used in primary quartz
purification.
4.1.1.1. Magnetic separation technology. Magnetic separation is a key
physical method that leverages the differences in magnetic properties
between minerals. It is particularly effective for removing iron impurities
from quartz, as iron and its compounds typically exhibit strong magnetic
properties, while quartz itself is non-magnetic [53].
The process involves passing crushed ore through a strong magnetic
field. Magnetic particles deviate from their original path due to attraction, while non-magnetic particles continue along their path. By setting
appropriate separation points, magnetic and non-magnetic minerals can
be isolated.
Magnetic separation can be performed either dry or wet. Dry magnetic separation is suitable for larger particles with low moisture content,
while wet magnetic separation is ideal for fine-grained materials. In
quartz purification, dry magnetic separation is typically used first to
remove coarse magnetic impurities, followed by wet magnetic separation
to eliminate finer magnetic particles. Lv et al. [54] successfully removed
weakly magnetic impurities, particularly iron oxides (Fe2O3), from
quartz using pulsating high-gradient magnetic separator (Fig. 3),
achieving Fe2O3 levels as low as 0.0079 %.
4.1.1.2. Flotation purification technology. Flotation is a widely used
physical method for mineral separation, exploiting differences in mineral
surface wettability. In quartz purification, flotation is particularly effective for removing metal impurities such as iron and aluminum.
Fig. 4 presents the schematic diagram of flotation purification technology [55]. In flotation, crushed ore is mixed with water to form a
slurry, followed by the addition of frothing and trapping agents [55,56].
The frothing agent creates a stable foam on the liquid surface, while the
trapping agent selectively adsorbs onto specific mineral particles,
altering their surface properties. When air is introduced, hydrophobic
Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of flotation purification technology [55].
particles attach to the bubbles and float, while hydrophilic particles
remain in the slurry. This allows for the separation of minerals [57].
In the quartz purification process, selecting the appropriate trapping
agent allows for the selective flotation of impurity minerals, leaving
quartz particles at the bottom. Alternatively, the process can be adjusted
so that quartz is preferentially floated while impurities sink. This method
not only effectively removes surface impurities but also helps separate
some impurities embedded within the quartz particles.
Tetrahedral oxygen on the surface of quartz particles is not fully
compensated. In aqueous suspensions of feldspar and quartz particles,
free bonds are neutralized by OH- and H+ species. Hydroxylation of
particle surfaces can lead to the formation of silanol groups [Si(OH)n],
which are dissociated by reactions (1) and (2) in pure water [58]:
≡ SiOH + OH- ⇌Si - O- + H2 O
(1)
≡ SiOH + H+ ⇌ Si - OH2+ + H2 O
(2)
Kalyani Mohanty et al. [58] successfully separated quartz from potassium feldspar using flotation with hydrogen fluoride, employing
different reagents to remove impurities such as iron and aluminum. This
process achieved 82.8 % quartz purity with a recovery rate of 96 %. Deng
et al. [59] explored the effects of flotation in neutral and acidic environments, combining ultrasonic pretreatment with flotation. Ultrasonic
treatment significantly improved the removal of iron and titanium,
achieving a recovery rate of up to 80 % and effectively removing most
impurities.
4.1.1.3. Fire purification technology. Fire purification is a hightemperature method used in quartz purification, it is mainly used to
remove fluid inclusions and gaseous impurities [60]. The principle of fire
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of lab-scale pulsating high gradient magnetic separator [54].
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purification relies on the physical and chemical changes that occur in
quartz at high temperatures. Specifically, the α-β quartz phase transition
occurs when quartz is heated above its structural change temperature
(~573 ° C). During this phase transition, small changes in the quartz
crystal structure help release fluids and gases encapsulated within the
crystal. As the temperature increases further, impurities are volatilized,
thereby enhancing the purity of the quartz. Zhang et al. [61] studied the
mineralogical properties of Chinese quartz minerals and applied fire
purification to quartz samples. Through high-temperature roasting, the
impurities (Al, Li, Na, and K) were successfully removed, resulting in
high-purity quartz with a purity of 99.99 %.
4.1.2. Chemical purification technologies
4.1.2.1. Acid washing technology. The acid washing method is widely
used in chemical quartz purification, primarily utilizing strong acids to
dissolve metal impurities. Hydrofluoric acid (HF) is the most commonly
used acid, as it not only dissolves most metal impurities but also slightly
etches the quartz itself, effectively removing surface and shallow
impurities.
This method is particularly suited for producing high-purity quartz in
the semiconductor industry [62]. Yang et al. [63]employed a combined
chemical purification technique using hydrochloric acid (HCl) and oxalic
acid (OA) to effectively remove the iron impurities from quartz (Fig. 5).
After a series of leaching and reaction optimization, the final purity of
quartz reached 99.9047 %.
In their study, they observed that when the concentration of OA
exceeded a certain critical value, further increase in OA concentration
did not improve the iron removal rate, which eventually plateaued or
even declined. The maximum iron removal rate was found to depend on
the concentration of HCl. Specifically, 1 % HCl shows the lowest iron
removal efficiency. For higher HCl concentrations, iron removal was
influenced by the synergistic effect of HCl and OA. Increasing the HCl
concentration improved iron removal, particularly at low OA concentrations. However, at OA concentrations higher than 4 g/L, iron removal
with 15 % HCl was lower than with 10 % HCl. At OA concentrations
above 8 g/L, 5 % HCl achieved the highest iron removal rate, followed by
10 % and 15 % HCl. This trend can be attributed to the ionization reactions of oxalic acid in aqueous systems:
+
Fe2O3 + 6H2C2O4 = 2Fe(C2O4)33 + 6H + 3H2O
(3)
+
2Fe(C2O4)33 + 6H + 4H2O = 2FeC2O4⋅2H2O + 3H2C2O4 + 2CO2
(4)
Fe2O3 + 3H2C2O4 + H2O = 2FeC2O4⋅2H2O + 2CO2
(5)
+ HC2O4
(6)
2+
HC2O4 = H + C2O4
(7)
H2C2O4=H
+
Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of ultrasound-assisted leaching [63].
4.1.2.3. Solvent extraction technology. Solvent extraction is a method that
utilizes the difference in solubility of various substances in different
solvents to achieve separation. In quartz purification, this approach is
mainly used to remove complex chemically bound impurities, such as
trace metal oxides [66].
The basic principle of this method is to select a solvent that can
dissolve the target impurities but minimally affects the quartz. When a
quartz sample comes into contact with this solvent, the impurities are
preferentially dissolved into the solvent, while the quartz remains largely
unchanged. By separating the solvent from the solid residue, impurity
removal is achieved. Liu et al. [67] reviewed various solution extraction
methods for the purification of quartz, focusing on the combination of
acidic solution and chlorine roasting, which successfully removed impurities such as iron and aluminum, resulting in quartz with a purity
exceeding 99.99 %.
4.1.3. Other technologies
4.1.3.1. Combined technology. Various purification methods can be
combined, such as magnetic separation with acid leaching, or roasting
followed by acid leaching. When two techniques are used together, the
relative purity of quartz increases. The combined method is an advanced
approach that integrates multiple purification techniques, aiming to
achieve higher quartz purity by leveraging the complementary strengths
of different methods. This approach recognizes that a single purification
technique may not be sufficient to handle the complexity and variety of
impurities in quartz. By skillfully combining different treatments, a more
comprehensive and efficient removal of various impurities can be achieved [68].
The core concept of the combined method is to combine different
types of purification techniques to target different types of impurities.
Since each method has specific advantages and limitations, using a
combination allows for the strengths of each technique to be fully utilized, while compensating for the shortcomings of any single method. Xia
et al. [56] treated Pakistani vein quartz using high-temperature acid
leaching and hot-pressure leaching techniques, successfully removing
fluid inclusions and impurities, achieving a quartz purity of 99.998 %,
and significantly reducing the content of impurities such as aluminum
and potassium.
4.1.2.2. Gas phase purification technology. Gas-phase purification is a
highly efficient chemical purification method that uses gaseous chemicals to react with impurities in quartz, converting them into volatile
substances that are then removed by gas flow. This method is particularly
suited for removing impurities embedded deep within quartz crystals, as
the gas can penetrate the tiny pores of the crystals [64].
Fig. 6 presents the schematic diagram of chlorination purification
technology [55]. The basic principle of gas-phase purification is exposing
quartz to specific reactive gases at high temperatures. These gases
chemically react with impurities to form volatile compounds that are
carried away by the gas stream, resulting in impurity removal. Lin et al.
[65] reviewed that hot chlorination process can effectively remove iron
and aluminum impurities from quartz, ultimately achieving high-purity
quartz with a purity of 99.999 %.
4.1.3.2. Biological technology. Some quartz ores containing organic impurities are suitable for microbial leaching treatment, as these organic
impurities provide nutrients for microbial metabolism during the dissolution of silicate minerals. Although microbial leaching is cost-effective
and low in contamination, limitations in ore properties, the leaching
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Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of chlorination purification technology [55].
impurities in quartz can be detected, guiding further purification processes. This method is essential for ensuring the purity of quartz for
high-tech applications [74].
4.2. Technical advantages and disadvantages of quartz purification
4.2.1. Magnetic separation technology
Magnetic separation is a chemical-free and environmentally friendly
method, making it suitable for large-scale industrial production. The
magnetic separation process mainly uses the strength of the magnetic
properties to separate magnetic and non-magnetic materials, and the
non-magnetic materials are dewatered to obtain high purity quartz
products (Fig. 8A). However, it is less effective in removing fine impurities from quartz, limiting its ability to meet the demands for high-purity
quartz [75,76]. Additionally, for complex mineral structures, mechanical
purification methods like magnetic separation offer lower purity, making
them more suitable for low-value quartz products.
4.2.2. Flotation purification technology
Flotation is a technique that separates impurities from quartz by
adjusting the flotation agent, commonly used to remove non-magnetic
impurities such as mica and ilmenite. This method can handle a wide
range of quartz ore types and is particularly effective for the purification
of complex mineral structures [55]. A common flotation process for
purifying quartz is shown in Fig. 8B. The advantage of flotation is its high
separation efficiency, especially in removing silicate impurities. However, the effectiveness of the flotation process depends on the choice of
flotation chemicals, which can be costly and pose environmental risks
[77]. While flotation performs well in purification, its cost and environmental impact still need to be considered.
Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of biological technology [69].
environment, and operational conditions can negatively impact the
quality of quartz concentrates.
The schematic diagram of biological technology is shown in Fig. 7.
The practical application of microbial leaching in quartz processing is
uncommon in Asia mainly due to the need for advanced control systems
to regulate pH, leaching temperature and duration. However, iron
removal remains a key focus in quartz processing, as many organic acids
produced by microbial metabolism have specific effects on ironcontaining minerals. Microbial leaching is also effective in removing
silicate minerals from quartz, and the leachate can be repurposed for
agricultural irrigation [70]. Zhu et al. [71] used microbial inhibitors to
remove iron and aluminum impurities from quartz, resulting in 99.97 %
pure quartz with a recovery rate of 68.85 %.
4.2.3. Fire purification technology
Fire purification removes oxide impurities like iron and aluminum
from quartz through high-temperature reduction or volatilization reactions. This method is highly effective at removing heavy metal impurities and is environmentally friendly since it does not involve chemicals
[63,78]. However, fire purification has very high energy consumption,
which makes it less economical for large-scale production. Additionally,
it struggles to remove certain trace impurities, such as alkali metals and
heavy elements, limiting its ability to produce ultra-high purity quartz
[79]. High equipment costs and the need to prevent damage to the quartz
structure at high temperatures are further challenges.
4.1.3.3. Plasma purification technology. Plasma purification is a technique that utilizes plasma, i.e., an ionized gas formed by partial ionization
of gas at high temperatures or high energy levels, to remove impurities
from materials [72]. The method typically involves treating materials
with low-temperature or microwave plasma to achieve purification. Due
to its high efficiency and environmentally friendly characteristics,
plasma purification is increasingly being adopted in industries that
require extremely high material purity, such as semiconductors, optical
fibers, and solar cells. Volokitin et al. [73] used low-temperature plasma
technology to treat quartz sand from the Tuganskoe deposit, successfully
removing impurities such as aluminum and iron by plasma fusion. The
process produced high-silica quartz with a purity of 98.15 %. The quartz
sand was melted at 1700 ° C, significantly reducing the crystallinity of the
impurities and increasing the amorphization of the material. Additionally, by using precision analytical instruments such as laser ablation
inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), trace
4.2.4. Acid washing technology
Acid washing is one of the primary techniques used in quartz purification, employing strong acids like hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, and
hydrofluoric acid to remove trace metal impurities. This method can
achieve purities as high as 99.99 % and is well-suited for large-scale
industrial production [80]. However, acid washing has significant
drawbacks, including high energy consumption and environmental
pollution. The process generates a large amount of acidic waste, which is
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Fig. 8. Flowsheet of (A) Magnetic separation technology and (B) Flotation purification technology [59].
costly and difficult to treat, placing environmental pressure on the
manufacturers. Additionally, the corrosiveness of the chemicals leads to
high equipment maintenance costs and strict safety requirements [81].
and chemical processes, allowing for the treatment of complex mineral
structures and achieving higher purity [68]. This approach offers high
purification efficiency at a lower cost, making it suitable for large-scale
industrial production. However, the combined process is complex and
requires precise control at each stage, increasing operational difficulty.
Additionally, while the use of physical methods reduces chemical consumption, the acid-washing step still generates waste, contributing to
environmental challenges [84].
4.2.5. Gas phase purification technology
Gas-phase purification, particularly chlorination, removes impurities
by reacting chlorine gas with impurities in quartz to form volatile chlorides. This method can achieve quartz purity levels higher than 99.999
%, making it ideal for producing optical fiber and semiconductor-grade
quartz [67,82]. The primary advantage of chlorination is its efficiency
in removing metal impurities. However, its disadvantages include high
costs, complex processes, and safety risks associated with chlorine gas.
Additionally, the by-products of the chlorination reaction pose environmental challenges.
4.2.8. Biological technology
Microbial leaching offers advantages of low cost and minimal pollution, as the process occurs at ambient temperatures without the need for
additional heating. The leachate can be discharged after simple treatment. However, the long leaching time and quality fluctuations limit the
widespread application of microbial leaching. The process, which is
dependent on microbial metabolism, can take several days to months.
Factors like humidity, temperature, pH, water consumption, microbial
strain, and the leaching method (e.g., dump leaching or tank leaching)
can all affect the quality of the quartz concentrate [69,85–87]. Controlling these variables requires advanced systems, which introduces further
limitations to its application.
4.2.6. Solvent extraction technology
The solution extraction purification method is a commonly used
technology in various industries, including the chemical and metallurgical fields. It operates by utilizing the differences in the distribution
coefficients of substances between two immiscible solvents to effectively
separate impurities [83]. When applied to quartz purification, this
method is particularly useful for removing metal impurities, significantly
improving the purity of quartz. It is especially beneficial when producing
high-purity quartz, which is essential for various advanced applications.
One of the primary advantages of the solution extraction method is its
efficiency in separating impurities. The process involves using selective
solvents, such as acidic or alkaline solutions, to dissolve and remove
metallic impurities like iron and aluminum without affecting the integrity of the quartz crystal. Additionally, this method typically operates at
lower temperatures, which means there is no need for high heat or
pressure, thus reducing the risk of damaging the quartz structure during
purification. Another notable advantage is that the solution extraction
process is well-suited for mass production. It is highly controllable and
reproducible, making it ideal for industrial-scale operations. This makes
it particularly useful for industries that require high-purity quartz, such
as electronics and optical fiber manufacturing, where precision and purity are crucial.
However, the method does come with some disadvantages. The use of
chemical reagents, such as acids or bases, can pose environmental challenges. Proper waste treatment is required to manage the disposal of
these chemicals, which can add to the overall cost and environmental
impact of the process. Furthermore, although the process operates at
lower temperatures, the overall energy consumption can still be high due
to the multiple stages involved in achieving the desired level of purity.
4.2.9. Plasma purification technology
Plasma purification is an emerging high-energy technology suitable
for producing ultra-high purity quartz. In a high-temperature and highenergy environment, plasma can effectively remove trace impurities,
particularly metals difficult to be removed. The key advantage of plasma
technology is its environmental friendliness, as it does not involve
chemical reagents, making it ideal for producing high-value quartz
products, such as semiconductor-grade quartz [88,89]. However, plasma
purification requires complex and expensive equipment, and its degree of
industrialization is still low. Currently, this technology remains in the
research stage and has not yet been scaled for commercial applications
[90].
In summary, different quartz purification technologies come with
their own strengths and weaknesses (Table 1), depending on the application conditions. Chemical purification is widely used for producing
high-purity quartz due to its high efficiency, but it carries significant
environmental and safety risks. On the other hand, emerging technologies like plasma purification show promise in achieving high purity while
being environmentally friendly, though they are not yet fully mature for
industrial-scale application. The future of quartz purification technology
will likely focus on improving purification efficiency, reducing environmental impact, and lowering operational costs. The development of
greener purification technologies is expected to become a major area of
focus.
4.2.7. Combined technology
Combined purification methods, such as magnetic separation followed by flotation and acid washing, merge the benefits of mechanical
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In recent years, China has increased its investment in R&D, focusing
on processes such as thermal purification and flotation, while also
exploring greener purification technologies to meet stricter environmental standards. Although some progress has been made, domestic
research and development efforts still lag behind in achieving the ultrahigh purity levels required for cutting-edge applications.
In the future, the development of quartz purification in China will
mainly focus on technological innovation, improving environmental
protection mechanisms, and expanding advanced application scenarios.
By learning from the advanced experiences of other countries and
leveraging China's unique mineral resources, the country should prioritize the development of new technologies such as plasma purification and
high-temperature fire purification. At the same time, promoting the
widespread adoption of green purification processes will be essential to
reduce energy consumption and environmental pollution. These steps
will be crucial for China to achieve self-sufficiency and control in quartz
purification technologies.
Table 1
Summary of advantages and disadvantages of quartz purification technologies.
Technical name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Magnetic
separation
technology
Low cost;
Easy to operate;
Environmentally friendly;
Suitable for large-scale
industrial production
High separation efficiency
Low purity
Flotation
purification
technology
Fire purification
technology
Acid washing
technology
High ability to remove heavy
metal impurities;
Environmentally friendly
High purity;
Mature process;
Suitable for large-scale
industrial production
Gas phase
purification
technology
High efficiency in removing
metal impurities
Solvent
extraction
technology
Combined
technology
Efficient separation of
impurities;
Suitable for mass production
High purification efficiency;
Low cost;
Suitable for large-scale
industrial production
Biological
technology
Low cost;
Low pollution
Plasma
purification
technology
Effective removal of trace
impurities; Environmentally
friendly
High cost of pharmaceuticals;
Risk of environmental
contamination
High energy consumption;
High equipment requirements
High energy consumption;
Environmental pollution;
Chemical purification of
equipment corrosive,
Equipment maintenance costs
are higher;
High safety risk during
operation
High costs;
Complexity of the process;
Safety risks of chlorine
operations;
Negative impact on the
environment
Chemical reagents;
Environmental pollution;
Higher energy consumption
High costs;
Complexity of the process;
High safety risk during
operation;
Negative impact on the
environment
Long leaching time;
Difficult to control quality
fluctuations
Complex and expensive
equipment;
Low level of industrialization;
Currently still in the laboratory
research stage
5. Applications of quartz
Quartz is a versatile material with a wide range of applications, and
its uses vary significantly depending on its purity. Ordinary quartz sand,
characterized by SiO2 purity typically ranging from 90 % to 99 % and
relatively coarse particle sizes, serves as a pivotal industrial mineral raw
material. Its unique physical and chemical properties, including hightemperature resistance, low thermal expansion coefficient, and corrosion resistance, facilitate its widespread use across multiple industries.
Specifically, ordinary quartz sand is primarily utilized to manufacture
glass, casting molds, ceramics and refractory materials, metallurgy,
construction, chemicals, plastics, rubber, abrasives, and more. Additionally, ordinary quartz sand is employed in the production of ferrosilicon, serves as a metallurgical flux, and is used in fabricating grinding
materials and casting products. In the construction industry, its resistance
to acid erosion is leveraged in the production of acid-resistant concrete
and mortar [92]. In contrast, high-purity quartz sand, defined by SiO2
purity exceeding 99.9 % and low impurity levels, exhibits exceptional
chemical stability, high insulation, voltage endurance, and an extremely
low thermal expansion coefficient. These attributes make it an ideal
material for numerous high-tech applications, particularly in industries
that demand ultra-high purity materials, such as semiconductors and
photovoltaics (Fig. 9) [47,93].
4.3. Current status of quartz purification in China and abroad
The development of quartz purification technology varies significantly around the world, largely driven by the increasing demand for
high-purity quartz in high-tech fields such as photovoltaics, electronics,
and fiber optics. This demand has spurred considerable technological
advancements. Countries with early starts in quartz purification, such as
Japan, Germany, and the United States, have made significant progress in
extracting high-purity quartz through a combination of mechanical,
chemical, and physical-chemical purification methods. In these countries, mechanical purification techniques are primarily used for removing
large particle impurities, while chemical purification methods, such as
acid pickling and chlorination, are widely applied to eliminate trace
metal impurities. These chemical processes have been commercially
implemented to meet the demand for ultra-high purity quartz, particularly in semiconductor and fiber optic sectors [91]. Plasma purification,
an emerging technology, has also made breakthroughs in purifying
high-value quartz products for these industries.
In contrast, quartz purification technology in China, while rapidly
developing, is still in a catching-up phase. Mechanical and chemical
purification techniques, especially acid washing, have achieved some
success in large-scale production. However, there remains a significant
gap in terms of high-end applications, particularly in the purification of
ultra-high purity quartz. Currently, the purity of domestic high-purity
quartz materials is typically around 99.995 %, leaving room for
improvement when compared to international standards [43,61].
5.1. Quartz in the semiconductor industry
High-purity quartz is indispensable in the semiconductor industry,
where it plays a critical role in the production of semiconductor components. Its applications span several stages, including silicon wafer
manufacturing, wafer fabrication, and chip production [94]. In silicon
wafer production, high-purity quartz is used to manufacture quartz
Fig. 9. Applications of high-purity quartz.
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prepared a high-purity silicon precipitate with 99.99 % SiO2 content
from quartz sand, providing a reliable material source for solar-grade
silicon in photovoltaic devices [98].
crucibles, which are essential for growing silicon ingots. For example,
Fujiwara et al. [95] demonstrated the use of quartz crucibles with thin
surfaces and fewer impurity particles, which significantly improved the
lifetime of silicon ingots. These crucibles should meet stringent requirements for purity, high-temperature resistance, and low thermal
expansion to ensure the purity of the silicon single-crystal ingots and
enhance production efficiency.
As the process moves into wafer fabrication, the application of highpurity quartz becomes even more widespread. Quartz glass diffusion
tubes, quartz flanges, quartz glass furnace tubes, quartz boats, and other
quartz glass instruments are essential materials at this stage. Quartz
diffusion tubes, in particular, are among the most commonly used quartz
products in the semiconductor industry. Their high purity, resistance to
deformation at high temperatures, and precise geometric dimensions
directly impact the quality, cost, and efficiency of integrated circuits.
Quartz boats and supports are also crucial for processes such as diffusion,
oxidation, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and annealing of singlecrystal silicon wafers, requiring high purity and dimensional accuracy.
In chip production, high-purity quartz is also indispensable. Processes
such as photolithography, etching, and thin-film deposition require
photomask substrates, which are primarily made from quartz glass.
Photomasks are highly precise tools that determine the accuracy and
quality of electronic components, placing stringent demands on the
quartz material. The exceptional performance of high-purity quartz in the
semiconductor industry is due to its unique physicochemical properties,
including excellent chemical stability, high-temperature resistance, low
thermal expansion, and superior spectral transmittance. These properties
allow it to meet the semiconductor industry's stringent requirements for
minimal alkali and heavy metal content, while also providing high
insulation, voltage endurance, and strong mechanical performance,
which are critical for the high-quality manufacturing of semiconductor
components.
5.3. Quartz in the optical and fiber optic communication
High-purity quartz plays a pivotal role in the optical and optical fiber
communication industries, supporting the advancement of modern
communication technologies across multiple critical applications. Its
exceptional physical and chemical properties make it a preferred material for precision optical components and fiber optic systems, which are
crucial in today's high-tech communication infrastructure.
In the optical field, high-purity quartz is extensively used for
manufacturing high-precision components such as lenses, prisms, and
reflectors that are key to the performance of optical instruments like
telescopes, microscopes, and spectroscopes. These optical elements must
possess high transmittance, low scattering, and low absorption to ensure
clarity and precision. Additionally, they must endure extreme operating
conditions such as high temperatures and pressures, making high-purity
quartz the ideal material to meet these stringent requirements [97,99,
100].
Moreover, high-purity quartz plays a pivotal role in quartz-enhanced
photoacoustic spectroscopy, a technique that uses a laser beam to irradiate a material, which then absorbs the laser energy, causing a thermal
expansion effect that generates an acoustic signal. Quartz acts as an
acoustic signal enhancer in this process. Due to its unique properties,
quartz generates optical resonance when the laser beam passes through
it, amplifying the acoustic wave signal. This enhancement results in
higher sensitivity and resolution compared to conventional photoacoustic spectroscopy, making high-purity quartz indispensable in highprecision optical measurements. For example, Blomqvist et al. [101]
propose a novel lens encapsulation design using quartz, where the lens is
mounted in a sealed quartz tube with water cooling to reduce focal shift
and contamination, further emphasizing the material's versatility and
reliability in advanced optical applications.
In fiber optical communication sector, high-purity quartz is an
indispensable core material for optical fibers, which have become the
backbone of modern communication networks due to their high speed,
large capacity, and long-distance transmission capabilities. Quartz optical fibers exhibit excellent properties such as low signal loss, high
bandwidth, high-temperature resistance, and corrosion resistance. These
qualities ensure rapid signal transmission with minimal loss, making
quartz optical fibers crucial for maintaining the efficiency and reliability
of communication systems. Additionally, quartz fibers provide strong
resistance to electromagnetic interference and environmental corrosion,
enhancing the stability and durability of the communication
infrastructure.
The application of high-purity quartz in both the optical and fiber
optic communication industries spans a wide range of critical products
and technologies. Its unique combination of high-transmittance, thermal
stability, and resistance to environmental degradation makes it a key
material for the development of both current and next-generation
communication technologies. As these technologies continue to evolve,
the demand for high-purity quartz is expected to grow, further broadening its application prospects in the optical and fiber optic communication sectors.
5.2. Quartz in the photovoltaic industry
High-purity quartz plays a crucial role in the photovoltaic (PV) industry, supporting multiple stages of production and contributing
significantly to the sector's development [96,97]. In the PV industry,
high-purity quartz is primarily used to manufacture quartz crucibles,
which are essential containers for molten silicon during the production of
crystal rods. These rods are necessary for subsequent processes, such as
single-crystal pulling in solar
panel manufacturing.
The
high-temperature resistance of quartz crucibles allows for continuous
crystal pulling under intense solar heat, making them indispensable in
single-crystal pulling systems.
The unique physicochemical properties of high-purity quartz, such as
high-temperature resistance, low thermal expansion, high insulation,
corrosion resistance, and strong optical transmittance, make it exceptionally suited for PV production. Firstly, its high-temperature resistance
ensures the crucible's stability at elevated temperatures, which is critical
for maintaining the quality of the crystal rods. Secondly, its low thermal
expansion prevents cracking during temperature fluctuations, thereby
extending the service life of the crucible. Thirdly, the high insulation and
corrosion resistance of quartz ensure that the crucible remains stable in
harsh environments, further enhancing production efficiency. Lastly, its
excellent optical transmittance improves light transmission during PV
production, boosting the conversion efficiency of solar cells.
As the PV industry continues to grow rapidly, the demand for highpurity quartz is increasing. Quartz crucibles made from high-purity
quartz have become essential tools for PV enterprises producing singlecrystal silicon, significantly contributing to the industry's advancements. In the future, the application prospects for high-purity quartz in
the PV industry are expected to expand even further, driven by continuous innovation and technological advancements. In particular, one
promising development is the production of high-purity SiO2, a key
material for solar cell panels. For instance, Prasetyo et al. successfully
5.4. Quartz in the aerospace industry
High-purity quartz plays an indispensable role in the aerospace industry, forming the foundation for the manufacturing of aerospace vehicles with its diverse range of applications [102]. One of the primary
uses of high-purity quartz in this sector is in quartz glass fiber materials,
which are highly valued for their exceptional high-temperature resistance, ablation resistance, and superior electromagnetic wave transmission and electrical insulation properties. These fibers have become
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the material of choice for wave-transparent structural components in
aerospace vehicles. They are widely used to reinforce critical aircraft
structures, providing both wave transparency, which is critical for
communication and radar systems, and thermal insulation. For example,
Romashin et al. [103] applied ceramics and heat-retaining fiber
radio-transparent materials prepared from high-purity quartz in aerospace and aircraft technologies, demonstrating its effectiveness in
enhancing vehicle performance in extreme conditions. The ability of
these quartz-based materials to withstand intense temperatures and
electromagnetic interference makes them ideal for use in aerospace,
where the structural integrity and performance of materials are
constantly tested by harsh environments.
Furthermore, quartz glass products made of high-purity quartz, such
as optical windows, lenses, and optical filters, also play crucial roles in
the aerospace industry, particularly in navigation, communication, and
detection systems, due to their exceptional light transmittance, hightemperature resistance, and chemical stability. These products maintain reliable performance even in extreme environments. High-purity
quartz components effectively resist cosmic and ultraviolet radiation,
ensuring the safe and reliable operation of aerospace vehicles. The advantages of high-purity quartz lie in its high purity, high strength, and
low coefficient of thermal expansion. These properties enable it to
withstand extremely high temperatures and pressures encountered in
aerospace environment while maintaining stable physical and chemical
properties.
Additionally, high-purity quartz exhibits excellent processing capabilities, allowing it to be shaped into various forms and sizes to meet the
diverse material performance requirements of aerospace vehicles.
Therefore, high-purity quartz is not only an indispensable key material in
the aerospace industry but also a significant support for the continuous
development of aerospace technology. With the constant advancement of
aerospace technology, the application fields of high-purity quartz will
become even more extensive, injecting new vitality into the development
of the aerospace industry and expanding its potential for innovation.
consumer electronics.
Additionally, high-purity quartz plays a significant role in the production of critical components for integrated circuits (ICs), such as
diffusion tubes, etching tubes, and epitaxial tubes. These components are
essential for processes like doping, etching, and layer deposition in
semiconductor manufacturing, where high purity and precise dimensional control are paramount. The high-temperature resistance and
chemical stability of quartz make it the material of choice for these
components, allowing for precise control over the manufacturing environment and ensuring the reliability and performance of the ICs. As integrated circuits continue to shrink in size and increase in complexity, the
demand for materials like high-purity quartz, which can meet the stringent purity and performance standards, is expected to grow.
The applications of high-purity quartz in the electronics industry span
multiple domains, including high-frequency electronic components,
display screen substrate materials, and key components of integrated
circuits. Its advantages lie in high purity, stable electrical properties,
excellent optical properties, and high-temperature resistance. These
characteristics position high-purity quartz as an indispensable material in
the electronics industry.
5.6. Quartz in the chemical industry
High-purity quartz finds extensive application in the chemical industry, with its diverse products each offering unique advantages. One of
its key uses is in chemical separation and purification processes, where
high-purity quartz filters and separation membranes are critical. Due to
its exceptional purity and chemical stability, high-purity quartz efficiently filters and separates various chemical substances, ensuring the
smooth progression of chemical processes. For example, Mao et al. [106]
proposed a lead-free piezoelectric carrier composed of quartz, where a
separation membrane prepared from piezoelectric ceramics generates
ultrasonic waves to maintain surface cleanliness during operation
(Fig. 10). This application highlights the versatility of quartz and its role
in optimizing chemical processing technologies.
Furthermore, high-purity quartz is utilized to fabricate chemical reactors, storage tanks, and other chemical equipment. These applications
require materials that exhibit high corrosion resistance and thermal
stability, making high-purity quartz an ideal choice. Specifically, its
extremely high silicon dioxide content, coupled with a minimal presence
of impurities, prevents the introduction of contaminants during chemical
reactions, thus ensuring the quality and purity of chemical products.
High-purity quartz is particularly valued for its low reactivity with a wide
range of chemical substances, allowing it to maintain stability across
diverse chemical environments. This stability not only prolongs the
lifespan of chemical equipment but also ensures consistent performance
over time. Moreover, high-purity quartz can endure high-temperature
environments without deforming or fracturing, making it ideal for
chemical processes that involve elevated temperatures.
Furthermore, high-purity quartz possesses high strength and hardness, enabling it to withstand mechanical stress and ensuring the structural integrity and safety of chemical equipment. In summary, the
application of high-purity quartz in the chemical industry brings
numerous benefits, including improved quality and purity of chemical
products, extended equipment lifespan, and reduced production costs.
The versatility of high-purity quartz makes it a crucial material in the
advancement of chemical processing technologies.
In conclusion, ordinary quartz sand and high-purity quartz sand serve
distinct roles in various industries due to their differing SiO2 purity
levels. In practical applications, the selection of the appropriate quartz
product depends on the specific needs of the production process. As
technology continues to advance, the application fields of quartz will
undoubtedly expand, providing high-quality materials and technical
support across a wide range of industries.
5.5. Quartz in the electronics industry
High-purity quartz holds a widespread and pivotal role in the electronics industry, where its unique properties are indispensable in the
production of various high-performance components. Its applications
span across multiple domains, from high-frequency electronic components to display screens and integrated circuits, each benefiting from the
exceptional qualities of high-purity quartz.
One of the key uses of high-purity quartz is in the manufacturing of
high-frequency electronic components such as resonators and filters
[104]. These components require materials with high purity and stable
electrical properties to ensure optimal performance, particularly in the
transmission of high-frequency signals. High-purity quartz, with its low
dielectric loss characteristics, minimizes signal attenuation and distortion, which is crucial for signal processing and communication in modern
electronic devices. For example, Jin et al. [105] proposed a dual
dielectric region-type quartz resonator with an optimal dielectric region
height, which demonstrated superior performance compared to traditional table-top and inverted table-top quartz resonators. This advancement highlights the material's ability to enhance the precision and
efficiency of high-frequency electronic components.
Furthermore, high-purity quartz is employed as the substrate material
for electronic display screens, including OLED, LCD, and other advanced
display techniques. The exceptional flatness and optical clarity of highpurity quartz glass make it the ideal choice for these applications. It
ensures that display screens deliver sharp images and accurate colors,
significantly enhancing the user experience. The stability of materials
under various environmental conditions also ensures long-term reliability and performance, which is particularly important in high-end
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Fig. 10. (a) Diagram of the membrane, used for operating the microfiltration membrane with in-situ ultrasound generation (b) eigenmode of the microfiltration
membrane, obtained with COMSOL software [106].
6. Conclusions and outlook
Declaration of competing interest
This review provides a comprehensive analysis of quartz, a widely
distributed non-metallic mineral that constitutes a significant portion of
the Earth's crust and serves as a critical raw material for numerous industries. The distinctive physical and chemical properties of quartz, such
as high hardness, high melting point, excellent light transmittance, and
chemical stability, make it highly versatile for a broad range of industrial
applications. The review then delves into the significance of quartz purification and the existing purification techniques, including physical,
chemical, and biological methods. The continuous advancement of these
techniques has provided robust support for the production of highquality quartz materials. Furthermore, the review highlights the broad
applications of quartz in key industries such as semiconductor industry,
optical fiber communication, photovoltaic industry, and aerospace.
In the future, the rapid growth of emerging industries, such as
semiconductors and photovoltaic cells, is expected to drive a significant
increase in demand for quartz materials. Meeting this rising demand will
require greater efforts in quartz exploration and the development of more
efficient and environmentally friendly purification techniques. These
innovations will be critical in meeting the high purity standards required
by advanced industries, ensuring both the quality and availability of
quartz materials. Moreover, there is substantial potential for expanding
the applications of quartz in strategic sectors, such as the field of energy
conversion and storage. By utilizing its exceptional properties, industries
can drive technological innovation, facilitate industrial modernization,
and contribute to environmental sustainability. The recycling of waste
quartz materials will also play an important role in minimizing environmental impacts and supporting the transition to a circular economy.
In conclusion, quartz is becoming increasingly vital to the advancement of modern technologies. By optimizing resource exploration,
refining purification processes, and broadening its application fields,
quartz will continue to be a foundational material for the next generation
of industrial and technological developments, while also contributing to
sustainable growth.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This work is supported by the Consulting Research Project of the
Chinese Academy of Engineering (2024-XBZD-10, 2024-XZ-20).
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CRediT authorship contribution statement
Min Liu: Writing – original draft, Project administration. Guifang
Wang: Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Investigation. Fanyue
Zhao: Software, Methodology, Formal analysis. Wenfeng Li: Investigation, Data curation. Gan Zhu: Formal analysis, Data curation. Guangchuan Liang: Investigation, Formal analysis. Wei Jian: Investigation,
Writing – review & editing. Libing Liao: Writing – review & editing,
Validation. Guocheng Lv: Writing – review & editing,
Conceptualization.
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