Unit 1 - Introduction, historical and current paradigms in psychopathology
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Explain the concept of normality and abnormality (C2). Define mental disorder (C1).
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Easy Way to Remember
Normality – Culturally accepted, functional behavior.
Abnormality – Distress, dysfunction, deviance, danger.
Mental Disorder (DSM-5) – Clinically significant disturbance in behavior, emotions, or
cognition.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------What is Normality?
Normality is a socially and culturally defined concept that varies over time and across
societies. It generally refers to behaviors, thoughts, and emotions that are considered
typical, functional, and acceptable in a given society
What is Abnormality?
Abnormality is difficult to define universally, but it generally refers to behaviors, thoughts,
or emotions that deviate significantly from societal norms, cause distress, or impair
functioning
Indicators of Abnormality
Since no single behavior can define abnormality, psychologists use multiple indicators to
assess it
1. Subjective Distress – The individual experiences significant emotional pain.
• Eg: A person with depression constantly feels hopeless and sad.
2. Maladaptiveness – The behavior interferes with a person’s ability to function in daily life.
• Eg: A person with anorexia nervosa stops eating to the point of hospitalization.
3. Statistical Deviancy – The behavior is extremely rare in the population.
• Eg: Having hallucinations is uncommon and may indicate schizophrenia.
4. Violation of Societal Norms – The behavior goes against cultural expectations.
• Eg: Running naked in public due to a manic episode.
5. Social Discomfort – The behavior makes others uncomfortable.
• Eg: Sitting too close to someone in an empty bus may feel socially inappropriate.
6. Irrationality and Unpredictability – The behavior is illogical or erratic.
• Eg: A person randomly shouting profanities in a quiet room.
7. Dangerousness – The person poses a risk to themselves or others.
• Eg: A person with suicidal tendencies engaging in self-harm
Why Abnormality is Difficult to Define Universally
a. Culture Matters: Some behaviors considered abnormal in one culture may be
normal in another.
Eg: Hearing the voice of a dead relative is normal in many Native American cultures
but may be seen as a symptom of psychosis elsewhere
b. Changing Social Norms: What was once abnormal may now be accepted.
Eg: Homosexuality was considered a disorder in the DSM until 1974, but today it is
widely accepted.
2. Definition of Mental Disorder
The DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) defines a mental
disorder as:
“A syndrome that is present in an individual and involves a clinically significant disturbance
in behavior, emotion regulation, or cognitive functioning. These disturbances reflect a
dysfunction in biological, psychological, or developmental processes necessary for mental
functioning”
Key Features of a Mental Disorder
1. Dysfunction in Mental Processes – The disorder affects thinking, emotions, or behavior.
2. Significant Distress or Disability – The individual struggles with daily functioning.
3. Not Just a Common Reaction – Normal responses to stress (e.g., grieving a loss) are not
disorders.
4. Not Simply Social Deviance – Behavior must be dysfunctional, not just different from
social norms.
Examples of Mental Disorders
• Major Depressive Disorder (MDD): Persistent sadness, loss of interest in activities, and
fatigue.
• Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): Excessive worry and tension over daily matters.
• Schizophrenia: Hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Explain concept of a psychological disorder and the science of psychopathology (C2)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Easy Way to Remember
Psychological Disorder = Clinically significant disturbance in emotions, behavior, or
thinking.
Indicators = Six signs (distress, maladaptiveness, deviance, norm violation, discomfort,
unpredictability).
Classification = DSM-5 (USA), ICD-10 (WHO).
Psychopathology = Study of causes, progression, and treatment of disorders.
Memory Trick: Use D-S-M-P → Definition, Signs, Manuals, Psychopathology!
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1. Definition of a Psychological Disorder
A psychological disorder (also known as a mental disorder) is defined by the DSM-5 as:
“A syndrome that is present in an individual and involves a clinically significant disturbance
in behavior, emotion regulation, or cognitive functioning.”
Key Features of Psychological Disorders:
1. Dysfunction in Mental Processes – The disturbances affect biological, psychological, or
developmental functions that are essential for mental health.
2. Significant Distress or Disability – The disorder must lead to distress or impairment in
social, occupational, or other important areas of life.
3. Not a Typical Response to Stressors – Normal reactions to common life stressors (like
grief after the loss of a loved one) do not qualify as a disorder.
4. Not Simply a Result of Social Deviance – A disorder cannot be diagnosed simply because
an individual’s beliefs or behaviors differ from societal norms.
Eg: If someone experiences intense sadness after failing an exam, it is not a disorder.
However, if they continue to feel extreme hopelessness, withdraw from social interactions,
and struggle with daily tasks for months, it may indicate major depressive disorder.
2. Indicators of Abnormality
There is no single behavior that defines abnormality, but the following six indicators help in
understanding psychological disorders
1. Subjective Distress – The person experiences emotional pain (e.g., extreme anxiety or
sadness).
• Eg: A person with panic disorder may feel sudden fear without any real danger.
2. Maladaptiveness – The behavior prevents an individual from functioning effectively.
• Eg: A person with anorexia nervosa may restrict food intake to the point of starvation.
3. Statistical Deviancy – A behavior is extremely rare in the population.
• Eg: Experiencing hallucinations is uncommon and may indicate schizophrenia.
4. Violation of Societal Norms – The person acts in ways that go against cultural
expectations.
• Eg: Running naked in public due to mania in bipolar disorder.
5. Social Discomfort – The behavior makes others uncomfortable.
• Eg: A person talking to invisible people (hallucinations) in a public setting.
6. Irrationality and Unpredictability – The person’s actions are illogical or erratic.
• Eg: Laughing uncontrollably at a funeral without reason.
3. Classification of Psychological Disorders
To ensure consistency in diagnosis, two major classification systems are used:
1. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) – Used mainly in the
United States.
2. International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) – Used worldwide, developed by WHO
These systems classify disorders based on symptoms and provide diagnostic criteria.
Eg of Classification:
• Anxiety Disorders: Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Panic Disorder, Phobias
• Mood Disorders: Major Depressive Disorder, Bipolar Disorder
• Psychotic Disorders: Schizophrenia, Delusional Disorder
4. The Science of Psychopathology
The study of psychological disorders is called psychopathology. It examines:
Causes (etiology) – Biological, psychological, and social factors contributing to disorders.
Development and Progression – How disorders emerge and change over time.
Treatment – Therapies and interventions to manage disorders.
Eg: Research shows that depression is linked to low serotonin levels (biological factor)
but can also be influenced by negative thinking patterns (psychological factor) and
traumatic life events (social factor)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Summarize the supernatural, biological, and psychological explanations of psychopathology
(C2)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Easy Way to Remember
acronym S-B-P:
Supernatural – Spirits and magic (Exorcisms, Witchcraft, Koro)
Biological – Brain and body (Humors, Dopamine, Schizophrenia)
Psychological – Thoughts and behaviors (Freud, Learning, PTSD)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Psychopathology, the study of mental disorders, has evolved over centuries through
different explanatory models. The three major perspectives—supernatural, biological, and
psychological—have shaped how societies understand and treat mental illnesses.
1. Supernatural Explanation of Psychopathology
Historically, mental disorders were often attributed to supernatural forces such as demonic
possession, witchcraft, and divine punishment
Key Features
• Disorders were considered punishments from gods or caused by evil spirits.
• Treatments included exorcism, prayer, fasting, and the use of holy relics.
• Some cultures linked mental illness to witchcraft, leading to severe punishments like
execution or ostracization
Examples
• Middle Ages (Europe): People with mental disturbances were sometimes accused of
witchcraft and subjected to trials or burned at the stake.
• Mass Madness (14th–15th century): Widespread hysteria led to conditions like dancing
mania and lycanthropy (belief in turning into a wolf)
• Koro in Nigeria (1990): Men believed their genitals were shrinking due to supernatural
curses
Why This View Was Rejected
• The Renaissance (14th–17th century) emphasized scientific reasoning, challenging
religious explanations.
• Paracelsus (1493–1541) argued that natural causes (e.g., brain imbalances) could explain
mental illness
• The development of medicine and psychology provided evidence-based treatments,
making supernatural theories obsolete.
2. Biological Explanation of Psychopathology
The biological model views mental disorders as diseases of the brain caused by genetic,
neurochemical, or structural abnormalities
Key Features
• Disorders result from brain dysfunction, neurotransmitter imbalances, or genetic
predisposition.
• The central nervous system (CNS) and endocrine system influence mental health.
• Treatment approaches include medications, brain stimulation therapies, and surgery.
Examples
• Hippocrates (460–377 BCE): Proposed that mental illnesses were due to brain pathology
and imbalances in bodily fluids (humors: blood, phlegm, black bile, yellow bile)
• General Paresis and Syphilis (19th century): The discovery that syphilis caused psychotic
symptoms led to the realization that biological factors contribute to mental illness
• Dopamine Hypothesis in Schizophrenia: High levels of dopamine were linked to
hallucinations, leading to the development of antipsychotic medications
Why This View Was Rejected (or Modified)
• The reductionist approach (explaining disorders only through biology) ignored the role of
psychological and social factors.
• Many mental disorders have no clear biological markers, making diagnosis based solely
on biology difficult.
• The biopsychosocial model emerged, integrating biological, psychological, and social
influences for a more comprehensive understanding.
3. Psychological Explanation of Psychopathology
The psychological perspective focuses on thoughts, emotions, and behaviors as key factors
in mental disorders
Key Features
• Disorders are influenced by early childhood experiences, trauma, learned behaviors, and
irrational thinking patterns.
• Major psychological models include psychoanalysis, behaviorism, and cognitive
approaches.
• Treatment approaches involve talk therapy, behavior modification, and cognitive
restructuring.
Major Theories and Examples
• Psychoanalytic Model (Sigmund Freud, 1856–1939): Mental disorders arise from
unconscious conflicts between the id, ego, and superego
• Behavioral Model (John Watson, B.F. Skinner): Mental disorders develop due to faulty
learning and conditioning.
• Eg: Little Albert Experiment (1920), where a child was conditioned to fear a white rat.
• Cognitive Model (Aaron Beck, 1960s): Negative thought patterns lead to disorders like
depression.
• Eg: Depressed individuals remember more negative events than positive ones
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Trauma reshapes brain responses, making
individuals highly reactive to stress.
Why This View Was Rejected (or Modified)
• Freud’s theories were difficult to test scientifically, leading to their decline in mainstream
psychology.
• The behavioral model ignored internal thoughts and emotions, which are crucial in
understanding mental disorders.
• The cognitive-behavioral model (CBT) integrated behaviorism with cognitive psychology,
leading to more effective treatments.
Conclusion
Each perspective contributed valuable insights, but modern psychology integrates elements
of all three through the biopsychosocial model.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Outline the genetic, neuroscience, cognitive behavioural and integrative paradigms in
psychopathology (C2)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Easy Way to Remember
Use the acronym G-N-C-I:
Genetic – Inherited risk (Twin studies, Schizophrenia genes)
Neuroscience – Brain and neurotransmitters (Dopamine, HPA axis)
Cognitive-Behavioral – Thought patterns and learning (Negative thinking, Phobias)
Integrative – Combination of all factors (Biopsychosocial model, Diathesis-Stress)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Psychopathology can be understood through different paradigms ( patterns or models),
each offering unique insights into the causes and treatment of mental disorders.
1. Genetic Paradigm
The genetic paradigm focuses on the role of heredity in psychopathology, emphasizing that
mental disorders are influenced by multiple genes interacting with the environment
Key Features
• Polygenic Influence: Most mental disorders are caused by multiple genes, rather than a
single gene mutation.
• Genotype-Environment Interaction: A genetic predisposition only manifests as a disorder
if triggered by environmental factors (e.g., stress, trauma).
• Heritability Studies: Twin, family, and adoption studies help determine genetic
contributions to disorders.
Examples
• Schizophrenia: Studies suggest that genes on chromosomes 1, 6, 8, and 22 may be linked
to schizophrenia
• Bipolar Disorder: Genetic markers have been found on chromosome 11.
• ADHD: Research indicates links between dopamine genes and hyperactivity
Limitations of the Genetic Paradigm
• No Single “Mental Disorder Gene”: Unlike conditions like Huntington’s disease, mental
disorders arise from complex gene-environment interactions.
• Epigenetics: Genes can be turned on or off by environmental factors like stress and
nutrition
2. Neuroscience Paradigm
The neuroscience paradigm explains psychopathology in terms of brain structure,
neurotransmitters, and the nervous system
Key Features
• Brain Dysfunction: Damage or abnormalities in brain regions like the prefrontal cortex or
limbic system can cause disorders.
• Neurotransmitter Imbalances: Mental disorders are linked to excesses or deficiencies in
neurotransmitters such as dopamine, serotonin, and GABA.
• Hormonal Influence: The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis regulates stress
responses and can contribute to anxiety and depression.
Examples
• Schizophrenia: Associated with excess dopamine activity in the brain
• Depression: Linked to low serotonin levels, treated with SSRIs (Selective Serotonin
Reuptake Inhibitors).
• PTSD: Overactivation of the amygdala leads to heightened fear responses.
Limitations of the Neuroscience Paradigm
• Reductionism: It oversimplifies mental illness by focusing only on biological factors.
• Ignores Psychological and Social Influences: Environmental stressors and cognitive
distortions also contribute to disorders.
3. Cognitive-Behavioral Paradigm
The cognitive-behavioral paradigm emphasizes how thoughts, emotions, and behaviors
interact in mental disorders
Key Features
• Cognitive Distortions: Negative thinking patterns contribute to disorders (e.g., “I am
worthless” → depression).
• Behavioral Learning: Disorders are maintained through classical and operant
conditioning.
• Schema Theory: People develop maladaptive schemas that shape how they interpret
experiences.
Examples
• Depression (Aaron Beck’s Cognitive Model): Depressed individuals have a negative
triad—negative views about themselves, the world, and the future
• Phobias (Behavioral Model): A person bitten by a dog as a child may develop an irrational
fear of dogs (classical conditioning).
• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): People with OCD engage in compulsions (e.g.,
handwashing) to reduce anxiety, reinforcing the behavior.
Limitations of the Cognitive-Behavioral Paradigm
• Neglects Biological Factors: Does not fully explain how brain chemistry influences
cognition.
• Limited Explanation for Severe Disorders: Conditions like schizophrenia involve biological
factors that CBT alone cannot address.
4. Integrative Paradigm (Biopsychosocial Model)
The integrative paradigm combines biological, psychological, and social influences to
provide a comprehensive view of psychopathology
Key Features
• Diathesis-Stress Model: A person inherits a vulnerability (diathesis) but only develops a
disorder if exposed to stressors.
• Reciprocal Influences: Biological and psychological factors interact (e.g., chronic stress
affects brain chemistry).
• Personalized Treatment: Therapy is tailored to address genetic, neurological, and
cognitive factors together.
Examples
• Depression: May result from a genetic predisposition (biological), negative thinking
patterns (cognitive), and chronic stress (social).
• Anxiety Disorders: A combination of overactive brain circuits (biological), catastrophic
thinking (cognitive), and environmental stress (social) contributes to symptoms.
• Substance Abuse: Involves genetic vulnerability, behavioral reinforcement, and social
influences like peer pressure.
Advantages of the Integrative Paradigm
• Most Comprehensive Model: Acknowledges the complexity of mental disorders.
• Allows for Multifaceted Treatment: Combines medication, therapy, and lifestyle changes
for effective treatment.
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