iGCSE Geography Case Studies (the below are found in the book - page numbers are listed beside)
Theme 1, Population and Settlement:
1. Over-population (Nigeria) 8 ✓
2. Under-population (Australia) 10 ✓
3. High rate of natural population growth (Niger) 16 ✓
4. Population decline (Russia) 18 ✓
5. An international migration (Qatar) 26 ✓
6. A country with high dependency (Italy) 30 ✓
7. High population density (Japan) 34 ✓
8. Low population density (Namibia) 36 ✓
9. Settlement and service provision (Sardinia) 44 ✓
10. An urban area (Atlanta, USA) 50 ✓
11. Urbanisation (Peru, Lima) 56 ✓
Theme 2, The Natural Environment
12. An earthquake (Haiti) 74 ✓
13. A volcano (Mount Sinabung, Indonesia) 76 ✓
14. A river (The Elbe) 90 ✓
15. An area of coastline (Mauritius) 104 ✓
16. The tropical rainforest (Ecuador) 120 ✓
17. A hot desert (The Sahara & Mali) 126 ✓
Theme 3, Economic Development
18. A transnational corporation (Nokia, Finland) 144 ✓
19. An arable farm (Lincolnshire, UK) 148 ✓
20. Food shortages (Darfur, Sudan) 152 ✓
21. The Pakistan steel complex (Pipri, Karachi) 158 ✓
22. An area where tourism is important (Dubai, UAE) 166 ✓
23. Energy supply (Iceland) 172 ✓
24. Water supply (Lesotho) 178 ✓
25. Fracking (California, USA) 186 ✓
1
Theme 1: Population and Settlement Case Studies
1. Over-population (Nigeria) 8 ✓
2. Over-population (Bangladesh) ✓
3. Under-population (Australia) 10 ✓
4. Under-population (Canada) ✓
5. High rate of natural population growth (Niger) 16 ✓
6. High rate of natural population growth (Uganda) ✓
7. Population decline (Russia) 18 ✓
8. An international migration (Qatar) 26 ✓
9. An international migration (Eritrea, Italy) ✓
10. A country with high dependency (Italy) 30 ✓
11. High population density (Japan) 34 ✓
12. Low population density (Namibia) 36 ✓
13. Settlement and service provision (Sardinia) 44 ✓
14. Settlement and service provision (Kuala Lumpur, KL) ✓
15. An urban area (Atlanta, USA) 50 ✓
16. An urban area (Riyadh) ✓
17. Urbanisation (Peru, Lima) 56 ✓
18. Urbanisation (Dharavi) ✓
19. Youthful population (Uganda) ✓
20. Ageing population (United Kingdom, UK) ✓
21. HIV / AIDS (Botswana) ✓
22. Rural Settlement, LEDC (Korodegaga Village) ✓
23. Rural Settlement, MEDC (Hötzum, Lower Saxony, Germany) ✓
24. Urban Settlement (New York) ✓
25. Squatter settlement (Rio de Janeiro) ✓
26. Employment structure (Netherlands) ✓
2
Over-population Case Study (8)
Nigeria
Location:
West of Africa, bordered by Chad, Cameroon, Niger, Benin. North of the equator.
Background:
•
In 2013, Nigeria had a population of 175 million.
•
In 2021, Nigeria has a population of 213 million.
•
Nigeria occupies 3% of Africa but is home to over 15% of its people.
•
Lagos is the largest city in Africa.
•
Abuja is the capital of Nigeria.
•
Nigeria’s population is equivalent to 2.64% of the world’s population.
•
The population density in Nigeria is 226 per km².
•
The total land area is 910,700 km².
•
52% of the population is urban.
•
The median age is Nigeria is 18.1 years.
•
The fertility rate is 5.42.
•
70% earn less than 1 dollar a day.
•
Life expectancy is 55 years old.
3
Problems caused by over-population:
•
Inadequate fresh water for drinking water, as well as sewage treatment and effluent discharge.
Lagos has the persistent problem of inadequate water supply which has led to the unhealthy
living conditions.
•
Increased levels of pollution; air, water, noise, soil contamination.
•
Irreversible loss of arable land and increases in desertification. Parts of the north in Nigeria are
currently suffering from encroachment of desert from the Saharan desert.
•
High infant and child mortality. Nigeria’s infant mortality rate is currently 100/1000 births.
Comparing that figure with those of developed countries, it shows the growth of population
has not created the chance for development of the health system.
•
Increased chance of the emergence of new epidemics and pandemics. For many environmental
and social reasons, including overcrowded living conditions, malnutrition and inadequate,
inaccessible, or non-existent health care, the poor are more likely to be exposed to infectious
diseases.
•
Starvation, malnutrition or poor diet with ill health and diet-deficiency diseases (e.g. rickets).
Famine is aggravated by poverty. About 70% of Nigerians live in rural areas and these regions
are so underdeveloped that malnutrition has become a constant issue. With the pressure of
population on the environment, there is a decline in both subsistence and export agriculture.
•
Elevated crime rate due to drug cartels and increased theft by people stealing resources to
survive. Regions with high rate of population are posed to threats of high crime rates. Lagos
for example in the past years has had an increase in crime rate. In Lagos, 273 civilians and 84
policemen were killed during robberies and crime.
4
Over-population Case Study
Bangladesh
Location:
Background:
Lack of resources, poor infrastructure and under-developed technology coupled with the high
population have been responsible for decreasing the carrying capacity of the region.
Problems of over-population:
Overpopulation in Bangladesh resulted in overcrowded areas with traffic congestion as there are too
many vehicles on the roads, especially in cities such as Dhaka. Vehicle emissions, industrial discharge
and burning of fossil fuels have resulted in air pollution, while the ground water has been polluted due
to arsenic. Furthermore, shortage of food lead to overcultivation on the flood plains of the Ganges
River, causing lower yields and soil exhaustion. Another major problem is the widespread deforestation
for firewood on the slopes of the Himalayas.
The capital of Bangladesh, Dhaka, also suffers from severe housing shortages due to mass
urbanisation.
5
Under-population Case Study (10)
Australia
Location:
South of the equator, in Oceania.
Background:
•
In 2021, Australia has a population of 26 million.
•
Australia’s population is equivalent to 0.33% of the world’s population.
•
The population density in Australia is 3 per km².
•
The total land area is 7,682,300 km².
•
85.9% of the population is urban.
•
The median age in Australia is 37.9 years.
•
The fertility rate in Australia is 1.86.
•
Australia is about the same size as the USA, but much of its land is not used.
•
Australia has the 9th highest immigrant population in the world with 6.7 million, which makes
up 28.2% of its population.
6
Reasons for under-population:
•
Health care provision is very good which contributes towards the low infant mortality rates.
•
Adult literacy is high at 99%.
•
Low BR - 1.7.
•
Low DR - 6.3.
•
High levels of immigration from Australian citizens.
•
90% of the land is unhabitable.
•
No bordering countries.
Problems with under-population:
•
Ageing population.
•
Shortage of workers which has led to lower optimum productivity.
•
Conflicts caused in major cities such as Sydney need to attract foreign workers.
•
Not possible to exploit all resources and large areas of outback undeveloped/underutilised.
•
Less people paying tax. 43% of the labour force will be due to retire in the next 20 years.
Taxes will have to be raised to fund retirement.
•
Schools and hospitals may close because there are not enough people to support them.
•
Public transport links might close because of less customers. It is unlikely that new transport
systems will develop as there is not enough people to support them. This increases people’s
reliance on cars.
•
There may be less innovation and development.
•
Hard to defend country.
Solutions to under-population:
•
Give benefits to those with children (increasing with number).
•
Relaxing VISA rules.
•
More people move for job opportunities.
7
Under-population Case Study
Canada
Location:
Background:
Canada is regarded as an underpopulated country as the carrying capacity is much higher than the
current population. The 35 million people in Canada cannot fully exploit the available resources and
technology.
Problems with under-population in Canada:
•
Labour shortage: 32% of Canadian employers are encountering difficulties in hiring workers
due to a lack of applicants.
•
Services (e.g. schools, hospitals, and transport) close down as there are not enough customers.
•
Less innovation and development (less brain power).
•
Difficulties in defending the country.
8
Solutions to under-population in Canada:
Canada has tried to promote immigration to maintain the fairly high standard of living, but in the
previous decades less people are migrating to Canada, than during the 1950’s and 1960’s.
•
Relaxing immigrant policies and visa requirements to encourage migration.
•
Pro-natal government support to increase the birth rate (e.g. subsidies and parental leave
programmes).
•
Allow pensioners to continue working.
9
High rate of natural population growth Case Study (16)
Niger
Location:
A land locked LEDC in West Africa, with a hot dry climate including desert areas.
Background:
•
Its population has grown from 1.7 million in 1960 to 22 million in 2018.
•
This is a 6.5% growth rate; it’s expected to reach 56 million by 2050.
•
There is the highest fertility rate: 7.1 births per woman.
•
Nearly half of the population is under 15.
•
Only 5% of the population uses birth control.
•
The life expectancy is 44.3.
•
90% of people earn their living through agriculture.
10
Reasons for natural population growth:
Reasons for high BR (Birth Rates):
•
Women get married at approximately 15.
•
Lack of education- Literacy rate 13.6.
•
Lack of healthcare.
•
Lack of clean water.
•
Lack of jobs- 90% in agriculture.
•
Polygamous marriages are recognized in Niger under customary law.
Reasons for low DR (Death Rates):
•
Vaccines.
•
Clean water.
•
Better diet.
•
Better health care.
•
More education.
•
Better living conditions.
•
High unemployment.
•
Increase in conflict.
•
Increase in terrorism groups such as Al Qaeda and Boko Haram.
•
Poverty – 40% live on less than $1 a day.
•
Malnutrition/ food shortages.
11
High rate of natural population growth Case Study
Uganda
Location:
Background:
Uganda has a population growth rate of more than 3% due to its high birth rate of 44 births per 1000
people per year.
Factors causing the high population growth rate:
•
Low socio-economic status of women.
•
Low educational levels, especially among females.
•
Early marriage.
•
Low use of contraception due to limited access and poverty.
•
Political statements encouraging more babies as some areas in Uganda have a low population
density.
12
Problems of high population growth:
•
Health sector faces human and infrastructural shortages.
•
Primary education could not be sustained in all areas.
•
Insufficient employment opportunities, especially for poorly educated.
•
Threatens agricultural modernisation as population pressure increases deforestation, soil
erosion and land degradation.
•
Pressure on resources, especially in urban areas.
Solutions to reduce population growth:
•
Widespread availability of contraception.
•
Universal access to education, jobs and health care and female emancipation.
•
Promotion of scientific and technical development (tertiary sector).
•
Promotion of new modes of production (modernisation and commercialisation of agriculture).
•
Growth with equity/sustainable development.
13
Population decline Case Study (18)
Russia
Location:
Russia is the largest country in the world. It is in both Europe and Asia and North of the equator.
Background:
•
Population = 144.5 million.
•
Growth rate = 2.3%.
•
In 2018, the UN predicted that Russia's population will fall to 132 million by 2050.
•
Net migration rate: 1.69 migrant(s)/1,000 population.
•
High death rate of 13 deaths per 1000, particularly due to alcohol-related deaths.
•
Low fertility rate of 1.6 children per woman.
•
High rates of abortion.
•
Low levels of immigration.
14
Problems of population decline:
•
Underuse of health facilities, resulting in rising costs.
•
Education cannot be sustained in all areas (particularly in sparsely populated areas).
•
Resources not fully exploited, leading to lower GDP.
•
Lack of workers may result in economic recession.
Solutions to population decline:
•
Pro-natal population policies, e.g. financial support for parents who choose to have a second
child.
•
Robotisation/development of tertiary sector to prevent lack of workers.
Reasons for low population growth:
Reasons for low BR (Birth Rates):
•
More educated women who want to work for longer.
•
Economic problems: people can’t afford to have children.
•
High immigration: lots of people leave the country.
•
High abortion rates.
15
Reasons for high DR (Death Rates):
•
Death rate: 12.3 deaths/1,000 population (2019).
•
Alcohol Poisoning (Vodka): Russians drink on average 15 litres (26 pints) of pure
alcohol each year.
•
Traffic Accidents.
•
Smoking: Russia has the highest rate of smoking.
•
Stress.
•
Violent crimes.
•
High suicide rates: one of the highest in the world.
•
In 2008, 57% of all deaths in Russia were caused by cardiovascular disease.
•
Rise of tuberculosis.
•
HIV/ AIDS- spread through Russia after the collapse of the Soviet Union due to drug
use through injections.
Consequences of low population growth:
•
Low workforce.
•
Ageing population.
Solutions to low population growth:
•
Vladimir Putin is offering incentives for people to have more children.
•
Financial and social.
•
Russia is also trying to reduce their emigration rates.
16
An international migration Case Study (26)
Qatar
Location:
Background:
Life in Qatar before 1930 involved widespread poverty, malnutrition, and disease. Most people worked
in the pearl fishing industry, but that collapsed when the Japanese began to make artificial pearls. In
1935, the arrival of oil prospectors signalled a new future for the state. The second world war (1939 1945) delayed oil production for 10 years but, once production began, the oil income changed this tiny,
impoverished nation into one with the second highest per capita income in the world.
Progress was rapid. Qatar’s first school opened in 1952 and it’s first hospital in 1959. In 1971, it
became an independent state and began to use oil revenue to develop the country. Since 1955,
increasing oil prices and political stability have helped to create one of the fastest growing economies
in the world. This has been helped by having 6% of the world’s natural gas reserves.
Gaining such enormous wealth in such a short time span has meant that the development of the
country has relied on using overseas companies who employ foreign migrants to construct house,
hotels, offices, and infrastructure such as schools and roads. Because of the rapid increase in wealth
17
(GDP per capita in $92,501), most of the indigenous population either do not have the necessary skills
or do not need to work, so it is difficult to find local people to do many jobs, especially if they are lowpaid service jobs such as waitresses and taxi drivers.
18
An international migration Case Study
Eritrea - Italy
Location:
Eritrea: Eastern Africa
Italy: Southern Europe
Background:
•
Italy colonized Eritrea in 1882.
•
In 2015, more Eritreans crossed illegally via the Central Mediterranean than any other
nationality.
•
They made up 25% of this route's total migrants in 2015.
•
In 2011, 659 Eritreans were recorded on this route. By 2015, it had leapt to 38,791
19
Push Factors from Eritrea & Pull Factors from Italy:
•
Oppressive military regime
•
Economic Hardships (one of the poorest countries in the world).
•
Frequent droughts.
•
Indefinite National Service currently 18 months.
•
Human rights violation.
•
Lack of occupational choices.
•
Changes in border surveillance, including the reported end to the notorious ‘shoot to kill’ policy.
•
Mare Nostrum gave smugglers confidence to make the Med crossing (Operation Mare
Nostrum was a year-long naval and air operation commenced by the Italian government on
October 18, 2013, which brought at least 150,000 migrants to Europe, mainly from Africa and
the Middle East. The operation ended on 31 October 2014).
•
Social networking connects the Eritreans with potential smugglers.
•
Job opportunities in Italy.
•
Better healthcare.
•
Eritrea is in a state of "no war, no peace" with its giant neighbour, Ethiopia, against whom it
fought an as yet unresolved border war from 1998-2000.
•
Better education opportunities.
Problems with immigration (in Eritrea):
•
Lack of young people to do jobs.
•
Impact of the compulsory military service.
•
Families being torn apart.
•
Economic loss due to a lack of young working.
•
Many young Eritreans die in the crossing over the Mediterranean.
•
Social isolation of Eritreans.
•
Eritreans do underpaid and under skilled jobs that Italians don’t want to do.
•
Homelessness.
•
Refugee camps.
20
A country with high dependency Case Study (30)
Italy
Location:
Background:
Italy has more than 60 million residents, with a population density of 201 per km² (520 per square
mile) - one of the highest in Europe. One common fact in most Italian regions is the high degree of
dependency of the young and old on the working population, much of which is boosted by net
migration into the country (see previous case study). Recent census data shows that Japan and most
of Europe have the highest dependency ratios in the world and Italy has one of the highest in Europe.
In less economically developed countries, such as Afghanistan, the dependency is mostly from the 0-14
age group as few people live to 65 or over. As a country develops, this dependency becomes more
balanced between young and old, as in the case of Italy.
21
A country with a high population density Case Study (34)
Japan
Location:
Asia - East of China
Background:
Japan is one of the most densely populated countries in the world (339/km2 - mostly in urban areas).
22
Reasons for high population density:
The coasts of Honshu Island are the most densely populated because:
o
Flat land makes it easy to build upon.
o
There are many harbours for imports and exports.
o
There is a growing fishing industry.
o
The three main areas are:
▪
Tokyo
▪
Nagoya
▪
Osaka
Outside of urban areas there are high density rural areas. People live there due to the fertile soil, flat
land, warm climate, and good transport links.
Over 2/3 of central Japan is mountainous. Few people live here due to steep slopes, acidic soils,
isolated communities, little work, and extreme climate.
23
A country with low population density Case Study (36)
Namibia
Location:
Background:
Namibia is a country in south-west Africa on the Atlantic coast. The country gained independence in
1990, and its capital is Windhoek. It has a GDP per capita of 5,900 USD, and its economy is dependent
on the extraction and processing of minerals like diamonds and uranium. It has an overall population
density of 3/km2, making it one of the most sparsely populated countries in the world.
The Republic of Namibia has a low GDP (Gross Domestic Product) per person of $7,900. It gained
independence from South Africa in 1990 and its capital city is Windhoek. With an overall population
density of 2.6 per km², it is one of the most sparsely populated countries in the world. The Namib
Desert, an immense expanse of moving gravel planes and dunes of all shapes and sizes which includes
the huge dunes at Sossusvlei, stretches along the entire coastline. Much of the country has a hot, dry,
climate. Rainfall is sparse and erratic and there are prolonged periods of drought. The economy is
dependent on the extraction and processing of minerals such as diamonds and uranium for export. The
Rössing Uranium Mine, for example, located in the Namib Desert near the town of Arandisis, is one of
the largest opencast mines in the world.
24
Why is it sparsely populated?
Extreme Climate - Namibia has a hot, arid climate. The rainfall is very erratic and sparse that the
country goes through extended periods of drought. During summer months the temperatures can hike
up to 36° C.
Geography - Around 16% of Namibia is desert, which makes it hard to get resources to sustain people
living in the desert. Namibia is home to the Namib desert, which is a gigantic expanse of moving gravel
plains and dunes of all shapes and sizes which stretches along the entire coastline. The desert and
saltwater make it difficult to sustain life near the coast, but some people do live in coastal towns.
Job Availability - Even though the economy depends on mining of minerals, mining employs only 3%
of the population. Half of the population relies on subsistence agriculture, meaning that they have to
spread out and find land to farm on to sustain themselves.
25
Settlement and service provision Case Study (44)
Sardinia
Location:
A Mediterranean island.
Background:
Sardinia is an Italian island in the Mediterranean Sea with a total population of about 1.7 million
people. Until recently, most of the population lived in inland areas, and the economy was based on
agriculture and the mining of coal, lead, and zinc. However, in the last 50 years, tourist development
has taken place in the coastal areas.
There are a number of large and small towns with different functions:
1. Cagliari: the capital city, is the main commercial and industrial centre of the island. It has one
of the largest fish markets in Italy, with a vast array of fish for sale to both the public and
trade. It is also one of the biggest container terminals in the Mediterranean area.
2. Carbonia: was built to provide housing for the workforce of the nearby mines. The name
Carbonia comes from the Italian word for coal, a resource that was abundant in this region.
Since the mines closed down in the 1970s, Carbonia has had to deal with high unemployment.
26
3. Bosa: a small town, is situated on the west coast of Sardinia, about 3 km inland on the bank of
the Temo River. Traditionally, agriculture and fishing played an important part in the economy.
Its beach has been voted the most beautiful beach in Italy and the town is growing in
popularity for tourism.
4. Olbia: is a town of over 50,000 inhabitants in north-east Sardinia. It is the main connection
between Sardinia and the Italian mainland, with an airport, a passenger port, and a railway to
Porto Torres and Cagliari and main roads to Sassari, Tempio Pausania, and Palau.
27
Settlement and service provision Case Study
Kuala Lumpur (KL)
Location:
South East (SE) of Asia. On the western side of Malaysia and the capital city.
Background:
•
Kuala Lumpur was founded 1857 at the confluence of the Gombak and Klang rivers. In English,
the name Kuala Lumpur literally means "muddy confluence".
•
KL developed due to rise of the tin-mine industry.
•
In the 20th Century it developed due to the rubber plantations in Selangor.
•
Population of 1.8 million (approximately).
Settlement distribution:
•
Multiculturally inspired residential buildings:
o
Chinese
o
Malay
o
Indian
o
British
28
•
Kampung - traditional rural settlements:
o
Planned satellite towns, such as Petaling Jaya and Shah Alam (made the state capital
of Selangor in 1978), outside Kuala Lumpur, have emerged as cities, while new
settlements have sprouted alongside them.
•
Selangor - residential centre:
o
These areas are densely populated and characterized by heavy street traffic, high land
values, and a concentration of shopping, banking, insurance, entertainment, and other
facilities.
Service distribution:
•
Business (Commercial):
o
•
•
•
Petronas Twin Towers.
Shopping (Retail):
o
KLCC (Kuala Lumpur Convention Centre).
o
Pavilion in Bukit Bintang.
o
Suria under the Petronas Towers.
o
Central market.
Transport:
o
KLIA (Kuala Lumpur International Airport).
o
KL Central (centre of transport hub).
o
MRT (Mass Rapid Transit).
o
LRT (Light Rail Transit).
o
Transport networks.
Tourism:
o
Petronas Twin Towers.
o
KL Tower.
o
Batu Caves.
29
•
Financial:
o
•
KLCC (Kuala Lumpur Convention Centre).
Administration:
o
Capital was moved to Putrajaya in 1963.
30
An urban area Case Study (50)
Atlanta, USA
Location:
Background:
•
Capital of Georgia.
•
1970 - 2013: 2 million to 6+ million people.
•
Fastest growing metropolitan city in the USA.
•
527 hectares of new green space and parks.
•
53km of shared-use paths.
•
$20 billion of new economic development.
•
30,000 new permanent jobs from new businesses in retail, entertainment, education, health
care, professional services, hospitality, light industry, and the arts.
•
5,60 new workforce housing units.
•
50,000 new housing units anticipated along the corridor.
•
45 neighbourhoods gain new and greater connectivity.
•
8% of the city’s land mass covered in the planning area and 25% of Atlanta’s residential
population.
31
Reasons for urbanisation:
Recent population growth due to newcomers from cities around Great Lakes (where unemployment is
high, and cost of living is expensive).
Consequences of urbanisation:
•
Traffic congestion.
•
Air + Noise Pollution in Atlanta is the 4th worst in USA.
•
50,000km of roads.
•
90% of residents drive to work 68 hours of delays per year.
•
Population growth.
•
Largest metropolitan area in South-east USA.
•
With 5.1 million people in 2006.
•
Air quality.
•
Increase in respiratory illnesses.
•
Air stagnates here.
•
Water quality and quantity.
•
Suburbs along Chattahoochee River (increase run-off + contaminate drinking water with
pollutants).
•
Septic tanks leaked = Increased water demand.
•
Agricultural land.
•
Expansion = farmland bought.
•
Loss of green space/ecosystems.
•
1982-2002: More than 38% of green space within city boundary.
•
Ecosystems suffer.
•
Impermeable surfaces (more concrete and trees means surface water cannot drain away =
flash floods).
•
Cultural loss.
•
Civil war battlefield.
32
Solutions:
•
Investment in public transport.
•
Brownfield sites (PSR) are being regenerated in city e.g. 5000 high-rise homes being built on
an old steel mill site.
•
Atlanta belt line- forms a loop around midtown and downtown Atlanta making up 22miles of
light rail transit, trails, and green space.
33
An urban area Case Study
Riyadh
Location:
Capital city of Saudi Arabia and on a plateau.
Background:
Attempts have been taken to reduce the problems caused by traffic in Riyadh. They Saudi government
has been building a metro which has been a project from 2015 and is estimated to be finished next
year. The introduction of the metro will become one of the few public transport services available. It
will encourage people who cannot afford cars or who do not like driving to come off the roads. Buses
are available but will become more popular when the metro is fully active, says the Saudi government.
Bus lanes are being introduced. The routes and networks are being developed. This should decrease
the number of cars on the road by 25-45%. More traffic lights are being introduced to busier
intersections such as Al-Olaya. Overall, the government is doing its best to reduce the problems caused
by traffic congestion.
34
Urbanisation Case Study (56)
Peru, Lima
Location:
Capital city of Peru.
Background:
Lima, the capital city of Peru, has grown due to the result of migration from rural areas. About 30% of
Peru’s 29.5 million people live in its capital city, but the population ahs not always been distributed like
this. In 1940, Lima’s population was 600,00 or 10% of the country’s total, and most of the population
lived in rural areas, mainly in the Andes mountains. As Peru’s population has grown, more people have
chosen to move away from their villages and small towns to the capital city, where they hope for a
better life for themselves and their children.
Many people in the Peruvian Andes live by combining agriculture with paid work outside the village.
The main crops grown are potatoes, maize, barely, and beans. Most families keep some sheep, a goat,
and some llamas. Due to steep slopes and the unpredictable climate, farming is a difficult job and yields
are often low. In villages such as Cusipata in the Peruvian Andes, traditionally family members have
worked for part of the year in nearby large towns such as Cuzco and Huancayo. However, increasing
numbers of young men and women are leaving Cusipata to migrate permanently to Lima to find work
in the capital city.
35
Factors influencing migration to Lima from villages in Andes:
•
Not enough agricultural land because it is shared between sons.
•
Drought and other natural hazards.
•
Low prices for agricultural products.
•
Cannot afford clothes and food for children.
•
Not much opportunity for children to go to school.
•
No running water, electricity, or sewage disposal in many villages.
What migrants experience when they get to Lima:
•
Racial discrimination.
•
Separation from family.
•
Better quality services (e.g. water, electricity).
•
Better schools for migrants’ children.
•
Low pay and long working hours.
•
Forced to live in self-built houses or on the streets.
36
Urbanisation Case Study
Dharavi
Location:
India, slum in Mumbai
Background:
-
Considered to be one of Asia’s largest slums.
-
Dharavi has an area of just over 2.1 square kilometres.
-
Dharavi is one of the most densely populated areas in the world.
-
It is home to Bollywood and the film "Slumdog Millionaire" was based there.
-
The causes of urbanisation are multiple but involve a high level of natural increase within
Mumbai itself.
-
In-migration principally from the surrounding district of Maharashtra but also from
neighbouring states.
37
Push Factors:
-
Poor water quality in surrounding areas.
-
Lack of job opportunities.
-
Lack of education opportunities.
-
Lack of medicinal facilities.
Pull Factors:
-
Employment, lots of factory employment.
-
Unskilled and informal workforce (e.g. street hawkers, street sellers, taxi drivers, mechanics).
-
Bollywood employs huge amounts of people.
Problems with the urbanisation of Dharavi:
-
Homes on waste land next to water pipes in slum areas.
-
They set up homes illegally amongst waste on land that is not suitable for habitation.
-
People have to go to the toilet in the street and there are open sewers.
-
Children play amongst sewage waste and doctors deal with 4,000 cases a day of diphtheria
and typhoid.
-
Next to the open sewers are water pipes, which can crack and take in sewage.
-
The people have not planned this settlement and have no legal rights to the land.
-
There are also toxic wastes in the slum including hugely dangerous heavy metals.
-
Dharavi is made up of 12 different neighbourhoods and there are no maps or road signs. The
further you walk into Dharavi from the edge the more permanent and solid the structures
become.
-
People live in very small dwellings (e.g. 12X12ft), often with many members of their extended
families.
38
Solutions:
-
Dharavi has a recycling zone. Everything is recycled from cosmetics and plastics to computer
keyboards. 23% of plastic waste gets recycled in the UK, in Mumbai, it is 80%.
-
Vision Mumbai, created to tackle the poor quality of life that many Mumbai residents
experience.
-
Dharavi’s buildings (squatter settlements) are of a low quality, but they’re built on land worth
US$10 billion. Vision Mumbai intends to sell this land and build better homes for Dharavi’s
residents.
-
This plan unfortunately had to be delayed, because of the global economic crisis. This meant
that people would continue living in Dharavi’s buildings, but their lives wouldn’t get better.
39
Youthful population Case Study
Uganda
Location:
Background:
In 2014, 48.7% of Uganda’s population were young dependents under the age of 15.
Causes:
-
high fertility rate (many children per woman) and high birth rate
-
high infant mortality rate encourages more births so some will survive
-
children considered social and economic asset
-
high death rate increases the percentage of young dependents
40
Benefits:
-
few old dependents that have to be supported
-
possibly a large workforce in future
Problems:
-
Overpopulation if growth is not regulated, resulting in overcrowding, construction of shanty
towns, lower standard of life, increased pollution, depletion of resources and food shortages
(which encourage deforestation resulting in soil exhaustion and lower yields), as wells as future
unemployment.
-
Stress on taxpayers to support young dependents and finance development of necessary
infrastructure.
41
Ageing population Case Study
United Kingdom, UK
Location:
Background:
The percentage of elderly dependents (+65 years) has increased by 3% from 15% in 1980 to 18% in
2014.
Benefits:
-
Elderly people can share skills and knowledge to train the younger generation.
-
Elderly people promote the development of grey economies (such as health care, specialised
facilities, other facilities desired by elderly, etc.).
-
Elderly continues to pass on traditions and culture.
42
Problems:
An increase in the percentage of elderly dependents is a strain on the working population as higher
taxation is required to support the pensions of the elderly and to fund services such as health care and
specialised homes. Government-funded pensions may have to shrink to cover everybody, leaving many
people with less to spend (and some in poverty). In contrast, services for younger people, such as
schools, are underused. These services may then have to close (e.g. Woodley School in North Yorkshire
which shut in 2012 due to a lack of students). As a result, some people may be left unemployed. Also,
there are not enough economically active people, causing a lack of workforce and making it harder to
defend the country.
43
HIV / AIDS Case Study
Botswana
Location:
Background:
Botswana is a landlocked country, north of South Africa. UNAIDS estimates that 400,000 people in
Botswana live with HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus).
HIV/AIDS is transferred through bodily fluids. In Botswana, this occurs mainly during sexual
intercourse or from mother to child during pregnancy. AIDS can also spread via contaminated blood
transfusions or contaminated needle use (usually in drug users).
As a LEDC country Botswana is particularly vulnerable to HIV because of:
-
poor sex education (people are unaware of the consequences of unprotected sex)
-
low availability of contraception: many people have unprotected sex
-
low status of women: women cannot disapprove of unprotected sex, as they are perceived as
child bearers
-
low availability of medical treatment and testing: many people are unaware that they are
infected, so the disease spreads easily
-
poverty: few people can afford anti-retroviral drugs to control the severity of the symptoms
44
Consequences of HIV / AIDS:
-
High death rate and lower life expectancy, especially in economically active population
-
Falling birth rate due to abstinence (fear of becoming infected), so people have less children
-
Decreased labour pool reduces agricultural and industrial output, causing food shortages and
poverty, thus preventing economic growth
Solutions:
-
AIDS education programme: used mass media to reach 500,000 students and teach them
about HIV/AIDS
-
Offering free condoms to population
-
Improvements in HIV testing and anti-retroviral drugs in government clinics
45
Rural Settlement, LEDC Case Study
Korodegaga Village
Location:
Korodegaga village – near Addis Ababa in Ethiopia – consists of nine small hamlets with 1400 people
in total.
Background:
The area was first settled in the 20th century because of:
-
water supply from two rivers
-
flat, fertile soil for cultivation
-
extensive forests for building and firewood
Services provided include: a grain mill, mosques, and schools. Villagers walk to the neighbouring towns
of Dera and Bofa to access a local market and shops.
46
Rural settlement, MEDC Case Study
Hötzum, Lower Saxony, Germany
Location:
Background:
The area was first known to be settled by farmers in the 11th century and by the 18th century, the
village had 4 arable farms, a shepherd and 6 horse farms.
The area was initially settled because of:
-
water supply from the Hötzumerbach and the Feuergraben
-
flat, fertile land for arable and pastoral farming
-
extensive forests which provided many log felling opportunities
Currently there are very few services available (only a church, a community hall, a sports field, and a
volunteer fire brigade), but villagers can access the neighbouring village of Sickte for basic services and
the cities of Wolfenbüttel and Braunschweig for all other needs.
47
Urban settlement Case Study
New York
Location:
Background:
Currently, New York is the largest city in the US, with a population of around 8 million people.
Site and situation:
-
at a sheltered, natural harbour formed by Hudson River, which provided safe, deep anchorage
and an extensive waterfront for the development of docks
-
Hudson river allowed for transport and communication
-
rocky ridge on Island of Manhattan allowed for easy defence
CBD’s:
-
Downtown Manhattan: Wall Street (finance district of New York)
-
Midtown Manhattan: tourist district, including Fifth Avenue (shopping), Broadway (theatre),
hotels, Empire State Building, Chrysler, and United Nations Buildings
48
Urban problems:
-
Urban sprawl (middle class moves to the outer areas and lower-income families move into the
inner city): due to population growth, relocation of businesses to suburbs for cheaper land and
better accessibility
-
Poverty and unemployment: around 1 million citizens receive welfare support due to
unemployment and poor education caused by a decline in the clothing and harbour induestries
in the 1980’s
-
Urban decay and housing problems
-
Racial conflicts due to a large number of immigrants that become trapped in poverty
-
Air pollution as there are too many cars that release toxic exhaust fumes
-
Traffic congestion as there are too many vehicles on the road and due to bottlenecks linking
various New York Islands
-
Water pollution from oil spills
Solution schemes:
-
Reduction in air pollution by fitting catalytic converters to the exhausts of diesel city busses
and developing a biodiesel plant in Brooklyn to distribute biodiesel to filling stations in the city.
-
Reducing energy consumption by using more efficient streetlight and traffic lights, using
renewable energy sources (wind, underwater turbines) to power homes and public buildings.
-
Waste management plan using barges and trains to export 90% of the city’s waste.
49
Employment structure Case Study
Netherlands
Location:
Background:
Employment in the Netherlands is shifting more and more towards a service-based economy, while the
proportion of people working in the primary and secondary sectors is at an all-time low.
While just under 7% of the workforce was employed in agriculture in 1970, this number has dipped to
just under 2% in 2020, as machines and new technology have replaced the need for manual labour.
Employment in industrial manufacturing and production has also fallen, in this case from over 35% to
around 15% of the workforce. This comes as the country outsourced much of its manufacturing to
China and East-Asia and focused more on highly specialist and complex services. Today, the country is
home to several world-leading universities including TU Delft and the University of Amsterdam and
boasts many SaaS start-ups and software companies in urban areas like Amsterdam and Rotterdam.
The growth of the tertiary sector may also be explained by favourable tax policies that encourage large
service-dominated businesses to relocate to the Netherlands, along with a progressively more skilled
workforce, as the number of university graduates has increased substantially between 1950 and 2020.
50
Squatter settlement Case Study
Rio de Janeiro
Location:
Background:
Rio de Janeiro is the second largest city in Brazil and has a population of 6 million people, of which
nearly 17% – 1 million people- are favela-dwellers, living in the slums (called favelas) due to the
extremely uneven distribution of wealth.
51
There are many problems for the shanty town inhabitants:
-
Landslides: As the flat land in Rio de Janeiro is inhabited by wealthier communities, most
favelas are constructed on the mountainous slopes, where landslides are a common occurrence
(particularly due to excessive deforestation for firewood)
-
Housing is made from scrap material which is vulnerable to flooding
-
No clean water supply can lead to diseases such as typhoid, cholera or TB
-
Sanitation is undeveloped or non-existent, e.g. in Rocinha sewage flows down a large channel
in the middle of houses. This allows disease to spread and may attract mosquitoes which are
responsible for sicknesses such as malaria
-
No proper electricity supply leads to dangerous tapping of electricity from the city’s power net
-
Illegal activities and high crime rates due to many drug dealers, gangs, and murderers
Slum upgrading strategies include :
-
Increasing property rights (providing favela residents with titles to their home)
-
Improving access to electricity and clean drinking water
-
Local trash collection scheme: a bag of trash can be exchanged for a gallon of milk
-
To reduce likelihood of crime and improve education: toy guns can be exchanged for comic
books
52
Theme 2, The Natural Environment Case Studies
1. An earthquake (Haiti) 74 ✓
2. A volcano (Mount Sinabung, Indonesia) 76 ✓
3. A volcano (Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland) ✓
4. A river (The Elbe) 90 ✓
5. An area of coastline (Mauritius) 104 ✓
6. An area of coastline (Hawaii) ✓
7. The tropical rainforest (Ecuador) 120 ✓
8. The tropical rainforest (Borneo) ✓
9. A hot desert (The Sahara & Mali) 126 ✓
10. A hot desert (Thar Desert) ✓
11. A tropical storm (Katrina) ✓
12. A tsunami (Indian Ocean) ✓
13. Coastal problems and opportunities (Wadden Sea Islands) ✓
14. A coral reef (Great Barrier Reef) ✓
15. Pollution (North Sea) ✓
16. A spit (Spurn Head, Holderness Coast, United Kingdom) ✓
17. Ynyslas dunes (Wales, United Kingdom) ✓
18. A delta (Brahmaputra, Ganges, Bangladesh) ✓
19. A dam (Three Gorges Dam, China) ✓
20. Floods (Europe) ✓
21. A drought (East Africa) ✓
53
An earthquake Case Study (74)
Haiti
Location:
Haiti is a small island located in the Caribbean, Southeast of the USA, and East of Cuba. Its capital city
is Port-au-Prince.
Background:
On the 12th of January 2010 a 7.0 magnitude earthquake struck Haiti, the epicentre of the quake
being merely 15 km SW of the capital city, Port-au-Prince.
-
GDP per capita PPP: $1300
-
People living in Poverty (less than $2 per day): 80% of the population
-
Access to clean water: 46% of the population
-
Life Expectancy: 63 years
-
Literacy Rate: 48.7%
-
People Per Doctor: 0.25 doctors per 1000 people
54
Causes of the 2010 earthquake:
The earthquake was caused by the North American Plate sliding past the Caribbean Plate at a
conservative plate margin. Both plates move in the same direction, but one moves faster than the
other. The pressure that was built up because of the friction between the 2 plates was eventually
released causing a magnitude 7 earthquake on the Richter Scale with an epicentre 16 miles West of
Port-au-Prince and a shallow focus of 5 miles. The earthquake struck at 16:53 (4:53pm) local time on
Tuesday 12 January 2010.
Stress building up along the conservative margin between the North American Plate and the Caribbean
plate was released by slippage along the fault running parallel to the plate boundary south of Port-auPrince. The major earthquake was followed by several aftershocks up to a magnitude of 5.0 on the
Richter scale.
Effects of the earthquake:
The earthquake resulted in approximately 230,000 deaths (massive loss of life), destruction of
180,000 homes and around 5,000 schools. It left 19 million cubic metres of debris in Port-au-Prince
and many services were badly disrupted or destroyed. A major secondary effect was widespread cholera
due to polluted drinking water.
Haiti suffered so much because of the widespread poverty that left more than 80% of the population
in poorly constructed, high density concrete buildings. Lack of stable government and medical
infrastructure limited search and rescue efforts. Furthermore, the earthquake had a shallow focus,
resulting in severe ground shaking, and the epicentre was located close to the densely populated
capital.
Social impacts:
-
3 million people in total affected.
-
Over 220,000 deaths caused by the collapsing buildings, a small tsunami, and the cholera
epidemic in the proceeding weeks. The resulting sanitation problems have increased cases of
dysentery, malaria, and drug-resistant tuberculosis.
-
300,000 injured and treatment difficult due to several hospitals collapsing and the death and
displacement of medical staff in and around Port au Prince.
-
1.3 million people made homeless due to collapsed or partially collapsed and unsafe housing.
55
Economic impacts:
-
30,000 commercial buildings collapsed leading to a loss of trade and income for the already
crippled economy.
-
Businesses destroyed and vast sums of money for the rebuilding process, money that Haiti did
not have.
-
Damage to the main clothing industry.
-
Airport and port damaged so damage to imports and exports as well as a slowdown in the
rescue and response from overseas.
Environmental impacts:
-
Deforestation and forest clearance to make way for temporary camps and for building
materials.
-
Small scale pollution by the leakage of oil and other chemicals into the surrounding
environment due to the rupture and damage to industrial facilities.
-
Pollution of water supply leading to cholera epidemic.
Political impacts:
-
Appeals for international aid were immediately requested by Raymond Joseph, Haiti's
ambassador to the United States and his nephew, singer Wyclef Jean. The American Red Cross
quickly announced that it had run out of supplies in Haiti and appealed for public donations.
-
Haiti’s justice system remains in disarray with very few of those arrested in the past year
having been brought before a judge at all, let alone within 48 hours of arrest as required by
Haitian law.
56
Responses:
Short-term responses to the earthquake included search and rescue efforts, as well as the import of
food, water and shelter from the USA and Dominican Republic. Long-term responses included
reparation of three-quarters of the damaged buildings. Besides, migration was common as people
moved away to stay with their families. Also, people received cash or food in exchange for public
reconstruction work and the World Bank pledged $US100m to support the reconstruction and
recovery.
Short-term responses:
-
100 million in aid given by the USA and $330 million by the European Union
-
810,000 people placed in aid camps
-
115,000 tents and 1,000,000+ tarpaulin shelters provided
-
Healthcare supplies provided to limit disease
-
Lack of immediate aid through poor planning, management and access meant that people had
to try and rescue each other 4.3 million people provided with food rations in the weeks
following the earthquake
Long-term responses:
-
98% of the rubble on the roads hadn’t been cleared restricting aid access.
-
1 million people still without houses after 1 year so still have to live in aid camps.
-
Support for people without jobs, which equates to nearly 70% of the population, through
cash/food-for-work projects.
-
Temporary schools created and new teachers’ trainee.
-
Water and sanitation eventually supplied for 1.7 million people.
57
A volcano Case Study (76)
Mount Sinabung,, Indonesia
Location:
Indonesia, North Sumatra, Karo region.
Background:
In August 2010, an Indonesian volcano erupted after being dormant for over 400 years. The first
larger eruption for the volcano occurred on 15th September 2013 causing more than 3700 people to
be evacuated from areas within 3km of the volcano. Later, on 5th November the volcano erupted a
7km column of ash into the air and so evacuation distance was increased. The volcano continued to be
relatively active with small eruptions in late December and early January before a major eruption on
the 1st of February 2014. Clouds of hot ash were spewed 2km into the air and smothered surrounding
villages. This eruption occurred just after residents living more than 5km away from the volcano had
been allowed back to their homes.
58
Causes:
Mount Sinabung is located in Sumatra in Indonesia and was created by the subduction of the IndoAustralian plate under the Eurasian plate. Its location makes it part of the Pacific Ring of Fire and at
4,260m tall it is the 11th highest volcano in Indonesia.
Effects:
Economic impacts:
-
Damage to many villages in the surrounding area.
-
Many houses were destroyed as they collapsed under the weight of the ash.
-
By Saturday 11th January 2014 the ash had also begun to blanket more villages and cities in
North Sumatra because of the continuous eruptions.
-
Consequently many farmers lost their crops, meaning that there was a very poor harvest, as a
result many areas surrounding the volcano experienced food shortages and substantially
increased food prices.
-
The damage caused had a great impact on the economy of this LEDC as the crop losses
equated to more than £50,000.
-
This figure is set to rise due to the cost of rebuilding the homes and lives of those affected.
Social impacts:
-
Since Mt. Sinabung’s eruption in September 2013, it has claimed at least 16 lives and
devastated many more.
-
Counts show that an estimated 25,516 people from 32 villages in the surrounding area had
taken refuge.
-
Vast numbers of people took refuge in temporary camps and shelters, and soon the authorities
began to lack food supplies and medicine, putting more lives at risk.
-
The ash produced by the volcano also contributed to health issues as many people experienced
respiratory problems.
59
Environmental impacts:
-
Lava produced by Mt. Sinabung flowed into the river, contaminating the water supplies, and
affecting the biodiversity of the river's ecosystem.
-
The surrounding valleys were filled with pyroclastic material left behind after the enormous
ash plumes.
-
This material destroyed crops and many villages as it settled in the valleys.
-
The ash plumes not only caused respiratory problems for residents, but also caused air
pollution as it lingered in the atmosphere.
-
Much of Sumatra’s wildlife was severely affected by the ash and pyroclastic material which
poisoned them.
Responses:
Short-term responses:
-
The volcano caused thousands of people to be evacuated to temporary camps and shelters e.g.
converted halls that are usually used for traditional ceremonies set up by the government until
it was safe for them to return.
-
People soon realised that international aid and donations were needed as they started to see
shortages of necessities such as clean water.
-
For those who had not sought refuge or been evacuated, masks were issued by the authorities,
and they had to be worn at all times.
Long-term responses:
-
The government is now helping people to rebuild their lives and their homes.
-
New methods such as use of tiltmeters and early warning systems are being put in place to
help scientists predict when similar eruptions may occur again.
-
This will help the government put in place sufficient protection for its people but as Indonesia
is a poor country these methods are very gradually being put into practice.
60
A volcano Case Study
Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland, 2010
Location
Background:
Eyjafjallajökull is a stratovolcano in Iceland, located approximately 125 km SE of the capital Reykjavik. It
is found along the Mid-Atlantic ridge, where new earth crust is created.
Lava eruptions in March 2010 were followed by an explosive eruption on April 14th, 2010.The lava
flows damaged many homes and roads and services were disrupted due to evacuation measures.
Flooding was caused as glacial ice melted and torrents of water were flowing down the slopes of the
land. Also, ash covered large plots of agricultural land, damaging the crops.
The massive ash cloud blocked air traffic in large parts of Europe for several days, leaving tourists and
businesspeople stranded at their destinations.
Immediate responses included an emergency evacuation of more than 800 people. Long-term
responses are the reconstruction of damages houses and roads and research on the effect of ash on
aeroplanes.
61
A river Case Study
The Elbe, Germany
Location:
Background:
The Elbe is one of the major rivers of Central Europe. After the Rhine, the Elbe River is Germany’s most
significant commercial waterway. It rises in the Krkonoše Mountains of the northern Czech Republic
before traversing much of Bohemia, then Germany and flowing into the North Sea at Cuxhaven, 110
km northwest of Hamburg. Its total length is 1,094 kilometres.
62
Background:
-
It is 724 miles (1,165 kilometres) long, with about 525 miles (845 kilometres) navigable for
large ships.
-
Its drainage basin covers 55,620 square miles (144,055 square kilometres).
-
Along the river are Germany’s chief sugar beet fields and many grain farms, pasture lands,
forests, mines, and factories.
-
Cargoes on the river include coal, lumber, salt, fertilizers (potash), sugar, wheat, rye, cattle food,
paper, glass, and machinery.
-
These total millions of tons of shipping each year.
Opportunities along the Elbe River:
Trade: carries coal, metal, grain for economic value. Trades with other European countries.
Fishing: Salmon, Sea trout. Catch 100kg per hectare.
Hydroelectric: Elbe sluice. Produces 19.5mgw of energy.
Transport: of people. 10,000 ships per year use the river.
Tourism: historical, cruises (Viking).
Agriculture: Irrigation, fertilisers (alluvium), (grain, wheat).
Hazards along the Elbe River:
-
River erosion
63
2013 floods:
Causes:
Effects:
Heavy & prolonged rain (saturated soil, fast river
-
Prague: Metro stations closed.
runoff) May - June 2013 6-7 inches over 2 days.
-
Tigers & lions had to be tranquilised and
moved location.
-
Chemical factories closed.
-
23,000 evacuated as state of emergency
declared.
Lack of vegetation - Less interception.
Hamburg:
Prague (deforestation)
Urbanisation - Prague, Hamburg, Dresden,
-
25 people died
-
Over 1000 people homeless
Petersburg:
Berlin.
-
People had to use sandbags as flood
barriers.
-
Bridges closed.
Management of the Elbe River:
-
Red Cross: shelter camps
-
German Authorities: used satellite data to map/ plan the flood and improve emergency
response.
-
Hungary: used 10million sandbags to fight the floods.
-
Prague: strengthen barriers.
-
Over 1000 Czech troops bought in to evacuate 50,000 people.
-
Dams: control flooding.
-
Hamburg Dykes (embankments)- protect 140,000
-
Sirens and warning on social media and local tv stations.
-
Mandeburg: banks moved to provide more room to flood.
-
Mandeburg 19,000 soldiers used to help move people.
-
Mandeburg: helicopters to remove stranded people.
-
Dresden: Higher levees, metal flood barriers, sandbags, industry allowed river flooding, troops
pumped water back into the river.
64
An area of coastline Case Study (104)
Mauritius
Location:
Background:
Mauritius is an island in the Indian Ocean which is famous for its beautiful lagoons and beaches. The
coastline is 322 km long and is almost completely surrounded by fringing coral reefs. The coastal zones
and lagoons are used mainly for tourism, fishing, and leisure activities such as diving, sailing, and water
skiing.
Before the 1960s, there was little urban growth in the coastal areas. In 1968, there were only 15,000
tourists. The situation began to change in the 1970s when Mauritius grew economically as a result of:
-
A large increase in sugar export earnings
-
A growth in tourism from 27,650 arrivals in 1970, to over 950,000 in 2013
-
Establishment of industries and financial services
This economic growth has led to changes in land use along the coastline, particularly the growth of
settlement and tourist facilities, industry, and ports.
65
Twenty-one beaches in Mauritius experience coastal erosion and 22 sites have experienced recent
flooding. Erosion rates have increased in the last 10-15 years. A survey showed that there has been
erosion of 0.4 m at Flic en Flac, 1 m at Morne Brabant, 1.5 m at the north-east coast of Ile aux Cerfs,
1.5 m at St Gèran. In some places, sea walls have been eroded, especially after storms. The risk to life
and livelihoods for people who live in coastal settlement is increasing. To manage coastal erosion, a
wide range of strategies have been considered, including hard and soft engineering.
66
An area of coastline Case Study
Hawaii
Location:
Background:
-
1,360,301 coastal population.
-
$1 billion disasters from 1980-2018
-
1,052 miles of coastline
-
85,404 people live in the floodplain in Honolulu country.
-
Tourism and recreation and the largest employer along the coastline.
-
Area 10,970 square miles (28,412 square km).
-
Population (2010) 1,360,301; (2018 est.) 1,420,491.
-
Hawaii received a record 9.3 million visitors
-
Visitors spent more than $14 billion in Hawaii in 2012
67
Organisations:
-
Oahu Shoreline Study
-
Kauai Shoreline Erosion Management
Opportunities in coastal Hawaii:
Hawaii is economically vigorous, with diversified agriculture and manufacturing.
Hawaiian activities of national and international importance include research and development in
oceanography, geophysics, astronomy, satellite communications, and biomedicine.
Often called the Crossroads of the Pacific, the state is strategically important to the global defence
system of the United States and serves as a transportation hub of the Pacific basin.
Hawaii is a cultural centre and a major tourist mecca.
Port of Honolulu, Hawaii’s trade totalled $249.87 million for the month of November, $3.9 billion
through November of 2018, and $3.62 billion for all of 2017, Top trading companies – Indonesia,
Japan.
Hazards:
-
Coastal erosion: Over the past century, 70 percent of beaches on the islands of Kauai, Oahu,
and Maui have experienced long-term erosion.
-
Tsunamis: 1946, 2011
-
Hurricanes: Hurricane Douglas 2020.
-
Sea level rising could cost Hawaii up to 40% of its beaches by 2050, study shows. As much as
40% of Hawaii's beaches could be lost to sea level rise by 2050.
-
Flooding
68
Management:
Windward Oahu - historically, relied on rock armour, now we are seeing more dune protection and
conservation of beaches.
Reduction of greenhouse gases to reduce global warming.
Beach replenishment in Waikiki - 27,000 cubic yards of sand was siphoned from offshore deposits,
giving the beach 37 more feet and costing Hawaii $2.9 million.
Restoring sand dunes and the landward retreat of structures from shorelines.
County of Maui Department of Planning 2003 - were identified as hardened (i.e., seawall, revetment,
grouted revetment, sandbags, or groins.
Management ideas:
1. Armouring - Bulkheads, seawalls, and revetments have been successful in protecting the
shoreline from erosion but often lead to further beach narrowing, beach loss, and loss of lateral
public access along the shoreline. Shoreline armouring is restricted in Hawaii by State Coastal
Zone Management Policy and Conservation District Rules with exceptions.
2. Groins - Groins have also been successful in stabilizing beaches and protecting the shoreline.
These are most often used in combination with beach nourishment. Groins can have negative
impacts on down-drift beaches if not designed and sited properly.
3. Managed Retreat - Shoreline setbacks provide a buffer that allows shorelines to retreat
naturally. Proper siting (and in some cases, relocation, or removal) of buildings and
infrastructure at appropriate distances from the shoreline avoids the risk of damage from
erosion for a number of years, thereby avoiding the need for shoreline armouring.
4. Beach nourishment and engineering with nature - Beach nourishment is an effective (short to
medium term) approach for restoring beaches, and typically requires periodic re-nourishment.
Engineering with nature approaches is the intentional alignment of natural and engineering
processes for sediment management within a littoral cell.
69
5. Natural shoreline change - This approach allows sediment and the shoreline to migrate
naturally in the absence of engineered structures or beach nourishment. This approach can be
beneficial when a natural shoreline is desired.
6. Land acquisition - Purchasing land along the shorelines is an option, best utilized for
undeveloped land, which in turn allows for natural/managed retreat of the shoreline.
Acquisition of developed land may be increasingly necessary to preserve key “legacy” beaches.
7. Natural infrastructure - Natural infrastructure (i.e., healthy ecosystems and also known as
living shorelines), such as wetlands and salt marshes, coral reefs, mangroves, sea grasses, and
dunes, is well known to mitigate beach erosion and flooding. This approach is limited by the
specific local physical shoreline conditions, and can be used in combination with engineered
structures, as noted below.
8. Hybrid solutions - Combinations of natural and built engineered infrastructure can provide
important storm protection and coastal flooding benefits to coastal communities and can be
designed to balance the need for shoreline, beach, and habitat protection.
70
The tropical rainforest Case Study (120)
Ecuador
Location:
Background:
Ecuador is the second smallest country in the continent of South America. In the east is the tropical
rainforest of the upper Amazon basin, known as the Oriente region. This region contains one of the
richest and most diverse rainforest ecosystems in the world. Puyo (which has a population of 25,000)
is the capital of Pastaza, a province in the Oriente region. It experiences a very hot and wet equatorial
climate, and its tropical vegetation lies on the western edge of the Amazon basin. Despite the
remoteness of this rainforest, it is under threat from logging, tourism, and oil companies. Conserving
the rainforest has been one of the country's priorities, but there are also huge oil reserves - the income
from drilling oil would allow a great deal of development in this LEDC.
71
The tropical rainforest Case Study
Borneo
Location:
Southeast Asia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei (north of the Java Sea). South of SE China Sea.
Background:
-
Borneo is the world's third largest island, behind Greenland and New Guinea.
-
Orangutans can only be found in the rainforests of Borneo and Sumatra.
-
The rainforest in Borneo is one of the oldest in the world and is estimated to be about 130
million years old.
-
There are over 200 different ethnic groups in Borneo.
The rainforest has been cleared for the following reasons:
-
to boost Malaysia’s economy by exporting timber for furniture and paper production
-
population pressure: Indonesia’s transmigration programme caused people to move from
overcrowded islands as Java to relatively sparsely populated areas as Kalimantan
-
to build palm oil plantations
-
HEP: forest clearance to provide space for a reservoir in Sarawak (Malaysian Borneo)
-
coal mining in Kalimantan
72
Effects of clearance:
-
atmospheric pollution: burning of forest releases enormous masses of ash and smoke
-
global warming due to the release of Co2 from burning forests and reduction in carbon sink
(as burnt trees do not absorb CO2 by photosynthesis)
-
loss of biodiversity: loss of plant species through deforestation
-
destruction of habitat: some species (e.g. orang-utans) are unprotected due to lower forest
cover
-
loss of soil fertility: soil degradation due to soil erosion and leaching
Opportunities:
-
Tourism
-
Mining
-
Sustainable palm oil production
-
Medicinal values
-
Provides oxygen
-
Diverse ecosystem
Challenges:
•
Deforestation:
o
Illegal logging has become a way of life for some communities, with timber
being taken from wherever it is accessible, sold to collectors and processed in
huge sawmills. In the absence of sufficient alternative economic development,
this is an irresistible lure for the local communities.
o
Satellite studies show that some 56% of protected lowland tropical
rainforests in Kalimantan were cut down between 1985 and 2001 to supply
global timber demand – that’s more than 29,000 km² (almost the size of
Belgium).
73
•
Land conversion:
o
Malaysia and Indonesia account for over 90 per cent of the world's total oil
palm production area, and the importance of these countries for this
commodity is likely to increase in the future as demand soars.
o
If the Heart of Borneo were cleared for what would be unviable oil palm
plantations, this would seriously affect the region’s water catchment role and
would impact the region’s unique biodiversity. The unsuitability of the terrain
may also result in large-scale soil erosion, flooding and increase the risk of fire.
•
Climate change:
o
Deforestation and forest degradation account for up to 20 per cent of global
man-made CO2 emissions.
o
WWF projections indicate that if the island of Borneo continues at its current
rate of deforestation, it will be severely affected by climate change through
the increased risk of floods and forest fires, human health impacts, changes in
agricultural yields and damage to infrastructure.
o
Sea level rise is also projected to cause widespread damage to population
centres, causing considerable economic damage and costs to local
governments, communities and businesses.
o
With two degrees of warming, Borneo’s rich biodiversity in marine, reptile and
amphibian species will be severely affected, and potentially devastated by any
warming beyond this level by 2050.
•
Wildlife hunting and trade:
o
Rampant poaching, assisted by the increasing number of roads and logging
trails, poses a grave threat to Borneo’s endangered species.
o
Wildlife crime is a big business. Run by dangerous international networks,
wildlife and animal parts are trafficked like illegal drugs and arms. Experts at
TRAFFIC, the wildlife trade monitoring network, estimate that it runs into
hundreds of millions of dollars.
o
A number of the species that call the Heart of Borneo home are at risk:
▪
Pangolin
▪
Arowana
▪
Orangutan
74
•
Water:
o
When forests are clear-cut, the soil is left exposed to the rain. In the event of
heavy rainfall, the erosion in the upper catchments of all the big river systems
has the potential to lead to major damage downstream.
o
Poor management of upstream land and vegetation also has well-known
adverse implications on hydro-electric facilities, filling up dams with sediment
and damaging turbines. The economic costs that then arise can be massive.
•
Mining:
o
Plans for economic development prioritise the exploitation of energy
resources (especially coal) to help meet growing domestic and export market
demands.
o
Kalimantan holds 53% of Indonesia's 4,300 million tons of recoverable coal
reserves, and Sabah and Sarawak hold 99% of Malaysia's 1,724 billion tons of
coal deposits.
o
Borneo also holds rich metal and mineral resources, including tin, copper, gold,
silver, coal, diamonds, and different types of sand and stone.
o
Together, the forestry and mining sectors are the main contributors to forest
loss in Borneo.
75
A hot desert Case Study (126)
The Sahara & Mali
The Sahara and the Sahel:
The Sahara, sprawling across north Africa, is the world's largest and hottest desert. It covers roughly
the same area as the USA. About one-quarter is covered by sand-desert, known as ergs. The rest
consists of gravel-strewn plains called reg and areas of barren rocks called hamada. Fossil evidence
shows the desert used to be wetter 1,000 years ago, but human activity and climate change (through
natural and human causes) have turned the Sahara into a true desert. Today, the Sahara is growing
even larger, spreading to the south due to more overgrazing and deforestation. This moving edge of
the desert is called the Sahel (an Arabic word that means ‘fringe’). This is where desertification is
increasing.
Mali, a land-locked country
Once home to one of Africa’s greatest empires, Mali is a vast, land-locked country nestled between the
Sahara Desert and six neighbouring countries in West Africa but one of the poorest countries in the
world. Bordering the Sahel region of West Africa in the north, 65% of Mali’s land is desert of semidesert. In these areas, Malians suffer from periods of drought and widespread food shortages.
Population density is only 5% per km². It is an extreme environment for plants, wildlife, and people to
survive in.
The Niger River is the most important feature in Mali. It provides a reliable water supply and is a vital
transport route for goods and people. The Niger’s high-water flood season is from August to
December.
76
A hot desert Case Study
Thar Desert, Rajasthan, India
Location:
Thar Desert, also called Great Indian Desert, arid region of rolling sand hills on the Indian subcontinent.
It is located partly in Rajasthan state, north-western India, and partly in Punjab and Sindh (Sind)
provinces, eastern Pakistan.
Background:
-
The Thar Desert covers some 77,000 square miles (200,000 square km) of territory.
-
On its western margin lies the mighty Indus River.
-
It is known as the land of death but hosts a variety of life. It is the most populated desert in
the world with nearly 30 million people and Map: is also the most densely populated with 83
people per km², it is known as the “teeming” desert.
-
The prevailing southwest monsoon winds that bring rain to much of the subcontinent in
summer tend to bypass the Thar to the east.
-
The name Thar is derived from thul, the general term for the region’s sand ridges.
77
Climate:
The Thar Desert is dry as hot air rises at the equator and cools. The moisture holding capacity
decreases; it rains. As the air moves away from the equator by advection, it cools and sinks at the
tropics (where the desert is located). The sinking air warms up and its moisture-holding capacity
increases, so the area is very dry. With the low humidity, there are few clouds to reflect the sunlight
and as there is no evaporative cooling, most of the sunlight warms the ground surface, creating hot
temperatures.
Vegetation:
Low precipitation and temperatures of up to 53°C result in scattered vegetation that has adapted to
the extreme conditions. For instance, the Ber tree has a rapidly developing taproot system to survive in
drought conditions. However, except for a few trees, the desert is home to thorny bushes and shrubs.
These have spiky leaves to reduce rates of evapotranspiration. Xerophilous grass has a small surface
area to reduce water loss. Some species also remain dormant during long dry spells.
Threats:
The Thar Desert is threatened by excessive irrigation which leads to salinization. Therefore plants
cannot take up water from the soil, as the soil has greater concentrations of solute than the roots. Soil
quality is also decreasing as manure is used as an alternative fuel for firewood rather than to sustain
nutrient-rich, fertile soils. Furthermore, population pressure results in overcultivation and overgrazing,
especially around cities like Jodhpur and Jaisalmer, damaging the natural vegetation. The desert
environment is also threatened by tourist attractions such as dune bashing.. Also, tourists may dump
waste in the desert, poisoning flora and fauna.
78
Opportunities:
-
Farming: commercial farming, made possible by irrigation, has grown steadily in recent years.
This provides a livelihood for local people.
-
Tourism: the desert attracts tens of thousands of tourists each year. Wealthy visitors come to
experience the scenery and camel trekking. This benefits locals who provide services for
tourists.
-
Energy: the desert is a rich energy source providing oil fields and ideal conditions for solar and
wind farms. The Jaisalmer wind park in the largest in India.
-
Mining produces valuable resources such as Gypsum (used in construction) and phosphorite
(used to make fertilisers for farming)
Challenges:
•
•
Accessibility:
o
High temperatures cause the tarmac to melt.
o
Strong winds blow sand over roads.
o
Some places are only accessible via camel.
o
Vehicles often overheat and breakdowns are common.
Water supply:
o
Low annual rainfall.
o
High temperatures and strong winds mean high evaporation.
•
Demand for water is increasing as population and industry increase.
•
Drought means many youths leave the area to find work.
•
Extreme temperatures:
o
Temperatures in the Thar can exceed 50oC in the summer.
79
A tropical storm Case Study
Katrina, 2005
Background:
Hurricane Katrina was one of the deadliest hurricanes ever to hit the United States.
How did Katrina form?
Katrina was created from the interaction of the remains of a tropical depression SE of the Bahamas
with a storm wave. The storm drifted towards Florida and intensified as it passed over the warm
waters of the Gulf of Mexico. Katrina intensified before making landfall in Florida and was a Hurricane
3 upon reaching the Mississippi Delta.
Impacts:
•
Levees failed to resist the force of the waves, causing 80% of New Orleans to become flooded.
•
More than 1000 people lost their lives.
•
Half a million houses were damaged in the Gulf Coast region.
•
Services in New Orleans were badly disrupted: no electricity, gas, and sewage systems for 6
months after the event.
Responses:
•
$10.5 billion of immediate financial aid for the victims
•
In the first two weeks after the storm, the Red Cross had brought 74,000 volunteers who
provided shelter to 160,000 evacuees
•
International aid from over 50 countries
•
Rebuilding levees destroyed by Katrina
80
A tsunami Case Study
Indian Ocean, 2004
Background:
On December 26th, 2004, a tsunami occurred in the Indian Ocean.
The tsunami was the direct consequence of a 9.0 magnitude earthquake that was caused by tension
along the subduction zone of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates. This rupture triggered massive
waves that reached an altitude of up to 30m.
The tsunami resulted in 250,000 deaths, with 170,000 fatalities in Indonesia alone. 13 countries were
affected by the powerful waves, and an estimated total of 2 million people have been displaced, as their
houses have been destroyed.
Short term responses included search and rescue efforts in the local communities, while internationally,
people sent donations to help those in need.
An early warning system has been developed to predict future tsunamis in the Indian Ocean.
81
Coastal problems and opportunities Case Study
Wadden Sea Islands
Location:
Background:
The Wadden Sea provides a large diversity of fish species and other seafood animals, making fishery an
important industry for the local communities. Besides, tourism is well established in the area, with
around 800,000 visitors annually on the Dutch island of Texel alone.
However, the area is threatened by storm tides, particularly in fall and winter, which may cause floods
that damage the unique ecosystem. Furthermore, the continuous eastward shift of the islands has
eroded their westmost regions, endangering settlements such as West-Terschelling, which may
submerge in future.
Coastal management strategies to protect the islands include dune grass planting and dune fencing.
The newly planted grass traps and hold sand thereby reducing coastal erosion and encouraging the
formation of new dunes. This makes the islands less vulnerable against erosion from storm surges.
82
A coral reed Case Study
Great Barrier Reef
Location:
Background:
The Great Barrier reef is located along the Pacific shores, where water temperatures are above 20°C.
The reef grows in shallow areas (not more than 60 m deep) in the Coral Sea, off the Australian coast,
east of Cairns. It grows in clear water that is free of sediment so sunlight can pass through.
Threats:
The Great Barrier reef is threatened by global warming, which increases coral bleaching. Besides,
declining water quality (due to agricultural run-off from the rivers of North-Eastern Australia and oil
from ships in discarded in the Coral Sea) pollutes the ecosystem. Also, overfishing destroys food chains
and disbalances the symbiotic relationships. Furthermore, tourists may destroy parts of the reef when
they go diving or reef-walking.
83
Management strategies:
The Australian government has made the Great Barrier reef a protected area by declaring it a marine
park. The GBRMPA (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority) is the organisation who looks after the
reef and protects it from human threats while allowing sustainable development to take place. The
Marine Park Authority gives out permits for fishing, diving and more and has boats patrol the area to
prevent illegal activity. Tourists are educated about how their trip affects the reef and they are not
allowed in certain sensitive areas. Also, fines of up to US$ 1 million can be forced on companies that
pollute the fragile ecosystem.
84
Pollution Case Study
North Sea
Location:
Background:
The North Sea is polluted by oil spillages from tankers in the Thames estuary washing out their tanks.
As a result, oil clogs up the gills of fish, causing them to die. Spillages also pollute the beaches along
the British coast (e.g. near Essex), which reduces the number of tourists. Besides pollution occurs
through the disposal of untreated sewage from large urban areas such as Rotterdam, possibly
possessing a human health risk along the Dutch coast. Also, pollutants from industrial waste in the
Rhine River may be washed into the sea.
85
A spit Case Study
Spurn Head, Holderness Coast, United Kingdom
Location:
Background:
Spurn head is a sand and shingle ridge that extends from the headland south of Easington. It has been
formed along the Holderness coast under the influence of prevailing winds from the North which result
in wave refraction. Subsequently, longshore drift transports the coastal sediments, which deposit in the
sheltered mouth of the Humber estuary.
86
Ynyslas dunes Case Study
Wales, United Kingdom
Background:
The Ynyslas Dunes in Wales have been formed by deposition, which occurred as energy of winds
blowing from Cardigan Bay was reduced. Westerly onshore winds picked up dry sand from the wide
beach at the estuary of the Dovey (Dyfi) river. Obstructions on the beach caused a sheltered area.
Marram grass colonised dunes and trapped further sand.
87
A delta Case Study
Brahmaputra, Ganges, Bangladesh
Location:
Background:
The Ganges Delta in Bangladesh is the most populous river delta in the world. Around 30% of its
population work in agriculture, as rice cultivation is well developed due to the fertile soils. Also, fishing
is very prominent, as the distributaries are colonised by shrimps. However, the Ganges Delta is
threatened by floods, especially from heavy rainfall during the monsoon season and icewater runoff
from the slopes of the Himalaya.
88
A dam Case Study
Three Gorges Dam, China
Location:
Background:
The Three Gorges Dam is located near Yichang on the Yangtse River in China. It is approximately 180
m high and 2.3 km wide and has taken almost 17 years to construct.
The dam has protected 10 million people from flooding and its 32 generators provide energy for 60
million people (each generator produces as much energy as a small nuclear powerplant), enabling China
to reduce its dependency on coal. It also allows shipping above the Three Gorges and has 6-folded the
water traffic capacity. Also, the dam has created many jobs.
However, the dam meant that 1 million people had to be moved to accommodate the reservoir and
power stations. The Three Gorges Dam also interferes with aquatic life, being a major threat to the
White Flag Dolphin, which is already at risk from extinction. Furthermore, the large masses of silt
transported by the Yangtse deposit behind the dam, which reduces the storage capacity of the
reservoir. Besides, the dam lies on a fault line and could be badly affected by an earthquake.
89
Floods Case Study
Central European floods, 2013
Cause:
Extreme flooding in Europe began after heavy rainfall in May and early June 2013. Precipitation at the
northern rim of the Alps exceeded 300mm over four days. This, along with an already high soil
moisture from the wet spring weather, gave rise to severe flood discharges in the Danube and Elbe
rivers. Flash flooding was recorded in Warsaw as a result of a heavy thunderstorm.
Effects:
25 fatalities have been recorded due to the 2013 floods. Thousands of people were evacuated in
Germany, the Czech Republic and Austria. The total devastation amounted to 12billion €, with crop
losses accounting for 1billion € worth of damage. River traffic was blocked for several weeks, and many
railway lines were closed due to flood damage and landslides.
Responses:
Short-term responses included search and rescue efforts and emergency evacuations. Members of the
Red Cross built shelter camps for displaced residents. Military soldiers established sandbag walls to
control the Elbe and Danube rivers and protect buildings in areas such as Dresden and Passau. In some
rural regions, levees were destroyed to allow the water to escape onto flood plains and prevent
uncontrolled damage downstream.
The governments of Germany, Austria and the Czech Republic are investigating into long-term
measures to reduce the aftermath of future floods. Suggestions include reducing construction
activities on flood plains and creating spillways to divert part of the flow in case of high discharge.
Some dykes will be raised and stabilised to protect particularly vulnerable regions.
90
A drought Case Study
The East African drought
Cause:
The 2011 drought in Ethiopia, Djibouti, Kenya, and Somalia was caused by the La Nina phenomenon,
an ocean current in the Pacific which increased the intensity of westerly winds in the Indian ocean,
pulling moisture away from East Africa and towards Australia and Indonesia.
Effects:
•
Most crops failed and 60% of cattle perished due to a lack of water
•
Severe food crisis: lots of people suffer from starvation or malnourishment
•
Thousands fled to refugee camps in hope of food aid from other countries, but many people
died of starvation or disease en route
91
Theme 2, The Natural Environment Case Studies
1. A transnational corporation (Nokia, Finland) 144 ✓
2. A transnational corporation and its global links - TNC (McDonalds) ✓
3. A transnational corporation and its global links (Facebook) ✓
4. A multinational company and its impact on less developed countries (Nike) ✓
5. An arable farm (Glebe Farm, Lincolnshire, United Kingdom) 148 ✓
6. Plantation: Rubber farming (Malaysia) ✓
7. Extensive commercial farming (Canadian prairies) ✓
8. Intensive farming (Ganges Valley) ✓
9. Pastoral farming (New Zealand) ✓
10. Subsistence farming (Amazon Rainforest, Brazil) ✓
11. Subsistence farming (Lesotho) ✓
12. Food shortages (Darfur, Sudan) 152 ✓
13. The Pakistan steel complex (Pipri, Karachi) 158 ✓
14. An area where tourism is important (Dubai, UAE) 166 ✓
15. Tourism (The Seychelles) ✓
16. Tourism (Lanzarote) ✓
17. Ecotourism (Belize) ✓
18. Tourism as a development strategy (Maldives) ✓
19. Energy supply (Iceland) 172 ✓
20. Energy supply (China) ✓
21. Solar power (India) ✓
22. Wind energy (Germany) ✓
23. Water supply (Lesotho) 178 ✓
24. Water supply (Puglia, Italy) ✓
25. Fracking (California, USA) 186 ✓
26. Global warming management (Maldives) ✓
27. Fuelwood (Mali) ✓
28. Soil erosion (Nepal) ✓
29. Transport risks and benefits (Heathrow, United Kingdom) ✓
30. High technology industry (Cambridge Science Park) ✓
92
A transnational corporation Case Study (144)
Nokia, Finland
Location:
Background:
Nokia, a company that produces mobile phones, has branches in many countries because is wants to
reduce costs by opening factories and offices in regions of the world that have low labour costs, cheap
land, cheap building costs, and low business rates. Another reason is to be close to its customers, who
are spread right across the world. Mobile phone ownership has grown rapidly in Newly Industrialising
Countries (NICs) and as people in LEDCs have become wealthier, Nokia has expanded its business
opening new sales offices in Asia, Africa, and South America.
Nokia employs many workers. Some are highly qualified or skilled, such as business managers or
research and development staff. Others, such as assembly workers, do not require high-level
qualifications. So Nokia has chosen to locate the assembly of products in NICs where wages are lower.
However, more highly trained research and development staff work in Europe where Nokia develops
new products which use the latest technology and need highly trained staff to develop and produce
them.
93
The development of the Nokia corporation:
1865 - Mining engineer Fredrik Idestam set up his first wood pulp mill at the Tammerkoski Rapids in
south-western Finland. A few years later, he opened a second mill on the banks of the Nokianvirta
River after which the company was named ‘Nokia Ab.’
1898 - The Finnish Rubber Works was set up, which later became Nokia’s rubber business, making
everything from rubber boots to tyres.
1912 - The Finnish Cable Works was established, the start of Nokia’s cable and electronics business.
1962 - The Finnish Cable Works started branching out into electronics. It made an electronic device
for use in nuclear power plants.
1963 - It started developing radio telephones for the army and emergency services.
1982 - Nokia introduced the first car phone and digital phone.
1987 - Nokia introduced the first handheld mobile phone.
1998 - Nokia was the world leader in mobile phones.
2005 - Nokia sold its billionth phone in Nigeria.
2014 - Microsoft acquired Nokia’s devices and services business.
94
A transnational corporation and its global links (TNC) Case Study
McDonalds
Background:
-
Founded by the McDonald brothers in California in 1940.
-
Taken over by Ray Kroc in 1955 and it was him who made it into a global company.
-
Now operates in 119 countries.
-
33,500+ stores.
-
58 million customers a day globally.
McDonalds is a company at the forefront of globalisation, with more than 35,000 outlets in 121
countries worldwide. Founded in the United States in 1940, the company began as a barbecue
restaurant operated by Richard and Maurice McDonald. McDonalds employs nearly 2 million people to
sell fast food.
How has McDonalds developed its global links?
•
Consistency - similar experience anywhere.
•
Innovation - glocalization (Maharaja Mac in India where they don't eat cow and larger portions
in the US).
•
Resiliency - have faced lots of difficulties, always fight back (formed the Global Advisory
Council in response to health concerns).
What are the positive impacts of McDonalds?
-
Each new store that is built creates jobs (e.g. opening of McDonalds at Kennedybrücke in
Vienna created 30 new jobs) so the GDP goes up.
-
McDonalds is involved in youth sports, local charities, and other inspiring events by donating
via its charities. These charities help support families with sick children.
-
Recycle 75% of cardboard, used cooking oil as fuel for trucks and they have people pick up
litter (locally)
-
Sharing of western culture.
95
What are the negative impacts of McDonalds?
-
Salaries vary per country and are generally low.
-
Sometimes considered to have poor working conditions.
-
Loss of traditions as Western culture in introduced.
-
An increase in the obesity rate in countries.
-
Bad lifestyle for workers making happy meal toys in sweetshops.
-
Bad advertising means that kids grow up thinking that chips are healthy, etc.
-
Help fuel the deforestation of the Amazon.
-
Not all packaging is recycled.
96
A transnational corporation and its global links Case Study
Facebook
Background:
Facebook is the biggest social network and social media platform in the world, connecting more than
2.8 billion people in the world.
Facebook has close links to businesses all of over the world, as it not only owns the messenger service
WhatsApp and the social media platform Instagram, but also offers advertising space through its
Facebook Ads service and allows retailers and people to sell and trade goods in its marketplace.
In the past, Facebook has also come under fire for data partnerships with other TNCs including, but
limited to, Amazon, Microsoft, Yahoo and Spotify. However, amidst privacy concerns, the company has
had to reduce the strength of its global links and is instead shifting towards a slightly more localised
global approach.
Nonetheless, Facebook continues to maintain and develop strong global links through mergers and
acquisitions, its headquarter location in Silicon Valley near other high-tech, and software firms, and its
relationships with governments and business networks all around the world.
97
A multinational company and its impact on less developed countries Case Study
Nike
Background:
Nike is a global sportswear company headquartered in Oregon in the United States. The company
employs around 75.000 people around the world, with an additional 500.000 people working for
companies to which Nike subcontracts most of its manufacturing in Eastern Asia.
Benefits for LEDCs:
-
Nike factories create new jobs in countries like China, Vietnam, Thailand, and Indonesia,
allowing poorer people to earn a wage. The standard of living for many people improves,
increasing the ability to access food and quality housing.
-
Nike has invested in and promoted the development of transport infrastructure in the areas
near the factories. Better roads make it easier for the population to get around, and this has a
positive ripple effect on other economic activity.
Disadvantages:
-
Poor health and safety standards are a major threat to people employed in the factories.
-
Short-term contracts and payment below the national living wage also have a devastating
impact on the local community. For example, in one Cambodian factory that produced apparel
for Nike, several women collapsed after working 10-hour days, six days a week, and they
reported feeling hungry and exhausted.
-
Natural resources such as oil are being overexploited, as they are required for manufacturing.
This has a negative impact on the local environment.
-
Factories are often footloose. This means Nike could relocate to another less developed area if
the local conditions or government policies are deemed unfavourable - with a devastating
impact on employment and the local economy.
98
An arable farm Case Study (148)
Glebe Farm, Lincolnshire, United Kingdom
Location:
Lincolnshire, United Kingdom.
Background:
-
Bought in the 1973 - the same year the UK joined the EU
-
127 hectares
-
Arable farming
-
Good growing season temperatures of 6 ̊ C
-
Summer makes the sandy soil too dry for grass to grow well enough to feed cattle and sheep
-
Gets more sunlight
-
Lack of nutrients due to sandy soil, so needs frequent fertilisation
-
Drainage channels needed to take extra water away
-
Pesticides used to protect from insects and diseases
-
Tractors, plough, sees drill, and combine harvester is used
99
Common agricultural policy:
-
Launched in 1962, the EU’s common agricultural policy (CAP) is a partnership between
agriculture and society, and between Europe and its farmers. It aims to:
-
support farmers and improve agricultural productivity, ensuring a stable supply of affordable
food
-
safeguard European Union farmers to make a reasonable living
-
help tackle climate change and the sustainable management of natural resources
-
maintain rural areas and landscapes across the EU
-
keep the rural economy alive by promoting jobs in farming, agri-foods industries and
associated sectors
100
Plantation: Rubber farming Case Study
Malaysia
Location:
Background:
Plantations are large farms producing a single cash crop (monoculture).
Inputs:
-
Tropical climate (21-28°C, around 2000mm rainfall)
-
Chinese and Indian labour imported to increase labour force
-
Nevea tree
Processes:
1. Planting in germination beds
2. Tapping 5-7 years after planting to collect latex
3. Latex is coagulated using acid
4. Raw rubber washed and rolled to remove acid ad moisture
5. Rubber is dried and smoked for stabilisation
Outputs:
-
Rubber
101
Extensive commercial farming Case Study
Canadian prairies
Extensive farming in the Canadian prairies because of:
-
deep, fertile Chernozem soils
-
large expanse of flat land (nearly 2 million square kilometres) to grow wide variety of cereals
such as wheat, oats etc. in the provinces of Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan
-
able to use large machinery for harvesting
-
below zero temperatures in winter break up soil to allow ease of ploughing
-
good railway link to Great Lakes allowing export of cereal crops
Human inputs:
There is a very heavy reliance on machinery for ploughing, planting, spraying the crop and harvesting. A
large proportion of expenditure goes toward machinery, chemicals, and other equipment. Most of the
work can be handled by just a few workers using machines such as combine harvesters and harrows.
One or two extra helpers may be hired during planting or harvest time.
102
Intensive farming Case Study
Ganges Valley
Inputs:
-
Rice seeds
-
Alluvial (silt) soils
-
Large labour force
-
Temperatures: >21°C
-
Water buffaloes for ploughing
Processes:
-
Ploughing
-
Planting
-
Harvesting
-
Threshing
-
Weeding
Outputs:
-
Rice
-
Rice seeds
Problems:
-
Weather conditions such as flooding, or drought may threaten rice yields
-
Monopoly of land: best farmland is owned by few wealthy people, other landowners struggle to
cultivate rice in more difficult conditions, especially as they do not have the technology to
increase soil fertility
-
Little use of machinery and modern methods
-
Food shortages: Overpopulation results in overcultivation on flood plains, leading to soil
exhaustion and lower yields
103
Pastoral farming Case Study
New Zealand
Background:
New Zealand is well known for its agricultural output from sheep farming and dairy farming.
Sheep farming inputs:
-
Sheep were brought to New Zealand in the 1800s by British sailors. Initially, the sheep had few
natural enemies, so their numbers increased rapidly.
-
The sheep are also well adapted to the mild climate and the rich pasture, particularly on the
mountainous slopes of South Island.
Processes:
-
Feeding
-
Shearing to obtain wool
-
Milking
Sheep farming outputs:
-
Meat
-
Wool
-
Milk
-
Sheep manure for fertilizing
104
Dairy farming inputs:
-
Cow breeds
-
Mild climate with high rates of precipitation
-
Alluvial and volcanic soils on the flat planes of New Zealand
-
Special facilities including water troughs, fencing, milking machines and cowshed
-
Labour
Dairy farming processes:
-
Grazing
-
Milking
-
Drenching
-
Calving
Dairy farming outputs:
-
Milk
-
Calves
-
Meat
105
Subsistence farming Case Study
Amazon Rainforest, Brazil
Location:
Background:
Shifting cultivation is an agricultural practice in which areas of land are cultivated temporarily and
abandoned as they become infertile. This allows the land to revert to its natural vegetation and is a
sustainable farming technique. Shifting cultivation is mainly practised by indigenous tribes.
106
Subsistence farming Case Study
Lesotho
Background:
Lesotho is a landlocked country that borders South Africa. It relies heavily on subsistence farming, with
an estimated 86% of the country’s population growing their own crops and maintaining livestock.
Subsistence farming is common in the lowland’s northwest of Maseru, where the terrain is flat and
thus suited for the cultivation of crops. In mountainous areas, many farmers also raise livestock to
compensate for the lower yields from cultivation on mountain slopes.
Additionally, subsistence farmers in vast parts of Lesotho raise livestock, which can be sold during
drought years when crop yields are low. This provides food security for the farmer’s family.
107
Food shortages Case Study (152)
Darfur, Sudan
Location:
Western Sudan
Background:
-
Sudan separated into 2 countries in 2011.
-
River Nile runs through Sudan.
-
The area often receives no rainfall.
-
An acute crisis in nutritional status with 33% of the population in North Darfur malnourished
and 5.4% severely malnourished.
-
Nearly 4 million people are severely affected by food shortages.
108
Causes:
•
Drought: Long-term decline in rainfall in southern Sudan (by 20% since 1970s). The Northern
Libyan Desert is constantly dry.
•
High population growth (4% in 2013) increases demand for food, so unsustainable farming
practices such as overgrazing and overcultivation are used, resulting in land degradation and
soil erosion.
•
Reliance on food imports from neighbouring countries: Uganda, Kenya, and Sudan.
•
Civil war between government and rebel forces disrupts planting and harvesting and insecurity
along transport routes has hampered the delivery of food and other humanitarian supplies.
•
Locusts.
•
Displacement fuelled by the recent military campaign in Jebel Marra has contributed to
increased food insecurity in South Darfur.
109
The Pakistan steel complex Case Study (158)
Pipri, Karachi
Location:
Background:
-
flat, cheap land available at Pipri, near Gharo Creek
-
near Port Qasim, which has a natural harbour to import raw materials and export steel
-
close to market: steel-using industries in Karachi, such as tool making
-
energy source from Pipri thermal power station and Karachi nuclear power station
-
availability of cheap labour from Karachi
-
along a railway: Karachi-Pipri-Kotri and metalled roads
-
economic assistance from USSR: technical expertise and capital
-
water required for making steel brought from Lake Haleji
110
Inputs:
-
iron ore
-
coke
-
limestone
-
scrap iron
Processes:
-
heating of ore to separate iron
-
burning coke
-
rolling into sheets and cutting into lengths
Outputs:
-
cast iron and pig iron
-
slag
-
gases: sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, hydrogen sulphide
Problems:
-
noise pollution from machinery disturbs wildlife
-
visual pollution due to large, ugly factory buildings
-
air pollution from burning iron ore, which releases carbon dioxide
-
water pollution from contaminated cooling water, scrubber effluent and ships supplying raw
materials
-
depletion of freshwater supplies due to excessive requirement of water in production
-
risk of fire and explosions
111
An area where tourism is important Case Study (166)
Dubai, UAE
Location:
It is located on the southern shore of the Persian Gulf.
Background:
Dubai is one of the seven emirates that make up the United Arab Emirates (UAE) on the Arabian
Peninsula. It is a busy urban area, but outside the city itself, it is a sparsely populated desert.
Climate:
Dubai has a sub-tropical , arid climate. Rainfall is infrequent and irregular, falling only on about five
days per year. The mean daily temperature maximum is 30 ̊ C in January, rising to over 40 ̊ C in July.
112
From a desert to a top tourist destination:
Dubai’s growing tourist industry accounts for over 30% of its GDP. In 1998, there were only 2 million
tourists, but by 2014, this increased to over 5 million. Growth continues to increase at 10% per year.
Hotels and apartments record over 9 million guests per year, generating revenues of more than US$4
billion. In a short period of time, tourism has transformed an area of desert into one of the world's top
destinations of the 21st century.
What is likely for the future of Dubai?
Dubai used to rely on its oil reserves to survive, but now tourism is the most rapidly increasing sector
of the economy, and it has one of the fastest rates of tourism growth in the world. However, this
means that there may be an impact on the natural environment.
Impacts:
In a recent survey, the UAE was least environmentally friendly country due to its extensive usage of air
conditioning and desalinated water. Cheaply available oil is used to desalinate the water which is used
to water the tropical landscapes planted in hotel grounds. It is used to fuel cars in a city designed for
cars rather than pedestrians. People are becoming aware that such a lifestyle may not be sustainable,
and that Dubai’s low-lying reclaimed coasts are at risk from flooding as the sea level rises.
Building tourist hotels and facilities in the desert has great environmental costs and building The
World islands on land reclaimed from the sea resulted in 33 million cubic metres of sand being
dredged up from the seabed to make the islands. Areas of coral have also been damaged by sediment
deposits.
Management:
This rapid growth needs effective management. The government is creating new laws and the ruling
family is managing new projects to meet the challenge of building a sustainable tourist destination in
the desert.
113
Tourism Case Study
The Seychelles
Location:
The Seychelles is an archipelago of 115 islands in the Indian Ocean, off East Africa.
Background:
It's home to numerous beaches, coral reefs, and nature reserves, as well as rare animals such as giant
Aldabra tortoises.
Mahé, a hub for visiting the other islands, is home to capital Victoria. It also has the mountain
rainforests of Morne Seychellois National Park and beaches, including Beau Vallon and Anse Takamaka.
114
Tourism Case Study
Lanzarote
Location:
Background:
-
With more than 2 million visitors annually, tourism represents the major pillar of Lanzarote’s
economy.
-
Climate: average water temperature of 20°C, and average air temperature of 21°C, very little
rainfall, and 8.5 hours of sunshine each day.
Main attractions:
-
Numerous luxury and package hotels on beaches e.g. Playa Blanca
-
Jameos del Agua: an underground lagoon in a lava tube
-
Timanfaya National Park
-
El Golfo: an emerald, green lake situated at the base of a crater on the west coast of the island
-
Cueva de los Verdes
-
Cactus Garden by Cesar Manrique
115
Benefits:
-
Since the 1980’s , package holidays have created a source of income to promote the
development of basic infrastructures, such as the extension of the airport runway to allow for
international flights.
-
Employment opportunities in tourist industries e.g. hotels, gastronomy, transport, tour guides.
Disadvantages:
Import leakage to fulfil tourist demands such as food, because only few types of vegetation can thrive
on Lanzarote’s arid, volcanic soils.
116
Ecotourism Case Study
Belize
Location:
Background:
With 245 000 tourists annually, in 2007, over 25% of all jobs were in tourism, which made up over
18% of Belize’s GDP.
Primary and secondary attractions:
-
Mangrove swamps
-
Wetlands
-
Savannah
-
Mountain pine forests and tropical rainforests
-
Coral reef
-
Archaeological sites e.g. Mayan civilization
-
Wildlife reserves e.g. Coxcomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary
117
How tourist demands are managed:
-
Belize Tourist board, Ministry of Tourism, and private sector
-
Community Baboon Sanctuary to preserve forest habitat and howler monkeys: sustainable
farming to increase yield and services for tourists
Problems / Threats:
-
Waste dumping and financial leakage due to cruise tourism
-
Overfishing
-
Coral damage and eutrophication of freshwater from fertilizer runoff
Aims:
-
conserve world heritage site of barrier reef
-
increase knowledge of country’s ecosystems through training programmes
-
reduce concentration of tourists in specific areas
-
support planning and development of a buffer zone
-
stricter regulations on cruise ships to reduce waste dumping
-
persuade cruise tourists to spend more time on land
118
Tourism as a development strategy Case Study
Maldives
Location:
Background:
-
The Maldives is located south-west of India in the Indian ocean and consist of more than 1000
islands.
-
Tourism accounts for 28% of the Maldives’ GDP and more than 60% of its foreign exchange
receipts.
Natural attractions:
-
sea-sun-sand combination
-
climate
-
coral
Man-made attractions:
-
Luxury resorts and suites e.g. Taj Exotica Resort and Spa on South Male Atoll
-
Grand Friday Mosque in Male attracts religious tourists
119
How tourist demands are managed:
-
Water provided by desalination of sea water
-
Energy produced by generators
-
Waste dumped in landfill sites or sea (this problem is addressed by the compulsory installation
of incinerators, bottle crushers and compactors in all resorts)
Problems / Threats:
-
Import leakage due to poor agricultural potential and no economic minerals
-
External shocks: sea-level rise, tsunamis, terrorism, etc.
-
Depletion of natural resources and climate change
How tourism is damaging the natural environment:
On the Maldives, tropical coconut palms are destroyed for building hotels. Consequently, the
ecosystem is threatened as food chains are destroyed or disrupted. For example, lizards lose their
natural habitat. Animals are also scared away by traffic. Besides, a ferry from Male every 10 minutes
pollutes the seas, threatening the corals. The reefs are also destroyed as tourists take samples home
and leave litter on the beaches that may kill reef fish. The atmosphere is polluted by the incineration of
waste.
Aims:
-
Encourage linkage between tourism and other sectors as construction, manufacturing, and
transport (multiplier effect)
-
Encourage foreign investment in the development of new resorts
-
Increase employment
-
Encourage solar and wind power
120
An energy supply Case Study (172)
Iceland
Location:
Mid Atlantic Ridge - Constructive Plate boundary
Background:
•
300,000 people
•
High precipitation - over 800mm per year - good for HEP
•
¾ of the population live in the capital Reykjavik
•
19% imported from fossil fuels
Geothermal Energy:
-
66% of energy use from Geothermal energy
-
there are 30 active volcanoes in Iceland
-
Five major geothermal power plants exist in Iceland
-
Geothermal energy also provides tourist attractions such as the Blue Lagoon
121
Iceland is located along the Mid-Atlantic ridge, a divergent boundary where heat from the core of the
Earth rises to the surface. The energy produced from this heat equates to around 30% of Iceland’s
electricity production.
Cold water is pumped down to the igneous rock layers, where it is heated by contact with the hot
rocks. The hot water is then piped up and the heat energy is converted to electricity.
The geothermal water originates 2,000 metres below the surface, where freshwater and seawater
combine at extreme temperatures. It is then harnessed via drilling holes at a nearby geothermal power
plant, Svartsengi, to create electricity and hot water for nearby communities. About 85% of all houses
in Iceland are heated with geothermal energy.
122
An energy supply Case Study
China
Location:
Background:
China sources most of its energy from non-renewable sources, with coal-powered plants accounting for
roughly 65% of the country’s energy supply in 2020, according to data from the International Energy
Association. Renewable sources accounted for another 30% of the country’s energy mix. In China,
hydropower is the most-widespread source of renewable energy, and the country boasts many dams,
including the Three Gorges Dam, which is the largest dam in the world. Wind, nuclear energy and solar
power are also becoming more important as the country aims to transition to cleaner and more
efficient energy sources, following the president’s call for an energy revolution.
123
Solar power Case Study
India
Background:
India is particularly suitable for solar power due its large mass of land and its tropical location. Besides,
solar power is considered a successful means to address India’s development problems.
Advantages of solar power:
-
Safe and pollution-free.
-
Great potential in rural areas that are isolated from the national electricity grids e.g. Dharnai
Village.
-
Can be used effectively for low power uses as central heating.
Disadvantages of solar power:
-
ineffective in high latitude countries and cloudy areas
-
high initial capital input
-
less effective for high output uses
Future plans:
-
establishing an airport that relies solely on solar power in Cochin
-
developing 50 solar cities
-
creating world’s largest solar power station in Madhya Pradesh
124
Wind energy Case Study
Germany
Location:
Background:
Around 9% of the energy produced in Germany comes from wind turbines located both on shore and
offshore (in the North Sea and Baltic Sea).
Wind farms have been built in Germany starting from the 1990s, when awareness of Co2 as a
contributing factor to global warming increased.
Primarily, the government fostered the production of onshore wind energy, as technical challenges
prevented offshore farms. The onshore farms were recognised as a cheap form of renewable energy,
which does not contribute to air pollution, global warming, or acid rain. On the other hand, people did
not want to live near wind farms, as these were considered a form of visual pollution.
This issue was resolved by the development of offshore farms, which are also more productive as there
is more wind out at sea. However, the required network capacities for transmitting the power
generated in the North Sea to the large industrial consumers in southern Germany have not yet been
constructed.
125
A water supply Case Study (178)
Lesotho
Location:
A country within South Africa. It is landlocked.
Background:
Most of the highlands are to the East where villages can only be reached on horseback, on foot or light
plane. These highlands receive heavy rainfall, so the valleys are good for building dams & reservoirs.
Western Lesotho - receives less than 250mm of rainfall per year but depends on some of the
tributaries for irrigation and domestic use.
Eastern Lesotho (highlands) - receives heavy rainfall (Over 1000mm/ year).
Three dams will transport water by tunnels and pipelines to the West.
Lesotho Highland Water Project (LHWP):
-
It is the largest civil engineering project in Africa.
-
Construction began in 1988.
-
40% of the Orange River will go through five large scale dams
-
Water to be used for agriculture, domestic & industrial and the remaining sold to South Africa.
126
Aims of LHWP:
•
To provide Lesotho with its own reliable water supply especially for irrigation.
•
To transfer (for a fee) any extra water to South Africa - the income would then be used to
improve quality of life in Lesotho.
Positives:
-
Provides jobs
-
Allows year-round irrigation of crops (corn & wheat)
-
Opportunities for tourism
-
Generates HEP
-
Can use the money from South Africa to develop industry
Negatives:
-
Relocation of 30,000 people
-
Culture and the way of life changed
-
Lesotho becomes dependant on South Africa
127
A water supply Case Study
Puglia, Italy
Location:
Background:
Puglia is one of the most water-scarce regions in Italy and has very few fresh streams or natural rivers.
Its aquifers are vulnerable to contamination by seawater, and so the area’s inhabitants built a large
aqueduct to tap into the fresh drinking water from an underground spring in the Campania region,
located more than 160 km away.
Today, cities in the Puglia region (such as Bari) still receive some of their water for domestic use from
this original aqueduct. However, precipitation in the Campania region has become less frequent in
recent years, and so less water is draining into the aquifer that feeds the aqueduct.
Therefore, Puglia also gets around 250 million cubic meters of water every year from the neighbouring
region of Basilicata. The local authorities have even considered piping water in across the Adriatic Sea
from Albania, to help the region cope with supply shortages.
128
Fracking Case Study (186)
California, USA
Location:
What is fracking?
Fracking is a process for extracting oil and natural gas from the ground by blasting water and
chemicals into underground rocks. It is not a new process for extracting energy, but it used to be
extremely expensive. What is new, is that the technology has improved, and costs have come down so
that it can now be used economically on land. In addition, recent global events have meant that more
countries want to find and use their own energy sources and not rely on others.
129
Negative impacts of fracking:
Economic development usually requires energy and fuel resources. The exploitation of all energy
sources has some effect on the world we live in.
-
Coal produces gases that may cause global warming
-
Nuclear power produces dangerous waste that is difficult to store
-
Oil can produce spills that damage the natural environment
-
HEP and tidal power change river flow and ecosystems
-
Wind farms affect the landscape
While these impacts are undesirable, the consequences of an energy shortage are far worse. While
energy production has social, economic, and environmental costs, so too do shortages. Fracking is seen
as a way that countries such as the USA and UK can free themselves from being dependent on oil and
gas from countries like Russia, Saudi Arabia, and Iraq.
130
Global warming management Case Study
Maldives
Background:
The Maldives is located in the Indian Ocean, only 1,5 m above sea level on average, with 80% percent
of the land below 1m.
Global warming is a substantial threat to the Maldives, as an increase in temperatures leads to the
melting of icebergs, causing sea level rise that may submerge the island group.
The Maldivian Government has built a 3m high sea wall that surrounds the island of Male, to protect it
from flooding and preserve its beaches. The sea wall was funded by the Japanese government.
Also, the Maldives plan to be a carbon neutral country by 2019. In other words, they try to avoid
adding Co2 to the atmosphere, as carbon dioxide is considered to be responsible for global warming.
This should be accomplished by encouraging the development of solar and wind energy.
131
Fuelwood Case Study
Mali
Location:
Background:
In Mali, large amounts of fuelwood are used for cooking and heating, especially in rural areas, where
electricity networks have not been developed.
Problems:
-
For local people: The large-scale deforestation that is required to supply for sufficient energy
is problematic, as this energy source is likely to run out if not enough trees will be planted.
Besides, deforestation requires people to travel farther to collect enough fuelwood.
Deforestation also exposes the soil (as trees cannot trap it) so soil erosion is likely to occur.
Furthermore, the burning of fuelwood releases toxic gases which may be trapped in the
houses, causing breathing problems or even carbon monoxide poisoning.
132
-
Environmental: The widespread deforestation has reduced the humidity of the already dry
region, as less plants release water by evapotranspiration. Also, less roots are anchored in the
soil, so the soil is more likely to be eroded. Furthermore, soil salinization is increased, as the
cut-down trees no longer provide shade for the soil and the hot temperatures-caused by the
desert climate of the Sahel- draw water out of the soil. As an increased soil concentration is
poisonous to a large variety of plant species, the natural vegetation will be less likely to grow,
and crop cultivation may be hampered.
133
Soil erosion Case Study
Nepal
Location:
Background:
25% of Nepalese forest was removed between 1990 and 2005 and this trend continues at a rate of
3% per year.
134
Causes of land degradation in Nepal:
-
Deforestation for fuelwood exposes soil to heavy monsoon rainfalls as there will be less
vegetation to protect it, causing it to be washed away by extreme surface runoff. Besides, soil
is not held together by tree roots, so it can be eroded by ice water runoff from melting glaciers.
-
Soil dries out in areas of low rainfall and strong winds can then remove the loose particles.
-
Agricultural mismanagement: poor farming practises such as overcultivation and overgrazing
(which deplete the soil’s nutrients) damage the ground vegetation and result in the
compaction of topsoil.
-
Soil pollution through excessive use of pesticides poisons bacteria and fungi and thereby
disrupts symbiotic relationships.
Solutions:
-
Crop rotation prevents depletion of nutrients and replenishes soil fertility.
-
Contour ploughing rather than ploughing up and down the slopes to prevent rapid run-off,
gully formation and loss of soil.
-
Fuelwood conservation: replacing trees where deforestation has taken place or is going to
occur.
-
Environmental education: restrict tourist visits and demand larger fee for use of heating and
cooking facilities; environmental education in schools.
135
Transport risks and benefits Case Study
Heathrow, United Kingdom
Background:
Discussions about an expansion of Heathrow Airport, Europe`s busiest airport by passenger traffic,
arose in 2006, and still, no final decision has been made, as supporters and opposition have been
arguing about the benefits and disadvantages for 10 years.
Benefits on an expansion:
-
Enhancing economic growth in the UK: Heathrow functions as a major transport hub for both
business travellers and tourists, transporting around 70 million passengers annually.
-
Benefits for financial services industry in London and other independent firms e.g. inflight
catering, security services.
-
Better connectivity to other international cities, as more destinations can be scheduled.
-
Waiting times would be reduced as the airport operates at a lower capacity.
-
Construction provides up to 100,000 jobs.
Disadvantages of an expansion:
-
Increase in emission of greenhouse gases from additional flights.
-
Community destruction: removal of 4000 houses to make space for a runway.
-
Increased noise and air pollution in West London due to an increase in flights: roaring airplane
engines and their exhaust fumes.
-
Impact on wildlife.
136
A high technology industry Case Study
Cambridge Science Park, United Kingdom
Location:
Background:
Cambridge Science Park is a Europe’s largest centre for commercial research and development. It is
located near Cambridge in the United Kingdom, as Cambridge University provides a large supply of
expert labour and allows for the sharing of technology. Besides, a large plot of land (152 acres / 61.5
hectares) had been available for a low cost, as the facility is located outside of the urban area around
London. Nevertheless, good transport facilities exist, including the M11 motorway link to London for
the export of finished products and London Stansted International Airport which allows for worldwide
trade.
137