EUROPEAN HISTORY
CHAPTER 1: CAUSES OF WORLD WAR 1
The First World War started in 1914 up to 1918 and was caused by many factors and events as
discussed below:
1. The Franco- Prussian War of 1870-71




This was a war between France and Prussia (Germany). Prussia was one of the powerful
and loosely controlled German states under Chancellor Otto Van Bismarck. The war
started after France had learnt that the Spanish throne had been offered to a Prussian
called Leopold. The French feared that if Leopold became a ruler of Spain, he might
establish Prussian influence on France’s frontier.
The French ruler, Napoleon Bonaparte declared war on Prussia (Germany) and France
was defeated. After France was defeated the two signed the Treaty of Frankfurt in the
Hall of Mirrors whereby France was to pay Prussia the reparations of five billion Francs.
The rich industrial area of France called Alsace-Lorraine was also taken by Prussia during
the signing of the treaty.
The defeat of France by Prussia and the signing of the Treaty humiliated France because
it was harsh since Alsace-Lorraine was the back bone of her economy. France was
determined to revenge or reverse the terms of the treaty of Frankfurt; the treaty caused
tension between France and Prussia (Germany) and made war possible in future.
After defeating France Bismarck called for the unification of all German states in order to
form a more powerful Germany under one authority. Other German states joined Prussia
to form a new Germany. Bismarck was appointed the Chancellor and Wilhelm I became
the Emperor or the Kaiser. Bismarck was convinced that he had secured national security
for all Germans.
2. THE ALLIANCE SYSTEM
After the Franco-Prussian war Bismarck came up with a system of alliances by recruiting European
countries to become friends with Germany. The main reason was to isolate France from the rest
of Europe. Bismarck believed that once France was separated and had no friends, no country
could support her against Germany in the event of war. Germany failed to isolate France in Europe
because she was joined by other Great Powers to form alliances that opposed Germany and saw
her as their enemy. The system of alliances brought mistrust between the Great powers and also
divided them into two hostile camps, by 1914 the great powers were divided into two armed
camps being the Triple Alliance (Germany, Italy and Austria) against the Triple Entente (France,
Russia and Britain) . The Great powers joined the war in 1914 to assist their friends.
Alliances formed by the Great Powers before 1914
1







The Three Emperors’ League of 1873: Members were Germany, Russia and Austria. They
agreed to assist each other if one of them was attacked by more than one country. They
also agreed to consult each other on matters affecting the Balkans. Their agreement was
verbal.
The Dual Alliance of 1879: Members were Germany and Austria. They agreed to assist
each other if one of them was attacked by an enemy e.g. either France or Russia.
Triple Alliance of 1882: Members were Germany, Austria and Italy. Germany had
encouraged France to take over Tunisia which Italy was interested in colonizing, Italy saw
France as an enemy and joined Germany and Austria to form this Alliance. They agreed
to assist each other if one of them were attacked by more than one country.
The Secret Re-Insurance treaty of 1887: Members were Germany and Russia; Germany
wanted to assure Russia that they were still friends. They agreed that Germany would
assist Russia with finance. The treaty would be renewed after every 4 years.
The Franco – Russian Alliance of 1894: Members were France and Russia. This Alliance
was formed after Kaiser William II did not renew the Re –Insurance Treaty; Russia felt
isolated in Europe and became closer to France. They both saw Germany as an enemy
and agreed to assist each other if one of them was attacked by Germany. France would
also assist Russia with finance.
The Entente Cordial of 1904: Members were France and Britain. For a long time Britain
had adopted the Policy of Splendid Isolation whereby she did not want to be involved in
European affairs, her interest was to expand the British Empire by acquiring colonies
outside Europe as they were her source of wealth. After Germany had formed many
friendships with other powers, Britain became suspicious of Germany and decided to
find a friend in Europe. Britain and France had conflicts over colonies in North Africa;
they signed this friendship in order to solve these conflicts and agreed to be friends.
The Triple Entente of 1907: Members were France, Britain and Russia. Russia became
the third member of the Entente Cordial; it now became the Triple Entente. They agreed
to assist each other if one of them was attacked by members of the Triple Alliance.
3. Colonial Rivalry
This was competition between the Great Powers in owning colonies. Colonies provided the Great
Powers with resources and helped them to expand their territories or Empires. The Great Powers
clashed or had conflicts over some territories which they wanted to colonize. Colonial Rivalry
brought tension between the Great Powers because sometimes they failed to solve their conflicts
over territories. An example of Colonial Rivalry was the Moroccan Crisis of 1905 and 1911.
First Moroccan Crisis of 1905 (Tangier crisis of 1905)

The event took place in the city of Morocco, Tangier. Britain and France had signed the
Entente Cordial (friendship between the two) to solve their conflict on colonies in North
Africa. They agreed that Britain should colonize Egypt and France to colonize Morocco.
2



Germany wanted to test the strength of the Entente Cordial. In 1905 Keizer William II, the
king of Germany visited Tangier. During his visit he made a speech supporting the
independence of Morocco from France.
Kaiser’s actions angered the French because they felt that Germany was interfering in
their affairs in Morocco. A conference was called in Algeciras, Spain to resolve the matter.
During the conference other Great powers especially Britain condemned Germany and
supported France to colonize Morocco.
Kaiser William II was humiliated and bitter since the support of Britain on France during
the crisis proved that the Entente Cordial was strong. The Tangier Crisis created tension
between Germany and France.
Second Moroccan Crisis of 1911(Agadir Crisis of 1911)




The event took place in Agadir, the port of Morocco in 1911. Germany wanted to test the
strength of the Entente Cordial for the second time (friendship between France and
Britain).
Germany sent a gunboat, the Panther to the port of Agadir. France did not like German’s
actions because Morocco was a French colony. Britain also feared that Germany was
establishing a naval base in Agadir, this would block British route in the Mediterranean
Sea.
Britain warned Germany to remove her gunboat at Agadir. Kaizer William II (king of
Germany) was not prepared to fight the British; he removed the Panther from Agadir.
Britain has supported France again in Morocco after the Tangier crisis of 1905. This
proved to Kaiser William II that the Entente Cordial was stronger.
Keizer William II was humiliated and bitter. The Agadir crisis created tension between
Germany and France, Germany and Britain.
4. The Arms Race




This was competition between the Great powers in manufacturing weapons like bombs,
tanks, aircrafts, guns and ammunition.
Some countries like Germany increased the size of their army by recruiting young men
who had reached the age of 21 (conscription). Some countries spent a lot of money in
strengthening their military. Tension between the Great powers had reached a boiling
point and they saw that war was unavoidable.
After increasing their armies the Great powers were confident that should war start each
one of they would be victorious.
The arms race resulted in mistrust and jealousy between the Great powers, this created
tension between them and provoked war. An example of the Arms Race was the Naval
Rivalry/Naval Race between Britain and Germany;
3
The Naval Rivalry between Germany and Britain:




This was competition between Germany and Britain in building battleships. The conflict
started when Germany announced under the Tirpitz Law that she was going to build her
own navy. Britain dominated in owning large navy in Europe and was given the nickname
“Mistress of the sea”.
Britain felt that she needed a navy more than any other country in Europe because she
was an Island, she could be attacked from any other angle; she also used the navy to
protect her colonies and her growing trade outside Europe. Britain feared that if Germany
built her own navy she would dominate in Europe because she had a powerful military
and was given the nickname “Mother of the land”.
Britain felt that Germany just wanted to compete with her in building battleships because
Germany was a landlocked country and did not need to have a large navy. Germany
explained that she needed a large navy to protect her growing trade outside Europe. The
two countries spent a lot of money in building battleships.
Britain built powerful battleships called Dreadnoughts; Germany also built her own
Dreadnoughts. The two countries competed in building these powerful battleships, by
1914 Britain had 29 Dreadnoughts and Germany had 17. The Naval rivalry caused tension
between Britain and Germany.
The Balkans
The Balkans is an area in Eastern Europe which was occupied by people of Slav origin. States that
made up the Balkans were Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Greece, Albania and Romania. These
Balkan states were under the Turkish rule (Ottoman Empire). The Balkan states wanted to be
independent from Turkey since they felt that the Turks/Jews were exploiting the Slavs by
collecting tax from them. The Slavs revolted or set uprisings to chase Turkey out of the Balkans.
Serbia was the first Balkan state to be independent from Turkey in 1829. After being independent
Serbia had a dream of uniting all the Slavs in Europe and form the state of Yugoslavia.
Nationalism/Pan Slavism by Serbia angered Austria because she had interests in the Balkans
(Austria already had about 3 million Slavs as part of her empire). Austria feared that if Serbia
achieved her dream of uniting all the Slavs in Europe, those who were part of the Austrian empire
would break away and join the new state of Yugoslavia. Austria had to make sure that Nationalism
failed in the Balkans and this created tension/conflict between Serbia and Austria which
ultimately led to war in 1914.
The Eastern Question?
In the 19th century Turkey was referred to as the “Sick man of Europe” because she was losing
control of her territories in Europe, this created crisis because there were uprisings in Turkish
territories such as the Balkans which destabilized peace in Europe. Some of the Great Powers
such as Russia, Britain and Austria who had interests in the Balkans wondered what would happen
to the Balkans after Turkey had left. The basis of the Eastern Question on the Great Powers was;
4



What would happen to European territories of the Ottoman Empire/Turkey?
Who would benefit when Turkey had collapsed?
If the Balkans gained independence from Turkey, who would be able to control or use
them?
5. Events in the Balkans that contributed to World War One/How
the Conflict between Austria and Serbia from 1908 contributed to
World War One:
After being independent Serbia had a dream of uniting all the Slavs in Europe and form the state
of Yugoslavia. This Nationalism by Serbia was a threat to Austria because she had interests in
acquiring territories in the Balkans to expand her Empire. Austria feared that if Serbia achieved
her dream of uniting all the Slavs in Europe, Slavs who were part of the Austrian empire would
break away and join the new state of Yugoslavia. Austria had to make sure that Nationalism failed
in the Balkans and this created tension between Serbia and Austria which ultimately led to war in
1914. Some of the conflicts between Austria and Serbia which led to war in 1914 were the
following;
(a) Bosnian crisis of 1908:





The Bosnian crisis was the conflict that arose between Serbia and Austria. After gaining
independence from Turkey, Serbia wanted to create the Greater Serbian state that would
unite all the Slavs in the Balkans into a united state called Yugoslavia.
Austria was worried by Serbia’s nationalism in the Balkans because there were 3 million
Slavs in the Austrian empire; Austria feared that these Slavs would leave her empire and
join the state of Yugoslavia. Austria had to find a way of blocking nationalism in the
Balkans.
Serbia wanted to take Bosnia and make her part of the Greater Serbian state in the
Balkans. Austria annexed Bosnia (made her part of the Austrian empire). Serbia was
against the Austrian action. Serbia appealed to Russia for help since Russia was the Father
of the Slavs in the Balkans.
A conference was called to resolve the issue, Austria did not attend but Germany
attended on behalf of Austria because of the Dual alliance. During the conference Russia
condemned Austria for taking Bosnia. Germany supported Austria to annex Bosnia and
told Russia to back off.
Russia was not ready to face Germany as she was militarily weak, Russia backed down.
Austria had succeeded in blocking Serbia to take Bosnia. The Bosnian crisis created
tension between Serbia and Austria, Russia and Austria, Russia and Germany.
(b) The First Balkan wars of 1912:
5




The Balkans was under Turkish rule. In 1912 the Balkan states (Serbia, Montenegro,
Bulgaria, Greece, Albania and Romania) formed the Balkan League.
They fought Turkey and defeated her. After chasing Turkey out of the Balkans the, Balkan
League shared some Turkish territories among themselves in Europe. Serbia gained some
land and grew big. Austria feared that if Serbia grew big she would be influential and
achieve her dream of nationalism in the Balkans.
Serbia wanted to make Albania part of the Greater Serbian State which would give her
access to the sea. Austria had to make sure that Serbia did not gain more land in the
Balkans as this would make her achieve nationalism.
Austria supported the independence of Albania. The Support of the independence of
Albania by Austria caused tension between Serbia and Austria as this blocked Serbia’s
dream of nationalism in the Balkans.
(c) The Second Balkan Wars of 1913:




After defeating Turkey and chasing her out of Europe, the Balkan League (Serbia,
Montenegro, Bulgaria, Greece Albania and Romania) fought among each other.
Bulgaria felt cheated when they shared the land that they took from Turkey after the First
Balkan war in 1912. Bulgaria declared war on other members of the League.
Bulgaria was defeated, during the Treaty of Bucharest she lost all the land she gained
after the First Balkan war in 1912 to the members of the Balkan league. Serbia gained
more land from Bulgaria and grew bigger.
Austria felt threatened as the growth of Serbia would make her achieve Nationalism in
the Balkans and wanted to crush Serbia once and for all, a conference was called to
resolve the issue. This created tension between Serbia and Austria and a possible war in
future.
(d) The Sarajevo Incident of 1914



Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria together with his wife Sophie
visited the city of Sarajevo in Bosnia. During their visit they were shot and killed
(assassinated) by a Bosnian, Gavillo Princip, who was a student in Serbia and also a
member of the rebel group called The Black Hand Movement in Serbia.
Austria blamed Serbia for the assassination of Franz and his wife. Serbia requested Austria
to give her time to investigate the matter to prove that she was not involved in the
assassination. Austria rejected Serbia’s request and sent a 48 hours stiff ultimatum (set
of demands) to Serbia.
Serbia accepted all the demands but rejected the clause which stated that she should lose
her independence. Britain tried to resolve the conflict between the two countries by
calling for a conference but Austria refused because she had found an
opportunity/excuse to destroy Serbia because she knew that Serbia would not agree to
lose her independence.
6

Austria declared war on Serbia after confirming with Germany if she would assist her to
fight Serbia. Germany offered Austria total support (Blank Cheque) to fight Serbia. Russia
mobilized to assist Serbia as the “Father of the Slavs” or the Protector of the Slavs in
Europe. Germany declared war on Russia in 1st August 1914 and also on France in 3rd
August 2014 because the two were members of the Triple Entente. The Sarajevo incident
sparked war in Europe; the war that was supposed to be between Austria and Serbia
was joined by the Great powers because of the alliance system in order to assist their
allies/friends. The Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria and Italy) fought against the Triple
Entente (France, Britain and Russia) in 1914. The tensions that the Great powers had
had before 1914 were now sparked into a war by this incident.
6. The War Plans:
The Great powers drew plans to strategize on how they would attack each other as they
anticipated war due to the tensions/conflicts they have had for a long time. An example of War
plan was the Schlieffen plan of 1905 which was a German War plan, Plan 17 French war plan and
BEF which was a British war plan.
The Schlieffen Plan of 1905/Features of the Schlieffen Plan






This was the German war plan which was drawn by General Von Schlieffen. The plan was
to strategize on how to avoid fighting war on two fronts at the same time (between Russia
and France).
Germany planned to attack France first and defeat her within six weeks, then attack
Russia and defeat her within eight weeks.
The right wing which was to attack France was to be kept strong to defeat France quickly,
the left wing was to guard the Russian border to monitor her mobilization and a small
portion of the army was to guard Alsace-Lorraine from France.
The plan was to launch a surprise attack on France by invading her through a neutral place
which was Belgium.
The army was to march to France and encircle Paris which was the capital of France.
The army would be transported to the Russian border after defeating France.
Assumptions of the Schlieffen Plan:



Germany assumed that Russia would be slow to mobilize that is why she planned to attack
France first and kept the army that was to attack France stronger.
Germany assumed that Belgium would not resist the invasion as it was a small country
that is why she planned to attack France through Belgium.
Germany assumed that Britain would not enter the war to protect Belgium’s neutrality
that is why it planned to invade Belgium which was protected by the London treaty.
7

Germany assumed that it would defeat France quickly that is why it planned to fight
France for six weeks and defeat Russia within eight weeks.
Why the Schlieffen plan failed in 1914?




Russia mobilized quickly and the German Generals panicked and weakened the right wing
that was to attack France quickly by transporting some of the soldiers to the Russian
border to monitor Russia’s mobilization.
Belgium resisted the German invasion by preventing Germany to pass through her, this
delayed Germany by two weeks to attack France. This gave France an opportunity to
mobilize quickly while the German army was fighting with the Belgians.
Britain entered the war to protect Belgium’s neutrality by sending the British
Expeditionary forces to assist Belgium. This helped Belgium to resist German invasion and
weakened her army before it fought with the French.
The German soldiers were exhausted by the time they faced the French army since they
had stiff resistance from the Belgians and the British.
Other War Plans:
France- Plan 17



France planned to penetrate deep into Germany and capture the Capital city, Berlin.
She planned to attack Germany by passing through Alsace-Lorraine.
She planned to guard the border that she shared with Germany by putting/mounting her
army to prevent Germany to enter France.
Britain
British Expeditionary Force


She planned to use her small highly trained professional army called the Expeditionary
Force.
Her plan was to assist France by quickly sending these forces to prevent Germany from
capturing French capital city, Paris.
Russia
8


She planned to attack Austria and Germany at the same time in order to assist France.
Even though she was backward in technology, she recruited many soldiers to replace
dead/injured ones as she had a large population.
European countries that took part in World War One from
1914 to 1918
The Allies/Entente Powers
Britain
France
Russia (left December 1917)
Italy (entered May 1915)
Serbia
Belgium
Romania (entered August 1916)
USA (entered April 1917)
Japan (entered August 1914)
The Central Powers
Germany
Austria-Hungary
Turkey (entered November 1914)
Bulgaria (entered October 1915)
Why did the USA join the war?
USA did not want to be involved in the war because they felt that it was a European affair. Entry
of the USA boosted the allied powers as USA supplied them with food, merchant ships, credit and
assisted them militarily. USA was forced to join the war because of the following reasons:
9


German U-boat campaign destroyed the USA ships that traded with the allied powers
such as Britain and France. USA had to join the war in order to prevent Germany from
destroying her ships at the sea.
Germany persuaded Mexico to declare war on USA, promising her Texas, New Mexico
and Arizona in return. This angered the USA and she declared war on Germany.
Why did Britain go to war?




There was rivalry between Britain and Germany in building navy. Britain felt that Germany
did not deserve to have navy since she was a landlocked country. The naval rivalry caused
tension between these two Great powers and made war possible.
Britain was closely allied to France through the Entente Cordiale of 1904; Britain did not
want to let down her friend, she felt morally bound to assist France. Britain feared that if
Germany defeated France she would dominate in Europe and be a threat to her.
Britain sympathized with ‘little Serbia’ for being invaded by a large empire such as AustriaHungary. She had to join the war to assist Serbia.
In 1839 Britain and other Great powers signed the London Treaty that guaranteed the
neutrality of Belgium in a future war. Germany treated this treaty as a ‘Scrap of paper’ or
meaningless agreement and decided to attack France through Belgium. Britain did not
want a major country to occupy Belgium and use it as a base to attack another country.
The invasion angered the British people and they supported the British declaration of war
on Germany.
Why Italy joined the Allied Powers?



Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance before the war in 1914.she decided to join the
Allied powers in 1915 because of the following reasons;
The Allied powers promised Italy some territories taken from the Germany and her allies
in Europe after the war.
Italy had made it clear to the members of the Triple Alliance that she would not fight
against Britain when war erupted in Europe because she was a friend to Britain.
Why Japan joined the war?



Japan participated in World War 1 from 1914 to 1918 in an alliance with the Allied
Powers/Entente powers and played an important role in securing the sea lanes in the
West Pacific and Indian Oceans against German navy. Japan joined the war because of
the following reasons;
She was a friend to Britain since 1902; she made a proposal to Britain that she would join
the war if she could take Germany’s Pacific territories.
In August 1914 Britain officially asked Japan for assistance to destroy the German navy in
and around Chinese waters. Japan agreed to assist Britain and declared war on Germany
in August 1914.
10

By October the Japanese Navy had taken Germany’s Island colonies in the Pacific which
were the Mariana, Caroline and Marshal Islands; this gave Japan the opportunity to
expand her influence in China.
Why Russia withdrew from the war in 1917?
Russia withdrew from the in 1918 because there was a revolution (Russian Revolution). Russia
could not fight while there was unrest in the country, and the Russian army was withdrawn from
the war to prevent the unrests. After withdrawing from the war, Germany signed a harsh treaty
with Russia, the Treaty of Brest Litovsk in March 1917:


Land lost in the treaty was Finland, Ukraine, Romania and Brest Litovsk.
Russia lost 26% of its total population, 27% of farmland, 26% of railway and 74% of Iron
ore and coal
Why Germany and her allies lost the war in 1918?






Failure of the Schlieffen plan, Germany was forced to fight war on two fronts at the same
time (between France and Russia) because Russia mobilized quickly which forced
Germany to transport some of the soldiers to the Russian border, this weakened the right
wing which was planned to be strong to defeat France quickly.
The allied powers blocked the supply of goods to Germany at the sea, this led to shortage
of food and crippled exports, while keeping allied armies fully supplied. This weakened
the German army and led to its defeat.
The German submarine campaign failed, Britain, America and Japan protected their ships
from being destroyed by Germany at the sea. This boosted the allied powers as they had
supply of goods such as food and ammunition while they blocked the German supply.
Entry of the USA in the war was important to the allied powers as she supplied Britain
and France with food, merchant ships and credit. USA also boosted the allied powers
psychologically and militarily which helped the allied powers to defeat Germany.
The German soldiers were attacked by diseases such as Spanish flu; this weakened the
army and was easily defeated.
Germany was badly let down by her allies because they were militarily weak, she had to
assist Austria and Bulgaria militarily, this weakened the German army which led to its
defeat.
11
Why Germany should be the only One to blame for
causing World War 1?




She competed with Britain in building navy even though she was a landlocked country.
Britain needed the navy more than Germany because she was an Island; she needed the
navy to protect her at the sea and for her trade outside Europe. By 1914 Britain had 29
Dreadnoughts and Germany had 17, the naval rivalry caused tension between Germany
and Britain which made war possible in future.
Germany also provoked France by interfering in her affairs with Morocco in 1905 when
Kaiser William II made a speech in Tangier, Morocco, supporting the independence of
Morocco from France. In 1911 Germany sent a gunboat, the Panther to the port of Agadir,
Kaiser William II was forced to remove the gunboat after Britain supported France against
Germany to remove the gunboat. This created tension between Germany and France,
Germany and Britain.
Germany promised Austria total support to attack Serbia in 1914 after the Sarajevo
incident when Austria blamed Serbia for the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, the heir to
the throne in Austria. If she could have not offered Austria support, Austria could not
have attacked Serbia and war might have been avoided in 1914.
Germany came up with the system of alliances to isolate France after the Franco-Prussian
war of 1870. Germany failed to isolate France as she was able to make friends with other
powers who saw Germany as an enemy. The alliance system divided the Great powers
into two hostile armed camps, the Triple Alliance made up of Germany, Italy and Austria,
the Triple Entente made of France, Britain and Russia. The Great powers joined the war
to assist their friends in 1914 because of the system of alliance which was introduced by
Germany.
Why Germany should not be the only one to blame for
causing World War 1? Why other powers should also take
the blame?
 Austria-Hungary: She took advantage of her friendship with a great power like
Germany and became reckless. Austria confirmed with Germany if she would assist her
to attack Serbia in 1914 after blaming Serbia for the assassination of the heir to the
throne in Austria, Franz Ferdinand. After Germany promised her the Blank cheque (total
support) Austria declared war on Serbia. This brought in other Great powers such as
Russia who joined the war to assist her ally, Serbia.
 Britain: She became selfish by not allowing other powers to build their own navy; she
felt that she was the only country who needed a navy more than other countries since
12
she was an Island. If she could have allowed other powers to build their navy, conflict
between her and Germany could have been avoided. One of the reasons she joined the
war in 1914 was because she saw Germany as an enemy due to the naval rivalry which
caused tension between the two powers.
 Russia: She provoked other powers such as Germany by being the first to mobilize
her army, Russia mobilized to assist Serbia in 1914 after Austria declared war on Serbia
blaming her for the assassination of Franz Ferdinand. Germany warned Russia to stop
mobilizing but she refused. The mobilization of Russia forced other Great powers like
Germany to join the war to assist her friend, Austria.
 France: After she had lost Alsace-Lorraine to Germany during the Treaty of Frankfurt,
she became bitter and saw Germany as an enemy. The bitterness made France to seek
revenge in future. This made Germany to feel insecure and find ways of isolating France
in a future war between the two countries. Germany declared war on France in 1914
because she feared that France might attack her anytime to revenge for the loss of
Alsace-Lorraine. If France could have given up on the loss of Alsace-Lorraine, tension
between her and Germany could have been avoided.
 Serbia: Her selfish nationalism in the Balkans provoked Austria who wanted to expand
into the Balkans. If she could have enjoyed her independence and abandoned her dream
of bringing other Balkan states into the state of Yugoslavia/Greater Serbian State, there
could not have been tension between her and Austria who felt that Serbia wanted to
compete with her for territories in the Balkans which ultimately led to war between the
two countries in 1914.
REVISION QUESTIONS
A- Part
1. Outline any four war plans designed by major European powers between 1905 and
1914.
[8]
2. Outline any four alliances that were formed in Europe before 1914.
[8]
3. Describe the Moroccan crisis of 1905.
[8]
4. Describe the Moroccan crisis of 1911.
[8]
5. Describe the Naval rivalry between Britain and Germany leading to the First World War.
[8]
13
6. Describe the Arms Race between the Great powers leading to the First World War.
[8]
7. Describe the Bosnian crisis of 1908.
[8]
8. Describe the First Balkan War of 1912.
[8]
9. Describe the Second Balkan War of 1913.
[8]
10. Describe the Sarajevo incident of 1914 leading to the First World War.
[8]
11. Outline the features of the Schlieffen plan of 1905.
[8]
12. Outline the assumptions of the Schlieffen plan of 1905.
[8]
B- Part
12. Explain why the Schlieffen plan failed in 1914.
[12]
13. Explain why Germany lost the war from 1914 to 1918.
[12]
14. Explain why Britain joined the First World in 1914.
[12]
15. Explain why Germany should not be the only one to blame for causing World War 1 in 1914.
[12]
16. Explain why Germany should be blamed for causing World War 1 in 1914.
[12]
17. Explain how events in the Balkans from 1908 contributed to the outbreak of the First World
War.
[12]
18. Explain how the conflict between Serbia and Austria contributed to World War One in 1914.
19. Explain any three causes of the First World War?
(12)
20. Explain how the Alliance system contributed to World War One.
[12]
CHAPTER 2: THE PEACE TREATIES
Analyse and evaluate the Paris Peace treaties and their effects
After the world war in 1919 the victorious powers being Britain, USA and France met at Versailles
in France to discuss the peace settlement on how to deal with Germany and her allies.
The Views of the Big Three on the Peace Settlement.
The Big three leaders being Clemenceau George of France, Woodrow Wilson of America and Lloyd
George of Britain had different views on how to deal with Germany. Italy played a minor role
during the peace settlement because Orlando, the Italian president’s interests were not on the
peace settlement but on the territories that he was promised by the allied powers after the war.
14
Clemenceau George of France:





His view was to revenge on Germany therefore he wanted Germany to be
punished harshly;
He wanted Germany to pay for the damages caused by the war on France since
infrastructure was destroyed and many French people died during the war.
He wanted German military to be weakened by reducing it to the smallest
possible level so that Germany would never be able to attack France again in the
future.
He wanted the German Empire to be reduced into a smaller state by taking away
her land/territories.
He wanted the German economy to be weakened by taking away her industries.
Lloyd George of Britain: He wanted Germany to be given a moderate punishment; his
views were based on protecting British interests;




He wanted the German economy to recover because he feared that if the German
economy became weak she would turn to communism.
He wanted the German economy to recover because Germany was a British
trading partner, so that she would be would be able to buy British goods.
He feared that severe punishment on Germany would pave way for French
domination in Europe; he had to make sure that France did not become too
powerful.
He feared that a harsh punishment would make Germany bitter and cause
another war in future.
Woodrow Wilson of USA: He wanted Germany to be dealt with justly/ fairly so that
she did not become bitter and cause another war in future. He wanted the peace making process
to be based on the ideas of justice and self-determination. He wanted the peace treaties to be
based on his 14 points which read as follow;





No secret treaties between countries, there should be open agreements and
alliances in future.
Free access to the sea for all countries, there should be free movement at the
sea.
Free trade between countries, economic barriers should be removed.
Colonies to have a say in their own future, decisions should be made according
to the interests of the colonized people.
German troops to leave Russia, the independence of Russia should be respected.
15









German troops to leave Belgium, there should be respect for the independence
of Belgium.
Independence for Belgium, they should be allowed to rule themselves.
France to take back Alsace- Lorraine, to correct the wrong that was done by
Germany after the Franco-Prussian war of 1870.
The border between Austria and Italy to be adjusted, to prevent the future
conflicts between the two countries.
Serbia to have access to the sea, to enable her to trade outside Europe.
Self-determination for the people in the Turkish Empire, they should be allowed
to rule themselves.
Invading armies to leave the Balkans, to ensure their freedom and independence.
Poland to become independent state with access to the sea, they should be
allowed to rule themselves and also to trade outside Europe.
An international organization to be formed to maintain peace in the world, to
prevent future war.
Problems faced by the Big Three during the Paris Peace
Treaties of 1919.

They had different views on how to punish Germany, for example, Clemenceau
George of France wanted to revenge on Germany therefore he wanted Germany to be
punished harshly while Lloyd George of Britain wanted Germany to be given a
moderate punishment as his views were based on protecting British interests since they
were trading partners.


They were faced with pressure from home, for example, Lloyd George of Britain
had pressure from the British people as they wanted a harsh punishment to be
imposed on Germany, when he left for the Paris Peace Treaties the British people
sang a slogan “hang the Kaiser.” Woodrow Wilson also had pressure from the
American people because they felt that he did not handle the Peace treaties
properly that is why he lost elections in 1919.
They did not have enough time to work the Treaties, for example, they spent
most the time arguing about the modalities of the Peace treaties. Clemenceau
George wanted a harsh punishment while Woodrow Wilson wanted a fair
punishment. They had pressure from the public to act quickly so they did not have
enough time to polish the Peace treaties.
16
Why the Big Three settled for a harsh punishment on
Germany?
Clemenceau George, Woodrow Wilson and Lloyd George finally settled for a harsh punishment
on Germany because of the following the reasons;



Germany was blamed for starting the war by invading Belgium and declaring war
on France which provoked other powers to join the war to assist their friends.
Germany had earlier on signed a harsh treaty (treaty of Brest-Litovsk) with Russia
when Russia withdrew from the war in 1918, so, Germany should not have
expected a lenient punishment from the Allied powers.
Germany signed a harsh treaty with France after the Franco-Prussian war of
1870-71 where she took France industrial area, Alsace-Lorraine .So she should
not expect a lenient treaty.
Why Germany expected a lenient/fair peace treaty?





One of the conditions of the Allied Powers on Germany for a peace settlement
was that Germany must get rid of Kaiser William II because they believed that his
militarism was responsible for causing the war. Kaiser William was overthrown
by January 1919 and he seek refuge in Holland; the Germans expected a lenient
punishment as they had fulfilled the demands of the Allied powers.
The Allied powers demanded that Germany should do away with a monarch
system whereby they were ruled by a king and introduce a democratic state.
After the war elections were held in Germany and the Socialist party became the
new government and Fredrick Ebert became the president, so the Germans
expected a lenient punishment as they had fulfilled the demands of the Allied
powers.
After the war a new government was formed in Germany known as the Weimar
government/republic, this new government was not responsible for the war and
did not expect the Allied powers to force them sign a harsh treaty.
The Weimar government took over after Germany was destroyed by the war,
they would have problems settling down. The new government assumed that the
Allied Powers would help them and give the new government time to establish
itself.
Germany expected to be punished according Wilson’s 14 points which
emphasized on self-determination of countries, not a punishment based on
revenge as the one they were given at Versailles.
17
The Versailles Treaty-Signed with Germany on 28 June
1919;
1.
Territorial terms/land taken from Germany
As a result of being blamed for causing the war and settling for a harsh punishment on her,
Germany was punished by taking most of its territories and redistributing them to allied countries
as follows;











Germany lost Alsace Lorraine to France.
Eupen, Moresnet, and Malmedy were given to Belgium.
Northern Schleswig was given to Denmark after a plebiscite.
West Prussia and Posen were given to Poland.
Memel was given to Lithuania.
The Saar was to be administered by the League of Nations for 15 years after which
a plebiscite/vote would determine its future.
Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania which Russia had lost to Germany during the treaty
of Brest-Litovsk were given independence.
Poland was made an independent state.
Upper Silesia was taken from Germany and given to Poland.
The Port of Danzig was made a free city, giving Poland access to the sea.
The Anschluss or Union with Austria was forbidden.
Territories/Colonies taken from Germany outside Europe;





Germany lost South-west Africa/Namibia was given to South Africa to look after
under the League of Nations.
Germany East Africa/ Tanganyika was given to Britain.
Togo and Cameroon were given to France and some parts were also given to
Britain.
Samoa Islands in the Pacific were given to New Zealand.
Marshall Islands were given to Japan.
2. Non-Territorial Terms of the Versailles Treaty/ How Germany
was further punished?
18





War guilt clause (Article 231): The Clause blamed Germany for starting the war
and the Allied powers wanted Kaiser William II and some other war criminals to
be brought forward for trial.
Payment of Reparations: Germany was charged to pay for the damages of the
war; she was expected to pay the amount of 6.600 million pounds or 6.6 billion
pounds to repair for the damages caused by war in France and Belgium.
Disarmament clause: German soldiers were restricted to 100 000 men and
conscription was forbidden (recruitment of soldiers), she was not allowed to have
armored cars, tanks submarines and aircrafts, and she was allowed to have only
six battleships.
Demilitarization of the Rhineland: German soldiers were removed from the area
between Germany and France; this was because France still felt threatened by
the presence of German army on the border.
Formation of the League of Nations: Germany was not allowed to join this
international peace keeping organization which was formed after the First World
War in January 1920 because they were treated as war mongers/war loving
nation by the Allied powers.
Why Germany objected to the terms of the Versailles Treaty/
Why the treaty was unfair on Germany?
Germany’s reaction to the Versailles treaty was that of anger and hatred. Germany objected to
the treaty for the following reasons;



Diktat/Dictated peace settlement: The Germans were not allowed to participate
in the discussions of the terms of the Versailles treaty; they were called to sign
on the terms and were only allowed to criticize the terms in writing. When they
refused to sign they were threatened with another war by the Allied powers.
They felt that this treaty was a dictated peace settlement which was unjust and
born out of the spirit of revenge.
Territorial Losses: The Germans objected that the territorial terms of the
Versailles treaty would turn the German Empire into a smaller state as most of
her land was taken by the Allied Powers. They also argued that the territorial
terms were not consistent with President Woodrow Wilson’s idea of selfdetermination as some of the Germans would be brought under foreign rule.
Disarmament clause: The Germans argued that 100 000 soldiers were not
enough for a country the size of Germany as it could not even maintain law and
order during political unrests. They feared that the reduction of their military
would make them insecure and vulnerable to attacks from other countries. The
Disarmament clause also took the German pride as she was respected for having
a powerful military in Europe.
19



Reparations: The Germans objected that the amount of 6.6 billion pounds was
very high and un-affordable; they argued that the amount would weaken their
economy as they were still recovering from the war.
War guilt clause: Germany argued that investigations on what really caused the
war were not given enough time, so it was unfair to put the blame on Germany
alone, they argued that other powers should also share the blame as they took
part in the war, for example, Russia was the first to mobilize her army therefore
provoking other powers.
Formation of the League of Nations: Germany was not allowed to join this
international peace keeping organization which was formed after the First World
War. The Germans objected that being left out of the League would make them
look like social outcasts or war loving nation.
Why the Versailles Treaty was fair on Germany?




The treaty did not weaken the German economy as claimed by the Germans, by
1925 German steel production was twice that of Britain, this shows that her
economy did not collapse after the Versailles Treaty.
Germany humiliated France during the Treaty of Frankfurt in 1870 after she
defeated France the two signed the Treaty of Frankfurt in the Hall of Mirrors
whereby France was to pay Prussia the reparations of five billion Francs. The rich
industrial area of France called Alsace-Lorraine which was the backbone of her
economy was also taken by Germany during the signing of the treaty.
Germany had forced a worse treaty on Russia in March 1918 when she punished
Russia with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk by taking Finland, Ukraine, Romania and
Brest Litovsk. Russia also lost 26% of its total population, 27% of farmland, 26%
of railway and 74% of Iron ore and coal.
Germany was not punished harshly as Clemenceau Gorge had wanted, for
example, Danzig was made a Free City which means the Germans could still use
it, and some territories were not taken permanently from Germany like the Saar
Area which was to vote whether they wanted to be part of Germany or France
after 15 years.
OTHER PEACE TREATIES SIGNED WITH THE CENTRAL
POWERS/ HOW GERMAN ALLIES WERE ALSO PUNISHED?
Apart from the Versailles treaty, other treaties were signed with allies of Germany as a
punishment for their roles in the First World War as discussed below;
20
1. The Treaty of St Germain- signed with Austria in September
1919
The following were terms of the St Germain treaty of 1991;








The union (Anschluss) between and Germany was forbidden.
Austria was separated from Hungary and Hungary became an independent state.
Her army was reduced to 30 000 soldiers.
She lost wealthy provinces of Bohemia and Moravia to Czechoslovakia.
She lost Bosnia and Herzegovina to Serbia and these territories united with
Montenegro to form Yugoslavia.
South Tyrol, Istria, Trieste and Trentino were to be given back to Italy as they
were Italian speaking states.
Bukovina was given to Romania.
Galicia was given to Poland.
Effects of the Treaty of St Germain on Austria;





Loss of territories- It reduced the Austrian Empire into a smaller state as she lost
territories such as Bosnia and Herzegovina to Serbia. She was also separated from
Hungary which also reduced her population.
Payment of reparations- She was charged to pay for the damages of the war in
France and Belgium. The reparations led to economic collapse because her
economy was already affected by war.
Reduction of the army- Her army was reduced to 30 000 soldiers. This made her
to feel insecure because the army was too small to protect her from attacks by
other countries.
Loss of wealthy provinces- Austria lost wealthy industrial provinces of Bohemia
and Moravia which also had about ten million Austrians to the new state of
Czechoslovakia. This weakened her economy as these provinces were her source
of wealth.
The Anschluss (union) between Austria and Germany was forbidden. This also
weakened her economy because she relied on Germany for economic support.
2. The Treaty of Trianon-singed with Hungary in March
1920
The terms of the Trianon treaty were as follows;



Hungary was separated from Austria and became an independent state.
She lost Slovakia and Ruthenia to Czechoslovakia.
She lost Slovenia to and Croatia to Yugoslavia.
21



She gave Transylvania to Romania.
She had to pay reparations.
Her army was limited to 35 000 soldiers.
Effects of the Treaty of Trianon on Hungary;





The separation from Austria weakened the economy of Hungary as she assisted
her economically.
Loss of territories such as Slovakia and Ruthenia reduced Hungary into a smaller
state.
Loss of territories also weakened her economy as she obtained raw materials
from them.
Her army was reduced to 35 000, this made her to feel unsafe/insecure as the
army was too small to defend her from attacks.
Payment of reparations led to economic collapse because the war had already
weakened her economy.
3. The Treaty of Neuilly-signed with Bulgaria in November
1919




Bulgaria was forced to lose Aegean Sea or Coastline to Greece, Yugoslavia and
Romania; this deprived her access to the Mediterranean Sea.
Her army was reduced to 20 000 men.
She had to pay reparations.
Because of the small role she played in the war she was not punished harshly.
Effects of the Treaty of Neuilly on Bulgaria;



The reduction of her army to 20 000 men made her to be insecure and vulnerable
to attacks as it was too small to defend the state.
Payment of reparations led to economic collapse because the war had already
weakened her economy.
Loss of territories such as the Coastline turned her into a smaller state and
millions of the Bulgarians found themselves under foreign rule as a result of this
treaty.
4. The Treaty of Sevres- signed with Turkey in 1920
22








Turkey lost Syria and Lebanon which were made French mandates under the
League.
Iraq, Palestine and Jordan became British mandates under the League.
Some Aegean Islands together with Smyrna were given to Greece.
She lost Adalia and Rhodes to Italy.
The French, British and Italian troops were to occupy Turkey itself.
The Straits (exits from the Black Sea) were permanently open.
She also had to pay reparations.
She had to disarm by reducing her army.
Effects of the Treaty of Sevres on Turkey;





Payment of reparations weakened her economy because she was recovering
from the war.
The Reduction of her army made her feel unsafe as it was too small to protect
her from enemies.
Loss of territories reduced Turkey into a smaller state as she lost areas like
Lebanon and Syria.
Loss of territories angered Turkey; they rejected the treaty and chased the Greeks
out of Smyrna. The Italian and French troops withdrew their forces from the
Straits.
A compromise was reached in 1923 during the Treaty of Lausanne whereby
Turkey regained Eastern Thrace including Constantinople and Smyrna. Turkey
was the first state to challenge the Paris Peace Settlement successfully.
Problems created by the Peace Treaties




Post World War 1 treaties created too many states such as Yugoslavia, which
contained unhappy minority nationalities (people from different countries who
do not have the same identity).These new states were not strong enough against
powerful neighbors such as Germany and Russia. That is why later Hitler attacked
the state of Czechoslovakia to create a living space for the Germans in Eastern
Europe.
Turkey was treated very unfairly in order to satisfy the aims of France, Britain and
Greece which gave them access to the sea by occupying the coastline.
Many of the terms of the treaties did not work and did not last, for example, the
Treaty of Sevres only lasted for three years and the reparation payments were
changed on two occasions.
The treaties left the defeated countries very bitter and determined to get revenge
or overturn the terms, for example, the Versailles Treaty left Germany bitter such
that when Hitler assumed power in 1933 he reversed the treaty and became
aggressive which led to the Second World War.
23
Chapter 2-REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Describe the views of the Big Three (Clemenceau George, Lloyd George and Woodrow Wilson)
on the Peace Settlement.
[8]
2. Outline any four points of Woodrow Wilson on the Peace Settlement.
[8]
3. Outline any four territorial terms of the Versailles Treaty on Germany.
[8]
4. Explain the effects of the Non-Territorial Terms of the Versailles Treaty on Germany.
[12]
5. Explain the effects of the Versailles Treaty on Germany.
[12]
6. Explain why the Germans objected to the terms of the Versailles Treaty/ Explain why the
Versailles Treaty was unfair on Germany.
[12]
7. Explain why the Versailles Treaty was fair on Germany.
[12]
8. Explain why Germany expected a fair/lenient punishment during the Peace Settlement. [12]
9. Outline any four terms of the Treaty of St Germain signed with Austria in September 1919. [8]
10. Explain the effects of the Treaty of St Germain on Austria.
[12]
11. Outline any four terms of the Treaty of Trianon signed with Hungary in March 1920.
[8]
12. Explain the effects of the Treaty of Trianon on Hungary.
[12]
13. Outline any four terms of the Treaty of Neuilly signed with Bulgaria in November 1919. [8]
14. Explain the effects of the Treaty of Neuilly on Bulgaria.
[12]
15. Outline any four terms of the Treaty of Sevres signed with Turkey in 1920.
[8]
16. Explain the effects of the Treaty of Sevres on Turkey.
[12]
17. Explain any three problems created by the Peace Treaties.
[12]
18. Explain the problems faced by the Big Three during the Paris Peace Settlement.
[12]
CHAPTER 3: THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
Origins:
24
The League of Nations was President Woodrow Wilson’s brainchild/idea; in his 14 points during
the Peace Settlement he included the formation of an international peace keeping organization
that would be able to prevent war in future. However, USA never joined the League after its
formation because Wilson lost elections in 1919 and the Americans felt that the First World War
was a European affair which they could not have joined, so USA rejected the League.
The League of Nations was formed on 16th January 1920; the Headquarters were at Geneva,
Switzerland. Switzerland was chosen to host the League because of her neutrality during World
War One. Membership was open to all nations except Germany and her allies.
All the laws and principles of the League were outlined in a constitution which was called the
Covenant of the League which was drawn by Woodrow Wilson and Jan Smuts of South Africa.
Aims of the League of Nations




To promote peace by encouraging countries to settle disputes through peaceful
negotiations.
To encourage cooperation between countries by working together for the good
of mankind.
To encourage nations to disarm/reduce their weapons in order to stop
aggression.
To improve living and working conditions for people around the world.
How the League would maintain Peace?




By condemning the aggressor, making them feel so guilty that the country backed
down.
Imposing economic sanctions on the aggressor (cutting off trade with that
particular country).
Joining forces with the other members to take military action against the
aggressor.
Members would go to the League and try to settle their conflict through talks
rather than using force (see source D).
The Structure/ Organization of the League of Nations
MAIN ORGANS OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
25
1. The Assembly-It was the central body of the League as it was the League’s parliament. It was
made up of all member states of the League; in 1924 it had 55 members. Each member could
send three delegates to the Assembly’s meeting. Meetings of the Assembly were held once a year
but special sessions could be held if necessary. Each country had one vote.
Functions;





It dealt with all matters affecting peace and the general welfare of its members.
It discussed the annual budget of the League as well as making policies of the
League.
It elected non-permanent members of the Council.
It admitted new members to the League.
It could recommend actions to the Council.
2. The Council- It was the most important body of the League as it acted as the Cabinet. It
had four permanent members who were Britain, France, Italy and Japan. The four nonpermanent members of the Council were elected by the Assembly. The Council met several times
in a year to deal with emergencies.
Functions;




To discuss issues that was likely to provoke/cause war between countries.
To impose economic and financial sanctions on the aggressor.
To use military force where necessary to stop aggression through collective
security.
Each permanent member had the Veto Power (the power to reject a
decision/motion passed by other permanent members).
3. The Secretariat-It was the administrative body of the League. It was headed by the
Secretary General. The Secretariat employed staff such as accountants, secretaries, interpreters
and lawyers who helped in the running of the organization.
Functions;



It recorded the proceedings of the meetings of various organs and agencies of
the League.
It arranged meetings of different bodies in the Headquarters, Geneva.
It sent out reports to member countries.
4. The Permanent Court of International Justice-It was established at The Hague,
Holland in 1922. It was made up of 11 judges who were increased to 15; the judges came from
different member states and were supposed to be appointed for a period of 9 years each.
26
Functions;


It interpreted treaties or agreements between member states.
It advised the Council and the Assembly on legal matters.
4. MINOR AGENCIES OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
(Commissions and Committees)
The agencies were to improve the general welfare of the member states by improving health,
education and food production.
(a)International Labour Organization (ILO)-It represented governments of member
countries, employers as well as workers.
Functions;




It met once a year to discuss labour issues
It passed laws that dealt with standardizing working hours, for example, it passed
the law that workers/employees should works 8 hours in day.
It worked hard to abolish slavery or forced labour.
It encouraged workers to form trade unions through which they could fight for
their working conditions.
(b)The Mandates Commission-It was formed to look after ex-German and Turkish
colonies that were taken from them after the Peace Treaties.
Functions;



To assign some countries to look after (baby sit) the ex-German and Turkish
colonies, for example, Namibia was mandated or assigned to South Africa,
Tanzania and Palestine were mandated to Britain and Syria was mandated to
France.
To supervise the colonial powers by demanding reports on the progress of their
mandates.
It allowed the colonized people a chance to appeal to the commission on issues
of abuse or exploitation by their colonizers.
(c) The Refugee Committee (Nansen Agency) - It was named after the famous
Norwegian explorer, Nansen who was in charge of a refugee agency during World War One.
Functions;
27



It helped prisoners war who had lost their homes by providing them with shelter,
food and health facilities.
It also organized famine/drought relief in countries like Russia.
It returned prisoners of war to their countries after the war. For instance, 400
000 people were returned to their countries after World War 1.
(d)The Minorities Committee-The committee looked after people/groups that were
separated from their mother countries during the territorial terms as they now lived in foreign
countries.
Function;

To protect the human rights of groups that lived in foreign countries, for example,
there were 3 million Germans that lived in Czechoslovakia after the territorial
terms of the Versailles Treaty; these Germans had to be protected from abuse
and racism by the Czechs.
(e)The Disarmament Commission-According to the covenant/constitution of the
League of Nations all member states were to reduce their weapons/armaments.
Functions;



To encourage member states to reduce their weapons to the smallest possible
level.
To monitor the process of disarmament among member countries.
To advice the Council on matters concerning the issue of disarmament.
(f)The Health Committee
Function;


To educate people about health and sanitation.
To deal with dangerous diseases or epidemics such as small pox.
SUCCESSES OF THE LEAGUE IN SOLVING POLITICAL
DISPUTES (How the League was able solve some conflicts
between countries)
28
1. Aaland Islands: a dispute between Sweden and Finland over the Aaland Islands which
nearly led to war. The two countries claimed the Islands. The issue was referred to the League. In
1922 the League solved the conflict whereby Aaland Islands were given to Finland, both countries
accepted the League’s ruling and war was avoided.
2. Upper Silesia 1920: This was an industrial region between Germany and Poland inhabited
by both Germans and Polish people. The two countries wanted to control this industrial area. A
plebiscite (vote) was held by the league for the Silesians to decide their future. Those in the
industrial areas voted to be on German side while the rural areas preferred Poland. This area was
shared between the two countries and they accepted the Leagues decision and war between the
two countries was avoided.
3. Turkey and Iraq 1924: Turkey claimed the Province of Mosul, part of the British
mandated territory of Iraq, the League decided to solve the issue by giving this province to Iraq.
Both countries accepted the League’s decision and war was avoided.
4. Bulgarian crisis of 1925: In October 1925 the Greek soldiers were killed in the border
between Bulgaria and Greece. The Bulgarian army was suspected to have shot them, Greece
invaded Bulgaria which could lead to war between the two countries. The League condemned the
two countries and asked them to stop fighting (cease fire), it also demanded that the Greek
soldiers should withdraw from Bulgaria and pay compensation to Bulgaria. Both countries obeyed
the League, Greece agreed to withdraw her soldiers and paid compensation to Bulgaria and war
was avoided.
OTHER SUCCESSES OF THE LEAGUE:
The Saar-The League supervised a peaceful return of the Saar Basin to Germany after a
plebiscite/vote was held in 1935, majority of the people in this area voted to be part of the
German Empire. The Saar was to be administered by the League and France was to look after it.
After 15 years, the population was to vote on whether they wanted to belong to France or
Germany.
Austria 1922- The Austrian government was faced with economic crisis after the First World War
and the Treaty of St Germain. The League sent a team of experts to help the Austrian government.
The team managed to help revive the Austrian economy by re-organizing Austrian finances and
its currency. The same assistance was also offered to Hungary.
The League managed to reduce the heavy trafficking of arms/weapons and drugs that had
increased during the war.
The International Labour Organization (ILO)-It suggested 8hours maximum time for workers per
day which is still practiced by countries today. It also discouraged child labour for children under
the age of 15 which has been implemented by some countries to protect children from abuse.
29
The League lent some countries that were affected by the war huge sums of money for reconstruction. This helped the countries to improve their economies.
The Health Committee managed to help some countries to control the outbreaks of life
threatening diseases, for example, it combated a typhus epidemic in Russia.
FAILURES OF THE LEAGUE IN SOLVING POLITICAL DISPUTES (How
the League failed to solve some conflicts between countries)
1. Vilna; 1919-1920: This was a conflict between Poland and Lithuania. Vilna was made the
capital of Lithuania after the First World War, but its population was largely the Polish. The Polish
army invaded Vilna in 1920 and Lithuania appealed to the League, the League ordered Poland to
with draw from Vilna but Poland refused. Instead the Conference of Ambassadors supported
Poland to take over Vilna, France also supported Poland to do so because she saw Poland as a
future ally against Germany in a future war. This was one of the failures of the League in solving
disputes as the Conference of Ambassadors undermined the League’s decision and the League
failed to take action against Poland.
2. The Corfu Incident of 1923: This was a conflict between Italy and Greece. Five Italian
surveyors who were working for the League in mapping the border between Greece and Albania
were killed on the Greek side of the border. Mussolini, the Italian leader blamed the Greeks and
demanded compensation for the murder of the Italians. When the Greeks refused to pay
compensation, Mussolini invaded and took the Greek Islands of Corfu by force. Greece appealed
to the League; the Council of the League condemned Italy’s aggressiveness and ordered Italy to
withdraw her forces from Corfu, Italy refused and Mussolini threatened to withdraw from the
League. The Conference of Ambassadors was under pressure to appease Italy because they feared
that when she withdrew from the League she would join Germany as her ally. The League put
pressure on Greece to accept Mussolini’s demands. Greece apologized and paid compensation
directly to Mussolini instead of the League; Italy then withdrew her forces from Corfu. The League
had failed to take action against a Great Power such as Italy for being aggressive.
3. The Manchurian Crisis of 1931: This was a conflict between Japan and China. Japan’s
economy was affected by the Great Depression, she decided to invade or take over the Chinese
province of Manchuria because it was rich in raw materials. China appealed to the League, the
League condemned Japan and ordered her to withdraw her troops from Manchuria, Japan
refused and later changed the name of the province to Manchukuo. The League appointed a
commission under Lord Lytton (Lytton Report of 1932) which took a year to be released. The
report suggested that faults were on both sides, between Japan and China. The report suggested
that Manchuria should be governed by the League. Japan rejected the League’s decision and
withdrew from the League in March 1933. The League had failed to impose economic sanctions
and military action against Japan, the League’s credibility was now damaged.
30
4. The Failure of the World Disarmament Conference of 1932-33: This
conference was called by the League of Nations, representatives of more than 60 countries
attended. The Disarmament Committee encouraged member states to reduce their weapons so
as to promote peace. However, the conference was a disaster as some countries especially the
Great powers were not willing to disarm, for example France gave an excuse that she still feared
that Germany might attack her at any time. During the Conference Germany was the only Great
power that was disarmed by the Versailles treaty. Hitler used the French attitude to withdraw
Germany from the Conference and later from the League. Hitler started to rearm Germany after
withdrawing Germany from the League, no actions was taken against him even though Hitler was
violating the terms of the Versailles Treaty. This was one the failures of the League when dealing
with the Great powers.
5. The Italian Invasion of Abyssinia of 1935: This was the conflict between Italy and
Abyssinia (now Ethiopia). Mussolini, the Italian leader wanted to expand/enlarge his Empire. He
invaded Ethiopia in 1935. Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia appealed to the League for help, the
League condemned Italy and introduced economic sanctions. However, the sanctions did not
include exports of oil, coal and steel to Italy. The sanctions were not effective as they were
abandoned after a few weeks. Italy completed the conquest of Abyssinia by May 1936. The
League had failed to take action against another Great Power because Britain and France feared
that if they condemn Mussolini too much he might be friends with Hitler, the results were
disastrous as Mussolini was annoyed by the sanctions and began to draw closer to Hitler, another
aggressor. The League had failed to stop Mussolini’s actions; Italy withdrew from the League in
1936.
WHY THE LEAGUE FAILED TO MAINTAIN PEACE IN THE
1930’S/WEAKNESSES OF THE LEAGUE
(a)Lack of Troops- The league had no army of its own; it depended on countries to release
their soldiers to deal with aggressors. Countries were reluctant/not willing to release their armies
to work for the League. This made the League to be in effective or weak in dealing with aggressors
like Italy, Japan and Germany. See source A.
(b)Absence of the USA- after the First World War, Woodrow Wilson, the American
president who came up with the idea of the formation of the League lost elections. America did
31
not join the League of Nations because they felt that World War 1 was a European affair which
they should not have joined or interfered with. America was the most powerful country at that
time; if she could have joined the League she could have boosted it financially and militarily.
Absence of the USA made the League weak and a failure (See Source B below).
(c)Slow decisions- The League was supposed to act quickly and with determination when
crisis took place, however, in many cases the League took long to make decisions or act on matters
that arose. For example, the Lytton Report of 1932 which was to investigate on the conflict
between Japan and China during the Manchurian crisis took a year to be released. This proved
the League to be a failure and weak organization as it took long to solve the issue and could not
take action against Great Powers such as Japan.
(d)Self Interest- Britain and France remained as the only two permanent members of the
Security Council after Italy and Japan withdrew from the League. Britain was not committed to
the League; she was interested in expanding her empire. Britain simply saw the League as a talking
shop. Britain also sympathized with Germany; she felt that Germany had been treated too
harshly. France on the other hand wanted the League to enforce the terms of the Versailles treaty.
The two rarely worked together, especially on the 1920’s when they disagreed over the treatment
of Germany. Self-interest of Britain and France made the League weak and fail to maintain peace.
(e)Other Important members were not involved- Germany was not allowed to join
the League until 1926 and left in 1933, USSR (Russia) became the member in 1934 and expelled
in 1939, Japan left in 1933 and Italy withdrew in 1936. Only Britain and France remained as the
permanent members of the Council. The League did not have world’s most important powers that
could have boosted the League with military assistance and finance. Absences of these powers
made the League weak and fail to maintain peace.
(f)It was closely linked with the Versailles Treaty- The League was supposed to
monitor the treaties that were to punish Germany and her allies and to make sure that the
treaties were not violated. Member states looked up to Britain and France to act when countries
like Germany violated the peace treaties because they were the ones who came up with ways of
punishing the Central powers. As some of the powers like Italy, Germany and Japan disassociated
themselves with the League and embarked on aggression; the League became weak and failed to
maintain peace.
32
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION FROM 1920-1929
The League of Nations enjoyed peace between 1920 and 1929 because countries signed some
agreements/treaties that promoted peace/solved conflicts amongst them. Some of the
agreements signed by countries were;
1. The Washington Conference of 1921- During this conference Britain agreed with
other countries that they could build their own navies, providing that Britain still dominated in
owning large navy.
2. The Locarno Treaties of 1925- Germany, Britain, France, Italy and Belgium signed this
treaty. They agreed that they would never go to war over disputes. Germany agreed;


To accept the western borders given to them in 1919.
That change to the borders with Poland and Czechoslovakia would take place
through negotiations, not by war.
3. The Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928- Briand (French Foreign Secretary) and Kellogg
(American Secretary of State) proposed that the whole world should condemn war, 65 countries
signed this agreement. The countries agreed never to go to war again over disputes.
4. The Dawes Plan of 1924- This plan was introduced by General Dawes of the USA; he
arranged loans from the USA to assist Germany in paying reparations. A loan of 800 million gold
mark was given to Germany. This helped the German economy to recover.
5. The Young Plan of 1929- It was introduced by American Banker; Owen Young. It
replaced the Dawes Plan. It reduced the German reparations from $66000 million to $200 million;
this was to be paid over a period of 59 years.
33
WHY INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION COLAPSED IN THE
1930’S?
The League of Nations did not enjoy peace for a long time as international cooperation of the
1920’s did not last. The decade that followed saw increasing tension, rivalry and aggression
among countries which later led to the Second World War in 1939.
1. The Great Depression of 1929-The collapse of the American stock market in 1929 led
to the collapse of international trade, closure of banks, factories and businesses. 25 million people
were unemployed worldwide which led to poverty and starvation. The USA raised customs duties
on foreign imports; this meant that countries trading with USA had to pay an extra tax. Britain
also introduced high duties. The economic depression killed cooperation between countries as
they now wanted to improve their economies by exploiting others through high tax or customs
duties.
2. Aggression- Some countries like Japan, Italy and Germany invaded others in order to
improve their economies during the Great Depression; they invaded others to gain land and
resources and to increase their national pride. For example, in 1931 Japan took over the province
of China, Manchuria because it was rich in raw materials. In 1935 Italy invaded Abyssinia (now
Ethiopia) because Mussolini, the Italian leader wanted to expand/enlarge his Empire. Aggression
led to the collapse of cooperation as some Great powers invaded small countries to improve their
economies and to expand their empires.
3.Failure of the League-of Nations- the League failed to take action against some Great
powers who invaded others, for example, during the invasion of Abyssinia by Italy in 1935 the
League condemned Italy and introduced economic sanctions, however, the sanctions did not
include exports of oil, coal and steel to Italy. The sanctions were not effective as they were
abandoned after a few weeks. The failures of the League to deal with aggression encouraged
leaders like Hitler take advantage and embark on an aggressive foreign policy which led to the
Second World War in 1939.
34
4. Failure of the Disarmament- the League called a conference in 1932-33 in which
member states were encouraged to reduce their weapons in order to promote peace. The
conference was attended by more than 60 countries. Unfortunately the conference did not
achieve its goal as some of the Great powers were not willing to disarm, for example, France
refused by giving an excuse that she still feared Germany. The failure of the Disarmament
Conference led to mistrust between the member states as some countries like Germany started
to rearm and became aggressive which led to the Second World War.
5. The rise of the Dictators- By 1929 more than 20 countries were ruled by dictators.
These dictators established one party state in their countries. Dictatorship disturbed peace as
some dictators worked together to topple governments to put in their friends, for example, in
1936 Mussolini, the Italian dictator sent his troops to Spain during the civil war to help Franco, a
dictator to become the Spanish leader.
6. Absence of the USA- America did not join the League of Nations because they felt that
World War 1 was a European affair which they should not have joined or interfered with. America
was the most powerful country at that time; If USA could have joined the League, she could have
helped in imposing economic sanctions because she traded with most of the European powers,
she also could have given military assistance to deal with aggression as she had a powerful army
35
CHAPTER 3- REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Outline four aims of the League when it was formed in 1920.
[8]
2. Outline the functions of the four Main Organs of the League of Nations.
[8]
3. Outline the functions any four Minor Agencies of the League of Nations (Commissions and
Committees).
[8]
4. Explain any three successes of the League of Nations in maintaining peace from 1920 to 1939.
[12]
5. Explain any three failures of the League of Nations in maintaining peace from 1920 to 1939.
[12]
6. Explain any three successes of The League of Nations from 1920 to 1939.
[12]
7. Explain why the League of Nations failed to maintain peace from 1920 to 1939/Explain any
three weaknesses of the League of Nations.
[12]
8. Outline any four International Co operations signed by European countries from 1920 to 1929.
[12]
9. Explain why International Cooperation collapsed in the 1930’s.
36
[12]
CHAPTER4: THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC-GERMAMY
FROM 1919-1933.
After the First World War, the Keizer was abducted or overthrown. Keizer William II was forced
to flee to Holland to seek refuge. A new democratic government was formed in Germany in 1918.
Elections were held and the Social Democratic Party won majority of seats in parliament and
became the ruling party. Fredrick Elbert became the new president of Germany. There was still
violence in the German Capital, Berlin, so the new government was established at a small town
of Weimar. The new state of Germany therefore became to be known as the Weimar Republic.
PROBLEMS FACED BY THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC
1. POLITICAL PROBLEMS





The new republic was hated by the Germans because they associated it with the Versailles
treaty. The new government signed the terms of the Versailles treaty in 1919 which
humiliated the Germans. The Germans referred to the new government as “The
November criminals” because it was responsible for signing an armistice which meant
that the Germans had lost the war. The Germans did not support this new government
as they hated it.
The Germans were used to a monarch system where they were ruled by a king. They were
not used to a democratic system where they were ruled by political parties. They did not
support and respect the new government. They wished the Keizer could come back and
rule them again.
The parliamentary system had problems, the parliament adopted the system of
proportional representation where by different parties could work together and form a
government. The government kept on changing as parties always broke away and formed
coalitions. This disturbed the programmes of the government.
The new government did not have experience on how to run a democratic state. The
government kept on changing laws which disturbed the constitution.
The Spartacist uprising of 1919- It was a Communist group who wanted Germany to be
governed in the same way as Russia after the Bolshevik (Communists) revolution who
37
took over the government in Russia in 1917. The leaders of the Spartacus League were
Rosa Luxemburg and Carl Liebknecht. The Spartacists tried to seize power on January
1919; they occupied public buildings, organized a general strike and formed a
revolutionary committee. The Weimer government used the Freikorps (Ex-soldiers) to
crush the uprising; Luxemburg and Liebknecht were also shot and killed after they were
captured.



The Kapp Putsch/Uprising of 1920 -This uprising was organized by the Right wing group
(ex-soldiers), the revolt started when the government tried to disband all the units of the
Freikorps. The Freikorps were led by Dr Kapp, in March 1920 a group of Freikorps
attempted to take power in Berlin by toppling the government. Kapp set himself as the
head of the new government. The uprising was defeated by the people of Berlin; workers
in the city organized a general strike which rejected Kapp’s government. Kapp resigned
and he was imprisoned. The government regained control of Berlin but it took two
months to disband the Freikorps.
The Munich Putsch/Beer Hall uprising of 1923-This uprising was organized by Adolf Hitler
an Ex-soldier/Freikorp, he wanted to take control of the government in Munich. Hitler
organized a meeting in a beer hall in Munich where he addressed members of the Nazi
party on his national revolution. On 08 November 1923 a meeting was being addressed
by Gustuv von Kahr, head of the Bavarian government. Hitler’s private army, the Storm
Troopers (The SA) and the Nazi supporters marched from the beer hall to the meeting.
Hitler’s Storm Troopers and the Nazi supporters surrounded the hall where the meeting
was held by Von Kahr; Hitler announced that he was taking over the government of
Bavaria. Kahr was able to escape from Hitler and his Nazi supporters, on 09 September
Hitler tried to overthrow the Bavarian government again by staging a demonstration with
about 3000 supporters, some of whom were the Storm Troopers. Hitler’s demonstration
was met with resistance from the armed police and sixteen supports of the Nazi party
were killed. Hitler was arrested and sentenced to five years imprisonment for treason but
he only served for nine months.
Political assassinations -These were mainly carried out by ex-soldiers (Freikorps), they
targeted politicians of the Socialist Party because they were against the new government
in Germany. Some of the victims of the assassinations carried out by the Freikorps were
Walter Rathenau and Gustav Erzberger.
38
2. ECONOMIC PROBLEMS




Bankruptcy- Germany had spent a lot of money during the war. The new government did
not have money to run the country; it could not take care of the German people.
Occupation of the Ruhr industrial area- when Germany failed to pay reparations The
French and the Belgian troops invaded the Ruhr industrial area to pay themselves with
the goods produced in the factories. The workers stopped production. This affected the
German economy as production stopped in the factories.
Hyperinflation- the German Mark lost its value, this led to inflation in the market and
goods became expensive for the Germans to buy which resulted into poverty and
starvation.
Payment of reparations-the amount was very high and affected the German such that it
could not recover quickly. When Germany requested to suspend the payments until her
economy recovered, France refused. This led to economic collapse of Germany.
HOW GUSTAV STRESEMAN IMPROVED THE WEIMAR
REPUBLIC?
He became the new Chancellor in 1923. He later became the Foreign Secretary in 1924. He died
in October 1929.




In 1924 he introduced a new currency, the Rentenmark which replaced the old worthless
German mark. This improved the German economy.
He ordered the workers of the Ruhr to go back to work and negotiated with the French
to leave the Ruhr and agreed to start to pay reparations. This improved production of
goods in Germany.
He arranged loans from the USA under the Dawes Plan of 1924 and the Young Plan of
1929. This helped Germany to pay reparations and to improve her economy.
In 1925 Germany signed the Locarno Treaties with Britain, France and Italy, this
guaranteed Germany’s frontiers with France and Belgium.
39




In 1926 Stresemann took Germany to the League of Nations, Germany was recognized as
a Great Power and given a permanent seat on the League’s council alongside France and
Britain.
In 1928 Germany signed the Kellogg-Briand pact along with 64 countries, it was agreed
that they would keep their armies for self- defense but the solution of their disputes
would be solved by peaceful means.
In 1928 industrial production improved in Germany. By 1930 Germany was one of the
leading exporters of goods of manufactured goods.
In every town new factories and public facilities sprang up. New roads and railways were
built and nearly three million new homes.
WHY THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC COLLAPSED?







It had accepted the humiliating and unpopular Versailles treaty which took away the
German pride by reducing its military strength and being charged high amount of
reparations. The Germans hated this new government because they believed that it had
“stabbed them on the back” or betrayed them by accepting the terms of the Versailles
treaty.
There was lack of respect for a democratic government in Germany. The Germans were
used to be ruled by a king, they were not willing to be ruled by political parties. They did
not support the new government.
The parliamentary system of proportional representation that was introduced in the new
constitution was to make sure that all political groups would have a fair representation.
There were so many different groups that no party could win an overall majority. Parties
had to come together and form coalitions where they formed a government. This created
chaos in the government as coalitions kept on breaking up and form new governments.
The political parties had very little experience of how to operate a democratic
parliamentary system. The new government failed to make laws that could run a
democratic state. This created chaos in parliament.
World Economic Depression of 1929 affected the German economy. During the World
depression the loans that Germany sourced from the USA had dried up. Factories closed
and unemployment rose. By 1933 there were six million Germans unemployed. This led
to other social ills such as homelessness, poverty and starvation.
The rise of Hitler-the Germans had lost interest in the new government because it had
failed to provide for them. They wanted an alternative that could solve the German
problems. Hitler appealed to the Germans that he had solutions for their problems, he
promised them that if he was given an opportunity to rule Germany he would; revive the
German economy, create employment, bring back the German pride by reversing the
terms of the Versailles treaty. The Germans saw Hitler as an alternative and rejected the
new government.
By January 1933 the Weimar Republic had collapsed. Political instability and socioeconomic hardships had finally brought it down. Germany’s experiment with democracy
40
had failed. Adolf Hitler assumed power in January 1933 through the Nazi Party and a
Totalitarian state was introduced in Germany.
GERMANY FROM 1933-1939.
THE RISE OF HITLER TO POWER- BACK GROUND
He was born an Austrian. He left school at the age of 16 and lived in poverty in Vienna. In 1914
he moved to Munich in Germany where he volunteered to serve in the German army at the
beginning of the war. He was a dedicated and brave soldier, but he only rose to the rank of
Corporal in the army. He fought in the First World War and was awarded the Iron Cross, which
was the German highest award for bravery. At the end of the war he remained in the army and
worked as a spy investigating new political parties. One of the parties he investigated was the
German Workers Party; he got attracted to its policies and joined it in 1919.
STEPS TAKEN BY HITLER TO RISE TO POWER




In 1919 he joined the German Workers Party. He was gifted with oratory skills and started
addressing meetings in public halls and beer cellars. He was able to rise to high position
in the party.
In 1920 he changed the party’s name to National Socialist German Workers Party (The
Nazi Party). The party symbol was the Swastika. He drew a twenty five point programme
outlining the party’s aims.
In 1921 he set up a private army, the Storm Troopers (S.A). This army dealt with political
violence where it was used to intimidate political opponents. The S.A attracted the youth
because they were given allowance and uniform, this gave them a sense of identity and
belonging.
In 1923 Hitler and the Storm Troopers attempted to overthrow the government during
the Beer Hall uprising. The uprising failed and Hitler together with his assistants were
arrested, put on trial and imprisoned. Hitler was sentenced to five years but only served
for nine months. During his stay in prison Hitler wrote a book Mien Kemp (My Struggle)
where he put forward his ideas on politics, race and the future of Germany.
41





In 1925 Hitler re-founded the Nazi party. He abandoned revolutionary violence and
committed his party to assuming power through participating in elections. He began a
massive recruitment drive for the party. The party expanded by setting up branches all
over Germany. Structures such as The Hitler youth, The German Girls League, The Nazi
Students League and The Nazi Teachers League were established. All these structures
helped to increase the party membership. Another military group was formed, the S.S.
These were Hitler’s body guards.
In 1928 Hitler participated in elections but was unsuccessful. He only won twelve seats in
the Reich (German parliament).
In 1930 elections Hitler’s Nazi party increased their seats to one hundred and seven (107),
however Hitler could not assume power because his party did not have the majority in
parliament.
In 1932 elections other parties failed to form ac stable government. President Von
Hindenburg was persuaded by the previous Chancellor to appoint Hitler the as the
Chancellor, they were afraid that Hitler and the Nazi party would seize power by force.
They also believed that it would be easy to control Hitler better inside the government
than if he was outside.
By January 1933 Hitler was able to come to power. Papen was appointed the Vice
Chancellor and Hitler became the Chancellor. Hitler had come to power legally, all the
other parties failed to recognize the danger of the Nazi party. In 1934 President
Hindenburg died. The offices of the president and the Chancellor were combined; Hitler
became the German leader and the Commander of the army, the army swore an oath of
allegiance to Hitler. He gave himself the title, the Fuhrer (Leader).
WHY HITLER WAS ABLE TO RISE TO POWER / WHY THE NAZI PARTY
BECAME POPULAR IN GERMANY?




Oratory skills- Hitler was a very good public speaker. He used his oratory skills to attract
many people to the Nazi party. The party was so popular that Hitler was appointed the
Chancellor in 1933.
Nazi propaganda- Joseph Goebbels was put in charge of propaganda for the Nazi party.
He used every possible method to spread the Nazi message to the people. The party used
newspapers, posters and radio to spread its message; any people were attracted to the
party.
Powerful supporters- The Nazi party was supported by business people with finance.
These were the people who did not want the Communists to rule Germany because they
feared that if elected into power, the Communists would take their businesses. The party
was able sustain itself and sell its ideas to the Germans.
The Versailles treaty- This treaty was so harsh that it weakened the German economy
and its military power. The treaty had dented the German pride as Germany was no
longer a powerful state in Europe. Hitler promised the German people that if elected into
42

power he would reverse the terms of the treaty. This made the German people to support
Hitler and the Nazi party because they hated the treaty.
The World Economic Crisis of 1929- The economic crisis of 1929 destroyed the German
economy further as it was already affected after the First World War. Many people lost
their jobs; there was severe shortage of food in Germany. The Germans hated the new
government because it could not provide for them. Hitler took advantage of the situation
and promised the Germans that if elected into power he would revive the German
economy and create employment. The German people saw Hitler as an alternative since
the Weimar government had failed them.
HITLER’S DOMETIC POLICY/HOW HITLER WAS ABLE TO CONTROL
GERMANY FROM 1933-1939/ HOW HITLER CONSOLIDATED HIS
POWER IN GERMANY FROM 1933 TO 1939?







The Reichstag Fire- In 1933 the German parliament buildings were set on fire, a
Communist was arrested. Hitler used this as evidence that the Communists were plotting
against his government. 4000 Communists were arrested and imprisoned. A law was
passed which gave the police the powers to search houses, confiscate property and
detain people without trial.
The Enabling Act- In March 1933 Hitler introduced an act which was the foundation of
his dictatorship. The act stated that Hitler could now pass laws without the consent of
the parliament/Reich for the next 4 years.
Banning of Trade Unions- On May 1933 the Nazis broke into trade union offices all over
the country and arrested thousands of trade union officials. The unions were merged into
a ‘German Labour Front”. Strikes and demonstrations were not allowed.
The Night of the Long Knives/ The Purges- In June 1934 Hitler’s opponents were killed;
Hitler used the killings to tighten his control over Germany as he had removed possible
rivals to his position. Up to 200 people were killed, including politicians and police officers
of the S.A.
The Gestapo/Secret Police- Their job was to search out opponents of the Nazi
government. They used informers to uncover any attempts to organize opposition. They
could arrest citizens on suspicion and send them to concentration camps without trial or
even explanation.
The Courts- They were brought under the control of the Nazis. Judges were replaced by
Nazi supporters. The “People’s Court” was set up in 1934. It was established to try
enemies of the Nazi state. By 1939 the court had sentenced over 500 people to death and
sent many others to concentration camps.
The Concentration Camp- These were new prisons set up by the S.A and the S.S. People
who were arrested on suspicion of being against the Nazi government were sent to these
prisons. Concentration camps were prisons where people were exposed to hard labour
and brutality; many prisoners were beaten and tortured to death.
43







One Party State- All opposition parties were banned in Germany, the Nazi party was the
only party that was allowed to exist. The Gestapo spied on and arrested people who
wanted to form political parties and sent them to concentration camps.
Totalitarian State/Dictatorship- When President Hindenburg died in 1934, Hitler
combined the offices of the Chancellor and President. He gave himself the title of “the
Fuhrer “meaning the Supreme Leader where he would be given personal allegiance and
loyalty. He became the army Commander and the army had to swear an oath to Hitler.
Control of the Media/Propaganda- Private media was banned in Germany, only state
media was allowed. All radio stations were placed under Nazi control, broadcasts
included many speeches by Hitler and Pro-Nazi plays. Newspapers published what the
Nazi government wanted; Goebbels (Minister of Propaganda) edited what the
newspapers had written before publishing. Books written by Jews, Communists and antiNazi university professors and journalists were banned. Writers, Artists and Composers
were forced to create works in praise of Hitler and the Reich.
Control of Education- Education was carefully controlled and every teacher had to accept
and promote Nazi teachings. Teachers had to swear an oath of loyalty to Hitler and join
the Nazi Teachers’ League. Textbooks were re-written to fit the Nazi view of History and
racial purity. Biology was used to teach the Germans that they had special qualities than
other people; they were Superior Race/Master Race to all races.
Control of the Youth- The Nazis wanted to control the life of the young people outside
school. In 1936 membership of the Hitler Youth Movement was made compulsory. Other
youth organizations such as those by churches were banned. In 1939 membership of the
Hitler Youth was 7 million. The Hitler Youth focused on physical activities to prepare boys
for military activities. The organization for girls also stressed physical fitness to prepare
them for motherhood.
Control of the Churches- The Nazis also tried to control religion. They interfered in church
schools, and closed down church youth groups. Some church properties were attacked,
monasteries were closed and priests who opposed the Nazi were arrested and sent to
Concentration Camps. An official Reich Church was established, it taught a mixture of
Christianity and Nazi ideas.
Anti-Semitism/ Hatred of the Jews/Racial Discrimination- The most important policy of
the Nazi was to create a pure German state. This meant that all non-German groups were
treated as second class citizens, especially the Jews. The Nazis believed that the Germans
were a pure race of Arian descent; they were portrayed in art as blond, blue- eyed, tall,
lean and athletic. When the Nazis got into power Hitler was determined to use his power
against the Jews. Hitler encouraged the Germans to boycott the Jews shops and
businesses. Jews were excluded from government jobs. The Nuremburg Law which was
introduced in 1935 took away the Jews citizenship in Germany. Marriages between the
Germans and the Jews were forbidden. In 1938 campaign against the Jews had worsened,
during the “Night of Broken Glass” Jews shops, homes and synagogues were attacked
44
throughout Germany, thousands of Jews were arrested and sent to Concentration Camps.
During the Second World War the Nazi invaded many areas of Eastern Europe which had
large populations of the Jews; Hitler called this “The Final Solution” whereby he wanted
to wipe out all the Jews in Europe by killing them. After the Second World War it was
estimated that about 6 million Jews were killed by Nazis, this mass killing of the Jews by
the Nazis is known as the Holocaust.
THE FEATURES/CHARECTERISTICS OF NAZISM







The Purges- In June 1934 Hitler’s opponents were killed; Hitler used the killings to tighten
his control over Germany as he had removed possible rivals to his position. Up to 200
people were killed, including politicians and police officers of the S.A.
The Secret Police- Their job was to search out opponents of the Nazi government. They
used informers to uncover any attempts to organize opposition. They could arrest citizens
on suspicion and send them to concentration camps without trial or even explanation.
The Concentration Camp- These were new prisons set up by the S.A and the S.S. People
who were arrested on suspicion of being against the Nazi government were sent to these
prisons. Concentration camps were prisons where people were exposed to hard labour
and brutality; many prisoners were beaten and tortured to death.
One Party State- All opposition parties were banned in Germany, the Nazi party was the
only party that was allowed to exist. The Gestapo spied on and arrested people who
wanted to form political parties and sent them to concentration camps.
Propaganda- Private Media was banned in Germany, only state media was allowed. All
radio stations were placed under Nazi control, broadcasts included many speeches by
Hitler and Pro-Nazi plays. Newspapers published what the Nazi government wanted;
Goebbels (Minister of Propaganda) edited what the newspapers had written before
publishing. Books written by Jews, Communists and anti- Nazi university professors and
journalists were banned. Writers, Artists and Composers were forced to create works in
praise of Hitler and the Reich.
Control of Education- Education was carefully controlled and every teacher had to accept
and promote Nazi teachings. Teachers had to swear an oath of loyalty to Hitler and join
the Nazi Teachers’ League. Textbooks were re-written to fit the Nazi view of History and
racial purity. Biology was used to teach the Germans that they had special qualities than
other people; they were Superior Race/Master Race to all races.
Racial Discrimination- The most important policy of the Nazi was to create a pure German
state. This meant that all non-German groups were treated as second class citizens,
especially the Jews. The Nuremburg Law which was introduced in 1935 took away the
Jews citizenship in Germany. Marriages between the Germans and the Jews were
forbidden. In 1938 campaign against the Jews had worsened, during the “Night of Broken
Glass” Jews shops, homes and synagogues were attacked throughout Germany,
45
thousands of Jews were arrested and sent to Concentration Camps. During the Second
World War the Nazi invaded many areas of Eastern Europe which had large populations
of the Jews; After the Second World War it was estimated that about 6 million Jews were
killed by Nazis, this mass killing of the Jews by the Nazis is known as the Holocaust.
HOW HILTER IMPROVED THE GERMAN ECONOMY?




Labour Service Corps- Young men were provided with manual labour works. It was
compulsory for all men aged 18-25 years to serve in the Corps for six months. Workers
lived in camps, wore uniforms, did military drill and work.
Public works-Unemployed men were used to build government funded roads,
motorways, houses, hospitals, schools and military barracks. By the end of the 1930s
Germany had a national motorway or autobahn system.
Re-Armament/Conscription- All men aged 18-25 were forced to do military service for
two years. Re-armament provided thousands of jobs in arms factories making guns, tanks
and planes. The German troops were increased from 100 000 to 300 000.
Autarky- Hitler wanted to stop Germany being dependent on imports, especially raw
materials. Germany made trade deals with less developed countries, she paid them with
German manufactured goods in exchange with their raw materials. This improved the
growth of German industry.
OTHER POLICIES



Married women were encouraged to give up their jobs and stay at home.
Many Jews were driven out of their jobs which then became available for the Germans.
Government land was given to farmers and manufacturers to make the country selfsufficient in food, raw materials and manufactures.
HOW HITLER REVERSED THE VERSAILLES TREATY?

German Re-armament- During the Versailles treaty Germany was disarmed to 100 000
soldiers. In 1933 the German soldiers were increased from 100 000 to 300 000 men. New
Air Ministry was established and its duty was to train pilots and build 1 000 aircrafts. In
1935 Hitler publicly announced that Germany was re-arming, the army was increased
from 300 000 to 550 000. This German program was met with opposition from Britain,
France and Italy; they condemned German re-armament because Hitler was violating the
46
Versailles treaty. Hitler argued that re-armament was his reply to other powers refusal to
disarm.




The Anschluss/Re-Union with Austria- In 1934 the Austrian Nazis staged a revolt; Hitler
sent the German troops to Austria. Hitler wanted to use this revolt as an excuse to take
over Austria. Italy sent its troops to the border to oppose the re-union, Hitler was not
ready to face Italy and he withdrew his troop from Austria, the Anschluss of 1934 had
failed. In 1938 Hitler encouraged the Nazis in Austria in Germany to stage an uprising in
demand for the Re-union with Germany. The Austrian Chancellor called for a vote to see
what the Austrians wanted. Under the watchful eye of the Nazi troops, 99.75% of the
Austrians voted for the Anschluss/Re-union with Germany. Italy did not protest against
the reunion because Mussolini and Hitler had signed a friendship in 1936 which was
known as the Rome-Berlin Axis. Hitler had successfully reversed the term of the Versailles
treaty by re-uniting with Austria.
The Saar Mine Area- This area was taken from Germany during the Versailles treaty and
placed under the League of Nations for 15 years. In 1935 a plebiscite or a vote was taken
among the people of the Saar, they were asked to choose between union with Germany,
union with France or remaining under the League’s control. Over 90% voted to return to
Germany. Hitler had succeeded in reversing the Versailles treaty.
Re-Occupation of the Rhineland- This was the area between Germany and France, during
the Versailles treaty the Germany troops were not allowed to occupy this area because
France still felt insecure of being attacked by Germany. In March 1936 Hitler ordered his
troops to cross over the bridges and occupy the Rhineland. The troops were ordered to
withdraw if they met resistance from the people of the Rhineland or if France resisted
the occupation. The invasion went on smoothly as the German troops were welcomed by
the people living in this area, later 98% of them voted in favor of the reoccupation. For
Hitler the message was clear, France and Britain lacked the nerve and will to fight.
The Sudetenland crisis/Invasion of Czechoslovakia- The new state of Czechoslovakia was
created by the Versailles treaty in 1919. In 1938 Hitler wanted to invade the Sudetenland
which was part of Czechoslovakia because this area was occupied by the Germans. During
the Munich Conference/Agreement of 1938 Italy, Britain and France met with Hitler and
agreed to his demands. Hitler was given the Sudetenland because Chamberlain, Britain’s
Prime Minister wanted to appease Hitler by meeting his demands, and to avoid another
war. During the Conference Hitler promised the three powers that the Sudetenland was
his last demand in claiming the lost territories. In 1939 Hitler decided to invade the rest
of Czechoslovakia, breaking the Munich agreement. Britain and France took no action. To
Hitler the policy of appeasement meant that Britain and France were cowards. They tried
47
to warn Hitler that if he invaded Poland they would declare war on Germany, Hitler did
not believe them since they had failed to take action against Germany before.

Invasion of Poland- Germany was still bitter for the loss of Danzig and the Polish Corridor
during the Versailles treaty. In April 1939 Hitler demanded the return of Danzig and a
road and railway across Poland, linking East Prussia with the rest of Germany. This was
because Danzig was mainly German speaking. Britain tried to persuade the Poles to
surrender Danzig to Germany but Poland refused to negotiate. In September 1939
Germany invaded Poland, Chamberlain pleaded with Hitler to withdraw his troops from
Poland, and a conference would be held to solve the crisis. There was no response from
Germany, Chamberlain sent an ultimatum to Germany but there was no response again.
Britain had to abandon the policy of appeasement since she saw that Hitler could not be
trusted. Britain and France declared war on Germany and the Second World War started
in 1939.
Aims of Hitler’s Foreign Policy:



To reverse the terms of the Versailles Treaty- the Versailles treaty had humiliated the
Germans; it had eroded the German pride by taking her territories and disarming her.
Hitler wanted to reverse the terms of the Versailles treaty in order to restore the German
pride by rearming Germany and reclaiming the lost territories. When he assumed power
in Germany Hitler invaded some territories that were taken from her in Europe like
Rhineland, Danzig, Czechoslovakia and Poland. Hitler also rearmed Germany by
increasing the number of soldiers from 100 000 to 300 000 violating the Disarmament
clause.
To unite all the German speaking people into a Greater Germany- After the territorial
terms of the Versailles treaty many Germans lived under foreign rule. Hitler wanted to
make Germany a single, united homeland for all German speaking populations. This aim
was based on the principle of self-determination for the Germans. Hitler achieved this
aim by invading territories in Europe that were occupied by the German speaking people
such as Czechoslovakia and Poland.
To create a Lebensraum (Living Space) for the Germans- Hitler claimed that the Germans
were overcrowded and they needed a living space. The living space was not only for
settling the over-crowded Germans but it was also a source of food and raw materials for
Germany. He stated in his book titled Mein Kampf (My Struggle) that the living space
would be attained invading countries in Eastern Europe such as Poland and Russia,
countries inhabited by groups whom Hitler believed were inferior races to the superior
German race.
48

To destroy communism in Europe- Hitler wanted to destroy communism because he saw
it as threat to Germany. He was unti- communist and blamed the defeat of Germany
during World War One on the German communists. He also believed that communists
wanted to take over Germany. Solution to this fear was to ensure that communism was
destroyed in Europe. Hitler invaded Russia to destroy communism during the Second
World War because Russia was a communist state.
HITLER’S FOREIGN POLICY: 1933 TO 1939-HOW HITLER
RELATED WITH OTHER COUNTRIES/FEATURES OF HITLER’S
FOREIGN POLICY.



Withdrawal from the Disarmament Conference and the League of Nations 1933- During
the Disarmament Conference countries were encouraged to reduce their weapons in
order to promote peace. Other powers like France refused to disarm giving an excuse
that she still feared to be attacked by Germany. Hitler saw this as being unfair because
Germany was the only great power disarmed by the Versailles treaty. Hitler withdrew
Germany from the Disarmament Conference as well as from the League of Nations. After
withdrawing from the conference and the League Hitler started to rearm Germany, no
action was taken for Germany because she was not under the obligation to obey rules
and orders from the League. This exposed the weakness of the League as it failed to take
action against Hitler when he breached the Versailles treaty.
German Rearmament of 1933 and 1935- In 1933 Hitler started to rearm Germany, the
army was to be increased from 100 000 to 300 000 men, new Air Ministry was established
and its duty was to train pilots and build 1 000 aircrafts. Hitler needed a strong army to
achieve the aims of his foreign policy. In 1935 Hitler publicly announced the introduction
of conscription (recruitment of soldiers). The German army was increased from 300 000
to 550 000. Britain, France and Italy condemned the German public armament
programme but no action was taken against Germany when she breached the term of
the Versailles treaty. Other countries in Europe formed the Stresa Front to assist each
other if attacked by Germany, France and Russia signed the Franco-Soviet Pact to assist
each other if attacked by Germany.
Ten year Non-Aggression Pact with Poland, 1934- Hitler signed a ten year nonaggression pact with Poland in which he promised Poland that he would not be
aggressive towards Poland. The Pact benefitted Hitler because it meant that; Poland
would be neutral when Germany invaded Austria and Czechoslovakia, it gave Poland a
sense of security that Germany would not attack her in future.
49





Anschluss/Reunion with Austria, 1934 and 1938- Hitler wanted to unite with Austria. In
1934 he encouraged the Austrian Nazis in Austria to stage a revolt and murdered the
Austrian Chancellor who was a friend to the Italian leader, Mussolini. Hitler wanted to
use this crisis in Austria to take over Austria; he sent the German troops to Austria.
Mussolini was against this reunion, he sent his troops to the border. Hitler withdrew his
troops from Austria because his army was not strong enough to fight. The Anschluss had
failed in 1934. In 1936 Hitler and Mussolini had become friends; they signed the RomeBerlin Axis where they agreed that Italy would not interfere when Germany invade
Austria. In 1938 Hitler encouraged the Nazis in Austria to stir up trouble for the Austrian
government. Nazi demonstrations were calling for the anschluss/reunion with Germany,
the Austrian chancellor appealed to Britain and France for help but they refused. The
chancellor called for a vote to see what the Austrian people wanted, under the watchful
eye of the Nazi troops 99.75% of the Austrians voted for the Anschluss. Britain and France
protested to the Anschluss but took no action; Hitler had successfully breached the
Treaty of Versailles.
The Saar Plebiscite of 1935- The Saar mine area was taken from Germany during the
Versailles treaty, it was to be under the League of Nations for 15 years. After 15 years a
plebiscite (vote) had to be carried out for the people of the Saar to vote whether they
wanted to re-unite with Germany, to be part of France or to remain under the League.
Most of the Saar people were Germans. In 1935 a vote was carried out, over 90% of the
people of the Saar voted to re-join Germany. The Saar became part of Germany; Hitler
had succeeded in reversing the Versailles treaty.
Anglo-German Naval Agreement of 1935- Britain and Germany signed a naval
agreement whereby Britain agreed that Germany should build a navy which could be
one-third (1/3) to that of Britain. By the end of 1938 Germany had 21 large naval vessels
(battleships, cruisers and destroyers). Hitler had succeeded in breaching the Versailles
treaty which did not allow Germany to have battleships.
Re-militarization of the Rhineland 0f 1936- Hitler ordered the German troops to reoccupy the Rhineland, the area between Germany and France which Germany was
ordered to remove her troops from during the Versailles treaty. The troops were ordered
to withdraw if Britain and France offered military opposition. However, Britain and
France only protested but took no military action. Hitler successfully breached the
Versailles treaty.
Rome-Berlin Axis of 1936- In 1934 Italy stood against Germany when Hitler tried to
reunite with Austria. Mussolini and Hitler became friends during the Spanish civil war
because they both supported a dictatorship in Spain. In 1936 Mussolini signed a
friendship known as the Rome-Berlin Axis; the two leaders had something in common,
they were both dictators and aggressors. Mussolini and Hitler agreed that Italy would
not interfere when Germany re-unite with Austria. Hitler had managed to separate Italy
from France and Britain.
50

The Anti-Comintern Pact/Anti-Communism Pact of 1936/1937-Germany and Japan
agreed to work together to destroy communism in Europe. The Com intern was a Soviet
(Russian) agency which was set up to spread communism worldwide. In 1937 Italy joined
the Anti- Comintern pact; the friendship between the three countries (Italy, Germany
and Japan) came to be known as the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis or the Axis Alliance. The
Anti-Comintern Pact had brought the dictators and aggressors together; Hitler had
gained a powerful ally (Japan) against Russia which was a communist state.

The Sudetenland Crisis/Invasion of Czechoslovakia: 1938/39- The new state of
Czechoslovakia was created by the Versailles treaty in 1919. In 1938 Hitler wanted to
invade Czechoslovakia because the area was occupied by the German speaking people,
especially the Sudetenland which was part of Czechoslovakia. Hitler wanted
Czechoslovakia for the following reasons; he hated the Czechs because they were Slavs,
he wanted their wealth and resources, he feared that Russia might invade Germany
through Czechoslovakia. In September 1938 Hitler encouraged the Sudetenland people
to stage an uprising, but the Czech government crushed the revolt. In order to prevent
war between Germany and Czechoslovakia, a conference was called (Munich
Conference) held at a German town and was attended by Germany, Italy, Britain and
France. During the conference Hitler promised that the Sudetenland was his last
“territorial demand in Europe”. Chamberlain decided to apply the policy of appeasement
in order to avoid war, Hitler was given the Sudetenland in order to meet his demands. In
1938 Hitler decided to break the Munich agreement, he ordered the German troops to
invade the rest of Czechoslovakia. Britain and France took no action; Hitler’s next target
was Poland. Britain and France warned Hitler that if he invades Poland they would
declare war on Germany, the policy of appeasement had come to an end because
Chamberlain had realized that Hitler could not be trusted. Hitler did not believe that
Britain and France could fight Germany because they had failed to take action against
him when he breached the treaty of Versailles.
Nazi-Soviet Pact of 1939- In August 1939 Germany and Russia (USSR) signed a friendship
called the Nazi-Soviet Pact. The two leaders (Hitler and Stalin) agreed that: Russia would
not interfere when Germany invaded Poland, Germany and Russia would divide Poland
between them after Poland was defeated. However, it should be noted that the two
leaders did not trust each other because Stalin knew that Hitler hated Russia because it
was a communist state and Germany would attack Russia at some point, so Russia was
just buying time to prepare herself. Germany was also buying time because one of
Hitler’s aims was to destroy communism which means he would have to attack Russia
because it was a communist state.

51

Invasion of Poland, September 1939- Germany was still bitter of losing the Polish
Corridor at Versailles. In April 1939 Hitler demanded the return of Danzig and a road and
a railway across Poland, linking East Prussia with the rest of Germany. This was based on
the principle of self-determination because Danzig was occupied by manly German
speaking people. Hitler demanded to be given back these territories. The British
persuaded Poland to surrender Danzig to Germany but the Poles refused. When Poland
refused to negotiate, Hitler ordered his troops to invade Poland on 1st September 1939.
Chamberlain pleaded with Germany to withdraw her troops and suggested that a
conference should be called to solve the issue but Hitler ignored him. Chamberlain sent
an ultimatum to Germany but there was no response. On 3rd September 1939 Britain and
France declared war on Germany to stop Hitler’s aggression and the Second World War
started.
THE POLICY OF APPEASEMENT
 This was a policy adopted by Britain and France in order to meet the demands of
the aggressors such as Italy, Germany and Japan to avoid another war, an
example of this policy was during the Sudetenland crisis of 1938. In 1938 Hitler
wanted to invade Czechoslovakia because the area was occupied by the German
speaking people, especially the Sudetenland which was part of Czechoslovakia, he feared
that Russia might invade Germany through Czechoslovakia. In September 1938 Hitler
encouraged the Sudetenland people to stage an uprising, but the Czech government
crushed the revolt. In order to prevent war between Germany and Czechoslovakia, a
conference was called (Munich Conference) held at a German town and was attended
by Germany, Italy, Britain and France. During the conference Hitler promised that the
Sudetenland was his last “territorial demand in Europe”. Chamberlain decided to apply
the policy of appeasement in order to avoid war, Hitler was given the Sudetenland in
order to meet his demands. In 1938 Hitler decided to break the Munich agreement, he
ordered the German troops to invade the rest of Czechoslovakia. Britain and France took
no action; Hitler’s next target was Poland.
52
WHY HITLER EMBRKED ON AN AGGRESSIVE FOREIGN POLICY?
He wanted to achieve his aims being;




To reverse the terms of the Versailles Treaty- the Versailles treaty had humiliated the
Germans; it had eroded the German pride by taking her territories and disarming her.
Hitler wanted to reverse the terms of the Versailles treaty in order to restore the German
pride by rearming Germany and reclaiming the lost territories. When he assumed power
in Germany Hitler invaded some territories that were taken from her in Europe like
Rhineland, Danzig, Czechoslovakia and Poland. Hitler also rearmed Germany by
increasing the number of soldiers from 100 000 to 300 000 violating the Disarmament
clause.
To unite all the German speaking people into a Greater Germany- After the territorial
terms of the Versailles treaty many Germans lived under foreign rule. Hitler wanted to
make Germany a single, united homeland for all German speaking populations. This aim
was based on the principle of self-determination for the Germans. Hitler achieved this
aim by invading territories in Europe that were occupied by the German speaking people
such as Czechoslovakia and Poland.
To create a Lebensraum (Living Space) for the Germans- Hitler claimed that the Germans
were overcrowded and they needed a living space. The living space was not only for
settling the over-crowded Germans but it was also a source of food and raw materials for
Germany. He stated in his book titled Mein Kampf (My Struggle) that the living space
would be attained invading countries in Eastern Europe such as Poland and Russia,
countries inhabited by groups whom Hitler believed were inferior races to the superior
German race.
To destroy communism in Europe- Hitler wanted to destroy communism because he saw
it as threat to Germany. He was unti- communist and blamed the defeat of Germany
during World War One on the German communists. He also believed that communists
wanted to take over Germany. Solution to this fear was to ensure that communism was
destroyed in Europe. Hitler invaded Russia to destroy communism during the Second
World War because Russia was a communist state.
53
HOW HITLER’S AGGRESSIVE FOREIGN POLICY CONTRIBUTED TO
THE SECOND WORLD WAR?



German Rearmament of 1933 and 1935- In 1933 Hitler started to rearm Germany, the
army was to be increased from 100 000 to 300 000 men, new Air Ministry was established
and its duty was to train pilots and build 1 000 aircrafts. Hitler needed a strong army to
achieve the aims of his foreign policy. In 1935 Hitler publicly announced the introduction
of conscription (recruitment of soldiers). The German army was increased from 300 000
to 550 000. Britain, France and Italy condemned the German public armament
programme but no action was taken against Germany when she breached the term of
the Versailles treaty. After rearming Germany Hitler invaded territories such as the
Rhineland, Austria, Czechoslovakia and Poland which led to the Second World War to
stop his aggression.
The Sudetenland Crisis/Invasion of Czechoslovakia: 1938/39- The new state of
Czechoslovakia was created by the Versailles treaty in 1919. In 1938 Hitler wanted to
invade Czechoslovakia because the area was occupied by the German speaking people,
especially the Sudetenland which was part of Czechoslovakia. Hitler wanted
Czechoslovakia for the following reasons; he hated the Czechs because they were Slavs,
he wanted their wealth and resources, he feared that Russia might invade Germany
through Czechoslovakia. In September 1938 Hitler encouraged the Sudetenland people
to stage an uprising, but the Czech government crushed the revolt. In order to prevent
war between Germany and Czechoslovakia, a conference was called (Munich
Conference) held at a German town and was attended by Germany, Italy, Britain and
France. During the conference Hitler was given the Sudetenland in order to meet his
demands. In 1938 Hitler decided to break the Munich agreement, he ordered the
German troops to invade the rest of Czechoslovakia. This brought tension between
Germany, Britain and France because they realized that Hitler could not be trusted.
Britain and France warned Hitler that if he invades Poland they would declare war on
Germany.
Invasion of Poland, September 1939- Germany was still bitter of losing the Polish
Corridor at Versailles. In April 1939 Hitler demanded the return of Danzig and a road and
a railway across Poland, linking East Prussia with the rest of Germany. This was based on
the principle of self-determination because Danzig was occupied by manly German
speaking people. Hitler demanded to be given back these territories. The British
persuaded Poland to surrender Danzig to Germany but the Poles refused. When Poland
refused to negotiate, Hitler ordered his troops to invade Poland on 1st September 1939.
Chamberlain pleaded with Germany to withdraw her troops and suggested that a
conference should be called to solve the issue but Hitler ignored him. Chamberlain sent
an ultimatum to Germany but there was no response. On 3rd September 1939 Britain and
France declared war on Germany to stop Hitler’s aggression and the Second World War
started.
54
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Outline any four problems faced by the Weimar Republic from 1919 to 1933.
[8]
Outline any four political problems faced by the Weimar Republic from 1919-1933.
2.
[8]
3. Outline any four economic problems faced by the Weimar Republic from 1919-1933.
[8]
4. Describe the Munich uprising of 1923.
[8]
5. Outline any four steps taken by Hitler to rise to power in 1933.
6. Outline Hitler’s aims when he assumed power in Germany from 1933 to 1939.
[8]
[8]
7. Describe the Sudetenland crisis of 1938.
[8]
8. Describe the Disarmament Conference of 1933.
[8]
9. Describe the Policy of Appeasement adopted by Britain and France from 1930 to 1938.
[8]
10. Explain how Gustav Stresemann improved the Weimar Republic from 1923 to 1929.
[12]
11. Explain why the Weimar Republic collapsed in 1933/Explain how the problems of the Weimar
Republic contributed to its collapse in 1933.
[12]
12.Explain how the weaknesses of the Weimar Republic contribute to the rise of Adolf Hitler? [12]
13. Explain why Hitler/Nazi party was able to rise to power in Germany in 1933.
[12]
14. Explain how Hitler/Nazi party was able to control Germany/Consolidated power in Germany
from 1933 to 1939.
[12]
15. Explain how Hitler/Nazi party improved the economy of Germany from 1933 to 1939. [12]
16. Explain how Hitler reversed the Versailles treaty.
[12]
17. Explain why Hitler embarked on an aggressive foreign policy from 1933 to 1939 OR Explain
why Hitler embarked on an expansionist foreign policy from 1933 to 1939.
[12]
18. Explain any three features/characteristics of Hitler’s foreign policy OR Explain how Hitler
related with other countries from 1933 to 1939.
[12]
19. Explain how Hitler’s aggressive foreign policy contributed to the outbreak of the Second World
War from 1939 to 1945.
[12]
20. Explain the features/characteristics of Nazism.
55
[12]
CHAPTER 5: CAUSES OF THE SECOND WORLD
WAR.
Discuss the causes of World War 2
The war was fought from 1939 to 1945. There have been debates among historians about who or
what caused the war. Some of the causes of the war are as follow;
1. The unfair Versailles Treaty
It has been blamed for fueling bitterness and anger on Germany as the Germans felt that it was
very harsh, the territorial terms reduced the German Empire into a smaller state, high reparations
led to economic decline and the Disarmament clause made the German military weak. When
Hitler took power in 1933 he started to reverse the terms of the Versailles treaty by reaming
Germany, after rearmament Hitler became aggressive by invading the territories that were taken
from Germany like the Polish Corridor which led to the Second World War.
2. Failure of the League of Nations
The League failed to take action against some Great powers who invaded others; for example, it
failed to impose economic sanctions against Italy when she invaded Abyssinia in 1935. The League
also failed to take action against Japan when she invaded China’s province Manchuria in 1931.
The failures of the League to deal with aggression encouraged leaders like Hitler take advantage
and embark on an aggressive foreign policy which led to the Second World War in 1939.
3. The World Economic Crisis of 1929
The economic depression led to aggression between countries as some wanted to improve their
economies by invading others to improve their economies, for example, in 1931 Japan invaded
China’s province Manchuria because it was rich in raw materials. Leaders like Hitler also embarked
on an aggressive foreign policy by invading countries like Czechoslovakia and Poland to improve
Germany’s economy. Britain and France had to declare war on Germany to stop Hitler’s
aggression and this led to the Second World War in 1939.
4. Hitler’s Foreign Policy
He embarked on aggressive foreign policy to achieve his aims which were to; unite all the
Germans, create a living a space for the Germans, reverse the terms of the Versailles treaty and
destroy communism in Eastern Europe. He invaded countries like Czechoslovakia in 1938 and
Poland in 1939 to create the living space, unite the Germans and reverse the Versailles treaty. He
also invaded Russia in 1939(USSR) because it was a communist state. Hitler’s aggression forced
countries such as Britain and France to declare war on Germany to stop him and this led to the
Second World War in 1939.
56
5. The Appeasement Policy
This was the policy followed by Britain and France when dealing with aggressors such as Japan,
Italy and Germany in order to meet their demands to avoid another war. British Prime Minister,
Neville Chamberlain believed that it was important to keep Europe at peace, even if it meant
giving way to what the aggressors wanted. Hitler took advantage this policy, for example, he
reversed the Versailles treaty by rearming Germany, and he occupied some of the territories
taken from Germany during the Versailles treaty like Danzig, Rhineland and the Saar but no action
was taken against him. Hitler was given the Sudetenland (part of Czechoslovakia) as he promised
Britain and France that it was his last demand on the territories taken from Germany but he
invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia in 1938, he also invaded Poland in 1939, this showed Britain
and France that Hitler could not be trusted. Britain and France had to abandon this policy and
declared war on Germany in 1939 to stop Hitler’s aggression and this led to the Second World
War.
6. The Nazi Soviet Pact of 1939
In August 1939 Germany and Russia (USSR) signed a friendship called the Nazi-Soviet Pact. The
two leaders (Hitler and Stalin) agreed that: Russia would not interfere when Germany invaded
Poland, Germany and Russia would divide Poland between them after Poland was defeated. This
gave Germany confidence to attack Poland with the support of Russia. German’s attack on Poland
led to the Second World War as Britain and France were forced to declare war on Germany to
stop Hitler’s aggression.
7. Invasion of Poland, September 1939Germany was still bitter of losing the Polish Corridor at Versailles. In April 1939 Hitler demanded
the return of Danzig and a road and a railway across Poland, linking East Prussia with the rest of
Germany. This was based on the principle of self-determination because Danzig was occupied by
manly German speaking people. Hitler demanded to be given back these territories. The British
persuaded Poland to surrender Danzig to Germany but the Poles refused. Hitler invaded Poland
on September 1939. Britain and France declared war on Germany to stop Hitler’s aggression and
the Second World War started.
RESULTS OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR
57
1. Economic Results
Collapse of the Economy: Economies of countries collapsed because factories, roads, mines and
communications were destroyed by the war especially in Europe and Asia. Almost 50% of French
total wealth was lost; this led to poverty and starvation.
Formation of Financial Institutions: Institutions like International Monetary Fund and the World
Bank were formed to assist countries to revive their economies after the war. This improved the
economy of countries as they were loaned money.
2. Political Results
Division of Germany: Germany was divided into two states because USSR wanted to establish its
own kind of Germany and the Western powers (Britain and USA) also wanted to establish their
kind of Germany. West Germany became a capitalist state and East Germany became a
communist state.
Formation of the United Nations Organization: The UN was formed in October 1945 after the
Second World War. The UN replaced the League because the League had failed to maintain peace
by failing to stop aggression that led to the Second World War.
Cold War: After the Second World War rivalry developed between the USA (Capitalism) and USSR
(Communism) or the East versus West. The two emerged as the most powerful Superpowers after
the war. USA had the world’s largest navy, air force and controlled the atomic bomb; USSR had
the largest army in the world. Both countries were highly suspicious of each other and this created
tension that became known as “The Cold War”. It started in 1945-46 and lasted for over 40 years.
At first it was confined to Europe but during the 1950’s and 1960’s it spread worldwide, especially
into Asia. It was referred as Cold War because the two superpowers never fought each other but
had conflicting systems of government; they also spied on each other as they competed in
manufacturing weapons of mass destruction (The Nuclear Arms Race).
Decolonization: The war encouraged colonized countries especially in Africa to demand for
independence from the colonial masters such as Britain and France. Colonies took advantage
since their masters concentrated in the war and formed movements that demanded
independence. In 1945 a Pan African Congress was held in Manchester which was organized by
one of the Pan Africanists, Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana. Ghana was the first African state to gain
independence from Britain in 1960, this paved way for other African states to gain independence.
3. SOCIAL RESULTS
Loss of lives: Many people died during, almost 40 million people were killed; over half were
Russians, 6 million were Poles, 4 million were Germans, 4 million were Chinese and Japanese.
58
Massive deaths were escalated by the use of weapons of mass destruction such as the atomic
bomb which was used by the USA on Japan in 06-09 August 1945 in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The
atomic bomb caused death directly and indirectly through radiation sickness.
Displacement: About 25 million people were homeless; some had been taken to Germany to work
as slave labour, some had been put in concentration camps by the Nazis and some had been
forced to flee from invading armies. Displacement led to poverty and starvation as people did not
have any means of survival.
Spread of Diseases: The destruction of health facilities led to the spread of diseases in Europe
and Asia.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Explain any three causes of the Second World War.
[12]
2. Explain any three political results of the Second World War.
[12]
3. Explain any three results of the Second World War.
[12]
CHAPTER
6ORGANIZATION
THE
UNITED
59
NATIONS
The United Nations Organization was officially formed in October 1945 after the Second World
War; it was formed to replace the League of Nations because the League was seen as ineffective
as it failed to stop aggression which led to the Second World War of 1939 to 1945. The
Headquarters of the United Nations were set in New York, USA.
Origins of the United Nations Organization/Different meetings held by
World leaders to discuss the formation of an International Peace keeping
organization.







The Atlantic Charter of 1941 was signed by the British Prime minister, Churchill and the
USA president, Roosevelt which laid down aims of a post war period.
The Atlantic Charter was confirmed by the signing of the United Nation Declaration in
January 1942.
The Moscow Declaration of 1943 held in Russia was signed by the Big Three being Stalin
of Russia, Roosevelt of USA and Churchill of Britain. They decided to set up an
organization that would maintain peace after the war.
The Dumbarton Oaks Conference of August 1944 was held in USA to draw the structure
of the United Nations Organization.
The Yalta Conference was held in Russia in early 1945, it was agreed that the Big four
being Britain, USA, USSR (Russia) and China would be permitted a veto in the Council. The
Big four were to make decisions on how to organize Europe after the war.
The San Francisco conference of October 1945 was held in USA by fifty one nations where
the draft that was proposed by Russia, USA, China and Britain was finalized into the UN
Charter.
The United Nations headquarters were set up in New York, USA. Membership of the UN
was open to all peace loving nations.
Aims of the United Nations Organization



To maintain international peace and security.
To promote economic and social development.
To uphold and promote fundamental human rights.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATION
Main Organs
60
1. The General Assembly-It composed of all members of the UN. Each member had one
vote. It meets annually in September but special sessions can be called by the Security Council in
times of emergency.
Functions




It debates and makes proposals about international problems concerning peace and
cooperation.
It elects the non-permanent members of the Security Council.
It works on the budget of the Organization.
It supervises the duties of other UN minor organs.
2. The Security Council-It composes of five permanent members who are USA, China,
Britain, France and USSR (Russia) and also non-permanent members who are selected by the
Assembly for a two year term. Each permanent member has the veto power (power to reject a
motion or decision), however a member may decide not to use it by not voting.
Functions


To maintain international peace and security.
It recommends economic and military sanctions on the aggressor.
3. The International Court of Justice


The headquarters are at The Hague in Holland.
It has 15 judges elected from various nations by the General Assembly and the Security
Council. Members serve for three years.
Functions


It judges cases that involve settlements of disputes over borders of countries.
It advices on international law and helps on interpretation of treaties.
4. The Secretariat-It is the administrative body of the UN. It is headed by the Secretary
General who is appointed for a period of five years by the General Assembly on the
recommendation of the Security Council. The staff of Secretariat is selected from various member
states.
Functions
61


It is responsible for the administrative work like preparing minutes, filing and translations.
The Secretary General has the power to consult the Security Council on important
matters.
5. The Trusteeship Council-It replaced the League’s Mandates Commission. Its
membership comprised of the five permanent members of the Security Council and the states
Trust territories and others.
Function

Its main function was to see to it that all states looking after Trust territories prepared
them as soon as possible for independence.
6. The Economic and Social Council-This council originally had eighteen who served for
three years, the number increased to fifty four countries.
Functions


It coordinates the economic and social work of the UN and its specialized agencies.
It initiates activities such development, world trade, industrialization, natural resources,
human rights, social welfare, prevention of crime and other social and economic
problems.
United Nations Specialized Agencies
(a)The Human Rights Commission
62


It promotes the rights of people across the world. It believes that every person should
have basic human rights. Some of the human rights that are stated in the Human Rights
charter are;
The right to education, the right to life, the right to health, the right to shelter and the
right to marriage.
(b)International Labour Organization (ILO)

It promotes the rights of workers by investigating the working conditions, wages, trade
union rights and social rights of the workers in all parts of the world.
(c) Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)


It encourages improvements in agricultural production by giving technical advice on food
production, fighting pests and animal diseases.
It assist countries by sending food relief to the victims natural disasters such as drought.
(d) World Health Organization (WHO)


It advices countries on public health such as sanitation.
It helps to prevent epidemics such as malaria, tuberculosis, small pox, chicken pox, Ebola
and measles.
(e) United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO)


It encourages the spread of literacy worldwide.
It also encourages international cooperation between artists and scholars in various fields
of study, for example it organized an International Hydrological Decade from 1965 to
1975 which helped to finance research into the problem of world water resources.
(f) United Nations International Children Emergency Fund (UNICEF)

It was founded in 1946 to help children left homeless by the Second World War.
63


Today it takes care of children suffering from disasters such as famine, earthquakes and
wars.
It also provides medicines, food and equipment for child welfare services all over the
world.
(g) United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

It assists countries in developing infrastructure such as schools, roads and hospitals.
(h) International Monetary Fund (IMF)

It provides short term loans to countries that are faced with financial difficulties.
(i)The World Bank

It provides long term loans for specific development projects such as building dams to
generate electricity.
Successes of the United Nations Organization in Peace
keeping from 1945-1965
64
(a)West New Guinea: 1946
-In 1946 the UN helped to arrange independence of the Dutch East Indies from Holland. After
independence the territory was called Indonesia. Holland and Indonesia claimed that West Irian
(New Guinea) belonged to them. In 1961 war broke out between the two, the UN appealed to
both countries for negotiations. The UN intervened by transferring the territory to Indonesia
under the supervision of the UN force. In 1962 the territory offially became part of Indonesia. The
UN was successful in solving the conflict between the two countries.
(b)Palestine 1947
-The dispute between the Jews and the Arabs was brought before the UN in 1947. After an
investigation the UN decided to Palestine, setting up the Jews state of Israel. The UN resolution
was not accepted by majority of the Arab, and this decision was not able to prevent a series of
wars between Israel and the Arab states. The UN succeeded in arranging cease-fires and providing
supervisory forces and the UN Relief and Works Agencies cared for the Arab refugees.
(c) The Korean War: 1950-53
-North Korea which was a communist state invaded South Korea in June 1950; the Security
Council immediately passed a resolution condemning North Korea. The Security Council called on
member states of the UN to send help to South Korea by releasing their armies. This action was
made possible by the absence of the Russian delegates who would have vetoed the resolution,
the Russian delegates returned after the resolution was taken and it was too late to prevent the
action to go ahead. Troops of sixteen countries were able to prevent the invasion and preserved
the frontier between the two countries. War between the two countries was prevented.
(d) The Suez Canal Crisis: 1956
-President Nasser of Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal, many of its shares were owned by the
British and French. Britain and France protested strongly to Nasser’s action and sent their troops
65
to protect their interests by invading Egypt, at the same time Israel also invaded Egypt from the
from the East. The aim of the three countries was to bring down Nasser. Nasser appealed to the
Security Council for help. The Security Council condemned Britain and France’s actions in Egypt,
but the British and the French vetoed the resolution. The General Assembly with the support of
64 countries condemned the invasion and called for the withdrawal of the British, French and
Israel troops from Egypt. Britain, France and Israel agreed to withdraw their troops provided the
UN ensured a reasonable settlement over the Canal and kept the Israelis and Arabs from fighting
each other. UN force of 5000 troops from 10 different countries moved into Egypt to prevent the
invasion, the British, French and Israel troops withdrew from Egypt. The UN was successful in
preventing war between Britain, France, Israel and Egypt.
(e)The Belgian Congo: 1960-64
-After gaining independence from Belgium in 1960, civil war broke out in Congo. The government
of Congo asked the UN for help. Belgium sent troops to rescue Belgian citizens living in Congo and
one of the provinces declared its independence. The UN ensured that all foreign troops left and
the country was reunited. The UN also gave technical assistance to the Congolese government by
setting up the special UN Congo Fund to recover after the civil war.
(f) Cyprus: 1964
-Cyprus was a British colony since 1878 and it was granted independence in 1960. In 1963 a civil
war broke out between the Greeks who made about 80% of the population and the Turks. UN
peace keeping force arrived in March 1964; peace was restored and 3000 troops were
permanently stationed in Cyprus to prevent a fight between the two groups. In 1974 the Greeks
living in Cyprus tried to unite the Island with Greece, this forced the Turkish living in Greece to
annex the northern part of Cyprus to be their territory. The Turkish chased away all the Greeks
who were living in that area, the UN called for a cease-fire and restored peace, even today the
UN still has its forces policing the frontier between Greeks and Turks.
(g) Kashmir: 1965
-Kashmir was a large province lying between India and Pakistan; it was claimed by both states, at
some point India occupied the southern part and Pakistan occupied the northern part of Kashmir.
In 1965 Pakistan invaded the Indian zone and a short war developed between the two countries.
The UN intervened and called for a cease-fire, the two countries agreed and peace was restored.
Recent Successes of the UN
(h)The UN was successful in keeping peace in Lebanon during civil war caused by the Lebanese
Christians and the Palestinians, the Lebanese were aided by Israelis.
66
(i) The UN was able to bring independence to Namibia, when the apartheid regime in South Africa
failed to grant Namibia independence the UN imposed economic sanctions on South Africa. Later
Namibia gained independence in 1990 led by SWAPO government of Sam Nujoma.
(j) The UN was also involved in the Gulf War of 1990 in which Iraq invaded Kuwait because Kuwait
was rich in oil production. Iraq was defeated by UN peace keeping forces and it withdrew from
Kuwait. After war the Permanent members of the UN Security Council agreed to impose economic
and military sanctions on Iraq
(k) The UN was successful in bringing to an end the war between Iran and Iraq which was fought
for 8 years by the two countries, the UN Was able negotiate a cease-fire.
(L) The UN solved the conflict in Cambodia where a communist Guerilla force led by Pol Pot
overthrew the government of Prince Sihanouk. The UN monitored the situation with the help of
Vietnam army; the country gradually began to settle down.
(m) The UN was able to restore law and order in Mozambique where there was civil war after
Mozambique gained independence from Portugal in 1975. The civil war was between RENAMO
and FRELIMO, with the intervention of the UN the two parties later agreed for a cease-fire in
1992, elections were successfully held in October 1994.
Failures of the United Nations Organization in Peace
keeping
(a)The Hungarian Uprising: 1956
67
-The Hungarians wanted independence from Russia but the Russian troops entered Hungary to
crush the revolt. The Hungarian government appealed to the UN for help, the UN Security Council
passed a resolution which ordered Russian troops to withdraw from Hungary. Russia used the
veto power to reject the UN resolution and the Russians even refused to cooperate with the
committee that was set up by the General Assembly to investigate the matter. No progress was
made and this showed that the UN was ineffective when dealing with some of the permanent
members of the Security Council like Russia.
(b)The Czechoslovakia crisis: 1968
-The Czechs wanted to be independent from the USSR block (communist bloc) which was formed
by Russia and other countries in Eastern Europe, the Czech people set up a revolt. Russia and
other Warsaw Pact members sent their troops to enforce obedience to the USSR. The UN Security
Council passed a motion condemning USSR actions on the Czechs; the Russians vetoed the motion
claiming that the Czech government had asked for their intervention. Russia refused to cooperate
which made it difficult for the UN to solve the issue.
(c) Afghanistan: 1979
-When Russia invaded Afghanistan in 1979, the UN passed a motion condemning Russia and
demanded that Russia should withdraw its forces from Afghanistan. Russia used the veto power
to reject the UN resolution. The UN failed to take action against Russia who is the permanent
member of the Security Council.
(d) The Somalian civil war: 1991
-In 1991 the Somalian dictator Siad Barre was overthrown by supporters of Farah Aidid and Ali
Mohamed, this resulted in a civil war were the supports of Siad Barre fought against those of
Aidid and Mohamed. The Organization of African Unity asked for help from the UN, 37 000 troops
were sent to Somalia many of whom were Americans. The troops were to keep law and order
disarming the “war lords”, the war lords especially Aidid refused to disarm which resulted in a
war between the UN troops and the fighting groups. Many UN troops died during this peace
keeping mission and the Americans were forced to withdraw their troops in March 1994, the
remaining UN troops were in March 1995 leaving the war lords fighting each other. The Somali
civil war left the UN humiliated because it was defeated in Somalia as tried to force the two groups
to disarm.
(e) Rwanda civil war: 1993-96
-There was civil war in Rwanda between the two ethnic groups, the Tutsi and the Hutu. Thousands
of people were displaced and over 5000 were killed in this civil war. The UN sent a relief group to
assist the people. The UN also sent troops to monitor the peace agreement between the two
68
groups, however it was not able to prevent war as the Hutu who were large in numbers killed
many of the Hutu who were a minority group. The UN only intervened when the damage was
already done.
(f) The UN also failed to prevent the civil war in Bosnia where thousands of the Bosnian Serbs
were killed and misplaced; the UN only intervened when the damage was already done.
Why the United Nations had some successes in its peace
keeping from 1945-1965?
1. Quick response
-The UN had some successes because it responded quickly to issues, the UN security Council made
sure that countries released their troops well in time to fight the aggressor, for example, when
Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990 which was rich in oil, the UN sent troops to drive Iraq out of Kuwait.
Iraq was defeated by UN peace keeping forces during the Gulf war and it withdrew from Kuwait.
The UN was also successful in fighting aggression during the Korean War of 1950-53 and the
Belgian Congo crisis of 1960-64.
2. USA as a member of the UN
-America joined the UN as a permanent member after the Second World War in 1945. Presence
of the USA as member of the UN boosted it because was one the powerful states economically
and militarily. The USA helped the UN by releasing its troops when military intervention was
needed as it did during the Korean war of 1950-53, and also assisted with finance to run the UN
programmes.
3. Power of the Secretary General
-The UN has been successful because it had increased the power and prestige of the Secretary
General. The Secretary General is able to recommend the Security Council to take action to
preserve peace.
4. UN Slogan of “Uniting for peace resolution”
-This slogan has enabled the Security Council and the General Assembly to work towards a
common goal, for example, the two worked together to impose military and economic sanctions
on the aggressors.
69
5. Economic and Military Sanctions
-The UN Security Council had been able to impose economic sanctions through a unanimous
decision of the member states without a Veto which has previously hindered the League in
maintaining peace, for example, the UN was able to impose economic and military sanctions on
Iraq when Iraq had invaded Kuwait in 1990.
6. The General Assembly
-It had the power to act when the Security Council could not, it operated with a two third majority
decision unlike the League where the Assembly could not act when the Security Council had
failed.
Problems faced by the UN since 1945
1. Lack of Permanent Army
-The UN relies on member states to provide troops to enable it to enforce decisions. It is always
difficult to deal with powerful states that choose to put self-interest first. For example, the USSR
was able to ignore the UN resolution which demanded for the withdrawal of Russian troops from
Hungary in 1956 and no action was taken since member states could not release their armies to
face a powerful state like Russia.
2. When should the UN be involved?
-There is a problem about when the UN should be involved during the dispute, sometimes the UN
takes too long to react and the problem becomes more difficult to solve, sometimes it hesitates
so long it rarely becomes involved at all, for example, during the Vietnam war of 1946-1954 the
UN did not intervene and the Vietnam people fought against each other for 8 years. This
hesitation of the UN has caused some states to form their regional organizations such as the NATO
for keeping peace. Also some agreements were worked out without the involvement of the UN,
for example, the Camp David Peace was signed between Israel and Egypt without the involvement
of the UN. This left the UN open for accusation of indecision and lack of firmness.
3. Increased membership
-By 1970 members from the Third World (Africa and Asia) represented majority of members of
the UN. These nations began to work together in order to make sure that their resolutions passed,
this made it difficult for both Western and Communist blocs to get their resolutions through the
National Assembly, for example, in 1979 when the Western bloc introduced a motion in the
70
General Assembly condemning terrorism, they were defeated by Arab states and their
supporters. This created conflicts between third world countries and the western and communist
bloc as they accused the third world countries for using their numbers to sabotage their motions
in the National Assembly.
4. Lack of funds
-The UN needs large sums of money to finance its operations and it depends on member states
to contribute. Each member has to pay a regular annual contribution based on its wealth and
ability to pay. Members are to contribute towards the expenses of each peace keeping operation
and also for the expenses of the special agencies. However, many member states have failed to
pay their contribution, either because of financial difficulties especially third world countries, or
because of disapproval of the UN policies. In 1986 about 98 countries owed the UN their
contributions including the USA which owed more than $100 million. Lack of funds prevents the
UN from carrying out its programs.
5. The Veto power
-The Security Council composes of five permanent members who are USA, China, Britain, France
and USSR (Russia) and also non-permanent members who are selected by the Assembly for a two
year term. Each permanent member has the veto power (power to reject a motion or decision).
Sometimes member states use the veto power to safe guard their interests which makes it
difficult for the UN to deal with powerful states, for example, in 1956 Russia used the veto power
to reject the UN resolution which demanded that Russia should withdraw her troops from
Hungary and the Russians even refused to cooperate with the committee that was set up by the
General Assembly to investigate the matter.
6. Power Bloc politics (Communism versus Capitalism OR East versus West)
-After the Second World War two super powers emerged, the USA and the USSR, the rival powers
attacked each other with propaganda and economic measures, and with ideologies. They
gathered allies around them; between 1945 and 1948 the USSR recruited most of the states in
Eastern Europe such as Poland, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria as communist governments. On
71
the other hand USA made Japan her ally and also worked with fourteen other countries in Europe
to form anti-communist bloc. The rivalry between USSR and USA came to be known as Cold War
because no actual fighting took place directly between the two opposing camps. There was
mistrust between the two blocs; whatever was suggested by one bloc was viewed by the other
bloc as having ulterior and aggressive motives, this prevented the UN from solving some of the
conflicts that involved the two super powers.
What should the UN do to improve its mandate?
1. The UN should develop a better system of intelligence to enable it to prevent conflicts breaking
out. The intelligent services from the great powers would be able to give the UN regular
information about possible trouble spots instead of waiting until things get out of control.
2. Peace keeping operations need to be speeded up; when there is crisis the troops has to arrive
on spot. Governments should help by having specially trained units for peace keeping services.
3. All troops need to be trained to the same high standard, for example, during the Somalian civil
war Nigerian and Pakistan troops had not been properly prepared to deal with sensitive
situations.
4. The UN should make use of regional organizations such as the NATO and the Arab League for
peace keeping; for example, it could authorize the Arab League to police the frontier between
Iraq and Kuwait thus reducing pressure on the UN troops and expense.
5. The UN should monitor and restrict the flow of arms to potential trouble spots, for example,
during the civil war in Somalia American guns were used against the Americans, during the Gulf
war the French Mirage jets were used on them by Iraq. If various the various factions had not
been supplied with arms in the first place, the world would be at peace.
6. The permanent membership of the UN of the Security Council should be widened, since the
end of the Cold War the UN has been dominated by the USA, Britain and France and this has upset
many Third World countries. The inclusion of other countries as permanent members would
restore harmony and ensure wider cooperation and goodwill.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Outline the origins of the United Nations Organization.
[8]
2. Outline the functions of the four Main Organs of the United Nations Organization.
[8]
3. Outline the functions of any four Specialized Agencies of the United Nations Organization. [8]
4. Describe the Suez Crisis of 1956.
[8]
72
5. Describe the Hungarian uprisings of 1956.
[8]
6. Outline any four differences between the United Nations and the League of Nations.
[8]
7. Explain any three successes of the United Nations Organization in peace keeping from 1945 to
1965.
[12]
8. Explain any three successes of the United Nations Organization in peace keeping from 1965 to
1994.
[12]
9. Explain any three failures of the United Nations Organization in peace keeping from 1945 to
1994.
[12]
10. Explain why the United Nations Organization had some successes in maintain peace from 1945
to 1990?
[12]
11. Explain any three problems faced by the United Nations Organization since 1945.
[12]
12. Explain how the United Nations Organization should improve its mandate.
[12]
CHAPTER 7: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA (USA) 1919-39
Why USA adopted the policy of Isolationism
-Americans wanted to focus on problems at home. If not everyone at home has rights, why
fight for the rights of people in Europe? Minorities weren't allowed to vote back then, and
the women were just getting the vote. It was seen as a bit hypocritical to help bring
democracy to Europe (which Wilson claimed was the goal of WW1) when it wasn't in
America.
73
-The war was unnecessary. Many Americans believed the USA didn't need to join the war,
and Americans died for no reasons.
-People thought that America went to war to profit, mainly off of selling arms. It was a way
for arms dealers to make a lot of money, and of course that angered everyone but the arms
dealers off, which led to isolationism.
-The 1920s was a great time, people didn't want to focus on Europe when they could have
fun, and also nothing was happening in Europe so they could focus on trying to be
progressive (see source E)
Source E: a cartoon depicting USA policy of isolationism.
Woodrow Wilson’s contribution to the formation of the League of
Nations
74

The U.S. president Woodrow Wilson, whose name would become most closely associated
with the League of Nations, proposed formation of a global organization that would
prevent another war.

Wilson's concern to set up an international organization to secure and maintain peace
between nation-states was laid out in a number of speeches and public addresses before
and after the United States entered World War I in April 1917.

On 8 January 1918, in a major address to the U.S. Congress, he outlined his proposal to
end the war and provide a framework for a new post war international order. Wilson's
address centered on his so-called Fourteen Points, which, with some revision, provided
the overall framework for the negotiation of an armistice in Europe by 11 November
1918. Of particular importance was his fourteenth point, which called for the
establishment of an organization that would protect the independence and sovereignty
of all nations.

Wilson certainly played an important role in the establishment of the League of Nations,
even if the notion that he was its veritable "father" is exaggerated.
Reasons for the 1920s Economic Boom



The USA was rich was in raw materials such as oil, iron ore and coal, this meant that the
country did not have to buy these from abroad.
The expansion of the motor industry boosted the economy, the manufacturing of vehicles
created a demand for products such as steel, rubber and glass. Roads had to be built and
this created jobs in the construction industry.
American manufactures prospered during the war because there was little competition
from British and German manufactures who were busy making weapons for the war
instead of exporting goods to the USA. Some USA firms made huge profits by selling
weapons to the Allies.
75

The government encouraged the growth of industry by charging low taxes; these
encouraged business owners to invest and gave consumers more money to spend. The
government also protected American industry by introducing tariffs.

People were encouraged to live on credit by owing money to banks and finance
companies, people bought goods and paid for them on weekly instalments and interests
added on the loan or purchase. Many people were able to buy goods which provided
market.

New technology such as radios, vacuum cleaners and refrigerators and cell phones
boosted the economy as these goods were in high demand in the USA.
The role of women in the 1920s

After the war most women worked in the formal sector such as manufacturing industry,
this increased the number of women in upper and middle class especially in teaching and
secretarial work, by 1929 there were 10.5 million women working in the formal sector.

Women were allowed to take part in politics; in 1920 all women were given the right to
vote during elections.

Many women started to be involved in fashion, they stopped wearing corsets, Hemlines
and hair was cut short in bobs.

Women joined the entertainment industry; they smoked and drank in public. They also
took part in strenuous sport and dances such as Charleston.
Influence of the Economic Boom on the American lifestyle
1. Leasure Industry-Radio brought entertainment in homes, young people also found freedom in
a range of leisure activities such as Jazz, Ragtime, Dancing, Smoking Motoring and Cinema.
76
2. The Cinema-By 1929 about 95 million people were going to the cinemas in a week; Hollywood
in California was the centre of the film industry. Hollywood stars influenced the way people
dressed.
3. Motoring-In 1929 about 4 million new cars were registered, mass ownership of cars had many
social effects; rural communities were brought into contact with the outside world. Young people
could drive into town for entertainment. Many people were able to move to anywhere to look
for work.
4. Sport-Sport also flourished as workers began to enjoy greater prosperity and have more leisure
time. Baseball was the most popular sport of the town. Boxing also enjoyed a boom period with
Jack Dempsey the Heavyweight champion from 1919 to 1926. Many of the wealthier Americans
turned to golf as a leisure activity.
The Wall Street Crash

In 1928 the new Republican president Herbert Hoover confidently stated, 'We in America
today are nearer to the final triumph over poverty than ever before in the history of any
land.' Within a year, all the confidence had ended and America was plunged into
the Depression.

When the Wall Street stock market crashed in October 1929, the world economy
was plunged into the Great Depression. By the winter of 1932, America was in the
depths of the greatest economic depression in its history.

The number of unemployed people reached upwards of 13 million. Many people
lived in primitive conditions close to famine. One New York family moved into a
cave in Central Park. In St Louis, more than 1,000 people lived in shacks made
from scrap metal and boxes
Causes of the Depression



As early as 1926, there were signs that the boom was under threat - this was seen in
the collapse of land prices in Florida.
Eventually, there were too many goods being made and not enough people to buy them.
Farmers had produced too much food in the 1920s, so prices for their produce became
steadily lower.
77





There were too many small banks - these banks did not have enough funds to cope with
the sudden rush to take out savings, which happened in the autumn of 1929.
Too much speculation on the stock market - the middle class had a lot to lose and they
had spent a lot on what amounted to pieces of paper.
The Wall Street Crash of October 1929 was a massive psychological blow.
America had lent huge sums of money to European countries. When the stock market
collapsed, they suddenly recalled those loans. This had a devastating impact on the
European economy.
The collapse of European banks caused a general world financial crisis.
Effects of the Crash







Many individuals and businesses were ruined.
Many people who had borrowed money to buy shares went bankrupt because they could
not pay back the loan.
Some people lost their homes because they could no longer afford the mortgage.
Banks which had loaned people money so that they could buy shares could not get their
money back; they ran out of and had to close down. In 1929 about 700 banks collapsed.
People with savings in the banks lost their money.
Unemployment increased and many people lived in poverty, they relied on handouts such
as bread and soup from kitchens ran by charities.
Many farmers left their farms to find work elsewhere as the farms were hit by drought.
How President Hoover dealt with the Depression?



In 1930 he placed higher taxes on imports; other nations also did the same which made
it harder for USA to export her goods. He also cut taxes by $130 million to try to give
people more money to spend.
In 1931 the government provided over $400 million for major building projects such as
the Hoover Dam, this was an attempt to create jobs.
In 1932 the Reconstruction Finance Commission was set up to give loans to businesses
which were in trouble; it provided loans of $1500 million in total. The Emergency Relief
and Reconstruction Act gave over $300 million to the states to help the unemployed. The
Federal Farm Board purchased surplus crops tin an attempt to hold up prices.
Why Hoover lost the 1932 presidential elections?



He was blamed for not doing enough to deal with the depression.
Many feared that the country was descending into violence and disliked Hover’s
treatment of the Bonus Army.
In his campaign all that he could offer was to promise the people that the USA had
“turned the corner” back to prosperity.
78


He did not regard the capitalist system as his responsibility, so he did not deserve the
Americans vote.
During campaigns he received a hostile reception whereby people organized
demonstrations by carrying placards which read “Hang Hoover”.
Roosevelt New Deal
Roosevelt became the American president in 1932; he had a different approach from president
Hoover. Roosevelt’s new approach was called the New Deal which was to solve the problems
caused by the Depression.

The New Deal was a series of programs and policies of Relief, Recovery and Reform to
combat the effects of the Great Depression during the presidency of Franklin D.
Roosevelt. The New Deal fell into two stages relating to the dates the programs were
initiated.

The First New Deal encompassed national planning laws and programs for the
impoverished from 1933 - 1934. The Second New Deal covered the period from 1935 1939 and focused on social reform together with policies and programs to speed up the
nation's recovery. The New Deal programs helped all Americans and provided jobs for
millions of people. Many New Deal programs still continue today.
How the New Deal helped to revive the Banks?

Emergency Banking Act of March 1933:

It forced banks to stay closed for four days.

Those whose finances were completely hopeless were ordered to close permanently.

Other banks were promised the backing of government grants so that the public could
regain confidence in them.

Roosevelt appealed to the people with money to take it to the banks; this helped the
banks to have money to operate.

The Securities Act forced companies issuing new shares to provide full information about
the company to the public, the Directors of the companies that failed to do so would be
prosecuted.
79
How the New Deal helped to improve Agriculture?

Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) was introduced, this legislation;

Gave the government the power to influence prices by destroying surplus produce.

Gave farmers compensation for lost produce.

Helped farmers who were having difficulty in meeting their mortgage payments.

Reached agreement with farmers on sensible amounts to be produced in future years.
How the New Deal helped to create employment?
The Key success of the New Deal was to reduce the high level of unemployment which was
experienced during the Depression, the Alphabet Agencies were set up to deal with
unemployment;

Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC): It was to provide conservation work for the
unemployed young men. Camps were organized by the US army and US Forestry Service,
young men aged 18-25 years were given six months to work in return for food, shelter
and pocket money. The success of this programme was that by 1941 2.5 million had taken
part in this programme, also millions of trees were planted, reservoirs, forest roads, fire
look-outs and canals were built. However it was also criticized because the payment was
low and it was described as forced labour.

Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA): It was to give money to the states to
help the unemployed and homeless people. The government gave each state one dollar
for every three state spent on the relief of poverty. Its success was that it gave help to
people in desperate need; $ 500 million was spent in on providing soup kitchens, clothing
and setting up employment schemes. However the government was criticized for not
being keen on handouts and wanted to concentrate on providing paid work.
80

Civil Works Administration (CWA) of 1933-34: Unemployed people were found work and
paid wages for doing it. About 2 million people were given work in a year as schools, roads
and airports were built. Thousands of writers, actors and artists were employed on
creative projects. The programme was a success because millions of people earned a
small wage which helped them to purchase goods and this revived the economy. This
programme was also criticized because a lot of government money went into this scheme
and many people were put to work on projects of little value.

Public Works Administration (PWA): It was to organize long term schemes that would be
of lasting value to Americans, such as building roads and bridges. It set up a number of
public working schemes. Over the next few years this scheme constructed many public
buildings such as schools, hospitals, city halls and courts. It was successful as it improved
sewage and drainage system in USA and created employment. However it was also
criticized because most of the jobs created were for skilled labour rather for people
lacked skill or trade.
How the New Deal helped the Industries?
Roosevelt tried to help both the industry employers and workers through the National Recovery
Administration (NRA). The NRA tried to create partnership between the government and industry
that would do away with employment evils like child labour, long working hours and low pay;

Each industry would agree an employment code with the government; the code would
guarantee workers fair wages and conditions in return for fair prices.

The employers that agreed a code were allowed to display the NRA logo of a blue eagle;
the government rewarded those firms by favouring them when contracts were awarded.

Workers were given the right to collective bargaining for wages; this gave an enormous
boost to trade unions. The unions could now organize in industries where they had been
previously excluded.
Opposition to the New Deal

The Republicans-They argued that the New Deal was making people too dependent on
the state. They felt that Roosevelt was behaving like a dictator, forcing Americans to do
what he wanted. They also objected to the huge cost of the New Deal and felt that
people’s money was being wasted on useless jobs.
81

Businessmen: They felt that the government was interfering in their affairs, they
objected to the support for trade unions and the attempts to increase wages. To them
the government was interfering in business which was not their job.

States’ Rights Campaigners: They argued that some of the central government’s New
Deal laws clashed with the right of individual states to make their own laws. They
objected to schemes like the TVA, which forced states to cooperate.

Fear of Socialism: The New Deal was sympathetic to the poor, the unemployed and the
working class. Roosevelt'
Successes of the New Deal

Unemployment: The New Deal reduced unemployment, millions of jobs were created.
The PWA completed 34,000 heavy construction projects, improving the infrastructure of
America, building highways, airports, bridges, dams, irrigation and sewage systems
The WPA became the nation's biggest employer and provided light construction jobs for
millions of unskilled workers who built schools, hospitals, libraries, post offices and
houses.

Welfare: Millions of poor people received relief like food, shelter and clothing.
Emergency Relief stopped people from starving, government social security and welfare
schemes helped many ordinary people and continued in the future.

Industry: Construction work on dams and roads helped the future development of
industry.

Workers rights: The Wagner Act established workers rights to join unions and to bargain
collectively for wages. Without the backing of the New Deal workers would have been
defeated by the employers, in 1937 there were about 4700 strikes with about 80%
settled in favour of the workers.

Farmers: The New Deal did much to improve the lives of American farmers, especially
those with large farms. By the mid-1930s farmers’ incomes were raising. It gave farmers
82
compensation for lost produce. It also helped farmers who were having difficulty in
meeting their mortgage payments.
Failures of the New Deal





Unemployment was reduced but not ended. The schemes did not provide real jobs and
the moment the government ceased to pay, the jobs would disappear. Unemployment
was still at 9 million in 1936 and rose to over 10 million two years later.
Workers rights were not fully protected by the New Deal, many large companies hired
thugs to beat up union leaders and to intimidate workers who went on strike. During a
strike in Chicago in 1937, ten demonstrators were shot by the police and ninety were
wounded.
Small farmers, farm labourers and sharecroppers benefited little from the New Deal;
there was still much poverty in rural America. In 193435 a long term drought hit the
prairie states, many farmers were forced to seek jobs in California.
The New Deal did not do enough in dealing with poverty; the Social Security Act excluded
20% of the workforce, including five million desperate farm and domestic workers. Also
there was no state paid medical care.
The New Deal did little to improve the position of the Black Americans, it failed to assist
Blacks and improve their civil rights.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Describe how the lives of women in the United States changed in the 1920s.
[8]
2. Explain how Roosevelt dealt with banks to avoid economic disaster.
[12]
3. Outline the factors that led to President Hoover losing 1932 Presidential elections.
[8]
4. Explain the successes of the Alphabet agencies in President Roosevelt New Deal.
[12]
83
5. Outline the main ideas of Roosevelt’s New Deal.
[8]
6. Explain the effects of the 1929 Great Depression on the United States of America.
[12]
8. Describe the views of any four American groups which opposed Roosevelt’s New Deal.
[8]
9. Explain the factors that led to the 1920s economic boom in the United States of America. [12]
10. Outline the factors which led to the 1929 Great Depression in the United States of America.[8]
11. Explain how Roosevelt’s New Deal helped the American economy.
[12]
CHAPTER 8: THE SOVIET UNION 1917-53
Why the Tsarist regime collapsed in 1917
In March 1917, Russian Tsar Nicholas II abdicated and was replaced by the Provisional
Government. There are various reasons why the Tsarist regime collapsed but this essay will
84
outline three possible reasons: inadequate behaviour of the Tsar, the First World War and the
influence of Bolsheviks.





The Tsar failed to respond to the challenges at the time which led to his own downfall.
The inadequate behaviour of the Tsar caused the collapse of Tsarist regime. Nicholas II`s
actions and decisions caused an economic crisis in the country and destroyed his own
image in the eyes of the people. Historians argue that Nicholas was not suitable to rule
the Russian Empire. They point to Tsar`s indecisiveness during the First World War (19141919), when the Russian Front experienced huge losses and radical actions were needed.
Tsar`s decision to start the Russo-Japanese War (1903-1905) also was disastrous for the
Empire. The Japanese forces came out victorious which damaged the image of Russia in
the world and led to instability in the country.
The Tsar also failed to respond to the needs of the people. On 22d January 1905, Russian
citizens, led by a priest Georgy Gapon, approached the Winter Palace to address the Tsar
their concerns. They were attacked by the Guards and many of the citizens were
wounded or killed. Although the Tsar was not in the Palace at the time of the incident,
this attack destroyed the bonds between the Tsar and the Russian people.
During the First World War most of food products and provisions were sent to the Front
which led to the shortages and starvations across the country. The Tsarist family did very
little to help their subjects which proves that the Tsar was responsible for his own
downfall. As the evidence suggests, Nicholas II during his reign failed to resolve the
fundamental challenges that the country was facing in the beginning of 20th century.
To conclude, the inadequate behavior of the Tsar during the Wars and his failure to
respond to the needs of the people led to the collapse of the Tsarist Regime.
Why the Communists/Bolsheviks won the civil war in Russia?


They were popular because of their reforms; they also used propaganda to turn the
Russians against the Whites.
The Communists were fighting for a cause, the revolution. They were fighting for survival,
united under one leader and army.
85




The Communists controlled the main cities of Moscow and Petrograd with their factories.
They also controlled the railways which allowed them to send supplies and troops.
War Communism kept the Red Army supplied with food and weapons.
The Bolsheviks also used terror to ensure support. The CHEKA hunted down people who
helped the Whites and forced the peasants to hand over food to the government.
Trotsky created the Red Army; he enforced strict discipline and used both encouragement
and terror to make soldiers to fight.
The War Communism: 1918-21
This was introduced by Lenin in 1918 to ensure that the Red Army was fed and equipped during
the Civil War. How War Communism worked?
 Factories with more than ten workers were taken by the state; a Supreme Council of the
National Economy decided what each factory should produce.
 Military discipline was introduced in the factories, strikes were made illegal.
 Peasants were forced to give up all their surplus produce to the government; they were
no longer allowed to sell for profit.
 To meet the expenses the government printed a lot of money, this caused inflation. The
government also allowed money to lose its value because it encouraged people to barter
goods.
Results of War Communism




The government managed to feed and equip an army of up to five soldiers.
The peasants stopped to producing surplus food since they were no longer allowed to sell
it for profit.
CHEKA and Red Army units were sent to rural areas to seize the grain as many peasants
burnt their crops and destroyed their livestock rather than handing their produce to the
government.
By 1920 there were food shortages, the following year there was full scale famine made
worse by bad weather and disease
How and why did the Bolsheviks gain power in 1917?


While the February Revolution of 1914-17 had succeeded in overthrowing the Tsar, the
battle for a Russian Soviet Government had not yet concluded. There were many factors
that led to the ultimate victory of the Bolsheviks, including the disarrangement of the
army, siding with the majority – the peasants; with promises of greater standards of
living, and more importantly; land and equality.
Another key aspect of the Bolsheviks would have been their intelligentsia-based party
population, arguably one of the strong points which made them so successful. Thus, it
86




can be said that the “Bolshevik”, through the careful manipulation of the country’s
political and social unrest at the time, seized power of Russia in October, 1917 under the
leadership of Vladamir Ilyich Ulyanov – otherwise known as Lenin.
Lenin was one of the most significant intellectual driving forces behind the Bolshevik
movement. As far as revolutionary plans were concerned, Lenin believed that he knew
the best way to deal with it, and quite expectantly of someone of such an arrogant
manner; believed that anyone who disagreed with him should not be allowed to express
themselves at all if there was a “way to silence them”. After creating the very split in the
Social Democratic Party, he incited speculation as to who should be made party members
– with Lenin of course putting forth a motion for an intelligentsia-based party.
The Bolsheviks (meaning “the majority”), were established in 1903, as the minority of the
split Social Democratic Labor Party. The Mensheviks (meaning “the minority”), were the
remainder, being made up of the lower and middle classes; recruiting many for their
cause, believing anyone should be able to join if they support them. Unlike the
Mensheviks, the Bolsheviks, including Lenin, believed that to succeed as a political party,
they would have to recruit a small and reclusive group of intelligentsia. It would be
logically explained that this theory was aimed at having “men follow orders without
question, rather than to have men who discuss and debate on them”. Policy-wise, the
Bolsheviks believed, like the writings of Marx had implied, that a revolution and complete
power-seizure could only be achieved if started within the workforce of a country. As
Lenin believed strongly in the ideals of the Bolsheviks, he used it as a basis of his political
rallying, seeking to gain, through promises of land, equality and peace; the support of the
working class (or peasants) – the majority.
On the 22nd of January, 1905, a lone Priest of the Russian Orthodox Church led an
organized march of workers and their families towards the Winter Palace. This peaceful
protest was aimed at gaining the Tsar’s attention to the deteriorated conditions within
Russia. Unfortunately, the Tsar was not at the Winter Palace, and the protestors arrived
to a hostile reception. This day would become known as “Bloody Sunday” and the
beginning of the end for the Royal Family of Russia. This event had now allowed both the
Social Revolutionaries (practically anarchists) and the Bolsheviks to seize advantage of
the rejection to the Tsar by the people and cause mass-disorder throughout the city and
country. As Lenin had once predicted, the elements within the workforce for a complete
revolution had emerged, and the Bolsheviks were nearing their chance to put plans, into
action.
Following the events of the 1905 revolution, the resulting achievement by the Russian
revolutionaries was the October Manifesto, which allowed for greater civil rights for
citizens, and for a national parliament; the Duma. The achievement of the Dumas
themselves was quite an accomplishment and important advance of the nation. This
‘manifesto’, was, however, a mere appeasement by the Tsar and the Duma carried with
it no real legislative power, as such powers were maintained as the Tsar’s. Whenever a
Duma was close to gaining too much influence, Nicholas II would just sack it for a few
months, before allowing another; quite effectively giving ammunition to the Bolsheviks
to fuel their campaign against the Tsar. Then, using the Tsar’s inability to provide for the
87



increasing demand for a democratic socialist state, Lenin and the Bolsheviks again, with
renewed vigor, continued their strong revolutionary tactics. Government officials were
attacked, mass-disorder was once again provoked where possible, and the Bolsheviks
were once again seen to be a force to be reckoned with. Their influence over the people
and actions they take was reinforced as one of their primary reasons for success; their
promises containing great power to control by manipulating the political and social unrest
of the country.
Having realized the truth behind the October Manifesto, the Bolsheviks campaigned even
harder for a Soviet Government, gaining the support of discontented citizens, whom also
understood the underlying flaws in the Duma and new laws. Nicholas II was either
ignorant or unworried of the situation, taking no measures to prevent a large scale
uprising – as his control had diminished over his own people, this was most likely
impossible anyway. The Dumas administered by Witte and Stolypin saw new economic
policies emerge, which were of overall a benefit to the nation of Russia. The Tsarist
government’s attitude, despite the Dumas willingness for reform, rejected any form of
change to the system; and refused to establish a democratic state, keeping with the
autocratic system. The Bolsheviks saw, and it can be agreed on that, while standing his
ground on his autocratic rule; the Tsar Nicholas II created the very catalyst which would
lead to his family’s demise.
The Bolshevik plans were unfolding as their ideals would have predicted – the working
class was becoming even more agitated, putting into a motion a movement which would
eventually overthrow the Tsar. With these growing protests mounting into a spiral in
which strong support surmounted each previous day, the movements then continued
throughout the days following February 18. By coincidence, further support to the
revolution came in a just fashion; the 23rd of February was International Women’s Day,
adding thousands of women to the protest movement. By the 25th of February, Petrograd
was completely crippled by what was a normal strike, developed to a now
insurmountable movement of proportions beyond control. Despite the fact that
revolutions before had been planned – the February revolution HAD NOT been planned.
It was a total spontaneous manifestation of the people’s irritation and an accumulation
of social and political unrest, attributed to the Bolshevik party and their insistent
manipulation of the flaws and wrongs of the government.
This revolution had reached its peak, and from over 400 miles away, in a military base in
Mogilev, Nicholas II listened to reports of his city in chaos. He ordered for his military
commanders – mainly General Khabalov; to restore order to the city. The time for such
an action was long past, with any efforts to enforce martial law impossible, as not only
had the amount of protestors increased far above any controllable levels. Bolshevik
tactics had led to some 150,000 garrison troops had deserted or mutinied by the 26th of
February. This left a mere few thousand loyal troops left and even a detachment of a
battalion of General Ivanov’s troops had deserted long before it reached Petrograd.
Through the destabilizing of the army by means of scrutinizing the Tsarist cause, and
88



creating revolutionary thoughts among the masses, the revolution, although not planned,
had become an organized success in the end. These promises of much greater freedoms
and conditions under a socialist state had showed, and reinforced that the Bolsheviks
carried such a great influence over the people that they succeeded in completely crippling
Nicholas II’s control over his city, and people.
Due to the overwhelming scale of the February revolution, Nicholas II was forced to
abdicate and Russia finally became a republic under control of the provisional liberal
government. The Mensheviks believed the revolution to have gone far enough, and the
achievement was great enough to crush all further thoughts of revolution and to build on
the new parliament. The Bolsheviks, however, greatly differed and the results of
February-March only marked only a partial victory, for a party whom would never be
satisfied until a completely Socialist Democratic state had been created for Russia. The
October Revolution of 1917 would soon become a reality and a complete Soviet
Democratic state would emerge amid the bloodshed of a further revolution.
In early May, June and July, Lenin had returned to Russian after being in exile, bringing
with him his renewed thoughts of seizing power for the Bolsheviks – and them alone. A
large series of riots upon his return showed the Bolshevik’s continued efforts being
reflected as Soldiers protested about the unpopular “prosecution of the war” by the
provisional government. These riots continued, and more riots were seen in June, and
July – which saw the worst of all of the protest actions so far. Armed mobsters (soldiers
of the garrison) led marches through the capital, with much devastation being laid upon
infrastructure and government buildings. These actions were seen as being the
Bolshevik’s actions, but as Lenin wasn’t even in the capital when they began, he seemingly
couldn’t have orchestrated such an event. These events all played to Lenin’s ultimate
goal, showing him to take advantage of it as he reviewed his party’s plans. There were
minor setbacks as the provisional government suspected Lenin to be a German spy soon
after the riots, with many leading Bolsheviks being arrested and their paper, the “Pravda”
being shut-down for a short while. These problems showed no issue to Lenin, as the
Bolsheviks doubled their efforts, taking advantage of further instability and faith in the
provisional government.
Being appointed Commander-in-Chief by Kerensky, General Lavr Kornilov soon had within
his power the ability to cause great problems for the provisional government. Just before
a conference to be held in Moscow between 12-15 August, General Kornilov ordered his
troops to be within 200 miles of Petrograd, to the south. This would have been seen as
without purpose, but it allowed Kornilov to march against Petrograd or Moscow.
Kerensky and Kornilov discussed the problems – where Kornilov said he wanted all of the
Soviet revolutionaries killed and power for himself – however, acting “in the good of
Russia”. Kerensky wanted Kornilov to resign, but on the 27th of August, after being asked
to resign by Kerensky, Kornilov ordered his troops to advance and seize the capital.
89




The Bolsheviks were at great threat of being attacked by Kornilov’s men, and began
merging with the Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries to recruit a worker’s militia –
soon to be known as the Red Guard. Within a single day, over 25,000 workers – all armed
– signed up to help in the fight. Kornilov was easily dispatched by the superior
organization of the Bolsheviks and the revolutionaries. There was, however, no
bloodshed, and due to the deep social and political manipulation of the Bolsheviks,
Kornilov’s troops were unable to even make it to the capital as railway men refused to
move the troops, and telegraphists would not pass on Kornilov’s messages.
After many years and tiresome efforts by the Bolsheviks, and many revolutionary forces,
In October 1917, the final revolution that would signal a beginning to the Bolshevik
Socialist State had begun. The Red Guard, an essential aspect of Bolshevik’s plan, were
trained and highly utilized by the Bolsheviks to assert their now powerful state. Finally,
the Bolsheviks were gaining the much-needed majorities in provinces and the cities,
allowing them to step closer to complete control. Lenin and his party would have been
viewed as quite capable of now seizing the government with literally no resistance and
without bloodshed. This, however, was not Lenin’s wish. Unlike the majority of Lenin’s
party members, he preferred revolutionary action by armed force and crush all
opposition so he could remain in power.
On the 10th of October, 1917, being “spurred on” by their leader’s insistence of a “bloody
revolution”, the Central Committee agreed to seize power by force. Trotsky was now in
Petrograd, preparing the Bolshevik’s revolution, with Trotsky capturing key military
facilities and taking command of more troops to assist in their cause. As like in February,
troop morale was incredibly low – much due to the Bolshevik’s own work at instilling
these feelings of hopelessness with the provisional government. The establishment of a
Military Revolutionary Committee had later assisted Trotsky in gaining the support of the
Garrison in Petrograd, further fuelling their armaments. By the time Kerensky had made
the decision to crush all Bolshevik troops by force, there were nearly no loyal soldiers left
for him to command. The Bolsheviks had succeeded in using their manipulation of social
unrest to remove Kerensky’s means of restoring order.
Following the night of the 23rd of October, Kerensky moved to shut down all Bolshevik
media; closing down two newspapers and calling in troops from out of Petrograd to come
to the city and arrest members of the Bolsheviks. Loyal men to the provisional
government were sent to raise drawbridges and prevent the working class Bolshevik
supporters over the river Neva from reaching the capital’s inner areas. The cruiser,
Aurora was left in close proximity to the city, with a ship-load of sailors who would most
likely mutiny and join the Bolsheviks – unknown to Kerensky though. Absolutely none of
these preventative actions succeeded, as Bolshevik superiority in both practical capacity
and intelligence level anticipated and actually prevented the measures from working – as
supporters stopped the raising of drawbridges and the entering of external troops into
the city.
90




On the 24th-25th of October, the Bolshevik’s plans were falling into place. Supporters had
won over the sailors on the Aurora, seizing control of the ship, and further moving
throughout the capital. Bolshevik forces seized major infrastructure – railway stations,
telephone exchanges, post offices and many of the areas designated by Kerensky to be
protected, were seized. Kerensky’s very own preventative methods became his own
undoing, as superior Bolshevik planning had demonstrated their ability to manipulate the
actions of others.
Lenin, not wanting to wait any longer, returned to Petrograd to oversee the final elements
of the Bolshevik plan. There, on the 25th of October, the “Day of the Bolshevik” became a
reality. Kerensky’s supporters and he being isolated in the Winter Palace, there was little
resistance to be had to the final acts of the revolution. Kerensky did escape, however,
and left the city, heading for the front hoping to gain support. Nothing discouraged the
Bolsheviks, and the storming of the Winter Palace began at around 7pm, with the Aurora
aiming her guns at the Palace. An Ultimatum was issued by the Bolsheviks, ordering for
the provisional government to surrender completely – the obvious power behind their
ultimatum was obvious, but not entirely effective. The provisional government, typically,
ignored them, resulting in a breaching of the Palace and a slow clearing of the guards and
ministers inside. The Aurora opened up her guns, firing blanks at the Winter Palace as the
night continued, but minimal violence actually occurred within the Palace. The Bolsheviks
has once again exercised their extreme power and ability to manipulate the city – and
finally engage the provisional government to bring about their own ascension.
A meeting of the Second All-Russian Congress had occurred, and the Bolsheviks stood
forward, with support of the Left Socialist Revolutionaries. Lenin issued a proclamation
for complete seizure of power for his party, proposing the ruling of the Bolsheviks over
Russia. Later, around the 26th-27th of October, it was finally the end of the Bolsheviks’
revolution, with the result being that of Lenin dominating the assembly of the Congress
of Soviets. Lenin issued two decrees; that of a treaty of peace with Germany and Austria,
and the seizure of private ownership of land and the distribution of that land to the
peasants whom wishes to use it to cultivate. This final measure had resulted in Lenin
taking complete control, and the first Soviet Government had now been formed.
It can be seen, that through the Bolshevik’s own careful establishment of an intelligentsiabased party, and the control maintained on their actions, they essentially sought to
manipulate the country to their own means, and thus throw the Tsar regime out, and the
provisional government to seize power for themselves. From the 1905 revolution, to the
February revolution, the Bolsheviks demonstrated that their absolute resolve to
manipulate the social unrest of the citizens to turn them against their government never
ceased in its potency. The Kornilov revolt ended in complete success for the Bolsheviks
as their careful planning and extreme influence – only achieved through turning those
oppressed to their side – and as such, they became a force to be reckoned with. The
Bolsheviks can then be concluded to have gained power by an accumulation of their
manipulative tactics, and their actions within revolutions leading up to the October
Revolution. The final forced-seizure of the capital, due to their immense supporters
91
within the Russian nation, was only a mere exercise of the Bolshevik’s unwavering ability
to transmute the very fabric of Russian society to overturn their own leaders. It can then
be said that the Bolsheviks had indeed demonstrated that their ideals and plans had
overturned that of all others in the end. Due to their intelligentsia party, manipulation of
the population, and their ability to take advantage of political and social unrest of the
nation of Russia, the Bolsheviks were able to gain power in the Revolution of October,
1917.
How did the Bolsheviks consolidate their power under Lenin: 1917-1924?





During 1917 to 1924 Russia was experiencing vast political, economic and social change
that began with the Bolshevik revolution. The First World War had left Russia in a
disastrous state where the nation, was facing a lot of social unrest and facing a major
uprising. During this time, the Bolsheviks who had just seized control, undertook several
measures to establish their authority including the declaration of initial reforms ie the
land decree marriage decree and the decree on workers, the signing of the treaty of BrestLitovsk, fighting the Civil War, starting the ideologies of War Communism, starting the red
terror and finally introducing the New Economic Policy NEP. All of these actions were
each extremely significant in helping the Bolsheviks seize power by 1924.
The year 1917 was the beginning of Russia’s struggle for power as the revolution started
major social, political and economic changes. With the return of Lenin, the Bolsheviks had
swept the nation with revolutionary ideology that would start their rise to power through
his popular slogans of ‘Bread, Peace, Land’ and ‘all power to the Soviets’. Lenin’s ‘April
Thesis’ in 1917 was a crucial step toward change as he called for a worldwide revolution,
an end to the war and an end to the provisional government. The war with Germany was
still happening but food production was plummeting and soon Russia was embraced by a
devastating famine leading Russia to an economic crisis. As the Bolsheviks took control
they immediately stopped all the freedoms that the proletariat had gained, as Lenin
described Russia as “the freest country in the world.” This caused major uproar with
opposing political parties and the Bolsheviks faced civil war. Russia official government
became sovnarkhom or ‘The Council of People’s Commissars’.
The peace decree was an important initial reform as Lenin aimed the war with Germany
as he recognised the war to be the major cause for the variety of the nation’s problems
after the provisional government had failed to end the war.
Next was the Land Decree which attempted to solve the trouble in the countryside by
granting the peasants the right to seize land and declaring that all land was to be owned
collectively by the state the was essentially already occurring and Lenin basically legalised
it. Although the Bolshevik were reluctant to do this, it was a necessary reform as opposing
the peasants’ demands would cause another revolution as they were simultaneously
Russia’s greatest strength and weakness. Other reforms for the people of Russia involved
the improvement of working conditions as workers now controlled the factories where
working hours were minimised.
The armed forces were also under control of the Army Soviets and Soldiers Committees
and had to be elected. These reforms however were not the end to Russia’s problems.
92




The Bolsheviks tightened the control on other political parties that existed anyone who
opposed the Bolsheviks was often considered an “enemy of the state” and was usually
taken care of through the Cheka (Lenins Secret police). The Cheka created an atmosphere
of terror and intimidation using the brutal measures to give the Bolsheviks power.
Although some of these changes did not stay true to communist ideology, these initial
reforms were essential to the Bolshevik consolidation of power as they extended
Bolshevik control and influence in Russia.
The signing of the treaty of Brest-Litovsk was on March 1918 was a vital measure taken
by the Bolsheviks in their course of establishing their rule. Initially there was a political
divide between what was to be done with the war. Trotsky called for neither going to war
nor agreeing to peace, “neither war nor peace” however Lenin saw the threat the
continuation of the war.
War Communism was an essential aspect to the Bolsheviks consolidation of power as the
victory in the civil war would have been impossible without these policies. War
Communism refers to the series of policies introduced by Lenin at the start of the civil
war in mid-1918 to deal with the disastrous economic and military situation that the
Bolsheviks faced. It involved reinforcing extreme measures of state control and state
terror. It was introduced to ensure the survival of the Bolsheviks. It would do this by
solving the low food production due to the attiude of the conservative peasants, and the
low factory output. One of the first changes it presented was the state control and
nationalisation of all industry. This would address the industrial problems and ensure
factory output was consistent to keep the army fighting.
The Red Terror was also a key factor in the civil war that was crucial to the Bolshevik
consolidation of power. The Red Terror consisted of merciless arrest, torture and
execution carried out by the Cheka to eliminate political enemies and anyone who
opposed Bolshevik rule.
The New Economic Policy (NEP) was one of the final and most important measures taken
by the Bolsheviks in order to consolidate power. The NEP was introduced almost as a
direct result of the Kronstadt rebellion in 1921 where the Kronstadt sailors who were
initially in favour of the Bolsheviks so their rebellion was very significant. Lenin described
it as the flash in the pan that lit up reality most.
Lenin’s New Economic Policy of 1921
In 1921 Lenin introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP), this was to reduce the discontent in the
towns and countrywide. He also wanted to increase production in industries and the countryside.
Features of the NEP were as follow;
 Peasants had enough land to grow more food and they were allowed to sell any surplus
for profit. A 10% tax was introduced in any profits; this had to be paid in foodstuffs.
93



The government kept on controlling large industries, factories that employed less than
twenty workers were returned to private ownership and could be run on profit making
business.
Private enterprise was allowed in the retail trade; anyone could set up a shop and sell
or hire goods for profits.
The government stopped bartering and encouraged people to use money to trade.
Stalin and The USSR: 1924-1941
After the death of Lenin in 1924 there was a struggle for power in Russia, there were five possible
candidates who were all members of the Politburo, Stalin, Trotsky, Grigori Zinoviev, Leon
Kamenev and Nicolai Bukharin.
How Stalin managed to defeat Trotsky?





Trotsky was not popular with the Politburo and the old Bolsheviks because he had not
joined the party until 1917. He also failed to use his popularity in the army to help him
win over Stalin.
Trotsky and other contenders underestimated Stalin because he appeared dull and hard
working.
Stalin held the post of the General Secretary in the party, he appointed officials who
supported him and built up a power base in the party because he commanded the
support of most officials party officials who owed their positions to him.
Stalin presented himself as Lenin’s close follower; he used propaganda to show how close
he was to Lenin and to criticize Trotsky.
Stalin promoted “Socialism in One country” whereby he believed that the Soviet Union
should concentrate on establishing Communism at home. Trotsky on the other hand felt
that Communism would not survive unless it was spread to other countries, this did not
appeal to many Russians because they had experienced four years of war followed by
three years of civil war.
Stalin’s Five Year Plans
In order to industrialize the Soviet Union, Stalin ordered the State Planning Commission to draw
up a series of Five Year Plans. Each plan set targets which workers in various industries had to
achieve;
The First Plan: 1928-32
 This was to enable the USSR to increase its armaments quickly by building up production
in heavy industry such as coal, iron and steel.
 All private businesses which had been allowed under Lenin’s NEP were closed and others
were taken by state.
 In 1929 the plan was reduced to four years.
The Second Plan: 1933-37
 The plan was to concentrate on consumer goods and better housing for the Soviet people.
94

From 1934 the plan was changed to armaments again because of Hitler’s rearmament of
Germany.
The Third Plan: 1937
 This was launched in 1938, the plan concentrated on the production of households goods
and luxuries such as bicycles and radios, this was an attempt to provide the Soviet people
with consumer goods which were common in industrialized countries.
 The plan was interrupted in 1941 when Russia was invaded by Germany.
Economic Results of the Five Year Plan
 Output-Many of the Soviet industries improved; by 1940 the USSR was the world’s




second largest industrial power.
New industrial centers-Huge towns and industrial centers like the Magnitogorsk metal
works were built deep in the USSR where they could be safe from invasion.
Power and Transport-Vast construction projects were completed such as the Dneiper
Dam hydroelectric power station and the Belomor Canal.
Urban population-Between 1929 and 1939 the population of cities in the USSR rose by
29 million.
Skills- Between 1929 and 1937 investment in education and training schemes created a
skilled workforce in the USSR.
How Stalin came to power by 1929
There were many reasons why Joseph Stalin came to power by 1929, Stalin’s personal skills and
characteristics helped him but many outside factors such as the weaknesses of his opponents.
 One of the reasons Stalin was able to come to power was because of the control he gained
of the communist centralized party machine, the position of General Secretary put him
in a unique situation as he was able to influence job appointments by collecting
information on each party member and then promoting those who were loyal to him and
removing those who were disloyal to him. This allowed Stalin to gradually increase his
power base and become more influential.
 Stalin was also able to get to power because of his personal characteristics and political
skills. He was an “unscrupulous intriguer, who sacrifices everything else in the
preservation of power…” (Bukharin). Stalin was always 100 per cent committed and he
was prepared to go to extreme lengths to get into power, a characteristic that many of
the other contenders didn’t show, especially Trotsky.
95





Stalin also had the ability to be flexible on his policies and wasn’t hesitant to change his
ideas. He picked his policies carefully, according to popularity within the party and
political awareness. “… He changes his theories according to whom he needs to get rid of
next” (Bukharin). Stalin’s ruthless nature allowed him to be able to drop a policy and not
get too committed towards his ideas, he was able to focus more on his opponents.
Another main reason that Stalin was able to come to power by 1929 was the weaknesses
of his political opponents, especially Trotsky. Stalin’s opponents didn’t see Stalin as a
major contender to lead the Bolshevik party and underestimated him considerably. Stalin
slowly developed power inside the party, using the positions he gained to develop a
power base, this wasn’t seen by members of the party, especially the contenders, Stalin
was described as “a grey blur which flickered obscurely but left no trace” by Sukhanov in
1917. “They were content to leave him (Stalin) to assemble and classify the personnel
files, not yet realising what power was accumulating therein.” No opponents saw in the
Stalin of 1923 the menacing and towering figure he was to become.
Stalin’s opponents also had considerable weaknesses that allowed Stalin to succeed,
especially Stalin’s main opponent Trotsky. Even with his strengths such as his oratorical
skills, intellect and charisma Trotsky had substantial weaknesses; he was arrogant and
detached and lacked political skills. Historian Richard Pipes places great emphasis on
Trotsky’s personal flaws – his arrogant behaviour towards his colleagues,
and his inflexible policy positions. These weaknesses created enemies for Trotsky and
gave him no real power base to build on while Stalin was building a strong power base
and slowly crafting his way to power. Historian Isaac Deutscher says “… Trotsky refrained
from attacking Stalin because he felt secure… it seemed to Trotsky almost a bad joke that
Stalin, the wilful and sly but shabby and inarticulate man in the background, should be
his rival”. Trotsky’s poor political skills and awareness prevented him from realising that
Stalin was a contender. Upon this other opponents such as Zinoviev, Kamenev and
Bukharin also had weaknesses, for example when the Testament could have been
published (1924) those along with Trotsky refused to publish it and expose Stalin.
Another reason Stalin was able to come to power was the Communist desire to present
a united front and a ban on factions. The communist party was determined not to have a
split in the party and imposed a ban of factions; this resulted in many expulsions. Those
who succeeded in getting their ideas accepted were quick to accuse their opponents of
factionalism; this caused a lack of debate within the party. Stalin was able to expose this
‘loophole’ and was able to get opponents, especially his closest one Trotsky expelled.
There was also a growth in party membership around the years of the power struggle;
many of these members were young, inexperienced and poorly educated. Many of these
party members were easy to dominate and influence and were more likely to obey
instructions than some older party members, Stalin was able to gain support from these
members and build a stronger power base.
How Stalin Consolidated power in the Soviet Union up to 1953?
96
By the end of 1930s Stalin had achieved almost total control of the USSR; this was achieved
through a combination of propaganda and terror;
1. Propaganda

He used propaganda to create the “cult of Stalin” in which he was worshiped as a leader.
Pictures and statues of him were everywhere and places were named after him. People
at meetings had to clap their hands when his name was mentioned.
2. Culture and Censorship

Writers, artists, film makers and composers had to support the government by following
the policy of “Social Realism” whereby their work had to deal with the lives of ordinary
working people; they had to show how communism was developing. History was
rewritten to glorify Stalin’s part in the November Revolution. Photographs were faked to
show Stalin next to Lenin. Books which did not follow party line were changed or
destroyed.
3. Education

Children were taught that Stalin was the “Great Leader”, they had to learn Stalin’s version
of history. Stalin chose the subjects and information that children should learn.
4. Religion

It posed a threat to Stalin’s cult, he attacked religion whereby Christian leaders were
imprisoned and churches were closed down. Muslim mosques and schools were closed
down and pilgrimages to Mecca were banned.
5. Subject Nationalities

In the 1930s Stalin introduced a policy of “Russification” which was used to impose
Russian culture on the USSR. Russian became compulsory in schools, key jobs went to
Russians and army recruits were sent away from their homelands and forced to mix with
other ethnic groups.
6. The New Constitution of 1936

Under this new constitution the USSR consisted of eleven republics, the Congress of the
Soviets of the USSR became the Supreme Soviet of the USSR with two chambers instead
of one. Elections were to be held by secret ballot. The Communist party kept close control
of both the central government and the government of each republic. Stalin held the
posts of Secretary General of the party, Chairman of the Politburo and the Prime minister.
97
7. The Secret Police

Stalin increased the size of the secret police and used it to hunt down and destroy his
opponents and terrorize ordinary people into obedience. People found guilty of opposing
Stalin or disobedience were sentenced to death, exile or hard labour.
8. The Labour Camps

They were known as gulags and were set up in Siberia and the Arctic North; they were
run by the Secret police. Millions of people were imprisoned and forced to do hard
manual work on construction and mining projects. About 13 million people died from
cold, hunger and ill-treatment by the secret police.
9. The Purges

Stalin got rid of anyone who criticized or opposed his plans for collectivization and
industrialization, he even got rid of those whom he believed to be a threat to his position;
most of the accused were deported, imprisoned and some were shot. In 1934 many party
leaders were arrested and some like Kivok was murdered. In 1935 Senior Communists
were arrested, thousands were denounced and expelled. In 1936 the Old Bolsheviks and
other Left Opposition leaders were arrested by NKVD, they were put on trial in full view
of the world in the so called “show trials” which were broadcasted on radio. The leaders
were tortured by NKVD to confess to have plotting against Stalin; they were executed
after the trials. Ordinary citizens were encouraged to spy on one another, children were
encouraged to spy on their parents and those who were against Stalin were arrested and
forced to confess. In 1935 1 million people in Moscow and Leningrad were executed.
Stalin also removed any possible opposition in the Red Army and to ensure total
obedience, The Commander in Chief and seven other generals were arrested and shot.
Stalin’s Five Year Plans
98
In order to industrialize the Soviet Union, Stalin ordered the State Planning Commission to draw
up a series of Five Year Plans. Each plan set targets which workers in various industries had to
achieve;
The First Plan: 1928-32
 This was to enable the USSR to increase its armaments quickly by building up production
in heavy industry such as coal, iron and steel.
 All private businesses which had been allowed under Lenin’s NEP were closed and others
were taken by state.
 In 1929 the plan was reduced to four years.
The Second Plan: 1933-37
 The plan was to concentrate on consumer goods and better housing for the Soviet people.
 From 1934 the plan was changed to armaments again because of Hitler’s rearmament of
Germany.
The Third Plan: 1937
 This was launched in 1938, the plan concentrated on the production of households goods
and luxuries such as bicycles and radios, this was an attempt to provide the Soviet people
with consumer goods which were common in industrialized countries.
 The plan was interrupted in 1941 when Russia was invaded by Germany.
Economic Results of the Five Year Plan





Output-Many of the Soviet industries improved; by 1940 the USSR was the world’s
second largest industrial power.
New industrial centers-Huge towns and industrial centers like the Magnitogorsk metal
works were built deep in the USSR where they could be safe from invasion.
Power and Transport-Vast construction projects were completed such as the Dneiper
Dam hydroelectric power station and the Belomor Canal.
Urban population-Between 1929 and 1939 the population of cities in the USSR rose by
29 million.
Skills- Between 1929 and 1937 investment in education and training schemes created a
skilled workforce in the USSR.
How the Comintern aspired to leadership of a world revolution

The Comintern (Communist International, also known as the Third International) was an
international Communist organization founded in Moscow in March 1919. The
International intended to fight "by all available means, including armed force, for the
overthrow of the international bourgeoisie and for the creation of an international Soviet
republic as a transition stage to the complete abolition of the State." The Comintern was
99


founded after the dissolution of the Second International in 1916, following the 1915
Zimmerwald Conference in which Lenin had led the "Zimmerwald Left" against those who
supported the "national union" governments in war with each other.
The Comintern held seven World Congresses, the first in March 1919 and the last in 1935.
As of 1928 it was estimated that the organization had 583 105 members, excluding its
Soviet membership.
At the start of World War II, the Comintern supported a policy of non-intervention,
arguing that this was an imperialist war between various national ruling classes, much
as World War I had been. However, when the Soviet Union itself was invaded on June 22,
1941, during Operation Barbarossa, the Comintern switched its position to one of active
support for the Allies. The Comintern was subsequently officially dissolved in 1943.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Describe the main aims of War Communism introduced by Lenin.
[8]
2. Explain why Stalin was able to rise to power in Russia in 1924.
[12]
3. Describe the 1917 February Revolution in Russia.
[8]
4. Explain how the Bolsheviks were able to remain in power between 1917 and 1924.
[12]
5. Describe the successes of the Five Year Plan in the Soviet Union.
[8]
6. Explain how Kerensky’s Provincial Government collapsed in 1917.
[12]
7. Describe the events of the March Revolution in Russia in 1917.
[8]
8. Explain how Stalin had managed to defeat Trotsky by 1927.
[12]
9. Describe the factors which led to the successes of the 1917 March Revolution in Russia. [8]
10. Explain the ways in which the Soviet people benefited from Stalin’s economic policies. [12]
100
CHAPTER 9: China 1949-1976
Why the nationalists and the Communists struggled for power in china




The Chinese Civil war took place over a long period of time between 1927 and 1950. The
war was interrupted when Japan invaded China in 1936 and by World War II. The war was
fought between the nationalist government of China, also called the Kuomintang (KMT),
and the Communist Party of China (CPC).
Dates: 1927-1936, 1945 - 1950 Leaders -The Kuomintang was founded by Sun Yat-sen.
The group was led by Chiang Kai-shek throughout the civil war. Important generals
included Bai Chongxi and Chen Cheng. The Communist Party of China, or CPC, was led by
Mao Zedong. Other important leaders included second in command Zhou Enlai and
generals Zhu De and Peng Dehuai.
Before the War after the Qing Dynasty collapsed in 1911 there was a vacuum of power in
China. Two major parties formed, the nationalist Kuomintang Party and the Communist
Party (CPC). Some areas of the country were controlled by warlords. The Kuomintang and
the CPC united for a time. They wanted to unify China. They both received help from the
Soviet Union. Although they were somewhat united, they continued to have an internal
rivalry between the two major parties.
The Civil War Begins In 1927 the rivalry became a war. Chiang Kai-shek of the Kuomintang
decided to get rid of the CPC. The Kuomintang killed and arrested many of the CPC leaders
in what is today called the Shanghai Massacre. Mao Zedong of the CPC led an uprising
101




against the Kuomintang called the Autumn Harvest Uprising. The uprising failed, but the
civil war had begun. Ten Years Civil War Over the next ten years, from 1927 to 1936 the
two sides fought. Mao Zedong led peasants and common people in uprisings against the
Kuomintang.
At the same time Chiang Kai-shek tried to put down the uprisings and eliminate Mao and
the CPC Army. The Long March In 1934, Mao and the CPC army had to retreat from the
Kuomintang. They went on a series of long marches that lasted an entire year, from
October of 1934 to October of 1935. They traveled around 7,000 miles. They began the
Long March at Jiangxi province in south China and finally stopped at the Shaanxi province
of northern China. Out of around 80,000 soldiers that began the march, only 8,000 or so
made it to the end.
World War II When the Japanese invaded China in 1937, the CPC and the Kuomintang
once again united in order to defend their homeland. This uneasy alliance continued
throughout World War II, but the two sides still hated and mistrusted each other. The
Civil War Renewed After the end of World War II in 1945, the two sides resumed their
civil war. With American support, Chiang Kai-shek took control of China's major cities.
However, the CPC was heavily funded by the Soviet Union and quickly gained support in
the rural areas.
The CPC launched an assault in Northern China where the Soviets had control. The Soviets
helped them by letting them have the weapons left by the Japanese. For the first few
years the United States tried to broker a peace between the two sides where the country
would be split. However, neither side was willing to give in.
The End of the Fighting By 1948 the CPC was gaining momentum. They continued to take
nationalist cities and, with each victory, they were gaining support within the population
of China. In October of 1949, the CPC captured Beijing. They declared victory and said
that China was now under the rule of the People's Republic of China. The nationalists fled
to the island of Taiwan where they established their own government called the Republic
of China.
Why Did the Communists Win the Chinese Revolution From 1911 to 1945?
China experienced a revolution, a struggle against warlords, a civil war between the Nationalists
led by Chiang Kai-Shek and the Communists led by Mao Zedong, and invasion by the Japanese.
After the defeat of the Japanese in World War II in 1945, a full-blown civil war erupted again in
1946.

The Nationalists were backed by the United States and the Communists had support from
the Soviet Union. By 1949, Chiang and the Nationalists, despite having more soldiers than
the Communists, were defeated and forced to evacuate the Chinese mainland for the
island of Taiwan. Historians point to a number of factors for the Chinese defeat. Chiang’s
102




Kuomintang government was filled with incompetent and corrupt officials. The people
especially hated the tax collectors, who were commonly called “blood-sucking devils.”
Chiang himself held dictatorial powers, but his orders were often ignored. He had little
success in rallying Chinese nationalism to win an unpopular war against the Communists.
Chiang’s decision to go to war against the Communists in 1946 came at the cost of
postponing the economic reconstruction of China. This meant diverting tax revenues,
investment, and other resources to the war effort rather than to the needs of the people.
Heavy taxes, a huge government debt, inflation, unemployment, and food shortages
caused many, especially in the cities, to lose faith in the Nationalist government.
Economic discontent in the cities led to thousands of labor strikes. Students, newspaper
editors, and intellectuals protested against Chiang’s Nationalist government. They
demanded an end to the civil war and the creation of a government that included the
Communists. The Nationalists responded with censorship, beatings, mass arrests, and
even assassinations. This repression drove many to the Communist cause. The Nationalist
government seemed to care only for city business interests and rural landlords while
ignoring the suffering of the peasants.
In Communist areas captured by the Nationalists during the early part of the civil war,
corrupt government administration helped landlords take back lands that the
Communists had handed over to the peasants. The government often punished peasants
for participating in Mao’s land-distribution programs. Chiang’s army had more soldiers
than Mao’s, but it was poorly led. Chiang’s military was not coordinated by a central
command. Generals tended to head independent armies and even competed with one
another for food and ammunition.
Many officers were corrupt, sometimes selling for personal profit the rice intended for
their troops. Chiang’s military supply sys- tem was inadequate, unreliable, and crippled
by corruption. More important, few volunteered to join Chiang’s armies. Most soldiers
were drafted against their will or even kidnapped by army “recruiting squads.” Soldiers
were poorly trained, clothed, and fed. Officers enforced discipline by beating them. Some
were roped together on marches to prevent them from deserting. Communist
propaganda took full advantage of all the Nationalist failings.
Mao focused on winning over the peasants to gain their support in the civil war. “The
battle for China,” he said, “is a battle for the hearts and minds of the peasants.” Whenever
the Communists secured an area during the civil war, Mao’s cadres (teams of supporters)
went to work, organizing village “struggle meetings.” Peasants and laborers, who owned
little or no land, met to force wealthy landlords to confess their bad treatment of the
poor. This sometimes included torturing, beating, or even killing landlords as “enemies of
the people.” The cadres then cancelled all debts owed to the landlords and distributed
their land and other property to the poor peasants and laborers. What they received
became their own private property. As more peasants and laborers acquired land, more
of them had a stake in the success of the Communists.
103






If the Nationalists won the civil war, the new landowners understood they would lose
everything the Communists had handed over to them. As a result, they increasingly
supported Mao’s army with food, labor, transportation, and soldier recruits. Most of
these people were not dedicated Communists but now they had something to fight for.
Mao had an even greater reason to confiscate and re-distribute land from the landlords
to the poor peasants and laborers. In doing so, he destroyed the traditional landlord
power structure in the villages and replaced it with new peasant leader ship under the
control of the Chinese Communist Party.
Land reform built Mao’s peasant revolution to transform China into a Communist society.
As he kept reminding his cadres, land reform was “the mother of all other work.” Unlike
Chiang’s numerous independent armies, Mao’s People’s Liberation Army (PLA) was
unified under a tightly controlled central command. Mao’s generals, dedicated to the
Communist cause, were superior military leaders. They transformed small guerilla bands
into a modern conventional army capable of moving quickly to take advantage of the
much larger but uncoordinated Nationalist armies. PLA officers treated ordinary soldiers
with more respect than the soldiers got in Chiang’s armies. PLA soldiers were also more
motivated than Chiang’s troops. During the civil war, hundreds of thousands of individual
Nationalist soldiers deserted, surrendered, or defected to the Communists.
The Aftermath Chiang established a new Kuomintang government on Taiwan, but claimed
he was still the president of all China. Likewise, Mao declared that Taiwan was part of the
People’s Republic of China. This political conflict over Taiwan’s status remains unresolved
to this day. As the Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, Mao possessed absolute
power. To purify the Communist revolution in China, he ordered political purges, mass
imprisonment, and executions of “enemies of the people.” By 1955, Mao had forced the
peasants to give up their privately owned plots of land to form state-owned collective
farms.
The peasants then worked for the government. A few years later, Mao ordered the
peasants to work on even larger communes. Food production plummeted, and many
Chinese starved. Millions died as a result of Mao’s policies. Later, in 1976, claiming that
elements of Chinese society were trying to undermine communism, Mao declared the
Cultural Revolution. Red Guards and armies of students ravaged the countryside beating
and humiliating those suspected of countering the revolution.
Thousands of historic Chinese Constitutional Rights Foundation, 2016 4 sites and books
were destroyed. People were forced from the cities into the countryside for “reeducation. Estimates of deaths caused by the Cultural Revolution range from a low of
400,000 to over 5 million. Chiang Kai-shek died in 1975, and Mao Zedong died the next
year.
Following Mao’s death, China began to adopt free-market reforms that introduced
elements of capitalism into its economy. As a result, the People’s Republic of China today
has greatly improved the standard of living, health and nutrition of the people and the
Chinese economy is now the second largest in the world. The Chinese Communist Party,
however, still holds a monopoly of power. It does not tolerate political dissent or anyone
who questions its right to rule.
104
The Main Ideas and Beliefs of Mao Tse-tung
How the Communist Party consolidated power in China?
1. Mass Media

The Communist Party had complete control over all radio, newspapers, books and
cinema. The mass media was used to encourage people to follow the Party line and
persuade them to accept it.
2. Education

It was used to ensure that children were brought up to follow the ideas of Mao Tse-tung
and communism.
3. Campaigns

Many people were persuaded and “re-educated” to accept communism, they were sent
to the fields and factories to learn about communism through manual labour. Massive
campaigns were launched against enemies such as landowners and businessmen.
4. Terror

In the early years opponents of the Communist Party were hunted out and executed,
about 1miilion opponents were hunted and executed between 1949 and 1951.
5. Party Cadres

They controlled the army and various mass groups like peasants, workers, students and
children. They persuaded the masses to think and act like true Communists.
105
6. Hundred Flowers Campaign, 1957

This campaign invited criticism from anyone, the government decided that open
discussion on the problems might improve relations between cadres and experts. The
campaign was used to criticize the government programmes by different groups, Mao
Tse-tung stopped it immediately and many of the strongest opponents were sent for “reeducation.”
The Great Leap Forward
In 1958 Mao Tse- Tung introduced a second five year plan which was known as The Great Leap
Forward, this plan was introduced to facilitate industrialization in China;




Peasants would be fully employed if they were set work on large scale irrigation and flood
control projects, they could also develop small scale industries. The results would be
more farm produce which would be taxed to help build industry.
In the cities industries which required a lot of workers but little money would be set up
to solve unemployment problem. New higher targets for industry were set up, industrial
output was set to double and agricultural output to increase by 35%.
Collective farms were joined into 24 000 communes with an average of 30 000 people,
people in the communes were divided into brigades. Communes were used to construct
large projects such as irrigation, clinics and shops. They could run their own schools and
local industries.
Communes were encouraged to mine coal and iron to set up their own blast furnaces,
millions of people began to operate “backyard” blast furnaces.
Successes and failures of the Great leap Forward
The Great Leap Forward was a five year plan that Mao used in his attempt to bring China into the
modern era.
Successes
106



Technology and Technical expertise was transferred to Countryside
Infrastructure: education, electrification, roads, rural industry, health care.
Gap between urban-rural narrowed
Failures
 Millions died of Being worked to death
 Others were killed, tortured, or imprisoned
 Famine (the average daily calorie intake was 1,534.8 for men and 1,200 for women –
Aushwitz got between 1,300-1,700 calories per day)
 Heavy industry developed (although it was still behind most large industrial countries)
Agriculture failed because:





Unscientific agricultural methods were used.
There was a shortage of agricultural labor because of peasants working on industrial
projects
The peasants disliked losing their private land.
Peasants didn’t work hard because grain was taken from them
Natural disasters – droughts and floods affected agriculture negatively. The Great Leap
was made worse by ecological problems, and in 1959 and 1960, drought ravaged China
The Cultural Revolution: 1966-69
Mao Tse-tung introduced this revolution as a campaign to get the people back on the right path
to communism. He used the army to assist him, soldiers were ordered to study Mao’s thoughts
contained in his “Little Red Book” and spread his ideas throughout China.



In June 1966 schools and universities were closed down, students joined the groups of
Red Guards from the army; millions of students were brought to Peking for a series of
mass rallies.
The Red Guards and the students were used to spread communism and to get rid of
enemies Mao’s policies. Opponents were humiliated, tortured or executed including Liu
who held a high position in the Communist Party.
Huge posters with names and crimes of teachers and party officials were published in the
streets.
Results of the Cultural Revolution


Industry-Factories were re-organized to give power to the workers, prizes and bonuses
for town workers were abolished and team work was encouraged. Technicians were
dismissed and production fell.
Education and Culture-Education was seriously disrupted, students refused to sit for
examination because they argued that it showed up inequalities between them. All
107


books, plays and films had to be about workers, peasants or stories with communist
massage. Many artists were humiliated and suffered at the hands of the Red Guards.
Countryside-Students and graduated were sent to work alongside peasants in the
countryside to introduce them to communism. Medical care also improved as thousands
of “barefoot doctors” were trained.
Government- Opponents of the government were killed or sent into exile, about a million
people died as a result of the revolution. Revolution committees dominated by the army
were set up to run the country; this was to give the masses more self government.
Why the Cultural Revolution was abandoned



The Cultural Revolution was a socio-political movement in China from 1966 until 1976.
Launched by Mao Zedong, then Chairman of the Communist Party of China, its stated goal
was to preserve 'true' Communist ideology in the country by purging remnants
of capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society, and to re-impose Mao
Zedong ideas as the dominant ideology within the Party. The Revolution marked Mao's
return to a position of power after the failures of his Great Leap Forward. The movement
paralyzed China politically and negatively affected both the economy and society of the
country to a highly significant degree.
The movement was launched in May 1966, after Mao alleged that bourgeois elements
had infiltrated the government and society at large, aiming to restore capitalism. To
eliminate his rivals within the Communist Party of China, Mao insisted that these
"revisionists" be removed through violent class struggle. China's youth responded to
Mao's appeal by forming Red Guard groups around the country. The movement spread
into the military, urban workers, and the Communist Party leadership itself. It resulted in
widespread factional struggles in all walks of life. In the top leadership, it led to a
mass purge of senior officials, most notably Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping. During the
same period, Mao's personality cult grew to immense proportions.
In the violent struggles that ensued across the country, millions of people were
persecuted and suffered a wide range of abuses including public humiliation, arbitrary
imprisonment, torture, hard labor, sustained harassment, seizure of property and
sometimes execution. A large segment of the population was forcibly displaced, most
notably the transfer of urban youth to rural regions during the Down to the Countryside
108

Movement. Historical relics and artifacts were destroyed and cultural and religious sites
were ransacked.
Mao officially declared the Cultural Revolution to have ended in 1969, but its active phase
lasted until the death of military leader and proposed Mao successor Lin Biao in 1971.
After Mao's death and the arrest of the Gang of Four in 1976, reformers led by Deng
Xiaoping gradually began to dismantle the Maoist policies associated with the Cultural
Revolution. In 1981, the Party declared that the Cultural Revolution was "responsible for
the most severe setback and the heaviest losses suffered by the Party, the country, and
the people since the founding of the People's Republic".
Why the Relations between China and the USSR (Soviet Union) changed
from 1956 to 1969?
The relations between China and the Soviet Union became sour after 1956 because of a number
of reasons;




China did not approve Khrushchev’s policies, especially his belief in “peaceful coexistence,” with the USA and his claim that it was possible to achieve communism by
methods other than violent revolutions as this went against the idea of Lenin, leader of
the Russian revolution of 1917. The Chinese accused the Russians of revising or reinterpreting the teachings of Marx and Lenin to suit their own needs. The Chinese became
at Khrushchev’s “soft” policy towards the USA, as a result of this mistrust the Russians
reduced their aid to China.
There were also a frontier disputes between the two countries, during the nineteenth
century Russia had taken over large areas of Chinese territory north of Vladivostok and in
Sinkiang province which the Chinese demanded them back but Russia refused to
cooperate. This created tension between the two countries.
China also followed a “softer” policy towards the USA when it invited an American table
tennis team to visit China in 1971. At the end of the1970s it seemed that both Russia and
China were vying for American support against each other for the leadership of world
communism; the mistrust caused tension between the two countries.
In 1978 Vietnam invaded Cambodia to overthrow the Khmer Rouge’s government of Pol
Pot, a protégé of China. China also invaded Vietnam in retaliation of invasion of
109
Kampuchea (Cambodia). In 1984 China sent their grievances to the USSR including the
backing of Vietnam army in Cambodia, the presence of Russian troops in Afghanistan and
the Soviet troops build up along the Chinese frontiers of Mongolia and Manchuria.
The relations between China and the USA from 1949 to 1979.





After the civil war in 1949 a communist government was established in China, the
Communists set up the People’s Republic of China. USSR and China encouraged the
communist ruler of North Korea, Kim II Sung to attack South Korea, they provided military
equipment. In 1950 North Korea attacked South Korea and the Korean War began. The
USA was frightened of the spread of communism in the Far East. The UN intervened by
requesting member states to release their armies, the USA provided a large portion of its
military force. After the war the relations between China and the USA became sour
because the USA felt that China wanted to spread communism in the Far East.
Also the relation continued to be hostile when the USA supported Chiang Kai-shek and
the nationalists during a civil war in Taiwan while China backed Ho Chi Minh.
In 1971 the Chinese invited an American table tennis team to visit China, the visit was
successful and the USA responded by calling off their veto of rejecting China’s
membership to the United Nations. Communist China was accepted as a member of the
UN in October 1971, the relations were now friendly.
The relations improved further in 1978 when President Carter of the USA decided to
withdraw recognition of the Nationalist China who were his ally and the opponents of the
Communist Party.
The friendship between China and the USA reached a climax in 1979 when USA president,
Carter, formally recognized the People’s Republic of China as an independent state. The
two countries exchanged ambassadors; in 1985 an agreement on nuclear cooperation
was signed.
110
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Describe the main ideas and beliefs of Mao Tse-tung.
[8]
2. Explain why the Chinese leadership abandoned the Cultural Revolution.
[12]
3. Describe the Cultural Revolution in China.
[8]
4. Explain why the relations between China and Soviet Union changed in the period 1956 to 1969.
[12]
5. Describe the factors that led to the Communist victory in China by 1950.
[8]
6. Explain why Mao Tse-tung and his Communist Government changed China between 1949
to 1976.
[12]
7. Describe the Great Leap Forward introduced by Mao Tse-tung in China.
[8]
8. Explain why the Chinese Communist Party won the 1949 elections in China.
[12]
9. Outline the effects of the Great Leap Forward in China.
[8]
10. Explain the relations between China and the United States of America between 1949
and 1979.
[12]
111
CHAPTER 10-PAN AFRICANISM
The Concept of Pan Africanism and its Origins
Pan Africanism is the spirit of oneness among people of African descent. It aim at uniting all
African states to bring about a united states of Africa.
Origins of Pan Africanism





Pan Africanism can be traced back as far as the beginning of the period of the transAtlantic slave trade when Africans especially those in the east and West Africa resisted
the trade I slaves.
Upon arrival slaves were sold like beasts and separated from relatives. Treatment based
on racial slavery was harsh with lynching (killing) of slaves that resisted.
In Africa, unfair colonial laws, oppression and exploitation as well as loss of land created
the basis for the origins of pan Africanism.
The negative image associated with Africa by the whites later came to be challenged by
the emerging educated blacks. Africa was described as primitive and technologically a
backward dark continent. Black Americans were angered by this and cited Africa as the
cradle of mankind and even cited the civilizations of Mesopotamia (Iran) and Egypt which
include the development of the irrigation system, surgery, writing, etc.
Black Africans in the diaspora were angered by the fact that in most American churches,
there was only the promotion of the myths of the Whites by American religious leaders.
This angered Afro-Americans who then formed their own churches which reflected Africa
112


culture such as the beating of drums and dancing. These churches also sent out
missionaries to different parts of Africa to help in lifting up the spiritual lives of Africans.
The independence of Haiti in 1804 also led to the development of pan- Africanism. It
taught other blacks in different parts of the World that they can fight a successful war of
liberation against Whites oppression. Haiti was an independent state made of ex-slaves
in Central America. In inspired other oppressed blacks in Asia, Africa, Europe and America
to fight for independence.
All these factors combined together helped Africans to develop common consciousness,
aspirations and hopes which crystallized in the Pan African movement.
How Pan Africanism was understood in the Diaspora (the Caribbean and
America)?





Some exploited Americans understood it as meaning the “physical return to Africa”, they
formed the Back to Africa Movement. They felt that the return would lead to the
development of Africa as a result of the technological experience and knowledge of exslaves from America. Sierra Leone and Liberia were created to settle ex-slaves who
returned to Africa.
It was understood as meaning the liberation and improvement of Black Americans as
more important than the physical return. They understood it as meaning the “spiritual
return” by identifying themselves with Africa and promoting African culture outside
Africa. Blacks in America had to demand equal rights and treated just like the whites.
It was understood as meaning “Double consciousness” whereby they had to practice
both cultures instead of rejecting American culture. This would promote positive aspect
of the African and American culture, this concept was the idea of William Dubois.
Some understood it as meaning that blacks in the Diaspora and Africa could come
together and struggle for justice and equality. Pan Africanists like Che Guevera stood and
fought for the rights of blacks not only in Central America but also in Africa.
Others understood it as a “culture movement” aimed at cultivating pride in Africans
hence came up with revolutionary songs which were influenced by Pan Africanism to sing
and write about African traditions. People like Bob Marley were examples of singers who
promoted African culture.
113
How Pan Africanism was understood in Africa?







Africans understood it to mean the total independence of all African states that were
under colonial rule.
They understood it as cooperation by independent African states to help fellow Africans
under colonial rule to gain independence, they therefore formed the Organization of
African Unity (now African Union) whose main aim was to liberate Africa from colonial
rule and bring independence to all African states.
Africans who were conservatives understood it as meaning cooperation with the colonial
government as a way of gradually preparing Africans to eventual self-rule. This would be
achieved through the inclusion of Africans in the running of government and through the
improvement of Africans through Western education.
The radicals in Africa understood it as forming liberation movements which rejected any
form of cooperation with the colonial masters and resorted to violent means to
overthrow colonial rule, this was the case with South Africa through the ANC and PAC, in
Mozambique through FRELIMO and RENAMO, in Angola through MPLA and UNITA, in
Zimbabwe through ZANU and ZAPU. These liberation movements eventually brought
independence to their countries.
To others it meant restoring African pride, dignity and identity which was regarded as
inferior by their colonial masters.
Others understood it as a way of uniting blacks to fight against racism and discrimination.
Others understood it as a culture movement aimed at learning the African heritage and
creating pride in African achievements and history.
114
How Pan Africanism was applied in the Diaspora (the Caribbean and
America)?




It was used through the use of force and protests which forced the white masters to listen
to the demands of the blacks.
It was applied through the formation of movements such as the Universal Negro
Improvement Association (UNIA) and the African Communities League which made
Africans in the Diaspora to be conscious of their African origin.
It was applied through training of military personnel in an effort to fight the white masters
like in Cuba.
UNIA ran a shipping line known as The Black Star Line which returned African slaves to
Liberia and Sierra Leone.
How Pan Africanism was applied in Africa?





It was applied through holding a number of conferences in Africa and outside such as the
Manchester Conference in 1945 which demanded an immediate end to colonial rule. The
conference even resorted to the use of force if peaceful means or diplomacy failed to
achieve their aims. They worked under the banner of United State of Africa.
It was also applied through diplomacy or peaceful instead of confrontation to attain their
objective of gaining, for example, Advisory Councils were formed to engage colonialists
on a continuous basis and there were a stepping stone to independence. In Bechuanaland
LEGCO paved the way for independence.
It was also applied through the formation of liberation movements such as the ANC and
PAC in South Africa, UNITA and MPLA in Angola, RENAMO and FRELIMO in Mozambique,
SWAPO and SWANU in Namibia, ZAPU and ZANU in Zimbabwe. All these movements
brought independence to their respective countries.
It was applied through the attainment of education, early nationalists such as Seretse
Khama, Jomo Kenyatta, Kwame Nkurumah, Robert Mugabe and Nelson Mandela. They
used their education and experience to advance their call for independence in their
respective countries and they were successful in leading their countries to independence.
It also applied through the training of military forces such as Umkhonto we Sizwe,
meaning the “Spear the Nation” led by Chris Hani in South Africa which fought the
Apartheid government in South Africa. This led to a democracy in 1994 after the release
of Nelson Mandela from prison in 1990.
115
THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE LEADING FIGURES OF PAN-AFRICANISM SUCH
AS MARCUS GARVEY, W.E.B DUBOIS, KWAME NKRUMAH AND SOL
PLAATJE.
1. Marcus Garvey







He was an Afro- Jamaican who was very radical Pan Africanist who wanted a global
mobilization of the blacks in their struggle for independence or self-determination.
He preached the doctrine of “Africa for the Africans”. The slogan has been embraced by
Africans all over the World today.
He formed the “Black Empire” which should be occupied by Africans only.
He formed the Back to Africa Movement which called for the physical return of Africans
back to Africa. He organized transportation of all Black Americans from Africa back to
Africa and all the Whites in Africa out of Africa back to Europe and America.
He was successful because many slaves were transported back to Africa and were settled
in Liberia (the land of the liberated ones).
He founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) and the African
Communities League which made Africans in the Diaspora to be conscious of their origins.
UNIA was successful because it ran a shipping line known as the Black Star line through
which millions of Africans were transported back to Africa in Liberia and Sierra Leone.
He argued that Africans will only be respected if they combined their drive for racial
upliftment and self-determination with commercial activity.
2. William Du Bois
116









He was an Afro-American by birth. He has been honored as the father of pan Africanism
because he and others organized Pan African Congress which led to the African Congress
in Manchester in 1945 whose aim was to come up with strategies to uplift the social,
economic, cultural and political lives of Africans.
He was an African American middle scholar who was not a radical activist but a great
believer in the power of knowledge and reasoned argument.
He emphasized the importance of scholarly research on African conditions both in
America and abroad and dissemination of such information.
Unlike Marcus Garvey, he was opposed to the Back to Africa ideas but instead called for
equality and justice to Blacks regardless of where they lived. He therefore came up with
the “Double consciousness Philosophy” which claimed that Afro-Americans had to adopt
positive aspects of both the African-American cultures for them to compete effectively
with White Americans.
He was a multi-racialist who favored cooperation with Whites as long as they were
sympathetic to the blacks.
In 1909 he helped to form the national Association for the Advancement of the colored
People (NAACP) in America which condemned all forms of discrimination against Blacks
in and outside America.
In 1915 NAACP successfully challenged the law that excluded blacks from voting in the
American Supreme Court.
1n 1919 he also convened a Pan- African Congress at Paris. It was held at the same time
when “The Big Three “were attending the Paris peace settlement. Since they did not say
anything about the appalling conditions of Africans, the PAC served as a polite reminder
to the leaders of Great nations to pay more attention to lack of basic freedoms by blacks
throughout the World.
He believed i training the leadership which will successfully lead a Pan-African movement.
3. Kwame Nkrumah





He was born in Ghana which was a British colony. He was influence by the ideas of Marcus
Garvey.
He was the Secretary General of the Pan- African movement while in London.
In 1958, he invited 28 leaders of African countries struggling to gain independence to the
All-African Peoples congress which was held in Accra, his capital. Its aim was to promote
understanding amongst Africans; to promote unity which will lead to a United States of
Africa and accelerate the Liberian movement.
He wanted all African countries to unite and gain independence. He felt that the
independence of Ghana alone was meaningless and therefore struggled for
independence of all Africans countries.
He considered Pan- Africanism “to be a higher level of the ideological development than
nationalism. He therefore regarded the independence of Ghana on lieu of a united Africa
to be meaningless.
117



He returned to Ghana in 1947 to lead the struggle for independence and in 1957 Ghana
became the first democratic country to gain independence in Africa led by Nkrumah. This
influenced other African countries which were ruled by France such as Ivory Coast, Guinea
and Senegal to gain independence by the end of 1960s.
He even constructed the Africa House in Accra to function as the Headquarters of the AllAfrican organization.
He was very successful because he influenced the emergence of other great PanAfricanists such as Patrice Lumumba who was anti-Balkanization of the Congo campaign.
4. Solomon Tshekiso Plaatje





He was a Morolong born in the Orange Free State in South Africa. He was a journalist and
writer who published a number of books and novels and even wrote in newspapers to
make the world aware of the evils and injustices of the racist policies of the Whites in
South Africa.
In 1912 he joined active politics and became secretary of the ANC.
He was very active in contributing to Pan –Africanism because he dedicated his life to
changing the lives of fellow South Africans despite having no huge financial resources.
Furthermore, it has to be noted that African History has always been written by Whites
and wrote it in a manner that favored them, but Sol Plaatje wrote his first novel Mhudi in
which he talked about the experiences of Bantu groups during Mfecane wars.
He also wrote a book called Native Life in South Africa in which he drew attention of the
World to the injustices of the Land Act of 1912 and racism in general.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Describe the origins of Pan Africanism.
[8]
2. Explain how Pan Africanism was understood in the Diaspora/outside Africa (The Caribbean and
America).
[12]
3. Explain how Pan Africanism was understood in Africa.
[12]
4. Explain how Pan Africanism was applied in the Diaspora/outside Africa (The Caribbean and
America).
[12]
5. Explain how Pan Africanism was applied in Africa.
118
[12]
6. Explain the role played by Marcus Garvey in Pan Africanism.
[12]
7. Explain the role played by Wiiliam Bubois in Pan Africanism.
[12]
8. Explain the role played by Kwame Nkurumah in Pan Africanism.
[12]
9. Explain the role played by Solomon Tshekiso Plaatje in Pan Africanism.
[12]
CHAPTER 11-THE COLD WAR
Explain the concept of the Cold war

The Cold War, a time of tension between the United States and the Soviet Union, which
drew in the entire world, lasted roughly from 1945-1991. The War actually built gradually
as relations between the two countries became further strained.

The Cold War was a time of tension between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(USSR), or the Soviet Union and the United States (USA), and their respective
ideologies. It followed the Second World War and persisted from roughly 1945-1991. It
was not declared in the same sense as most wars, rather it progressed over
time. Therefore there are different opinions on the exact beginning of the War.

Some say the Cold War really began with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill’s
speech in 1946 in which he described an “iron curtain” which separated the East and the
West, and their respective ideologies. The East was the Soviet Union and its countries of
influence and the West included the United States and their allies, the major ones being
Canada, France, Britain, and Japan. The War involved the use of expensive resources on
both of these sides. The relationship between the two powers started to waiver between
1945 and 1947, but by 1947 the Cold War was visible.
Major political ideologies and economic systems which led to the cold war.
There were numerous factors which came together to lead to the Cold War, many stemming from
the Second World War and the expectations following the War. The inherent differences
between communism and capitalism also played an important role.
119

There were long seeded differences between the United States and the Soviet Union over
ideologies. In the Russian Revolution of 1917 the communists took power. The United
States and Britain were worried that the same thing might happen in their countries. They
thus helped support the White Army, the side against communism, in the Russian Civil
War that followed (though they failed). In fact, the United States did not acknowledge
the communist government until 1933.

Things had changed temporarily though because Hitler came to power and Stalin and the
Soviet Union were redesigned as a kinder people. Although the two sides were able to
unite over the common enemy of Germany, after the War people in the United States
started to remember their differences.

These differences between the two countries stemmed from their
ideologies. Communism was the ideology followed by the Soviet Union. Originally
founded by Karl Marx, it said that everything should be owned by the government and
then divided up equally among the people who would then all work for it. Not only was
the Soviet Union communist, they were totalitarian, meaning all the power was with the
rulers.

The United States was capitalist which meant that people could own land and businesses
and compete for themselves. This led to a stark contrast between poor and rich. They
were also a democracy, which meant it was the people who had a say by electing rulers.

The USA practiced democracy and the political rights of its citizens were guaranteed
through the constitution.

In the USSR there was no respect for political rights of citizens and there was a lot of
suppression of opposition. In the Cold War, the division was between these two sides,
and there was very little in between.
Differences between Capitalism and Communism
Capitalism

Encourages free elections and more than one political party in a country.

Most industries and factories are owned by individuals as it encourages private
ownership of property.

Capitalists employ workers to produce and keep all the profits made, it encourages a class
society of the rich and poor.

It limits government on interfering in people’s lives.
120

It encourages freedom of movement and speech.
Communism

It encourages one party state (dictorship).

The state owns the means of production (industries and agriculture), people are
encouraged to work for common good.

It encourages a classless society with no individual profit making.

The government control most of the people’s lives.

Strong censorship on opposing the government, no freedom of speech.
The Yalta Conference of 1945
In February 1945 Roosevelt of the USA, Stalin of the USSR and Churchill of Britain met at Yalta in
the USSR, the main was to decide on what was to be done to Germany and her allies and how
to organize Europe after the war. Some of the issues discussed during the conference were as
follow;

A new peace keeping organization was to be formed to replace the League of Nations
which had failed to maintain peace.

Germany was to be divided into zones, Russian, American, British and French zones.
Berlin would also be split into corresponding zones.

Germany was to pay for the reparations after the war.

Free elections would be allowed in the states of Eastern Europe.

Free elections were to be held in Poland, the Eastern frontier was to return to the pre1921 position.

The USSR was to join the war against Japan three months after Germany had been
defeated.
121
The Potsdam Conference of 1945
The allies met again at Potsdam in July 1945 to finalize the decision on how to deal with Germany;

Details of dividing Germany into zones were finalized.

The Nazi party was banned and its leaders were tried as war criminals.

Each power was to collect industrial equipment from its own zone as payment of
reparation; the USSR was to receive additional reparations from other zones since her
zone was mainly agricultural.

Poland’s western boundary was to be along a line created by the Oder and Neisse rivers.

Germans living in Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia were to return to Germany.
Influence/spread of the communism in Eastern Europe

Czechoslovakia-After the Second World War a coalition government was established.
The Communists soon became the largest party in coalition; in 1948 they used the army
to take over the government. Many people who were non-communists were arrested
and murdered, the Communists won elections through rigging and opposition parties
were banned.

Poland-In January 1947 communists rigged elections and came into government, the
leader of the non-communist London Poles fled from Poland.

Hungary-In November 1945 free elections were held and the non-communist
Smallholder’s Party won most of the seats. In August 1947 the Communists rigged
elections and won total control of the government, all other political parties were
banned.
122

Romania- A coalition government dominated by Communists was set up. In 1945 the
Soviet Union forced the king of Romania to appoint a Communist prime minister, in 1947
the monarchy was abolished and the communist government took over.

Bulgaria-In late 1944 a Communist dominated government was set up, in 1945 the
Communists rigged elections and took control of the government. In 1946 they abolished
the monarchy.

Yugoslavia-The Communist leader Marshal Tito was elected president, he had no
intentions to take orders from Stalin of the USSR. Yugoslavia was expelled from the
Communist Information Bureau (Cominform) and other communist countries applied
economic sanctions to Yugoslavia.
The Truman Doctrine

This was introduced in 1947 by the USA to stop the spread of communism around the
world; this became to be known as the “Domino Theory”.

Truman believed that if one country fell to communism, those nearby would be also at
risk.

The USA adopted the policy of containment whereby it would be assisting countries that
were in danger of being taken over by communism with military and economic aid.

Truman outlined this policy in a speech he made in March 1947; this became the basis of
American policy against communism for the next 40 years.
The Marshall Plan of 1947

The plan was announced by the American Secretary of State, General George Marshall, it
was to help war-torn countries in Europe to revive their economies such as factories,
agriculture and trade.

The USA believed that communism grew in countries that were in poverty, it would use
its wealth to help Europe recover economically. This aid included cash, machinery, food
and technological assistance.

This policy would also bring economic benefits to the USA through the revival of trade
with these countries.

By September sixteen Western European states set up the Organization for European
Economic Co-operation (OEEC) to put the plan in action. By 1953 the USA had provided
$17 billion to help these countries.
123

The USSR withdrew from the discussions because it did not trust the USA; the USSR also
prevented countries in Eastern Europe such as Czechoslovakia and Poland from becoming
the members of this organization. This policy further divided Europe between East and
West.
The Cominform

This was the response of the USSR; it was set up in 1947. The organization was an
organization which was used to draw together various communist countries.

All the member states were represented; Stalin’s aim was to tighten his grip on the
countries that were to be communists.

Eastern Europe was to be industrialized, collectivized and centralized; states were to
trade primarily with Cominform members and all contacts with non-communists was
discouraged. When Yugoslavia objected she was expelled from the Cominform, though
she remained communist.

In 1949 the Molotov Plan was introduced, offering Russian aid to the members of the
Organization.
Discuss the wars and confrontations during the Cold war
1. The Berlin airlift
There was a lot of tension surrounding Germany's future. After the Second World War, The
United States, Britain, and France had West Germany, while the Soviets controlled East
Germany. Berlin, the capital, was in the East but was divided as well between east and west. The
occupying countries all agreed they wanted unification, but the Soviet Union wanted control and
the others did not want to give it to them. Instead, they united Western Germany and gave it
one currency, which did not make Stalin happy. This led to the Berlin Crisis, which consisted of
two responses;
124


Berlin Blockade: The Soviet Union blocked off land and rail entrance into West Berlin in
1948. This made it impossible for people from West Berlin to get to West Germany, or
supplies to get into West Berlin.
Berlin Airlift: The response by the United States and Great Britain was to begin dropping
in supplies. Stalin gave up by 1949, discovering he could not stop all cooperation between
the alliances. This was the closest there was to a hot war in Europe during the Cold
War. Germany stayed separated between the East and West, and the Berlin Wall was
erected on August 13, 1961. Fences had existed before it, but now this permanent
structure stopped people in the East from heading west.
2. The Cuban Missile crisis of 1962
Possibly the highest point of tension during the Cold War was the Cuban Missile Crisis which saw
the world preparing for nuclear war.




The United States saw the Caribbean as being in their sphere of influence so when, in
1959, Fidel Castro and the socialists took power after a revolution in Cuba and
nationalized the economy, they were not happy.
Thus in March 1961, in what was known as the Bay of Pigs, the CIA unsuccessfully tried
to invade Cuba with 1500 Cuban exiles and overthrow Castro. After this, the United
States decided to stop trading with Cuba so they turned to the Soviet Union.
In 1961 secret Soviet missiles were put into Cuba by Soviet Leader Nikita Khrushchev and
Castro, but the plan was exposed when the ships were spotted. This made the United
States and President Kennedy really nervous since it was so close they could easily be
hit. At the same time though, they had their own weapons in Britain and Italy, and to a
lesser extent Turkey.
The United States put a blockade on the water so no more weapons could enter and
became ready for war, while the whole world watched. An agreement was finally
reached though and the United States would not invade Cuba and take back their
weapons from Turkey (although this was secret) and the Soviet Union would remove their
weapons from Cuba.
3. The Korean War
After the Second World War, Korea had been separated in two, to be reunited with an election
which never came. The partition between the two was at the 38th parallel where fighting
continued to take place throughout the Korean War.

In June of 1950 communist North Korea invaded South Korea. South Korea was not the
epitome of democracy, but the United States supported them to
125



uphold containment and stop the spread of communism and create capitalism
there. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union supported the North.
North Korea actually got pretty far, making use of weapons and tanks from the Soviet
Union and some support from China (though not openly). They even took control of
South Korea’s capital, Seoul. But then a United Nations (UN) backed invasion by Douglas
MacArthur pushed back the North Koreans. They continued, pushing further than the UN
had originally said, getting all the way to the border with Red China. However, there were
people ready in China to help North Korea and together they repelled MacArthur’s forces
back to the 38th parallel. Then there was a stalemate.
During the Korean War, the Chinese and the Soviets, unlike the Americans, had the ability
to use their early-warning radar. They were able to appear out of nowhere and descend
on the United States Air Force (USAF). The USAF did have the advantage of radar gun
sights on their side, however.
Eventually, a cease fire was signed on July 27, 1953 though South Korea never did sign
it. The United States saw this conflict as proof of the need for NSC 68 and that
communism was spreading across the world.
4. The Vietnam War
The Vietnam War which lasted from 1955-1975, followed the First Indochina War, or the French
Indochina War. Vietnam was French Indochina, a French colony, until 1954.





Within the country there was a movement called the Vietminh led by Ho Chi Minh, who
wanted foreign groups, the French and Japanese (who invaded in the Second World War),
to leave. At the time, the United States supported them because they were at war with
Japan.
However, France did not want to leave, and after Ho Chi Minh declared the Vietnamese
Declaration of Independence, they bombed Vietnam to allow them to stay. This
continued from 1946-1954 in the First Indochina War. While Truman and the United
States wanted to support independence, they could not now because Ho Chi Minh and
communism were their enemy (though he actually favoured nationalism before
communism), and they did not want to anger their NATO ally France.
In 1954 France left the War after losing Dien Bien Phu and at the Geneva Accord the same
year France, Britain, the United States (though neither they or South Vietnam signed), the
Soviet Union, and China, came to the conclusion that Vietnam would be partitioned at
the 17th parallel, giving Laos and Cambodia their freedom. This would last until 1956
when there would be an election and then it would be reunited. Thus all the Vietminh
could go into the North and those who were against communism to the South. Things did
not end up that way though, as North and South Vietnam did not cooperate for
elections. The country did not become one until 1975 when the communists took over
the whole country.
The South was led by Ngo Dinh Diem, a Catholic who favoured other Catholics and his
system was rather corrupt, relying on military control. The military, ARVN (The Army of
the Republic of Vietnam) did not do well even though they were supported by the United
States.
Meanwhile, the communists in the North were actually quite popular, leading to a
movement in the South which Ho Chi Minh supported. By the end of the decade this
insurgency who called themselves the National Liberation Front (NLF), wanted to get rid
126


of Diem. The United States became nervous and under John F. Kennedy, Diem was
removed, and ended up being killed in 1963.
The United States was given support for war by congress after an American ship was
attacked, supposedly by North Vietnam, in the Gulf of Tonkin. This led to American
soldiers being sent in to support ARVN and Operation Rolling Thunder, the bombing of
the North for supporting the NLF from February 1965 to March 1968. Bombing was failing
but American soldiers were increased to about 500 000 by 1968.
In 1969 North Vietnam undertook the Tet Offensive, which made it all the way to the
American embassy in Saigon. Though they were pushed back, support waned. This led
to putting the emphasis back onto South Vietnam’s involvement instead of
America’s. Secret negotiations were undertaken from 1968-1973 culminating in the Paris
Peace Accords in January of 1973, calling for a peaceful unification. However, North
Vietnam invaded South Vietnam in 1975 against it, and the country became communist.
5. Afghanistan

The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979 to support the communists there, and the
United States backed an anti-Soviet and anti-communist action that same year. These
actions brought an end to detente between the two countries.
6. The Hungarian Uprising: 1956






The Hungarians wanted independence from Russia but the Russian troops entered
Hungary to crush the revolt by killing many people. About 200 000 refugees fled to the
West.
The Hungarian government appealed to the UN for help, the UN Security Council passed
a resolution which ordered Russian troops to withdraw from Hungary.
Russia used the veto power to reject the UN resolution and the Russians even refused to
cooperate with the committee that was set up by the General Assembly to investigate
the matter.
The Western governments were distracted by the Suez crisis in which French and British
troops invaded Egypt in order to protect the Suez Canal.
No progress was made and this showed that the UN was ineffective when dealing with
some of the permanent members of the Security Council like Russia.
This incident worsened the relations between the USSR and the West; the West realized
that USSR was determined to control of Eastern Europe by brutal methods. The West was
more determined to resist Soviet expansion in Europe.
7. U2 Incident/crisis of 1960
127





In 1950 the US Strategic Air Command used flights to spy over the USSR without
permission from President Truman, when he found out he banned the planes because
they violated the USSR air space.
In 1956 the planes began to fly over the USSR again with the agreement of President
Eisenhower, this time they used the brand new spy plane called the U2 which could fly so
high it could not be shot by anti-aircraft missiles. It also carried sophisticated listening
devices and powerful cameras that could be used from a distance of 23 000 meters above.
The U2 spy planes kept the Americans fully informed about the USSR weapons
technology. The USSR improved its missiles and in 1960 one of the new missiles shot
down a U2 spying plane which was piloted by Gary Powers. Powers was able to parachute
the plane safely and was arrested by the Soviet soldiers.
The USSR paraded Powers on television and accused the USA of spying on USSR, the USA
first denied being involved in the incident but later admitted. President Eisenhower
refused to apologize or to promise there would be no more flights.
Gary Powers was sentenced to ten years in a Soviet prison, but was released on exchange
for a captured Soviet spy (Rudolf Abel) in February in 1962. The incident caused tension
between the USA and the USSR.
8. The Berlin Wall





In 1961 the Soviet Union built a wall in Berlin to separate East from West, the building of
the wall was a result of years of rivalry between East and West.
By 1961 there was great contrast between the two parts of the city, East Berlin was
prosperous and was under strict communist rule. West Berlin was prosperous with the
help of US aid.
West Berlin attracted many visitors from the East due to its cinemas and shops, West
Berlin also provided an easy escape route from East to West Germany. The USSR saw this
as a capitalist infection in East Germany.
Khrushchev demanded that the three countries occupying West Germany should
recognize the German Democratic Republic (GDR), withdraw their troops from West
Berlin, and hand their access routes over to the East German government.
Khrushchev demanded that the Western countries should do so within six months or he
would sign a separate peace treaty with the GDR and hand East Berlin over to it. The
Western powers refused to cooperate and Khrushchev backed down.
Results of the Berlin Wall


Berlin was physically divided, the wall ended free access from East to West. Many families
were split and some who tried to escape from East Berlin were killed in this attempt.
Between 1961 and 1989, about 86 people died attempting to cross the Berlin Wall.
President Kennedy of the USA accepted the Soviet action even though it broke the fourpower agreement on Berlin, Kennedy refused to use the American troops to pull down
the wall fearing it might lead to war.
128


The Americans used the Wall for propaganda asking if Communism was such an ideal
system, why it was forced on people by caging them in East Berlin. In 1963 Kennedy
visited West Berlin whereby he promised the people that USA would never desert the
city.
Khrushchev lost face by failing to remove the Western powers from West Berlin; he
believed that Kennedy’s response showed that he was weak.
Cold War in relation to Africa
129
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Outline the differences between Capitalism and Communism.
[8]
2. Explain the causes of any two Cold War crises between 1949 and 1962.
[12]
3. Describe the development of the conflict between the United States of America and the
Soviet Union from 1945 to 1970.
[8]
4. Explain how the Berlin Blockade of 1948 and the Hungarian Uprising of 1956 affected the
International relations during Cold War.
[12]
5. Describe the Suez crises of 1956.
[8]
6. Describe the Hungarian Uprising 1956.
[8]
7. Describe the main ideas of the Truman Doctrine.
[8]
8. Describe the ideologies which led to the Cold War.
[8]
9. Explain the policies of the United States of America towards Cuba in the period 1959 to 1962.
[12]
10. Explain the results of Cold War in relation to Africa from 1945 to 1970.
[12]
11. Describe the main agreements reached at the Yalta Conference of 1945.
130
[8]
12. Explain how the United States of America attempted to contain Communism in Europe
from 1945 to 1949.
[12]
CHAPTER 12 –MIDDLE EAST
The consequences of World War 1 in the Middle East




World War I transformed the Middle East in ways it had not seen for centuries. The
Europeans, who had colonized much of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century,
completed the takeover with the territories of Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and Palestine.
The modern boundaries of the Middle East emerged from the war. So did modern Arab
nationalist movements and embryonic Islamic movements. NPR's Mike Shuster reports
on World War I and its aftermath as he continues his series on the history of Western
involvement in the Middle East.
With the onset of WWI, the French and the British sent armies and agents into the Middle
East, to foment revolts in the Arabian Peninsula and to seize Iraq, Syria and Palestine. In
1916, French and British diplomats secretly reached the Sykes-Picot agreement, carving
up the Middle East into spheres of influence for their respective countries. That
agreement was superseded by another which established a mandate system of French
and British control, sanctioned by the new League of Nations.
Under the mandate system, Syria and Lebanon went to the French. The British took over
Palestine and three Ottoman provinces of Mesopotamia and created modern-day Iraq.
The concept of Jewish Zionism

The term “Zionism” was coined in 1890 by Nathan Birnbaum. Its general definition means
the national movement for the return of the Jewish people to their homeland and the
resumption of Jewish sovereignty in the Land of Israel.
131


Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, Zionism has come to include the
movement for the development of the State of Israel and the protection of the Jewish
nation in Israel through support for the Israel Defense Forces.
From inception, Zionism advocated tangible as well as spiritual aims. Jews of all
persuasions - left, right, religious and secular - formed the Zionist movement and worked
together toward its goals. Disagreements in philosophy led to rifts in the Zionist
movement over the years, and a number of separate forms
The proposals made by the United Nations Organizations for Palestine in
1947.




In 1947 the US president, Truman persuaded the United Nations Organization to vote in
favor of a plan to partition or divide Palestine.
The plan was to create an independent state for the Jewish people of Israel.
The Jewish people were given over half of the Palestine land, including most of the fertile
land.
The Zionists accepted the UN decision but the Arabs of Palestine turned it down.
Zionist Immigration into Palestine



The beginning of Zionism and immigration: The beginning of modern, national-minded
Jewish immigration coincides with the foundation of the modern Zionist movement.
Zionism as a political movement is conventionally dated to 1882. Small groups of Jews
dispersed through Europe began to cooperate to establish agricultural colonies in
historical Palestine. These groups met officially for the first time in 1897, for the first
Zionist conference, in Basel, Switzerland.
The first two waves of immigration took place under the Ottoman Empire. The first Aliya
(immigration)], between 1882 and 1903, brought 20,000 to 30,000 Russians fleeing
Czarist Russia’s pogroms. Between 1903 and 1914, during the second migration, 35,00040,000 more Russians, most of them socialists, established themselves in Palestine. The
newcomers were very active in the building of Tel-Aviv and also
founded kibbutzim (collective villages).
Marginal immigration: This immigration remained small relative to both the total
Palestinian population and the other destinations of the migrants. In fact, on the eve of
WWI, the 80,000 Jews of Palestine constituted only a tenth of the country’s total
132



population. Moreover, Jewish immigration to Palestine constituted only 3 percent of the
transoceanic Jewish migration during that period. By way of comparison, of the 2,367,000
Jews who left Europe then, 2,022,000 established themselves in the US. With WWI and
the subsequent famine, Palestine’s total population dropped. Its Jewish community now
numbered only 60,000.
Stronger immigration: The third and fourth migrations brought 35,000 Jews from the
Soviet Union, Poland and the Baltic countries between 1919 and 1923, and 82,000 Jews
from the Balkans and the Near Orient between 1924 and 1931, respectively. By the end
of 1931, 174,600 Jews were living in Palestine, 17 percent of the population. During this
period, 15 percent of the transoceanic Jewish migration was to Palestine. There were
many reasons for this surge in migration.
The Balfour Declaration: At the end of WWI, the Ottoman Empire was dismantled and
Palestine came under the British mandate. Great Britain was in favour of establishing a
Jewish national homeland in Palestine. In a letter written in 1917, Lord Balfour expressed
this agreement, with the proviso that “… nothing shall be done which may prejudice the
civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine . The Balfour
Declaration gave a legal basis for Jewish immigration, thus encouraging it.
The rise of anti-Semitism and Nazism: The increase in anti-Semitism in Europe led many
Jews again to leave their countries. At the same time, the US Immigration Act of 1924
would greatly slow immigration from Europe by setting strict quotas per country. Diverse
limitations on immigration were also implemented in Europe. This also explains in part
Jewish migrants’ choice of Palestine. From 1932 on, with the Nazi victory in Germany and
the intensification of persecution in Austria and Czechoslovakia, Jewish immigration to
Palestine increased dramatically. Between 1932 and 1939, Palestine absorbed 247,000
newcomers, 46 percent of Jewish emigration from Europe. [8] In the European political
context, this fifth migration constituted a flight rather than a “Zionist choice.”
The impact of the creation of Israel on the region




Whereas the Western world regarded the creation of Israel in May 1948 as a success for
humanity--the righting for Jews of the terrible wrong of the Holocaust--Israel’s Arab
neighbors saw the event as a disaster.
The argument of the early Zionist leaders that the Jews, through their enterprise and skill,
would bring the benefits of modernization to the Palestinian Arabs was not accepted by
the latter. They did not think they needed such help, and they feared the usurpation of
their ancestral homeland by foreigners who were supported by the major powers--the
United States and the Soviet Union in particular.
The 1947 UN partition resolution proposed to divide the territory of Mandatory Palestine-the area between the Jordan River Valley and the Mediterranean Sea--into a Jewish state
and an Arab state in economic union, with Jerusalem established as an international
enclave. Although the 650,000 Jews in Palestine owned only 7% of the land, 55% of it was
to go to the Jewish state, whereas the 1.2 million Palestinian Arabs would receive 45%.
The Arab governments and the Palestinian Arabs rejected both the concept of partition
and the terms of the resolution and decided to oppose it by force. In the armed struggle
133







that followed, the Arabs, in spite of the intervention of Arab armies, were defeated by
the better organized and equipped Jews, who ended up with 77% of the land.
For the Arabs the most immediate result was the creation of a refugee problem. Some
725,000 Arab Palestinians left the area that became Israel. Such direct testimony as exists
indicated that many refugees left in fear as the fighting intensified. Others were
"encouraged" to leave by Israeli psychological warfare, and a substantial number were
expelled by the Israeli army, sometimes brutally. Despite a number of UN resolutions
calling for repatriation of the refugees after the fighting stopped, the Israelis refused to
permit it.
The Israelis tended to emphasize the security problem that the return of the refugees
would create, but the political problem was perhaps greater. Approximately 42% of the
population of the area allocated to the Jewish state by the partition resolution was Arab,
and, given differences in population-growth rates, the Arabs would soon have
outnumbered the Jews. As it is, the 150,000 Arabs allowed remaining in the area
controlled by Israel, plus their descendants, now numbering nearly one million.
The Arab states reacted by refusing to accept or recognize Israel and imposed an
economic boycott that country. Although this limited Israel’s economic potential, it also
imposed limitations on the Arabs. Aside from the loss of well-established markets for
their produce and labour, Syria and Jordan could no longer use the oil refinery and port
of Haifa, and the Iraq Petroleum Co.’s oil pipeline across the desert from Baghdad had to
be rerouted. Jordan had no access to the sea except through the port of Aqaba, to which
there was no paved road. Land communication between Egypt and the Arab states east
of the Jordan became impossible.
To avoid overflying Israel, air routes had to be changed, often at considerable expense,
and the transit trade through Haifa, which had been important to Jordan and Palestine,
shifted to Beirut. These obstacles were overcome in time, but it required wrenching
adjustments in trade patterns and the severe loss of income to towns like Jerusalem,
which had benefited from the flow of goods and tourists between the Mediterranean and
the Arab hinterland to the East. Ironically, Israel, forced by the boycott to leapfrog over
its neighbors to find markets, became a major exporter of technology throughout the
world and in 1998 had a per capita income and physical quality of life far superior to other
nations in the region.
The Palestine problem also became an overriding issue in Arab politics and a source of
much tension and instability. In both Syria and Egypt, and eventually in Iraq, the
incompetence of the old regime in the 1948 war was a major justification for seizure of
power by the military, and Jordan’s King Abdullah was assassinated in 1951 because he
had dealt directly with the Israelis on a division of the spoils in Palestine.
A desire to avenge the 1948 defeat and fears of Israeli expansionism became
an obsession with the Arabs. Enormous amounts of money that could have gone to social
and economic programs were spent on armaments and military preparations. Israel
responded in kind, and the "Near East" (the Arab states and Israel plus Iran) became the
less-developed world’s largest importer of weapons. Three major Arab-Israeli
wars causing tens of thousands of casualties were fought--in 1956, 1967, and 1973-before any movement toward a meaningful peace began.
Today Israel is at peace with Egypt and Jordan but not with Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, or Saudi
Arabia. It has the substance, if not the form, of diplomatic relations with Morocco,
134

Tunisia, Oman, and Qatar. Its 1994 treaty with Jordan, as well as regional economic
conferences in which it has participated, has raised hope for meaningful economic
cooperation with the Arab world, but results to date have been limited, in part because
Israel is no longer as interested in Arab markets as it once was but also because of Arab
dissatisfaction with the lack of progress in implementation of the Oslo accords between
Israel and the Palestinians signed in the U.S. on Aug. 13, 1993.
These accords set forth a six-year program for arrival at a final Israeli settlement with the
Palestinians. Significant progress has been made, but major differences remain regarding
such issues as territory, creation of a Palestinian state, the status of Jerusalem, and the
refugees. In the absence of agreement on those problems, and in the absence of peace
with Syria, Israel has remained a disaster, as far as most Arabs are concerned.
The Arab-Israeli wars up to 1973
1. Sinai War On July 1956- Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal and closed the canal to Israeli
shipping violating at the same time the 1949 Armistice agreements. The Israeli armed forces
decided to invade the Sinai with British and French support. The UN11, the US and USSR required
the withdrawal and a cease-fire. The Eisenhower administration’s made economic pressure on
the belligerents with mixed results: effective against Britain12, ineffectual against Egypt, and also
to some extent on France and Israel (Kunz, 1991). In 1957, Israel agreed to withdraw from
Egyptian territory and Egypt accepted to freedom of navigation in the region and the
demilitarization of the Sinai.
2. Six Days War -Three years before the Six-Day war began, the Palestine Liberation Organization
(PLO).It was established in 1964 during the first summit of the Arab League14. This conflict was
fought between June 5 and 10 in 1967 between Israel, Egypt, Jordan and Syria. In May 1967,
Egyptian troops entered the Sinai region and decided a blockade of the Israeli port of Eilat because
it located in Egyptian territorial waters. Israel attacked Egypt and Syria where Jordan joined in the
fighting but the Egyptian, Syrian and Jordanian armies were strongly defeated and lost several
territories (West Bank in Jordan, Golan Heights in Syria, Gaza Strip and Sinai in Egypt). This event
exacerbated Israel’s deepening international isolation in a context of economic crisis in Israel with
unemployment and economic stagnation15. On 22 November 1967, the Security Council
unanimously adopted the resolution 24216: (i) the withdrawal of Israel forces from territories
occupied, ii) termination of all claims or states of belligerency and respect of the sovereignty.
3. War of Attrition- The lack of diplomatic efforts to resolve tensions between these countries
lead to a new step in the Arab-Israeli conflict. Egypt decided to intervene militarily in Sinai in order
to compel Israel to withdraw of this zone. USSR militarily supported Arab countries during this
conflict and deeply involved in the diplomacy of the Middle East. Despite the cease-fire
agreement in 1970 under the American control, Egyptians maintained armed troops in the Suez
Canal and on September 28, 1970 President Nasser dies and Sadat succeeded him. No obvious
victors appear during the War of Attrition where no territory was exchanged. Sadat believed that
by making peace with Israel, Egypt could obtain needed American financial assistance with Egypt’s
acute economic and social problems.
135
4. Yom Kippur War -The diplomatic overture initiated by Sadat in late 1970 was ignored by Israel
and the US. Egypt and Syria attacked Israeli forces in their respective zones on the Jewish holy
day of Yom Kippur. USSR and the US jointly requested an urgent meeting of the Security Council
with the adoption of the resolution 33817 in 1973. The ceasefire did not work and Sadat appealed
directly the two powers to intervene in the region but without success. Finally, with the military
intervention of the UN, the belligerents agreed to disengage their forces.
Israel’s relations with the Arab states since 1973
Israel relations with Arab states since 1973 were characterized by conflict and sometimes even
wars.
1. War over Lebanon- The 1982 Lebanon war was the result of the unresolved dispute with
Israel’s invasion of Lebanon provoking the clash with the PLO and Syria. Many of Palestinian
guerrillas had grouped in Lebanon after being expelled from Jordan by King Hussein, and began
attacking Israel from there. For the first time in Israel’s history, a consensus for war did not exist
and Israel’s 1985 withdrawal from Lebanon confirmed that.
2. First Intifada- In December 1987, Palestinian in the West Bank and Gaza launched an uprising
against the Israeli occupation (First Intifada) supported by Iraq during the Gulf War. Massive
demonstration, economic boycott protesting the military occupation of their land and demanding
national independence. The movement lasted till 1993 and it brought them the attention of
international community. Several measures initiated by the Security Council to ensure the safe
protection of Palestinians were not adopted because of the lack of consensus among the
permanent members.
3. Second Intifada- The second Palestinian uprising against Israel due to the Sharon’s visit to the
Temple Mount in September 2000. Like the First intifada, the Second intifada highlights the
Palestinian rejection of the Israeli occupation, in particular the continuation of the colonization.
If the two intifadas defend the same objective, the second differs from the first, on the one hand
by the use of firearms and by the suicide bombings against Israeli civilians. The Sharm el-Sheikh
Summit on 8 February 2005 between Abbas and Sharon officially stopped the uprising.
4.Second Lebanon War- “When Hezbollah guerrillas ambushed an Israeli patrol on the border on
July 12 2006, killing three soldiers and capturing two others, it provided the spark for the second
Lebanon war”18. Israel also imposed an air and naval blockade. On 11 August 2006, the United
Nations Security Council unanimously approved UN Security Council Resolution 170119 in an
effort to end the hostilities without disarm Hezbollah .
136
5. Gaza War- The Gaza war involved Palestinians in the Gaza Strip and Israel in December 2007
until January 2009. The Gaza Strip is a zone sandwiched between Israel and Egypt where Israel
occupied Gaza in the 1967 by imposing restrictions on the movements of goods and people.
Israel’s stated goal was to stop Palestinian rocket fire into Israel and weapons smuggling into this
region. Israel first declared a unilateral ceasefire, followed by Hamas.
The Politics of Oil in the Middle East since 1973





Oil is a very important factor in the international relations of the Middle Eastern states,
both with respect to regional, or inter-Arab relations, and with respect to international
relations at large—that is, relations with industrial and other developing countries.
It is quite evident, and amply documented in the historical literature, that preoccupation
with oil has been paramount in shaping the attitude of the UK, and later the USA, towards
the region. for example, the key episode of Iraq’s independence, whose final granting was
subordinated to the interests of the Iraq Petroleum Company; or the overthrow of the
Mussadiq government in Iran, which was tied primarily, though not exclusively, to the
nationalization of Anglo-Iranian Oil Company.
Similarly, the United States entered in very close alliances with Saudi Arabia which was,
and continues to be, problematic on most accounts, yet remains inescapable because of
oil—and Iran. The latter developed following the inclusion of American companies in the
Iranian consortium, which became possible after Mussadiq’s demise and the return of
Muhammad Reza Shah, and ended the monopoly of Anglo-Iranian on Iranian oil, forcing
it to share its control with several other, primarily American, companies. (Anglo-Iranian
also changed its name into British Petroleum.)
The diplomacy of other countries was also shaped by oil, though at a lower level of
intensity, simply because they had far fewer assets. Thus France attempted to hold on to
Algeria, and did what was necessary to protect the interests of CFP (today’s Total) in the
UAE, but otherwise tried to distinguish itself from ‘the Anglo-Saxons’ by taking a line
emphasizing ‘cooperation’ with the oil-producing countries Other examples of this are
France’s immediate acceptance of the Iraqi nationalization in 1972; refusal to become
member of the IEA when it was established, in Paris, in 1974; promotion of diplomatic
initiatives for a ‘new international economic order’ and later for the International Energy
Forum; finally, the active undermining of US sanctions against Iran, at least until the end
of the Chirac presidency, and the flirting with the Saddam Hussein regime for oil
concessions after the lifting of the UN oil embargo—a love story that was never
consummated.
Italy too supported the creation of a national oil company, ENI, which became the prime
mover of Italian diplomacy towards the Arab countries, leading to active support of the
137
Algerian war of liberation (raising the suspicion that the bomb that downed Enrico
Mattei’s plane in 1962 might have been planted by the French secret service) as well as
support for Muhammad Reza Shah when he fled Iran in conflict with Mussadiq, and the
close relationship with Libya.3 More recently, ENI has disregarded the US embargo
against Iran, and has, imitating the French, flirted with Saddam Hussein’s Iraq without
getting much in return.

The oil-producing countries have naturally taken notice of the importance attributed to
oil by the major powers, and attempted to take advantage of it, acquiring guarantees for
their security against external and internal challenges, as well as access to sophisticated
weapons systems. The guarantee against internal challenges was ‘lifted’ from Iran by US
President Jimmy Carter, who wanted to uphold basic human rights and democracy, and
thus allowed the Pahlavi regime to collapse—with consequences that most observers
would consider quite disastrous, to this date.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Describe the proposals made by the United Nations Organizations for Palestine in 1947. [8]
2. Explain the results of the Arab-Israeli War of 1948 to 1949.
[12]
3. Outline the events that led to the creation of the state of Israel in 1949.
[8]
4. Explain the relations between Israel and Arab states since 1973.
[12]
5. Describe the results of the Six Day war of 1967.
[8]
6. Explain how the politics of oil in the Middle East had made it difficult to solve the Arab-Israeli
Conflict since 1973.
[12]
7. Describe the factors that led to the Yom Kippur War of 1973.
[8]
8. Explain the results of the Yom Kippur War of 1973.
[12]
138
CHAPTER 13-SOUTH ASIA: INDIA, PAKISTAN,
BANGLADESH
Explain the role of religion in the politics of South Asia




There were two major religions in British India: Hinduism and Islam. Furthermore, there
were several minor religions. At the end of World War II, there were roughly 300 million
Hindus, 100 million Muslims, 6 million Sikhs and a small number of Buddhists, Christians
and Jews.
Marrying within the own religious group was strongly promoted and there was an
emphasis on own histories and myths.18 The British Raj, the British rule in India, had been
promoting the differences between ethnic groups by institutionalizing these differences
in both social life and politics. For example, drinking taps at train stations were often
labeled ´Hindu-water’ and ‘Muslim-water.’
In politics, separate electorates were given to the different religious groups. These
regulations contributed to a process in which social identities were turned from
changeable to unchangeable. This process is called reification. Ethnic groups are often
treated as the protagonists of ethnic conflict. However, the main protagonists of most
ethnic conflicts are not ethnic groups as such but various organizations, including
governments, paramilitary organizations and political parties. These organizations claim
to speak in the name of an ethnic group. However, ethnic groups as vast, concrete entities
do not exist, they are made through reification. Ethnicity is often seen as a communal
bond given by nature and therefore unchangeable. This tendency to see social categories
as inevitable and unchangeable is called everyday primordialism.
In British India, there was awareness of the ethnic differences between Hindus and
Muslims because of the institutionalization of Hinduism, Islam and Sikhism as different
ethnicities during the British Raj. The All India Muslim League further emphasized the
139





ethnic differences between Muslims and Hindus to enhance their political support. The
party was established in 1909. Initially the party remained small and was an insignificant
player in its first decades. During the 1940s, their support grew fast and soon they had
more than two million members.
The Muslim League claimed that Muslims would only be free if they would have their own
independent state. According to their Two Nation Theory, religion was the primary
identity of Muslims in British India. Language and other similarities with Hindus were seen
as unimportant.
Since the Muslims were a minority in India, they considered it impossible to live in a state
with a Hindu majority. Therefore, the Muslim League was of the opinion that an
independent Islamic country was the only realistic option if the former colony would
become independent. The emphasis on the differences between Hindus and Muslims in
the early 1940s was further enhanced by the fact that less and less people saw the Indian
National Congress as a representation of all Indians regardless of their religion.
Congress had historically been the Indian party that represented the independence
movement on a secular basis. It won the 1937 provincial elections in most states, being
supported by Hindus as well as Muslims. However, once in office, Congress was often
involved with Hindu religious life, for example by proposing a ban on cow slaughter.
Muslim members of the Congress could not take the fear away that a country led by the
Congress would automatically mean that Muslims would be a suppressed minority
forever. In the early 1940s, the Muslim League’s call for Partition became louder and the
debate about whether India should be divided intensified when King George declared in
1945 that India would become independent.
1946, The British decided to have provincial elections to make the Indians more familiar
with governing. This was also a method to figure out which parties were supported most
by the Indian public, and thus should be taken into account for negotiations. With two
major parties, the Muslim League supporting Partition and Congress opposing Partition,
the vote was soon seen as a vote in favor or against Pakistan. Everyday Primordialism
became deeply embedded in Indian society. It became increasingly more difficult for
Indian citizens to identify themselves in another way than along religious lines, even for
those who were not practicing religion. Fatwas circulated stating that Muslims who voted
against Pakistan were not real Muslims and would not get an Islamic burial.
Self-identification along religious lines aggravated. Even clothes were seen as specifically
‘Muslim’ or ‘Hindu’ instead of for example ‘Punjabi’ or ‘Middle class’. Congress won the
1946 provincial elections in the Hindu-majority areas. Contrary to the 1937 elections, the
Muslim League won almost all the seats available to Muslims. This resulted in an absolute
majority in Bengal and Punjab.
The Amritsar Massacre of 1919 in British India.

This incident took place in Amritsar, the holy city of the Sikhs.
140



People were gathered in protest for the arrest of two of their leaders by the British.
The soldiers British soldiers blocked the only exit from the enclosed square with armored
cars, they shot at the crowd.
Dyer the British military commander ordered the shooting, about 379 Indians were killed
during the incident and 1200 were injured.
The Nationalist movements in British India
The rise of Nationalism is reflected in the spirit of Renaissance in Europe when freedom from
religious restrictions led to the enhancement of national identity. This expression of Nationalism
was furthered by the French Revolution. The political changes resulted in the passing of
sovereignty from the hands of an absolute monarch to the French citizens, who had the power to
constitute the nation and shape its destiny.
Rise of Nationalism in India




For India, the making of national identity was a long process whose roots can be drawn
from the ancient era. India as a whole had been ruled by emperors like Ashoka and
Samudragupta in ancient times and Akbar to Aurangzeb in Medieval times. But, it was
only in the 19th Century that the concept of a national identity and national
consciousness emerged.
The social, economic and political factors had inspired the people to define and achieve
their national identity. People began discovering their unity in the process of their
struggle against colonialism. The sense of being oppressed under colonial rule provided
a shared bond that tied different groups together. Each class and group felt the effects of
colonialism differently. Their experiences were varied, and their notions of freedom were
not always the same. Several other causes also contributed towards the rise and growth
of Nationalism. One set of laws of British Government across several regions led to
political and administrative unity. This strengthened the concept of citizenship and one
nation among Indians.
Economic exploitation by the British agitated other people to unite and react against
British Government’s control over their lives and resources. The social and religious
reform movements of the 19th century also contributed to the feeling of Nationalism.
Around this time many organizations were being formed which raised their voices against
British rule. Most of these organizations were regional in nature. Some of these
organizations were very active such as Bengal Indian Association, Bengal Presidency
141
Association, Pune Public Meeting, etc. However it was felt that if these regional
organizations could work jointly it would help the Indian masses to raise their voices
against the British Rule. This led to the formation of Indian National Congress in the year
1885.
EMERGENCE OF INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (1885)

The Indian National Congress was founded by Allan Octavian Hume in 1885. Hume was a
retired Civil Service Officer. He saw a growing political consciousness among the Indians
and wanted to give it a safe, constitutional outlet so that their resentment would not
develop into popular agitation against the British rule in India. He was supported in this
scheme by the Viceroy, Lord Dufferin, and by a group of eminent Indians. Womesh
Chandra Banerjee of Calcutta was elected as the first President. The Indian National
Congress represented an urge of the politically conscious Indians to set up a national
organization to work for their betterment. The early aims of this organization were
limited only to communicate with British government on behalf of the Indian people and
voice their grievances. It was rightly called the era of the Moderates.
Initial stages of Indian National Congress

The congress placed its demands before the government always in the form of petitions
and worked within the framework of law. It was for this reason that the early Congress
leaders were referred to as ‘Moderates’. During its first twenty years the Congress made
moderate demands. The members placed their demands before the Government always
in the form of petitions and worked within the framework of law. It was for this reason
that the early Congress leaders were referred to as ‘Moderates’ Unfortunately, their
efforts did not bring many changes in the policies and administration of the British in
India. In the beginning, the British had a favourable attitude towards the Congress.
THE RISE OF RADICAL NATIONALISTS
142

The mild policies of the Moderates in the Congress led to the rise of passionate, radical
nationalists, who came to be called the ‘Garam Dal’. Thus the first phase of the nationalist
movement came to an end with government reaction against the Congress on the one
hand and a split in the Congress in 1907 on the other. That is why the period after 1905
till 1918 can be referred to as the ‘Era of Passionate Nationalists .When the Moderates
were in the forefront of the action, they had maintained a low profile but now they swung
into action. Their entry marked the beginning of a new trend and a new face in India’s
struggle for freedom. According to them, the Moderates had failed to define India’s
political goals and the methods adopted by them were mild and ineffective. Besides, the
Moderates remained confined to the upper, landed class and failed to enlist mass support
as a basis for negotiating with the British.
FORMATION OF THE MUSLIM LEAGUE (1906)

As the radical movement grew stronger the British began to look for ways and means to
break the unity among Indian. They tried to do this through the partition of Bengal and
by sowing the seed of communalism among Indian people. They motivated Muslims to
form a permanent political association of their own. In December, 1906, during the
Muhammadan Educational conference in Dacca, Nawab Salim Ullah Khan raised the idea
of establishing a Central Muhammadan Association to take care of Muslim interests.
Accordingly, on 30th December, 1906, the All India Muslim League was founded. Another
prominent person, Aga Khan was chosen as its president. The main objective of the
league was to protect and advance the rights of Muslims in India and represent their
needs to the government.
THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT DURING THE FIRST WORLD WAR

The First World War started in the year of 1914, about which you have already read in
the previous lesson. This War was fought among the nations of Europe to get colonial
monopoly. During war time, the British Government made an appeal to the Indian leaders
to join hands with them in their time of crisis. Indian leaders agreed but they put their
own terms and conditions i.e. after the war was over, the British government would give
Constitutional (legislative and administrative) powers to the Indian People.
Unfortunately, the steps taken by the British government during the World War I created
unrest among the Indian people. This was because the British government had taken a
huge loan during war time which they had to repay. They increased rent from the land,
i.e. lagan. They forcefully recruited Indians in the British Army. They increased the price
of necessary goods and imposed taxes on personal and professional income. As a result,
they had to face protest from the Indian society. Farmers and workers of Champaran,
Bardoli, Kheda and Ahmedabad actively protested against the exploitative policies of
143
British government. Lakhs of students left schools and colleges. Hundreds of lawyers gave
up their practice. Women also significantly contributed in this movement and their
participation became wider with the emergence of Gandhi. The boycott of foreign cloth
became a mass movement, with thousands of bonfires of foreign cloth lighting the Indian
sky.
EMERGENCE OF GANDHI

Mohan Das Karamchand Gandhi was a lawyer, trained in Britain. He went to South Africa
in 1893 and resided there for twenty one years. The treatment of the Indians in South
Africa by the British provoked his conscience. He decided to fight against the policy of
racial discrimination of the South African Government. During the course of his struggle
against the government he evolved the technique of Satyagraha (non-violent insistence
for truth and justice). Gandhi succeeded in this struggle in South Africa. He returned to
India in 1915. In 1916, he founded the Sabarmati Ashram at Ahmedabad to practice the
ideas of truth and non-violence. Gopal Krishna Gokhale advised him to tour the country
mainly in the villages to understand the people and their problems. His first experiment
in Satyagraha began at Champaran in Bihar in 1917 when he inspired the peasants to
struggle against the oppressive plantation system. He also organised a satyagraha to
support the peasants of the Kheda districts of Gujarat. These peasants were not able to
pay their revenue because of crop failure and epidemics. In Ahmedabad, he organized a
movement amongst cotton mill workers.

The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22) Gandhiji by this time was convinced that no
useful purpose would be served by supporting the government. He was also emboldened
by his earlier success in Bihar In the light of the past events and the actions of British
government; he decided to launch a nationwide satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt
Act in 1919. He threatened to start the non-cooperation movement in case the
government failed to accept his demands. Why do you think Gandhiji protested against
the Act? It was because the Act gave the government enormous powers to repressand
allowed detention of political prisoners without any trial for two years. Gandhiji wanted
nonviolent civil disobedience against such unjust laws. The government paid no heed to
it. Gandhiji, therefore, started his non-cooperation movement in August 1920, in which
he appealed to the people not to cooperate with the British government. At this time,
the Khilafat movement started by the Muslims and the Noncooperation movement led
144
by Gandhi merged into one common confrontation against the British Government. For
this Gandhi laid down an elaborate programme- (1) Surrender of titles and honorary
offices as well as resignation from nominated seats in local bodies; (2) refusal to attend
official and non-official functions; (3) gradual withdrawal of children from officially
controlled schools and colleges; (4) gradual boycott of British courts by lawyers and
litigants; (5) refusal on the part of the military, clerical and labouring classes to offer
themselves as recruits for service in Mesopotamia; (6) boycott of elections to the
legislative council by candidates and voters; (7) boycott of foreign goods and National
schools and colleges
THE REVOLUTIONARIES

The reactionary policy of the British developed a deep hatred towards them among a
section of the younger generation of India. They believed that India could achieve
independence only by an organized revolutionary movement. As a result, they organized
secret groups to launch revolutionary activities against the British. Youths were trained
in aggressive methods of violence as a means of strength against the British. They
attempted killing of unpopular British officials, committed dacoities to finance their
activities and looted arms. Many of them, therefore, chose the path of violence to gain
independence for India. They were called the revolutionaries. The centres of their
activities were Punjab, Maharashtra, Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. Prominent
among these revolutionaries were Khudiram Bose, Prafulla Chaki, Bhupendra Nath Dutt,
V. D. Savarkar, Sardar Ajit Singh, Lala Hardayal and his Gadar Party, Sardar Bhagat Singh,
Raj Guru, Sukh Deo, Chandra Shekhar Azad, etc. These revolutionaries organized secret
societies, murdered many British officers, disrupted railway traffic, engaged in organized
attack on British wealth. In order to overturn the British Rule through arms, Kakori
Conspiracy was planned by Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqullah Khan and other team
members of the Hindustan Republican Association in 1925. In 1928, Hindustan Socialist
Republican Association was formed by Chandrasekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh, Batukeshwar
Dutt and others. Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb inside the Central
Legislative Assembly on 8th April, 1929 protesting against the passage of the Public Safety
Bill and the Trade Disputes Bill while raising slogans of Inquilab Zindabad (long live the
revolution), though no one was killed or injured in the bomb incident. Following the trial
in court of this and other cases, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were hanged in 1931.
Their sacrifice provided an incentive to the people. They were regarded martyrs and
became the symbol of national unity and aspirations.
145
ACHIEVEMENT OF INDEPENDENCE (1935-47)



The British Government prepared a White Paper in March, 1933. On the basis of this
White Paper, a Bill was prepared and introduced in parliament in December, 1934. The
Bill was finally passed as the Government of India Act on August 2, 1935. The most
conspicuous feature of the Act of 1935 was the concept of an All India Federation
comprising the Provinces of British India and the Princely States. It was compulsory for
the Provinces to join the proposed federation. For the Princely States it was voluntary.
The members from the provinces were to be elected, while the representatives of the
States were to be nominated by the rulers. Only 14 percent of the population in British
India had the right to vote. The powers of the Legislature were confined and restricted. It
had no control over defense and foreign relations. The Act protected British vested
interests, discouraging the emergence of national unity, rather encouraging separation
and communalism. All nationalists, including Nehru and Jinnah, condemned the Act. The
Congress session met in Lucknow on 25th April, 1935. Though the Act was condemned, it
was decided to contest the elections to resist British imperialism and to end the various
regulations, ordinances and Acts, which were initiated against Indian Nationalism. In the
1937 elections the Congress swept the poll. Congress Ministries were formed in seven
out of the eleven provinces. On March 18, 1937, the All India Congress Committee
adopted a resolution on Congress policies in the legislatures. It claimed that the Congress
had contested the elections “with its objective of independence and its total rejection of
the new constitution, and the demand for a Constituent Assembly to frame India’s
constitution. The declared Congress policy was to combat the New Act and end it”. The
immediate effect of the coming of the Congress Ministries was a feeling of relief. Political
prisoners were released and a large measure of civil liberty was established. Agrarian
legislation was also passed and this provided considerable relief to the peasantry. Basic
education was intended to be made free and compulsory for every child.
National Movement during the Second World War When the Second World War broke
out in 1939, the Congress attitude was one of sympathy, though it refused unconditional
cooperation. The Congress demanded that “India must be declared an independent
146


union, and present application must be given to this status to the largest possible extent”.
The British did not agree and as a result all the ministries resigned in protest in 1939. A
demand for Provisional National Government at the Centre was made at the instance of
C. Rajagopalachari in 1940. It was turned down by the Viceroy Lord Linlithgow. In October,
1940 was launched the Civil Disobedience Campaign.
At the end of the World War in 1945, the British government started to talk about the
transfer of power to Indian Hindus and Muslims. The first round of talks could not be
successful because Muslim leaders thought that the Muslim League was the only one who
could represent Indian Muslims. The Congress did not agree upon it. In 1946, the Cabinet
Mission arrived in India to find a mutually agreed solution of the Indian Problem. The
Mission held talks with the leaders of all prominent political parties and then proposed
its plan of establishing Federal Government in India. Initially the plan was criticized by all
political parties, but later all gave their consent to it. When the election to the Constituent
Assembly took place, the Congress won one hundred ninety nine seats and the Muslim
league won seventy three.
Partition and Independence of India Differences soon arose between the Congress and
the Muslim League concerning the powers of the Constituent Assembly. The League
rejected the Cabinet Mission Plan in the middle of 1946. In September 1946, the Congress
formed the government at the Centre. The League refused to be a part to it. Muslim
League celebrated this day as a ‘Direct Action Day’ on 16th August 1946 to attain Pakistan.
The conflict resulted in widespread communal riots in different parts of India. Thousands
were killed in the riots, lacks of people became homeless. In the meantime, Lord
Mountbatten was sent as the Viceroy to India. He put up his plan in June 1947 which
included partition of India. In spite of strong opposition by Gandhi, all the parties agreed
to the partition and the Indian Independence Act, 1947 came into being. It created two
independent states in the Indian sub-continent, i.e. Indian Union and Pakistan. India got
its independence on 15th August, 1947. At the stroke of midnight (14th -15th August,
1947), transfer of power took place.
The British partition of British India

The Partition of India was the division of British India in 1947 which accompanied the
creation of two independent dominions, India and Pakistan. The Dominion of India is
today the Republic of India, and the Dominion of Pakistan is today the Islamic Republic of
Pakistan and the People's Republic of Bangladesh.

The partition involved the division of three provinces, Assam, Bengal and the Punjab,
based on district-wide Hindu or Muslim majorities. The boundary demarcating India and
Pakistan became known as the Radcliffe Line. It also involved the division of the British
Indian Army, the Royal Indian Navy, the Indian Civil Service, the railways, and the central
treasury, between the two new dominions. The partition was set forth in the Indian
Independence Act 1947 and resulted in the dissolution of the British Raj, as the British
government there was called. The two self-governing countries of Pakistan and India
legally came into existence at midnight on 14–15 August 1947.
147

The partition displaced over 14 million people along religious lines, creating
overwhelming refugee crises in the newly constituted dominions; there was large-scale
violence, with estimates of loss of life accompanying or preceding the partition disputed
and varying between several hundred thousand and two million. The violent nature of
the partition created an atmosphere of hostility and suspicion between India and Pakistan
that plagues their relationship to the present.

The term partition of India does not cover the secession of Bangladesh from Pakistan in
1971, nor the earlier separations of Burma (now Myanmar) and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka)
from the administration of British India. The term also does not cover the political
integration of princely states into the two new dominions, nor the disputes of annexation
or division arising in the princely states of Hyderabad, Junagadh, and Jammu and
Kashmir, though violence along religious lines did break out in some princely states at the
time of the partition. It does not cover the incorporation of the enclaves of French
India into India during the period 1947–1954, nor the annexation of Goa and other
districts of Portuguese India by India in 1961. Other contemporaneous political entities in
the region in 1947, Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal, and the Maldives were unaffected by the
partition.
The Problem of Kashmir between India and Pakistan?

The Kashmir conflict is a territorial conflict primarily between India and Pakistan, having
started just after the partition of Indiain 1947. India and Pakistan have fought three wars
over Kashmir, including the Indo-Pakistani Wars of 1947 and 1965, as well as the Kargil
War of 1999. The two countries have also been involved in several skirmishes over
control of the Siachen Glacier.

India claims the entire princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, and, as of 2010, administers
approximately 43% of the region. It controls Jammu, the Kashmir Valley, Ladakh, and
the Siachen Glacier. India's claims are contested by Pakistan, which administers
approximately 37% of the region, namely Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan.[China
currently administers the remaining 20% mostly uninhabited areas, the Shaksgam Valley,
and the Aksai Chin region.

The present conflict is in Kashmir Valley. The root of conflict between the Kashmiri
insurgents and the Indian government is tied to a dispute over local autonomy and based
on the demand for self-determination. Democratic development was limited in Kashmir
until the late 1970s, and by 1988, many of the democratic reforms introduced by the
Indian Government had been reversed. Non-violent channels for expressing discontent
were thereafter limited and caused a dramatic increase in support for insurgents
advocating violent secession from India.
148

In 1987, a disputed state election created a catalyst for the insurgency when it resulted
in some of the state's legislative assembly members forming armed insurgent groups. In
July 1988 a series of demonstrations, strikes and attacks on the Indian Government began
the Kashmir Insurgency.

Although thousands of people have died as a result of the turmoil in Jammu and Kashmir,
the conflict has become less deadly in recent years. Protest movements created to voice
Kashmir's disputes and grievances with the Indian government, specifically the Indian
Military, have been active in Jammu and Kashmir since 1989.

Elections held in 2008 were generally regarded as fair by the United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees and had a high voter turnout in spite of calls by separatist
militants for a boycott. The election resulted in the creation of the pro-India Jammu and
Kashmir National Conference, which then formed a government in the state. Many
analysts have interpreted the high voter turnout in this election as a sign that the people
of Kashmir endorsed Indian rule in the state. But in 2010 unrest erupted after alleged
fake encounter of local youth with security force. Thousands of youths pelted security
forces with rocks, burned government offices and attacked railway stations and official
vehicles in steadily intensifying violence. The Indian government blamed separatists
and Lashkar-e-Taiba, a Pakistan-based militant group for stoking the 2010 protests.

According to scholars, Indian forces have committed many human rights abuses and acts
of terror against Kashmiri civilian population including extrajudicial killing, rape, torture
and enforced disappearances. Crimes by militants have also happened but are not
comparable in scale with the crimes of Indian forces. According to Amnesty International,
as of June 2015, no member of the Indian military deployed in Jammu and Kashmir has
been tried for human rights violations in a civilian court, although there have been
military court martials held. Amnesty International welcomed this move but cautioned
that justice should be consistently delivered and prosecutions of security forces
personnel be held in civilian courts. Amnesty International has also accused the Indian
government of refusing to prosecute perpetrators of abuses in the region.

Kashmir's accession to India was provisional, and conditional on a plebiscite, and for this
reason had a different constitutional status to other Indian states. In October 2015
Jammu and Kashmir High Court said that article 370 is "permanent" and Jammu and
Kashmir did not merge with India the way other princely states merged but retained
special status and limited sovereignty under Indian constitution.
How Bangladesh got its independence?

Modern Bangladesh emerged as an independent nation in 1971 after breaking away and
achieving independence from Pakistan in the Bangladesh Liberation War. The country's
borders coincide with the major portion of the ancient and historic region of Bengal in
the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent, where civilization dates back over four
millennia, to the Chalcolithic. The history of the region is closely intertwined with
the history of Bengal and the history of India.
149

The area's early history featured a succession of Indian empires, internal squabbling, and
a tussle between Hinduism and Buddhism for dominance. Islam became dominant
gradually since the 13th century when Sunni missionaries such as Shah Jalal arrived.
Later, Muslim rulers initiated the preachings of Islam by building masjid (mosques)
and madrassas. From the 13th century onward, the region was controlled by the Bengal
Sultanate. Afterwards, the region came under the suzerainty of the Mughal Empire, as its
wealthiest province. Bengal Subah generated 50% of the empire's GDP and 12% of
the world's GDP, with the capital city Dhaka having a population exceeding a million
people.

Following the decline of the Mughal Empire in the early 1700s, Bengal became a semiindependent state under the Nawabs of Bengal, before it was conquered by the British
East India Company at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, directly contributing to the Industrial
Revolution in Britain and to deindustrialization and famines in Bengal. The Bengali city
of Calcutta served as the capital city of British India up until the early 20th century.
The borders of modern Bangladesh were established with the partition of
Bengal and India in August 1947, when the region became East Pakistan as a part of the
newly formed State of Pakistan following the Radcliffe Line. However, it was separated
from West Pakistan by 1,600 km of Indian Territory. Due to political exclusion, ethnic and
linguistic discrimination, as well as economic neglect by the politically dominant westernwing, popular agitation and civil disobedience led to the war of independence in 1971.
After independence, the new state endured famine, natural disasters, and widespread
poverty, as well as political turmoil and military coups. The restoration of democracy in
1991 has been followed by relative calm and rapid economic progress. Bangladesh is
today a major manufacturer in the global textile industry.

Factors which led to the partitioning of Pakistan in 1971.




Pakistan was divided between two parts, East and West. After she had problems similar
to those of India whereby two groups were fighting each other, Urdu in the West fought
against Bengali on the East.
The two groups were separated 1500 kilometers away from each other, to the East of
India.
These people spoke different languages
East Pakistan had more people and produced most of the county’s wealth, but the
government was controlled by leaders from West Pakistan.
150
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Describe the Amritsar Massacre of 1919 in British India.
[8]
2. Explain the factors which led to the partitioning of Pakistan in 1971.
[12]
3. Describe the events which led to the independence of Bangladesh in 1971.
[8]
4. Explain why India was partitioned in 1947.
[12]
5. Describe the conflicts between Pakistan and India from 1947 to 1980.
[8]
6. Explain the factors that led to the independence of Bangladesh in 1971.
[12]
7. Describe the main features of the Swadeshi nationalist movement in British India from
1905 to 1920.
[8]
8. Explain how factors outside India contributed to her independence in 1947.
151
[12]
CHAPTER 14- LATIN AMERICA: CASE STUDYCUBA
The establishment of Communist rule in Cuba


American companies controlled the economy of Cuba; they owned Cuban industries such
as sugar, tobacco, textiles and rum. The USA even controlled half of the Cuban land, 3/5
of Cuban railway, electrical production and the telephone system. This angered the
Cubans like Castro who wanted the Cuban economy to be in the hands of the local people
and it led to communism when Castro became the leader.
The other factor that led Fidel Castro to power was that Cuba was too dependent on the
export of sugar and the wealth of the country was concentrated in the hands of a few.
Unemployment was very high, yet there was no employment benefit. Trade unions did
nothing to help. The poverty of the people who were unemployed was in a sharp contrast
to the wealth in Havana and in the hands of the corrupt government officials. As a result
social
tensions were high. This led to the rise of Fidel Castro.

In 1952, Fulgencio Batista who was one of the leading politicians since
1933, seized power in a military coup and began to rule as a dictator. He
introduced no reforms and according to the historian Hugh Thomas, he
spent a lot of time dealing with his private affairs and his foreign fortunes,
leaving himself too little time for the affairs of the state. His regime was very
corrupt and brutal. This factor led to Castro's rise to power.

The other factor was that there was no prospect of a peaceful social
revolution. This led to a feeling that perhaps violent revolutions were
necessary. The leading exponent of this view was Fidel Castro, who
specialized in defending the poor. Castro began a campaign of guerrilla
warfare and sabotage in the cities. The rebels soon controlled the
mountainous areas of the east and north and non-popular support there by
carrying
through
Castro's
land
reform policy.

Batista's reaction played right in Castro's hands. He took savage reprisals
against the guerrillas, murdering suspects. Even many of the middle class
began to support Castro on the most likely way of getting rid of a brutal
dictator. Morale in Batista's poorly paid army began to crumble after an
152
attempt to destroy Castro's forces. The USA began to feel embarrassed at
Batista's behavior and cut off arms supplies. This was a blow to the
dictator's prestige. In September a small force under Che Guevara, an
Argentinean supporter of Castro gained control of the main road across the
island and prepared to move on Santa Clara. On 1siJanuary, Batista fled
from Cuba and a liberal government was set up with Castro as its leader.

The combination of corruption together with the Great Depression led to social,
economic and political unrest in Cuba. Fidel Castro took advantage of this political
turmoil and established Guerrilla headquarters in themountains of the Sierra
Maestro and support began to grow. In 1959 Castro's guerrillas entered Havana
to set up a government of the Popular Socialist Party which came to be called the
Cuban Communist Party in 1965. It is through the brilliant military tactics of Castro
that he won the support of the masses and transformed Cuba into a one party
state, with his brother, Raoul being his right hand man.
The Social reforms introduced by Fidel Castro in Cuba.

Attempts were made to improve education, housing, health and medical facilities
and
communications, sanitation and hygiene. There were reduced costs of public
utilities as in water, electricity e.t.c.

There was equality for black people and more rights for women. There was much
greater sense of equality and stability than ever before. The regime attacked the
vice which was deep rooted in the island, especially in Havana with its casinos
and army of its prostitutes. Any form of discrimination was abolished e.g. racism,
ageism, sexism e.t.c. Castro even banned the Roman Catholic and officially
declared Cuba an atheist state.

There were touring cinemas, theatres, concerts and art exhibitions giving
information
as
well as entertainment to the people. Castro was constantly touring the island
making
speeches and urging people to greater efforts, learning about their problems and
winning support for his policies in education. All children were now receiving the
same education instead of fewer than half before 1959.

The regime befriended the poor as illiteracy was wiped out by the 1970s. All
graduates of medical schools had to do two years of health care service in the
rural areas. Private schools were banned and the progressively socialist state
assumed greater responsibility for children. Today, Cuba pride itself in having
created a top - class education system that stressed the practical application of
Maths, science and humanities. As a result, Cubans are today among the best
educated people on the planet. The country has a 100% literacy rate and more
than 60% of Cubans have junior degrees. So successful has the Cuban state been
153
at ensuring that its citizens have access to health care that there is a doctor for
every 170 people.
The economic reforms introduced by Fidel Castro in Cuba.

After assuming power Castro's intention was to transform Cuba into a centralized
state. He therefore came up with a number of socialist models. Almost all USA
property was taken by government by the end of 1960. By 1968 all shops were
nationalized. The government also nationalized farms larger than 400 hectares.

The new government also introduced changes to modernize sugar production to
increase output. Sugar mills were established country wide for the harvesting of
sugar. Industries were diversified and new crops were introduced to reduce Cuba's
dependence
on
sugar
export.

Unemployment and corruption were reduced which brought a greater sense of
economic stability than ever before. Higher wages were paid to the workers. The
tourist industry was also diversified to absorb the unemployed.

Cuba was operating a mixed system of centralized planning and some free
enterprise to encourage the production of extra food. Most of the economy was
controlled.
The
collectivization of agriculture was promoted by the National Institute of Agrarian
reform. The Agrarian Reform was the path for the peasantry and the proletariats
to own land and share the wealth.
Castro's foreign policy in relation to Latin America

Castro sent Cubans to fight with guerrilla groups all over Latin-American. In
Nicaragua
Cuba developed close relations with the 1979 Sandinista government and
supported the Sandinista insurgency against Anastacio Somozas dictatorship.
Castro further sent 5000 troops, medical technicians, teachers and agricultural
experts to Nicaragua. The two countries continue to have bilateral relations.

Castro also assisted Bishop Maurice to overthrow the right- wing regime of Eric
Gairy of the tiny island of Grenada. He supported Bishops leftist New Jewel
Movement that took power in Grenada in 1979. After this he sent doctors, teachers
and technicians to aid the country's development. He also sent construction
workers to assist the construction of a new international airport. Castro also
helped to create a modest police force and helped to expand its military.
154

Castro also supported Argentina's rightwing military Junta in the 1982 Falklands
War with Britain, offering military aid to the Argentineans. Britain and Argentina
had fought over the Islands in 1982. Argentina surrendered and the Islands remain
under British rule.

Castro has helped Jamaica tremendously with housing and work teams in the
1970s. Cuba also provided scholarships for the Jamaicans to study in various
fields such as medicine. This generosity was offered free of any cost. Jamaican
athletes have also been trained in Cuba. Today, Jamaican athletes are beaming
with national pride in the international pride because of this noble gesture. Cuba
also donated the G.C Foster College to Jamaica in order for Jamaica to hone
knowledge and skills in education, sports and science.

In EI Salvador, there were grievances against the military regime. Cuba's forces
helped to bring about the war in EI Salvador. In 1979, Castro brought the leaders
of five rather weak and ill organized Salvador guerrilla groups to Havana and
provided them with arms and money from the USSR to form FMLN. The FMLN as
a strong unified organisation then started major guerrilla campaigns which
continued throughout the 1980s. It succeeded in overthrowing the dictatorship.
Today, there are free elections, an improved constitution and reforms in land.

In a nutshell, it is worth noting that other revolutionaries in Latin America were
inspired by Castro's success in Cuba. Cuba sent volunteer workers, teachers of
health Science and construction workers to Jamaica, Guyana and Grenada
because of shortage of personnel. Castro established diplomatic ties with Chile,
Peru and Columbia. Cuba sent aid to earthquake victims in Peru and Nicaragua.
Cuba also gave scholarships in medical and engineering fields to Jamaica,
Guyana and Grenada. This was viewed by the USA as communist penetration of
Latin America spearheaded by Cuba. The USA even expelled Cuba from the
Organisation of American Cooperation. In 1966 Castro formed the Latin American
Solidarity Organisation, to promote guerrilla activities to undermine capitalism and
the influence of the USA.
155
Castro's foreign policy in relation to Africa.
-Fidel Castro has played an important role in liberating the African continent. It was the
Cuban soldiers who sent about 30 000 soldiers to fight in Angola and restore MPLA.
Savimbi’s UNITA was defeated. Castro also played a role in fighting apartheid in South
Africa. This helped South Africa to be a democracy under the rule of a black presidentNelson Mandela.
-It has provided assistance to Botswana in areas of education and sport. Cuba has also
contributed to the education of Namibians, South Africans and Zimbabweans during the
days of the liberation movements and aftermaths. This played a role in eradicating
illiteracy in such countries. Ghana, Algeria, Eritrea, Equatorial Guinea and many other
countries have benefited from the work of Cuban health brigades. This has helped to curb
the problem of shortage of doctors in these different countries.
-Cuba and Botswana have signed a protocol in Havana to expand cultural exchange
between the two countries. This has promoted cooperation in the fields of performing and
visual arts, film making and holding cultural events/festivals. This has also helped the two
countries to preserve their cultural heritage.
-Cuba has also contributed to the human resource in Somalia and support in areas such
as education, health, and technology transfer and sugar industry. The sugar industry
continues to blossom in parts not affected by the civil war. Cuba also helped to preserve
the sovereignty of the Somali people during the invasion of Somalia in 1977-78 by the
USA. It sends military help to Somalia. The USA left Somalia in a very serious humiliating
defeat.
-In conclusion, it has to be noted that Castro was able to woe support of Africa to be part
of the Soviet bloc to the displeasure of the USA. The more the USA hated Castro the more
he gained support in Africa and the more these countries established diplomatic ties with
the USSR. Cuba successfully established cordial relations with different African states
and has not been isolated as the USA had wanted. Castro succeeded in ending
colonialism in Africa and liquidating apartheid in South Africa.
156
The relations between Cuba and the USA during the period of 1959-1970
-When Castro came into power in 1959, relations between Cuba and the USA were not
bad at first but USA became suspicious when Castro started to nationalize American
owned estates, factories and oil refineries. They suspected that he was a communist. To
show that it disapproved of these actions, the US government cut down the amount of
sugar it was to import from Cuba. This had serious effects on the Cuban economy which
relied on the export of sugar to the US for most of its income. This forced Castro to start
trade negotiations with the Soviet Union {Russia} which promised to buy Cuban sugar
instead. This made the US even more alarmed. It was the height of the cold war and it
did not want a soviet ally so close to the American coast.
-Relations between the US and Cuba got worse when Castro nationalized the remaining
American owned sugar estates. The US cut all trade links with Cuba and broke off
diplomatic relations. The US decided to support Cuban exiles, the wealthier Cubans who
had fled from Cuba when Castro came to power. An armed force of these exiles planned
to invade Cuba and overthrow Castro's government. With the help of the CIA (America's
secret service), an invasion force landed in Cuba in April 1961 at a place called "The Bay
of Pigs". The whole plot was badly planned and carried out. Castro's forces easily
defeated the invaders and most were killed or captured, much to the embarrassment of
President John F. Kennedy.
-Growing out of fear of increased Soviet and Cuban influence in Latin America, President
John F. Kennedy's administration came up with the Alliance for Progress and announced
that Cuba and the Dominican Republic would soon join the society of free men. The
Progress was in essence a Marshall Plan for Latin America. Cuba never embraced it and
saw it as a tool with which the Americans wanted to pacify the region with capitalism. In
1962, President Kennedy and his Alliance for Progress expelled Cuba from the
Organization of American states. Castro's response was to form in 1966 the Latin
American Solidarity Organization, to promote guerrilla activities to undermine capitalism
and the influence of the USA. Cuba became a constant thorn in the flesh of the USA
despite the fact that it was 100 miles off the coast of Florida.
-Castro and Khrushchev, the Soviet leader, also agreed in secret to turn Cuba into a
soviet nuclear missile base. In 1962 an American U-2 spy - plane took amazingly detailed
photographs of missile sites in Cuba. Missile sites were built by the USSR. According to
Khrushchev, the missiles were genuinely meant to defend Cuba. Khrushchev also wanted
to close the missile gap between the USSR and the USA. The USA found an excuse to
mount a blockade and threatened to attack Cuba if the missiles were not removed. This
led the USSR to negotiate to the embarrassment of Khrushchev. The USSR agreed to
remove the missiles and the USA agreed not to attack Cuba. After this, relations between
Cuba and the US remained cool while relations between Cuba and the Soviet Union
became closer.
157
Relations between Cuba and Soviet Union
-When Castro came into power in 1959, relations between Cuba and the USA were not bad at
first but USA became suspicious when Castro started to nationalize. American owned estates,
factories and oil refineries. They suspected that he was a communist. As Cuba's relations with the
USA got worse, those with the Soviet Union improved. When the US ended diplomatic relations
with Cuba and boycotted the import of Cuban sugar with the hope of bringing Castro to his knees,
Castro produced a trump card by establishing diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union who
stepped in to buy Cuba's sugar and to supply necessities such as oil. He further nationalized all
American companies in Cuba. As a result of this, Cuba became a member of the COMECON in
1972. Castro's Cuba became steadily communist.
-After Castro gained power, the USA decided to support Cuban exiles, the wealthier Cubans who
had fled from Cuba when Castro came to power. An armed force of these exiles planned to invade
Cuba and overthrow Castro's government. With the help of the CIA (America's secret service), an
invasion force landed in Cuba in April 1961 at a place called 'The Bay of Pigs". The whole plot was
badly planned and carried out. Castro's forces easily defeated the invaders and most were killed
or captured, much to the embarrassment of President John F. Kennedy. The Soviet Union agreed
to provide Cuba with weapons so that it could defend itself against another American attack. This
invasion of Cuba by American sponsored dissidents made Castro to announce that he was a
Marxist and that Cuba was a socialist state. This drew Cuba closer to the USSR.
-Growing out of fear of increased Soviet and Cuban influence in Latin America, President John F.
Kennedy's administration came up with the Alliance for Progress and announced that Cuba and
the Dominican Republic would soon join the society of freemen. The Progress was in essence a
Marshall Plan for Latin America. Cuba never embraced it and saw it as a tool with which the
Americans wanted to pacify the region with capitalism. In 1962, President Kennedy and his
Alliance for Progress expelled Cuba from the Organization of American states. Castro's response
was to form in 1966 the Latin American Solidarity Organization, to promote guerrilla activities to
undermine capitalism and the influence of the USA. Cuba became a constant thorn in the flesh of
the USA despite the fact that it was100 miles off the coast of Florida.
-Castro and Khrushchev, the Soviet leader, also agreed in secret to turn Cuba into a soviet nuclear
missile base. In 1962 an American U-2 spy - plane took amazingly detailed photographs of missile
sites in Cuba. Missile sites were built by the USSR. According to Khrushchev, the missiles were
genuinely meant to defend Cuba. Khrushchev also wanted to close the missile gap between the
USSR and the USA. The USA found an excuse to mount a blockade and threatened to attack Cuba
if the missiles were not removed. This led the USSR to negotiate to the embarrassment of
Khrushchev. The USSR agreed to remove the missiles and the USA agreed not to attack Cuba.
After this, relations between Cuba and the US remained cool while relations between Cuba and
the Soviet Union became closer.
158
-The result of the crisis led to the two leaders, Kennedy of the USA and Khrushchev of Russia,
install a telephone- Hotline- to connect the Kremlin {Moscow} and the White House {Washington}
to solve international problems quickly and to help reduce the risk of a nuclear war. The crisis
also led to the signing of a Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963. It did not stop the development of
weapons, but it limited tests and was an important step forward. The success of the USA also
depended on Russia's cooperation which also demanded that the USA remove her missiles from
Turkey in what came to be known as the "Jupiter missiles". The USA agreed to remove her missiles
from Turkey.
-The relationship between Cuba and the Soviet Union was strained for some time. Cuba then
concentrated on her domestic affairs after 1962. However, the outbreak of the Vietnam War and
the American invasion of the Dominican Republic forced Cuba to once again sought Soviet
friendship. The soviet - Cuban relations were once again strained in the1980s because of the
emergence of Mikhail Gorbachev and his reforms associated with perestroika and glasnost. The
collapse of the USSR led to an irreparable ideological rift with Cuba. Russia slowly drifted towards
the USA and capitalism. Cuba was left without political and military friends.
159
The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1952
-Castro and Khrushchev, the Soviet leader, also agreed in secret to turn Cuba into a soviet nuclear
missile base. In 1962 an American U-2 spy - plane took amazingly detailed photographs of missile
sites in Cuba. Missile sites were built by the USSR. According to Khrushchev, the missiles were
genuinely meant to defend Cuba. Khrushchev also wanted to close the missile gap between the
USSR and the USA. The USA found an excuse to mount a blockade and threatened to attack Cuba
if the missiles were not removed. This led the USSR to negotiate to the embarrassment of
Khrushchev. The USSR agreed to remove the missiles and the USA agreed not to attack Cuba.
After this, relations between Cuba and the US remained cool while relations between Cuba and
the Soviet Union became closer.
-The result of the crisis led to the two leaders, Kennedy of the USA and Khrushchev of Russia,
install a telephone- Hotline- to connect the Kremlin {Moscow} and the White House {Washington}
to solve international problems quickly and to help reduce the risk of a nuclear war. The crisis
also led to the signing of a Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963. It did not stop the development of
weapons, but it limited tests and was an important step forward. The success of the USA also
depended on Russia's cooperation which also demanded that the USA remove her missiles from
Turkey in what came to be known as the "Jupiter missiles". The USA agreed to remove her
missiles from Turkey.
The Bay of Pigs-1961
-USA decided to support the Cuban exiles that had been forced to flee from Cuba in an
attempt to overthrow Castro. The USA intelligence group (CIA) formed a group of exiled
Cubans into a committee in Florida to take power from Castro. In 1961 the new American
president, Kennedy decided to support the exiles to invade Cuba. The exiles intended to
establish a base in Cuba from where they would launch attacks. They thought that the
Cuban people would support them.
-In April 1961, 1 400 exiles who were supported by US bombers landed at the Bay of Pigs.
The invasion was a disaster as it was poorly planned, they had to face 20 000 Cuban troops.
There were no uprisings in Cuba to support the exiles. The Exiles were easily defeated;
some were killed while others were imprisoned. President of USA, Kennedy denied being
involved in the plan to overthrow Castro, the Bay of Pigs incident was a humiliation to
Kennedy as he had failed to overthrow Castro in Cuba.
-This incident strained relations between USA and Cuba, after this incident Castro declared
Cuba a Communist state. Castro then asked USSR to provide weapons to Cuba so that
Cuba would defend herself from USA attacks in future. USSR agreed to provide Cuba with
weapons; the USA feared the possible spread of communism in Latin America. USA
decided to isolate Cuba and warned the USSR not to put nuclear missiles in Cuba.
160
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Outline the factors that led to establishment of communist rule in Cuba since 1959.
[8]
2. Describe the Social reforms introduced by Castro in Cuba since 1959.
[8]
3. Describe the Economic reforms introduced by Castro in Cuba.
[8]
4. Describe the Cuban missile crisis of in 1952.
[8]
5. Describe the Bay of Pigs incident of 1961.
[8]
6. Outline the achievements of Castro’s Domestic policy in Cuba since 1959.
[8]
7. Explain the relationship between Cuba and the USSR from 1960 to 1990.
[12]
8. Explain the relationship between Cuba and the USA from 1959 to 1970.
[12]
9. Explain the contribution of Cuba to Africa from 1959 to 1990.
[12]
10. Explain the relations between Cuba and Latin America from 1959 to 1990.
[12]
11. Explain how the USA was successful during the Cuban Missile crisis of 1952?
[12]
REVISION QUESTIONS ANSWERS ON PAPER 2
CHAPTER 1: CAUSES OF WORLD WAR 1
161
1. Outline any four alliances that were formed in Europe before 1914.




[8]
The Dual Alliance of 1879. Members were Germany and Austria. They agreed to assist
each other if one of them was attacked by an enemy e.g. either France or Russia.
Triple Alliance of 1882. Members were Germany, Austria and Italy. Germany had
encouraged France to take over Tunisia which Italy was interested in colonizing, Italy saw
France as an enemy and joined Germany and Austria to form this Alliance. They agreed
to assist each other if one of them were attacked by more than one country.
The Franco – Russian Alliance of 1894. Members were France and Russia. This Alliance
was formed after Kaiser William II did not renew the Re –Insurance Treaty; Russia felt
isolated in Europe and became closer to France. They both saw Germany as an enemy
and agreed to assist each other if one of them was attacked by Germany. France would
also assist Russia with finance.
The Triple Entente of 1907. Members were France, Britain and Russia. Russia became the
third member of the Entente Cordial; it now became the Triple Entente. They agreed to
assist each other if one of them was attacked by members of the Triple Alliance.
2. Outline the features of the Schlieffen plan of 1905.
[8]
This was the German war plan which was drawn by General Von Schlieffen. The plan was to
strategize on how to avoid fighting war on two fronts at the same time (between Russia and
France).





Germany planned to attack France first and defeat her within six weeks, then attack
Russia and defeat her within eight weeks.
The right wing which was to attack France was to be kept strong to defeat France quickly,
the left wing was to guard the Russian border to monitor her mobilization and a small
portion of the army was to guard Ascace-lorraine from France.
The plan was to launch a surprise attack on France by invading her through a neutral place
which was Belgium.
The army was to march to France and encircle Paris which was the capital of France.
The army would be transported to the Russian border after defeating France.
3. Outline the assumptions of the Schlieffen plan of 1905. [8]


Germany assumed that Russia would be slow to mobilize that is why she planned to attack
France first and kept the army that was to attack France stronger.
Germany assumed that Belgium would not resist the invasion as it was a small country
that is why she planned to attack France through Belgium.
162


Germany assumed that Britain would not enter the war to protect Belgium’s neutrality
that is why it planned to invade Belgium which was protected by the London treaty.
Germany assumed that it would defeat France quickly that is why it planned to fight
France for six weeks and defeat Russia within eight weeks.
4. Explain why the Schlieffen plan failed in 1914. [12]




Russia mobilized quickly; the German Generals panicked and weakened the right wing
that was to attack France quickly by transporting some of the soldiers to the Russian
border to monitor Russia’s mobilization.
Belgium resisted the German invasion by preventing Germany to pass through her, this
delayed Germany by two weeks to attack France. This gave France an opportunity to
mobilize quickly while the German army was fighting with the Belgians.
Britain entered the war to protect Belgium’s neutrality by sending the British
Expeditionary forces to assist Belgium. This helped Belgium to resist German invasion and
weakened her army before it fought with the French.
The German soldiers were exhausted by the time they faced the French army since they
had stiff resistance from the Belgians and the British.
5. Explain why Germany lost the war from 1914 to 1918.




Failure of the Schlieffen plan- Germany was forced to fight war on two fronts at the same
time (between France and Russia) because Russia mobilized quickly which forced
Germany to transport some of the soldiers to the Russian border, this weakened the right
wing which was planned to be strong to defeat France quickly.
The allied powers blocked the supply of goods to Germany at the sea, this led to shortage
of food and crippled exports, while keeping allied armies fully supplied. This weakened
the German army and led to its defeat.
The German submarine campaign failed, Britain, America and Japan protected their ships
from being destroyed by Germany at the sea. This boosted the allied powers as they had
supply of goods such as food and ammunition while they blocked the German supply.
Entry of the USA in the war was important to the allied powers as she supplied Britain
and France with food, merchant ships and credit.
6. Explain why Britain joined the First World War in 1914.

[12]
[12]
There was rivalry between Britain and Germany in building navy. Britain felt that Germany
did not deserve to have navy since she was a landlocked country. The naval rivalry caused
tension between these two Great powers and made war possible.
163



Britain was closely allied to France through the Entente Cordiale of 1904; Britain did not
want to let down her friend, she felt morally bound to assist France. Britain feared that if
Germany defeated France she would dominate in Europe and be a threat to her.
Britain sympathized with ‘little Serbia’ for being invaded by a large empire such as AustriaHungary. She had to join the war to assist Serbia.
In 1839 Britain and other Great powers signed the London Treaty that guaranteed the
neutrality of Belgium in a future war. Germany treated this treaty as a ‘Scrap of paper’ or
meaningless agreement and decided to attack France through Belgium. Britain did not
want a major country to occupy Belgium and use it as a base to attack another country.
The invasion angered the British people and they supported the British declaration of war
on Germany.
7. Explain why Germany should not be the only one to blame for causing World War 1 in 1914.
[12]




Austria-Hungary- She took advantage of her friendship with a great power like Germany
and became reckless. Austria confirmed with Germany if she would assist her to attack
Serbia in 1914 after blaming Serbia for the assassination of the heir to the throne in
Austria, Franz Ferdinand. After Germany promised her the Black cheque (total support)
Austria declared war on Serbia. This brought in other Great powers such as Russia who
joined the war to assist her ally, Serbia.
Britain- She became selfish by not allowing other powers to build their own navy, she felt
that she was the only country who needed a navy more than other countries since she
was an Island. If she could have allowed other powers to build their navy, conflict
between her and Germany could have been avoided. One of the reasons she joined the
war in 1914 was because she saw Germany as an enemy due to the naval rivalry which
caused tension between the two powers.
Russia- She provoked other powers such as Germany by being the first to mobilize her
army. Russia mobilized to assist Serbia in 1914 after Austria declared war on Serbia
blaming her for the assassination of Franz Ferdinand. Germany warned Russia to stop
mobilizing but she refused. The mobilization of Russia forced other Great powers like
Germany to join the war to assist her friend, Austria.
France- After she had lost Alsace-Lorraine to Germany during the Treaty of Frankfurt, she
became bitter and saw Germany as an enemy. The bitterness made France to seek
revenge in future. This made Germany to feel insecure and find ways of isolating France
in a future war between the two countries. Germany declared war on France in 1914
because she feared that France might attack her anytime to revenge for the loss of AlsaceLorraine. If France could have given up on the loss of Alsace-Lorraine, tension between
her and Germany could have been avoided.
8. Explain why Germany should be blamed for causing World War 1 in 1914. [12]
164
-Germany provoked Britain by building a powerful navy even though she was a landlocked
country. Britain needed the navy more than Germany because she was an Island. She needed the
navy to protect her at the sea and for her trade outside Europe. By 1914 Britain had 29
Dreadnoughts and Germany had 17, the naval rivalry caused tension between Germany and
Britain which made war possible in future.
-Germany also provoked France by interfering in her affairs with Morocco in 1905 when Kaiser
William II made a speech in Tangier, Morocco, supporting the independence of Morocco from
France. In 1911 Germany sent a gunboat, the Panther to the port of Agadir, Kaiser William II was
forced to remove the gunboat after Britain supported France against Germany to remove the
gunboat. This created tension between Germany and France, Germany and Britain.
-Germany promised Austria total support attack Serbia in 1914 after the Sarajevo incident when
Austria blamed Serbia for the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the throne in Austria.
If she could have not offered Austria support, Austria could not have attacked Serbia and war
might have been avoided in 1914.
-Germany came up with the system of alliances to isolate France after the Franco-Prussian war of
1870. Germany failed to isolate France as she was able to make friends with other powers who
saw Germany as an enemy. The alliance system divided the Great powers into two hostile armed
camps, the Triple Alliance made up of Germany, Italy and Austria, the Triple Entente made of
France, Britain and Russia. The Great powers joined the war to assist their friends in 1914 because
of the system of alliance which was introduced by Germany.
9. Explain how the conflict between Serbia and Austria contributed to World War One in 1914.
[12]
Bosnian crisis of 1908: The Bosnian crisis was the conflict that arose between Serbia and Austria.
After gaining independence from Turkey, Serbia wanted to create the Greater Serbian state that
would unite all the Slavs in the Balkans into the state of Yugoslavia .Austria was worried by
Serbia’s nationalism in the Balkans because there were 3 million Slavs in the Austrian empire.
Austria feared that these Slavs would leave her empire and join the state of Yugoslavia. Austria
had to find a way of blocking nationalism in the Balkans. Serbia wanted to take Bosnia and make
her part of the Greater Serbian state in the Balkans. Austria annexed Bosnia (made her part of the
Austrian empire). Serbia was against the Austrian action. Serbia appealed to Russia for help since
Russia was considered protector of the Slavs in the Balkans. A conference was called to resolve
the issue but Austria did not attend and Germany attended on behalf of Austria because of the
Dual alliance. During the conference Russia condemned Austria for taking Bosnia. Germany
supported Austria to annex Bosnia and told Russia to back off. Russia was not ready to face
Germany as she was militarily weak, Russia backed down. Austria had succeeded in blocking
Serbia to take Bosnia. The Bosnian crisis created tension between Serbia and Austria, Russia and
Austria, Russia and Germany.
The First Balkan wars of 1912: The Balkans were under Turkish rule. In 1912 the Balkan states
(Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Greece, Albania and Romania) formed the Balkan League. They
165
fought Turkey and defeated her. After chasing Turkey out of the Balkans the Balkan League shared
some Turkish territories among themselves in Europe. Serbia gained some land and grew big.
Austria feared that if Serbia grew big she would be influential and achieve her dream of
nationalism in the Balkans. Serbia wanted to make Albania part of the Greater Serbian State which
would give her access to the sea. Austria had to make sure that Serbia did not gain more land in
the Balkans as this would make her achieve nationalism. Austria supported the independence of
Albania. The Support of the independence of Albania by Austria caused tension between Serbia
and Austria as this blocked Serbia’s dream of nationalism in the Balkans.
The Second Balkan Wars of 1913: After defeating Turkey and chasing her out of Europe, the
Balkan League (Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Greece Albania and Romania) fought among each
other. Bulgaria felt cheated when they shared the land that they took from Turkey after the First
Balkan war in 1912. Bulgaria declared war on other members of the League. Bulgaria was
defeated, during the Treaty of Bucharest she lost all the land she gained after the First Balkan war
in 1912 to the members of the Balkan league. Serbia gained more land from Bulgaria and grew
bigger. Austria felt threatened as the growth of Serbia would make her achieve Nationalism in the
Balkans. Austria had to find an excuse/opportunity to crush or destroy Serbia once and for all. A
conference was called to resolve the matter. The opportunity came in 1914 after the assassination
of Austrian heir to the throne; Franz Ferdinand whereby Austria blamed Serbia for his death. This
created tension between Serbia and Austria and a possible war in future.
The Sarajevo Incident of 1914: Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria together
with his wife Sophie visited the city of Sarajevo in Bosnia. During their visit they were shot and
killed (assassinated) by a Bosnian, Gavrilo Princip, who was a student in Serbia and also a member
of the rebel group called The Black Hand Movement in Serbia. Austria blamed Serbia for the
assassination of Ferdinand and his wife. Serbia requested Austria to give her time to investigate
the matter to prove that she was not involved in the assassination. Austria rejected Serbia’s
request and sent a stiff ultimatum (set of demands) to Serbia. Serbia failed to accept all demands
because she would have surrendered her independence to Austria had he accepted all. Britain
tried to resolve the conflict between the two countries by calling for a conference but Austria
refused because she had found an opportunity/excuse to destroy Serbia because she knew that
Serbia would not agree to lose her independence. Austria declared war on Serbia after confirming
with Germany if she would assist her to fight Serbia. Germany offered Austria total support (Blank
Cheque) to fight Serbia. Russia mobilized to assist Serbia as the “Father of the Slavs” or the
Protector of the Slavs in Europe. Germany declared war on France first and then on Russia
because the two were members of the Triple Entente. The Sarajevo incident sparked war in
Europe; the war that was supposed to be between Austria and Serbia was joined by the Great
powers because of the alliance system. The Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria and Italy) fought
against the Triple Entente (France, Britain and Russia) in 1914. The tensions that the Great powers
had had before 1914 were now sparked into a war by this incident.
CHAPTER 2: THE PEACE TREATIES
166
1. Describe the views of the Big Three (Clemenceau George, Lloyd George and Woodrow
Wilson) on the Peace Settlement. [8]
Clemenceau George of France: His wanted Germany to be given a very harsh punishment that
would ensure that Germany never recovered to wage war on France again. He wanted Germany
to pay for the damages caused by the war on France since infrastructure was destroyed and many
French people died during the war. He wanted German military to be weakened by reducing it to
the smallest possible level so that Germany would never be able to attack France again in the
future. He wanted the German Empire to be reduced into a smaller state by taking away her
land/territories. He wanted the German economy to be weakened by taking away her industries.
Lloyd George of Britain: He wanted Germany to be given a moderate punishment. His view was
based on safeguarding British interests. He wanted the German economy to recover because he
feared that if the German economy became weak she would turn to communism. He wanted the
German economy to recover because Germany was a British trading partner, so that she would
be would be able to buy British goods. He feared that severe punishment on Germany would pave
way for French domination in Europe; he had to make sure that France did not become too
powerful. He feared that a harsh punishment would make Germany bitter and cause another war
in future.
Woodrow Wilson of USA: He wanted Germany to be dealt with justly/ fairly so that she did not
become bitter and cause another war in future. He wanted the peace making process to be based
on the ideas of justice and self-determination. He wanted the peace treaties to be based on his
14 points.
2. Outline any four territorial terms of the Versailles Treaty on Germany.
[8]
-Germany lost Alsace Lorraine to France.
-Eupen, Moresnet, and Malmedy were given to Belgium.
-Northern Schleswig was given to Denmark after a plebiscite.
-West Prussia and Posen were given to Poland.
3. Outline any four terms of the Treaty of St Germain signed with Austria in September 1919.
[8]
-The union (Anschluss) between and Germany was forbidden.
-Austria was separated from Hungary and Hungary became an independent state.
-Her army was reduced to 30 000 soldiers.
-She lost wealthy provinces of Bohemia and Moravia to Czechoslovakia.
4. Outline any four terms of the Treaty of Trianon signed with Hungary in March 1920.
[8]
-Hungary was separated from Austria and became an independent state.
167
-She lost Slovakia and Ruthenia to Czechoslovakia.
-She lost Slovenia to and Croatia to Yugoslavia.
-She gave Transylvania to Romania.
5. Outline any four terms of the Treaty of Neuilly signed with Bulgaria in November 1919.
[8]
-She lost Coastline to Greece, Yugoslavia and Romania; this deprived her access to the
Mediterranean Sea.
- Her army was reduced to 20 000 men.
-She had to pay reparations.
-Because of the small role she played in the war she was not punished harshly.
6. Explain the effects of the Non-Territorial Terms of the Versailles Treaty on Germany.
[12]
Disarmament clause: The Germans argued that 100 000 soldiers were not enough for a country
the size of Germany as it could not even maintain law and order during political unrests. They
feared that the reduction of their military would make them insecure and vulnerable to attacks
from other countries. The Disarmament clause also took the German pride as she was respected
for having a powerful military in Europe.
Reparations: The Germans objected that the amount of £6.600 million was very high and unaffordable; they argued that the amount would weaken their economy as they were still
recovering from the war.
Formation of the League of Nations: Germany was not allowed to join this international peace
keeping organization which was formed after the First World War. The Germans objected that
being left out of the League would make them look like social outcasts or war loving nation.
7. Explain why the Germans objected to the terms of the Versailles Treaty/ Explain why the
Versailles Treaty was unfair on Germany. [12]
-The Germans were not allowed to participate in the discussions of the terms of the Versailles
treaty. They were called to sign on the terms and were only allowed to criticize the terms in
writing. When they refused to sign they were threatened with another war by the Allied powers.
They felt that this treaty was a dictated peace settlement which was unjust and born out of the
spirit of revenge.
-Territorial Losses: The Germans objected that the territorial terms of the Versailles treaty would
turn the German Empire into a smaller state as most of her land was taken by the Allied Powers.
They also argued that the territorial terms were not consistent with President Woodrow Wilson’s
idea of self-determination as some of the Germans would be brought under foreign rule.
-Disarmament clause: The Germans argued that 100 000 soldiers were not enough for a country
the size of Germany as it could not even maintain law and order during political unrests. They
feared that the reduction of their military would make them insecure and vulnerable to attacks
from other countries. The Disarmament clause also took the German pride as she was respected
for having a powerful military in Europe.
168
-Reparations: The Germans objected that the amount of £6.600 million was very high and unaffordable. They argued that the amount would weaken their economy as they were still
recovering from the war.
8. Explain the effects of the Treaty of St Germain on Austria. [12]
Loss of territories- It reduced the Austrian Empire into a smaller state as she lost territories such
as Bosnia and Herzegovina to Serbia. She was also separated from Hungary which also reduced
her population.
Payment of reparations- She was charged to pay for the damages of the war in France and
Belgium. The reparations led to economic collapse because her economy was already affected by
war.
Reduction of the army- Her army was reduced to 30 000 soldiers. This made her to feel insecure
because the army was too small to protect her from attacks by other countries.
Loss of wealthy provinces- Austria lost wealthy industrial provinces of Bohemia and Moravia
which also had about ten million Austrians to the new state of Czechoslovakia. This weakened her
economy as these provinces were her source of wealth.
The Anschluss (union) between Austria and Germany was forbidden. This also weakened her
economy because she relied on Germany for economic support.
9. Explain any three problems created by the Peace Treaties. [12]
-They created too many states such as Yugoslavia, which contained unhappy minority
nationalities (people from different countries who do not have the same identity).
-These new states were not strong enough against powerful neighbors such as Germany and
Russia. That is why Hitler attacked the state of Czechoslovakia to create a living space for the
Germans in Eastern Europe.
- Turkey was treated very unfairly in order to satisfy the aims of France, Britain and Greece which
gave them access to the sea by occupying the coastline.
- Many of the terms of the treaties did not work and did not last, for example, the Treaty of Sevres
only lasted for three years and the reparation payments were changed on two occasions.
- The treaties left the defeated countries very bitter and determined to get revenge or overturn
the terms, for example, the Versailles Treaty left Germany bitter such that when Hitler assumed
power in 1933 he reversed the treaty and became aggressive which led to the Second World War.
CHAPTER 3: THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
1. Outline four aims of the League when it was formed in 1920. [8]
-To promote peace by encouraging countries to settle disputes through peaceful negotiations.
-To encourage cooperation between countries by working together for the good of mankind.
-To encourage nations to disarm/reduce their weapons in order to stop aggression.
169
-To improve living and working conditions for people around the world.
2. Outline the functions of the four Main Organs of the League of Nations.
[8]
-The Assembly-It was the central body of the League as it was the League’s parliament. It dealt
with all matters affecting peace and the general welfare of its members. It discussed the annual
budget of the League as well as making policies of the League.
-The Council- It was the most important body of the League as it acted as the Cabinet. It had four
permanent members who were Britain, France, Italy and Japan. It discussed issues that were
likely to provoke/cause war between countries.
-The Secretariat-It was the administrative body of the League. It was headed by the Secretary
General. It recorded the proceedings of the meetings of various organs and agencies of the
League. It also arranged meetings of different bodies in the Headquarters, Geneva.
-The Permanent Court of International Justice-It was established at The Hague, Holland in 1922.
It was made up of 11 judges who were increased to 15; the judges came from different member
states and were supposed to be appointed for a period of 9 years each. It interpreted treaties or
agreements between member states. It also advised the Council and the Assembly on legal
matters.
3. Outline the functions any four Minor Agencies of the League of Nations (Commissions and
Committees).
[8]
International Labour Organization (ILO)-It represented governments of member countries,
employers as well as workers. It met once a year to discuss labour issues. It also passed laws that
dealt with standardizing working hours, for example, it passed the law that workers should works
8 hours in day.
-The Mandates Commission-It was formed to look after ex-German and Turkish colonies that
were taken from them after the Peace Treaties. It supervised the colonial powers by demanding
reports on the progress of their mandates. It also allowed the colonized people a chance to appeal
to the commission on issues of abuse or exploitation by their colonizers.
-The Refugee Committee (Nansen Agency) - It was named after the famous Norwegian explorer,
Nansen who was in charge of a refugee agency during World War One. It looked after people
(prisoners of war) who had lost their homes by providing them with shelter, food and health
facilities. It also organized famine/drought relief in countries like Russia.
-The Minorities Committee-The committee looked after people/groups that were separated
from their mother countries during the territorial terms as they now lived in foreign countries. It
protected the rights of groups that lived in foreign countries, for example, there were 3 million
Germans that lived in Czechoslovakia after the territorial terms of the Versailles Treaty, and these
Germans had to be protected from abuse and racism by the Czechs.
4. Explain any three successes of the League of Nations in maintaining peace from 1920 to 1939.
[12]
-Aaland Islands: A dispute between Sweden and Finland over the Aaland Islands which nearly led
to war. The two countries claimed the Islands. The issue was referred to the League. In 1922 the
League solved the conflict whereby Aaland Islands were given to Finland. Both countries accepted
the League’s ruling and war was avoided.
170
-Upper Silesia 1920: This was an industrial region between Germany and Poland inhabited by
both Germans and Polish people. The two countries wanted to control this industrial area. A
plebiscite (vote) was held by the league for the Silesians to decide their future. Those in the
industrial areas voted to be on German side while the rural areas preferred Poland. This area was
shared between the two countries and they accepted the Leagues decision and war between the
two countries was avoided.
-Turkey and Iraq 1924: Turkey claimed the Province of Mosul, part of the British mandated
territory of Iraq, the League decided to solve the issue by giving this province to Iraq. Both
countries accepted the League’s decision and war was avoided.
5. Explain any three failures of the League of Nations in maintaining peace from 1920 to 1939.
[12]
-Vilna; 1919-1920: This was a conflict between Poland and Lithuania. Vilna was made the capital
of Lithuania after the First World War, but its population was largely the Polish. The Polish army
invaded Vilna in 1920 and Lithuania appealed to the League, the League ordered Poland to
withdraw from Vilna but Poland refused. Instead the Conference of Ambassadors supported
Poland to take over Vilna. France also supported Poland to do so because she saw Poland as a
future ally against Germany in a future war. This was one of the failures of the League in solving
disputes as the Conference of Ambassadors undermined the League’s decision and the League
failed to take action against Poland.
-The Corfu Incident of 1923: This was a conflict between Italy and Greece. Five Italian surveyors
who were working for the League in mapping the border between Greece and Albania were killed
on the Greek side of the border. Mussolini, the Italian leader blamed the Greeks and demanded
compensation for the murder of the Italians. When the Greeks refused to pay compensation,
Mussolini invaded and took the Greek Islands of Corfu by force. Greece appealed to the League
and the Council of the League condemned Italy’s aggressiveness and ordered Italy to withdraw
her forces from Corfu. Italy refused and Mussolini threatened to withdraw from the League. The
Conference of Ambassadors was under pressure to appease Italy because they feared that when
she withdrew from the League she would join Germany as her ally. The League put pressure on
Greece to accept Mussolini’s demands. Greece apologized and paid compensation directly to
Mussolini instead of the League. Italy then withdrew her forces from Corfu. The League had failed
to take action against a Great Power such as Italy for being aggressive.
- The Manchurian Crisis of 1931: This was a conflict between Japan and China. Japan’s economy
was affected by the Great Depression and she decided to invade or take over the Chinese province
of Manchuria because it was rich in raw materials. China appealed to the League and the League
condemned Japan and ordered her to withdraw her troops from Manchuria. Japan refused and
later changed the name of the province to Manchukuo. The League appointed a commission
under Lord Lytton (Lytton Report of 1932) which took a year to be released. The report suggested
that faults were on both sides, between Japan and China. The report suggested that Manchuria
should be governed by the League. Japan rejected the League’s decision and withdrew from the
171
League in March 1933. The League had failed to impose economic sanctions and military action
against Japan and its credibility was now damaged.
6. Explain why the League of Nations failed to maintain peace from 1920 to 1939/Explain any
three weaknesses of the League of Nations. [12]
Lack of Troops- The league had no army of its own and it depended on countries to release their
soldiers to deal with aggressors. Countries were reluctant/not willing to release their armies to
work for the League. This made the League to be ineffective or weak in dealing with aggressors
like Italy, Japan and Germany.
Absence of the USA- after the First World War, Woodrow Wilson, the American president who
came up with the idea of the formation of the League lost elections. America did not join the
League of Nations because they felt that World War 1 was a European affair which they should
not have joined or interfered with. America was the most powerful country at that time and had
she joined the League she could have boosted it financially and militarily. Absence of the USA
made the League weak and a failure.
Slow decisions- The League was supposed to act quickly and with determination when crisis took
place, however, in many cases the League took long to make decisions or act on matters that
arose. For example, the Lytton Report of 1932 which was to investigate the conflict between
Japan and China during the Manchurian crisis took a year to be released. This proved the League
to be a failure and weak organisation as it took long to solve the issue and could not take action
against Great Powers such as Japan.
CHAPTER 4: THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC
1. Outline any four political problems faced by the Weimar Republic from 1919 to 1933.[8]
-The new republic was hated by the Germans because they associated it with the Versailles treaty.
The new government signed the terms of the Versailles treaty in 1919 which humiliated the
Germans. The Germans referred to the new government as “The November criminals” because it
172
was responsible for signing an armistice which meant that the Germans had lost the war. The
Germans did not support this new government as they hated it.
-The conservative Germans were used to a monarch system where they were ruled by a king.
They were not used to a democratic system where they were ruled by political parties. They did
not support and respect the new government. They wished the Keizer could come back and rule
them again.
-The parliamentary system had problems, the parliament adopted the system of proportional
representation where by different parties could work together and form a government. The
government kept on changing as parties always broke away and formed coalitions. This disturbed
the programmes of the government.
-The new government did not have experience on how to run a democratic state. The government
kept on changing laws which disturbed the constitution.
2. Outline any four economic problems faced by the Weimar Republic from 1919 to 1933.
[8]
 Bankruptcy- Germany had spent a lot of money during the war. The new government did
not have money to run the country; it could not take care of the German people.
 Occupation of the Ruhr industrial area- when Germany failed to pay reparations the
French and the Belgian troops invaded the Ruhr industrial area to pay themselves with
the goods produced in the factories. The workers stopped production. This affected the
German economy as production stopped in the factories.
 Hyperinflation- the German Mark lost its value, this led to inflation in the market and
goods became expensive for the Germans to buy which resulted into poverty and
starvation.
 Payment of reparations-the amount was very high and affected the German such that it
could not recover quickly. When Germany requested to suspend the payments until her
economy recovered, France refused. This led to economic collapse of Germany.
3. Outline Hitler’s aims when he assumed power in Germany from 1933 to 1939. [8]
To reverse the terms of the Versailles Treaty- the Versailles treaty had humiliated the Germans,
it had eroded the German pride by taking her territories and disarming her. Hitler wanted to
reverse the terms of the Versailles treaty in order to restore the German pride by rearming
Germany and reclaiming the lost territories.
To unite all the German speaking people into a Greater Germany- After the territorial terms of
the Versailles treaty many Germans lived under foreign rule. Hitler wanted to make Germany a
single, united homeland for all German speaking populations. This aim was based on the principle
of self-determination for the Germans
To create a Lebensraum (Living Space) for the Germans- Hitler claimed that the Germans were
overcrowded and they needed a living space. The living space was not only for settling the overcrowded Germans but it was also a source of food and raw materials for Germany.
To destroy communism in Europe- Hitler wanted to destroy communism because he saw it as
threat to Germany. He was anti- communist and blamed the defeat of Germany during World
173
War One on the German communists. He also believed that communists wanted to take over
Germany.
4. Explain how Gustav Stresemann improved the Weimar Republic from 1923 to 1929. [12]
-In 1924 he introduced a new currency, the Rentenmark which replaced the old worthless German
mark. This improved the German economy.
- He ordered the workers of the Ruhr to go back to work and negotiated with the French to leave
the Ruhr and agreed to start to pay reparations. This improved production of goods in Germany.
- He arranged loans from the USA under the Dawes Plan of 1924 and the Young Plan of 1929. This
helped Germany to pay reparations and to improve her economy.
In 1925 Germany signed the Locarno Treaties with Britain, France and Italy, this guaranteed
Germany’s frontiers with France and Belgium.
5. Explain why the Weimar Republic collapsed in 1933/Explain how the problems of the Weimar
Republic contributed to its collapse in 1933. [12]
-It had accepted the humiliating and unpopular Versailles treaty which took away the German
pride by reducing its military strength and being charged high amount of reparations. The
Germans hated this new government because they believed that it had “stabbed them on the
back” or betrayed them by accepting the terms of the Versailles treaty.
-There was lack of respect for a democratic government in Germany. The Germans were used to
be ruled by a king, they were not willing to be ruled by political parties. They did not support the
new government.
-The parliamentary system of proportional representation that was introduced in the new
constitution was to make sure that all political groups would have a fair representation. There
were so many different groups that no party could win an overall majority. Parties had to come
together and form coalitions where they formed a government. This created chaos in the
government as coalitions kept on breaking up and form new governments.
-The political parties had very little experience of how to operate a democratic parliamentary
system. The new government failed to make laws that could run a democratic state. This created
chaos in parliament.
6. How did the weaknesses of the Weimar Republic contribute to the rise of Adolf Hitler?[12]
 The new republic was hated by the Germans because they associated it with the Versailles
treaty. The new government signed the terms of the Versailles treaty in 1919 which
humiliated the Germans. The Germans referred to the new government as “The
November criminals” because it was responsible for signing an armistice which meant
174
that the Germans had lost the war. Hitler promised the Germans that if elected into
power he would reverse the terms of the Versailles treaty. The Germans supported Hitler
to rise to power in 1933.
 Bankruptcy- Germany had spent a lot of money during the war. The new government did
not have money to run the country; it could not take care of the German people. Hitler
promised the Germans that if he led Germany he would revive the German economy. The
Germans saw him as an alternative and supported him to rise to power in 1933.
 Payment of reparations-the amount was very high which was $6.6 million and affected
the German such that it could not recover quickly. When Germany requested to suspend
the payments until her economy recovered, France refused. This led to economic collapse
of Germany. Economic collapse led to hyperinflation, the German Mark lost its value
which led to inflation .Hitler promised the Germans that when elected into power he
would revive the German economy, this gave him support.
7. Explain why Hitler/Nazi party was able to rise to power in Germany in 1933. [12]
 Oratory skills- Hitler was a very good public speaker. He used his oratory skills to attract
many people to the Nazi party. The party was so popular that Hitler was appointed the
Chancellor in 1933.
 Nazi propaganda- Joseph Goebbels was put in charge of propaganda for the Nazi party.
He used every possible method to spread the Nazi message to the people. The party used
newspapers, posters and radio to spread its message; any people were attracted to the
party.
 Powerful supporters- The Nazi party was supported by business people with finance.
These were the people who did not want the Communists to rule Germany because they
feared that if elected into power, the Communists would take their businesses. The party
was able sustain itself and sell its ideas to the Germans.
 The Versailles treaty- This treaty was so harsh that it weakened the German economy and
its military power. The treaty had dented the German pride as Germany was no longer a
powerful state in Europe. Hitler promised the German people that if elected into power
he would reverse the terms of the treaty. This made the German people to support Hitler
and the Nazi party because they hated the treaty.
8. Explain how Hitler/Nazi party was able to control Germany/Consolidated power in Germany
from 1933 to 1939. [12]
 The Enabling Act- In March 1933 Hitler introduced an act which was the foundation of
his dictatorship. The act stated that Hitler could pass laws without the consent of the
parliament/Reich for the next 4 years.
175
 Banning of Trade Unions- On May 1933 the Nazis broke into trade union offices all over
the country and arrested thousands of trade union officials. The unions were merged into
a ‘German Labour Front”. Strikes and demonstrations were not allowed.
 The Night of the Long Knives/ The Purges- In June 1934 Hitler’s opponents were killed,
Hitler used the killings to tighten his control over Germany as he had removed possible
rivals to his position. Up to 200 people were killed, including politicians and police officers
of the S.A.
 The Gestapo/Secret Police- Their job was to search out opponents of the Nazi
government. They used informers to uncover any attempts to organize opposition. They
could arrest citizens on suspicion and send them to concentration camps without trial or
even explanation.
9. Explain any three features/characteristics of Hitler’s foreign policy/explain how Hitler related
with other countries. [12]
 Withdrawal from the Disarmament Conference and the League of Nations 1933- During
the Disarmament Conference countries were encouraged to reduce their weapons in
order to promote peace. Other powers like France refused to disarm giving an excuse that
she still feared to be attacked by Germany. Hitler saw this as being unfair because
Germany was the only great power disarmed by the Versailles treaty. Hitler withdrew
Germany from the Disarmament Conference as well as from the League of Nations. After
withdrawing from the conference and the League Hitler started to rearm Germany, no
action was taken for Germany because she was not under the obligation to obey rules
and orders from the League. This exposed the weakness of the League as it failed to take
action against Hitler when he breached the Versailles treaty.
 German Rearmament of 1933 and 1935- In 1933 Hitler started to rearm Germany, the
army was to be increased from 100 000 to 300 000 men, new Air Ministry was established
and its duty was to train pilots and build 1 000 aircrafts. Hitler needed a strong army to
achieve the aims of his foreign policy. In 1935 Hitler publicly announced the introduction
of conscription (recruitment of soldiers). The German army was increased from 300 000
to 550 000. Britain, France and Italy condemned the German public armament
programme but no action was taken against Germany when she breached the term of the
Versailles treaty. Other countries in Europe formed the Stresa Front to assist each other
if attacked by Germany, France and Russia signed the Franco-Soviet Pact to assist each
other if attacked by Germany.
 Ten year Non-Aggression Pact with Poland, 1934- Hitler signed a ten year non-aggression
pact with Poland in which he promised Poland that he would not be aggressive towards
Poland. The Pact benefitted Hitler because it meant that; Poland would be neutral when
Germany invaded Austria and Czechoslovakia, it gave Poland a sense of security that
Germany would not attack her in future.
 Anschluss/Reunion with Austria of 1938- In 1938 Hitler encouraged the Nazis in Austria
to stir up trouble for the Austrian government. Nazi demonstrations were calling for the
Anschluss/reunion with Germany, the Austrian chancellor appealed to Britain and France
for help but they refused. The chancellor called for a vote to see what the Austrian people
wanted, under the watchful eye of the Nazi troops 99.75% of the Austrians voted for the
176
Anschluss. Britain and France protested to the Anschluss but took no action; Hitler had
successfully breached the Treaty of Versailles.
CHAPTER 5: CAUSES OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR
1. Explain any three causes of the Second World War.
[12]
 The Versailles Treaty- it has been blamed for fuelling bitterness and anger on Germany
as the Germans felt that it was very harsh. The territorial terms reduced the German
Empire into a smaller state, high reparations led to economic decline and the
disarmament clause made the German military weak. When Hitler took power in 1933 he
started to reverse the terms of the Versailles treaty by reaming Germany, after
rearmament Hitler became aggressive by invading the territories that were taken from
Germany like the Polish Corridor which led to the Second World War.
 Failure of the League of Nations-The League failed to take action against some Great
powers who invaded others; for example, it failed to impose economic sanctions against
Italy when she invaded Abyssinia in 1935. The League also failed to take action against
Japan when she invaded China’s province Manchuria in 1931. The failures of the League
to deal with aggression encouraged leaders like Hitler take advantage and embark on an
aggressive foreign policy which led to the Second World War in 1939.
 The World Economic Crisis of 1929; The economic depression led to conflict between
countries as some wanted to improve their economies by invading others to improve
their economies, for example, in 1931 Japan invaded China’s province Manchuria because
it was rich in raw materials. Leaders like Hitler also embarked on an aggressive foreign
policy by invading countries like Czechoslovakia and Poland to improve Germany’s
economy. Britain and France had to declare war on Germany to stop Hitler’s aggression
and this led to the Second World War in 1939.
2. Explain any three political results of the Second World War.
[12]
-The Potsdam Proclamation of July 1945: This was the treaty that was signed by the Allied powers
with Germany and her allies. The treaty stated that Germany and her allies had to pay for the
reparations of the war. The Allies were to take the reparations from Germany in a form of goods.
177
-Division of Germany: Germany was divided into two states because USSR wanted to establish its
own kind of Germany and the Western powers (Britain and USA) also wanted to establish their
kind of Germany. West Germany became a capitalist state and East Germany became a
communist state.
-Formation of the United Nations Organization: The UN was formed in October 1945 after the
Second World War. The UN replaced the League because the League had failed to maintain peace
by failing to stop aggression that led to the Second World War.
-Cold War: After the Second World War rivalry developed between the USA (Capitalism) and USSR
(Communism) or the East versus West. The two emerged as the most powerful Superpowers after
the war. USA had the world’s largest navy, air force and controlled the atomic bomb; USSR had
the largest army in the world. Both countries were highly suspicious of each other and this created
tension that became known as “The Cold War”. It started in 1945-46 and lasted for over 40 years.
At first it was confined to Europe but during the 1950’s and 1960’s it spread worldwide, especially
into Asia. It was referred as Cold War because the two superpowers never fought each other but
had conflicting systems of government; they also spied on each other as they competed in
manufacturing weapons of mass destruction (The Nuclear Arms Race).
CHAPTER 6: THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATION
1. Outline the origins of the United Nations Organization.
[8]
-The Atlantic Charter of 1941 whereby the meeting was held in a ship and it was signed by the
British Prime minister, Churchill and the USA president, Roosevelt which laid down aims of a post
war period.
-The Atlantic Charter was confirmed by the signing of the United Nation Declaration in January
1942.
-The Moscow Declaration of 1943 held in Russia was signed by the Big Three being Stalin of Russia,
Roosevelt of USA and Churchill of Britain. They decided to set up an organization that would
maintain peace after the war.
-The Dumbarton Oaks Conference of August 1944 was held in USA to draw the structure of the
United Nations Organization.
-The Yalta Conference was held in Russia in early 1945, it was agreed that the Big four being
Britain, USA, USSR (Russia) and China would be permitted a veto in the Council. The Big four were
to make decisions on how to organize Europe after the war.
-The San Francisco conference of October 1945 was held in USA by fifty one nations where the
draft that was proposed by Russia, USA, China and Britain was finalized into the UN Charter.
2. Outline the functions of the four Main Organs of the United Nations Organization. [8]
 The General Assembly-it was composed of all members of the UN. Each member had one
vote. It meets annually in September but special sessions can be called by the Security
Council in times of emergency. It debates and makes proposals about international
problems concerning peace and cooperation.
178
 The Security Council- it was composed of five permanent members who are USA, China,
Britain, France and USSR (Russia) and also non-permanent members who are selected by
the Assembly for a two year term. It can recommend economic or military sanctions to
stop aggressors.
 The International Court of Justice- the headquarters are at the Hague in Holland. It has
15 judges elected from various nations by the General Assembly and the Security Council.
Members serve for three years. It deals with legal conflicts between member states
 The Secretariat, it is the administrative body of the UN. It is headed by the Secretary
General who is appointed for a period of five years by the General Assembly on the
recommendation of the Security Council. It is responsible for the administrative work like
preparing minutes, filing and translations.
 The Trusteeship Council, it replaced the League’s Mandates Commission. Its membership
comprised of the five permanent members of the Security Council and the states Trust
territories and others. Its main function was to see to it that all states looking after Trust
territories prepared them as soon as possible for independence.
 The Economic and Social Council, it originally had eighteen members who served for
three years, the number increased to fifty four countries. It coordinates the economic
and social work of the UN and its specialized agencies.

3. Outline the functions of any four Specialized Agencies of the United Nations Organization.
[8]
 The Human Rights Commission-it promotes the rights of people across the world. It
believes that every person should have basic human rights.
 International Labour Organization (ILO)-it promotes the rights of workers by
investigating the working conditions, wages, trade union rights and social rights of the
workers in all parts of the world.
 Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)- it encourages improvements in agricultural
production by giving technical advice on food production, fighting pests and animal
diseases. It also assists countries by sending food relief to the victims of natural disasters
such as drought.
 World Health Organization (WHO)- it advices countries on public health such as
sanitation. It also helps to prevent epidemics such as malaria, tuberculosis, small pox,
chicken pox, Ebola and measles.
4. Describe the Suez Crisis of 1956. [8]
-President Nasser of Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal, many of its shares were owned by the
British and French.
-Britain and France protested strongly to Nasser’s action and sent their troops to protect their
interests by invading Egypt, at the same time Israel also invaded Egypt from the from the East.
179
The aim of the three countries was to bring down Nasser. Nasser appealed to the Security Council
for help.
-The Security Council condemned Britain and France’s actions in Egypt, but the British and the
French vetoed the resolution.
-The General Assembly with the support of 64 countries condemned the invasion and called for
the withdrawal of the British, French and Israel troops from Egypt.
-Britain, France and Israel agreed to withdraw their troops provided the UN ensured a reasonable
settlement over the Canal and kept the Israelis and Arabs from fighting each other.
-UN force of 5000 troops from 10 different countries moved into Egypt to prevent the invasion,
the British, French and Israel troops withdrew from Egypt. The UN was successful in preventing
war between Britain, France, Israel and Egypt.
5. Explain any three successes of the United Nations Organization in peace keeping from 1945
to 1965. [12]
1. West New Guinea: 1946- In 1946 the UN helped to arrange independence of the Dutch East
Indies from Holland. After independence the territory was called Indonesia. Holland and
Indonesia claimed that West Irian (New Guinea) belonged to them. In 1961 war broke out
between the two and the UN appealed to both countries for negotiations. The UN intervened by
transferring the territory to Indonesia under the supervision of the UN force. In 1962 the territory
officially became part of Indonesia. The UN was successful in solving the conflict between the two
countries.
2. Palestine 1947; the dispute between the Jews and the Arabs was brought before the UN in
1947. After an investigation the UN decided to Palestine, setting up the Jews state of Israel. The
UN resolution was not accepted by majority of the Arab, and this decision was not able to prevent
a series of wars between Israel and the Arab states. The UN succeeded in arranging cease-fires
and providing supervisory forces and the UN Relief and Works Agencies cared for the Arab
refugees.
3. The Korean War: 1950-53; North Korea which was a communist state invaded South Korea in
June 1950; the Security Council immediately passed a resolution condemning North Korea. The
Security Council called on member states of the UN to send help to South Korea by releasing their
armies. This action was made possible by the absence of the Russian delegates who would have
vetoed the resolution, the Russian delegates returned after the resolution was taken and it was
too late to prevent the action to go ahead. Troops of sixteen countries were able to prevent the
invasion and preserved the frontier between the two countries. War between the two countries
was prevented.
4. The Suez Crisis: 1956; President Nasser of Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal, many of its shares
were owned by the British and French. Britain and France protested strongly to Nasser’s action
and sent their troops to protect their interests by invading Egypt, at the same time Israel also
invaded Egypt from the from the East. The aim of the three countries was to bring down Nasser.
Nasser appealed to the Security Council for help. The Security Council condemned Britain and
France’s actions in Egypt, but the British and the French vetoed the resolution. The General
Assembly with the support of 64 countries condemned the invasion and called for the withdrawal
180
of the British, French and Israel troops from Egypt. Britain, France and Israel agreed to withdraw
their troops provided the UN ensured a reasonable settlement over the Canal and kept the Israelis
and Arabs from fighting each other. UN force of 5000 troops from 10 different countries moved
into Egypt to prevent the invasion, and the British, French and Israel troops withdrew from Egypt.
The UN was successful in preventing war between Britain, France, Israel and Egypt.
6. Explain any three failures of the United Nations Organization in peace keeping from 1945 to
1994. [12]
1. The Hungarian Uprising of 1956; The Hungarians wanted independence from Russia but the
Russian troops entered Hungary to crush the revolt. The Hungarian government appealed to the
UN for help, the UN Security Council passed a resolution which ordered Russian troops to
withdraw from Hungary. Russia used the veto power to reject the UN resolution and the Russians
even refused to cooperate with the committee that was set up by the General Assembly to
investigate the matter. No progress was made and this showed that the UN was ineffective when
dealing with some of the permanent members of the Security Council like Russia.
2.The Czechoslovakia crisis of 1968; The Czechs wanted to be independent from the USSR block
(communist bloc) which was formed by Russia and other countries in Eastern Europe, the Czech
people set up a revolt. Russia and other Warsaw Pact members sent their troops to enforce
obedience to the USSR. The UN Security Council passed a motion condemning USSR actions on
the Czechs; the Russians vetoed the motion claiming that the Czech government had asked for
their intervention. Russia refused to cooperate which made it difficult for the UN to solve the
issue.
3. Afghanistan of 1979; when Russia invaded Afghanistan in 1979, the UN passed a motion
condemning Russia and demanded that Russia should withdraw its forces from Afghanistan.
Russia used the veto power to reject the UN resolution. The UN failed to take action against Russia
who is the permanent member of the Security Council.
4.The Somalian civil war of 1991- In 1991 the Somalian dictator Siad Barre was overthrown by
supporters of Farah Aidid and Ali Mohamed, this resulted in a civil war were the supports of Siad
Barre fought against those of Aidid and Mohamed. The Organization of African Unity asked for
help from the UN and 37 000 troops were sent to Somalia many of whom were Americans. The
troops were to keep law and order disarming the “war lords”, the war lords especially Aidid
refused to disarm which resulted in a war between the UN troops and the fighting groups. Many
UN troops died during this peace keeping mission and the Americans were forced to withdraw
their troops in March 1994, the remaining UN troops were in March 1995 leaving the war lords
fighting each other. The Somali civil war left the UN humiliated because it was defeated in Somalia
as tried to force the two groups to disarm.
7. Explain why the United Nations Organization had some successes in maintain peace from
1945 to 1990? [12]
1. Quick response- The UN had some successes because it responded quickly to issues, the UN
Security Council made sure that countries released their troops well in time to fight the aggressor.
For example, when Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990 which was rich in oil, the UN sent troops to drive
Iraq out of Kuwait. Iraq was defeated by UN peace keeping forces during the Gulf war and it
withdrew from Kuwait. The UN was also successful in fighting aggression during the Korean War
of 1950-53 and the Belgian Congo crisis of 1960-64.
181
2. USA as a member of the UN- America joined the UN as a permanent member after the Second
World War in 1945. Presence of the USA as member of the UN boosted it because was one the
powerful states economically and militarily. The USA helped the UN by releasing its troops when
military intervention was needed as it did during the Korean war of 1950-53, and also assisted
with finance to run the UN programmes.
3. Power of the Secretary General- the UN has been successful because it had increased the
power and prestige of the Secretary General. The Secretary General is able to recommend the
Security Council to take action to preserve peace.
4.UN Slogan of “Uniting for peace resolution”-This slogan has enabled the Security Council and
the General Assembly to work towards a common goal, for example, the two worked together to
impose military and economic sanctions on the aggressors.
182
CHAPTER 7- UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
1. Describe how the lives of women in the United States changed in the 1920s.
[8]
-After the war most women worked in the formal sector such as manufacturing industry, this
increased the number of women in upper and middle class especially in teaching and secretarial
work, by 1929 there were 10.5 million women working in the formal sector.
- Women were allowed to take part in politics; in 1920 all women were given the right to vote
during elections.
-Many women started to be involved in fashion, they stopped wearing corsets, Hemlines and hair
was cut short in bobs.
- Women joined the entertainment industry; they smoked and drank in public. They also took part
in strenuous sport and dances such as Charleston.
2. Explain how Roosevelt dealt with banks to avoid economic disaster.
[12]
-It forced banks to stay closed for four days. Those whose finances were completely hopeless
were ordered to close permanently.
-Other banks were promised the backing of government grants so that the public could regain
confidence in them.
-Roosevelt appealed to the people with money to take it to the banks; this helped the banks to
have money to operate.
-The Securities Act forced companies issuing new shares to provide full information about the
company to the public, the Directors of the companies that failed to do so would be prosecuted.
183
3. Outline the factors that led to President Hoover losing 1932 Presidential elections.
[8]
-He was blamed for not doing enough to deal with the depression.
-Many feared that the country was descending into violence and disliked Hover’s treatment of
the Bonus Army.
-In his campaign all that he could offer was to promise the people that the USA had “turned the
corner” back to prosperity.
-He did not regard the capitalist system as his responsibility, so he did not deserve the Americans
vote.
-During campaigns he received a hostile reception whereby people organized demonstrations by
carrying placards which read “Hang Hoover”.
4. Explain the successes of the Alphabet agencies in President Roosevelt New Deal.
[12]
-Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC): It was to provide conservation work for the unemployed
young men. Camps were organized by the US army and US Forestry Service, young men aged 1825 years were given six months to work in return for food, shelter and pocket money. The success
of this programme was that by 1941 2.5 million had taken part in this programme, also millions
of trees were planted, reservoirs, forest roads, fire look-outs and canals were built. However it
was also criticized because the payment was low and it was described as forced labour.
-Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA): It was to give money to the states to help the
unemployed and homeless people. The government gave each state one dollar for every three
state spent on the relief of poverty. Its success was that it gave help to people in desperate need;
$ 500 million was spent in on providing soup kitchens, clothing and setting up employment
schemes. However the government was criticized for not being keen on handouts and wanted to
concentrate on providing paid work.
-Civil Works Administration (CWA) of 1933-34: Unemployed people were found work and paid
wages for doing it. About 2 million people were given work in a year as schools, roads and airports
were built. Thousands of writers, actors and artists were employed on creative projects. The
programme was a success because millions of people earned a small wage which helped them to
purchase goods and this revived the economy. This programme was also criticized because a lot
of government money went into this scheme and many people were put to work on projects of
little value.
CHAPTER 8: THE SOVIET UNION
184
2. Explain why Stalin was able to rise to power in Russia in 1924.
[12]
-Trotsky was not popular with the Politburo and the old Bolsheviks because he had not joined the
party until 1917. He also failed to use his popularity in the army to help him win over Stalin.
-Trotsky and other contenders underestimated Stalin because he appeared dull and hard working.
-Stalin held the post of the General Secretary in the party, he appointed officials who supported
him and built up a power base in the party because he commanded the support of most officials
party officials who owed their positions to him.
-Stalin presented himself as Lenin’s close follower; he used propaganda to show how close he was
to Lenin and to criticize Trotsky.
-Stalin promoted “Socialism in One country” whereby he believed that the Soviet Union should
concentrate on establishing Communism at home. Trotsky on the other hand felt that
Communism would not survive unless it was spread to other countries, this did not appeal to
many Russians because they had experienced four years of war followed by three years of civil
war.
5. Describe the successes of the Five Year Plan in the Soviet Union.
[8]
 Output-Many of the Soviet industries improved; by 1940 the USSR was the world’s
second largest industrial power.
 New industrial centers-Huge towns and industrial centers like the Magnitogorsk metal
works were built deep in the USSR where they could be safe from invasion.
 Power and Transport-Vast construction projects were completed such as the Dneiper
Dam hydroelectric power station and the Belomor Canal.
 Urban population-Between 1929 and 1939 the population of cities in the USSR rose by
29 million.
 Skills- Between 1929 and 1937 investment in education and training schemes created a
skilled workforce in the USSR.
CHAPTER 9: CHINA
2. Explain why the Chinese leadership abandoned the Cultural Revolution.
[12]
185
-The Cultural Revolution was a socio-political movement in China from 1966 until 1976.
Launched by Mao Zedong, then Chairman of the Communist Party of China, its stated goal was to
preserve
'true' Communist
ideology in
the
country
by
purging
remnants
of capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society, and to re-impose Mao Zedong
ideas as the dominant ideology within the Party. The Revolution marked Mao's return to a
position of power after the failures of his Great Leap Forward. The movement paralyzed China
politically and negatively affected both the economy and society of the country to a highly
significant degree.
-The movement was launched in May 1966, after Mao alleged that bourgeois elements had
infiltrated the government and society at large, aiming to restore capitalism. To eliminate his rivals
within the Communist Party of China, Mao insisted that these "revisionists" be removed through
violent class struggle. China's youth responded to Mao's appeal by forming Red Guard groups
around the country. The movement spread into the military, urban workers, and the Communist
Party leadership itself. It resulted in widespread factional struggles in all walks of life. In the top
leadership, it led to a mass purge of senior officials, most notably Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping.
During the same period, Mao's personality cult grew to immense proportions.
-In the violent struggles that ensued across the country, millions of people were persecuted and
suffered
a
wide
range
of
abuses
including public
humiliation, arbitrary
imprisonment, torture, hard
labor,
sustained harassment, seizure
of
property and
sometimes execution. A large segment of the population was forcibly displaced, most notably the
transfer of urban youth to rural regions during the Down to the Countryside Movement. Historical
relics and artifacts were destroyed and cultural and religious sites were ransacked.
3. Describe the Cultural Revolution in China.
[8]
-Mao Tse-tung introduced this revolution as a campaign to get the people back on the right path
to communism. He used the army to assist him, soldiers were ordered to study Mao’s thoughts
contained in his “Little Red Book” and spread his ideas throughout China.
-In June 1966 schools and universities were closed down, students joined the groups of Red
Guards from the army; millions of students were brought to Peking for a series of mass rallies.
-The Red Guards and the students were used to spread communism and to get rid of enemies
Mao’s policies. Opponents were humiliated, tortured or executed including Liu who held a high
position in the Communist Party.
-Huge posters with names and crimes of teachers and party officials were published in the streets.
4. Explain why the relations between China and Soviet Union changed in the period 1956 to
1969. [12]
186
-China did not approve Khrushchev’s policies, especially his belief in “peaceful co-existence,” with
the USA and his claim that it was possible to achieve communism by methods other than violent
revolutions as this went against the idea of Lenin, leader of the Russian revolution of 1917. The
Chinese accused the Russians of revising or re-interpreting the teachings of Marx and Lenin to suit
their own needs. The Chinese became at Khrushchev’s “soft” policy towards the USA, as a result
of this mistrust the Russians reduced their aid to China.
-There were also a frontier disputes between the two countries, during the nineteenth century
Russia had taken over large areas of Chinese territory north of Vladivostok and in Sinkiang
province which the Chinese demanded them back but Russia refused to cooperate. This created
tension between the two countries.
-China also followed a “softer” policy towards the USA when it invited an American table tennis
team to visit China in 1971. At the end of the1970s it seemed that both Russia and China were
vying for American support against each other for the leadership of world communism; the
mistrust caused tension between the two countries.
7. Describe the Great Leap Forward introduced by Mao Tse-tung in China.
[8]
-Peasants would be fully employed if they were set work on large scale irrigation and flood control
projects, they could also develop small scale industries. The results would be more farm produce
which would be taxed to help build industry.
-In the cities industries which required a lot of workers but little money would be set up to solve
unemployment problem. New higher targets for industry were set up, industrial output was set
to double and agricultural output to increase by 35%.
-Collective farms were joined into 24 000 communes with an average of 30 000 people, people in
the communes were divided into brigades. Communes were used to construct large projects such
as irrigation, clinics and shops. They could run their own schools and local industries.
-Communes were encouraged to mine coal and iron to set up their own blast furnaces, millions
of people began to operate “backyard” blast furnaces.
10. Explain the relations between China and the United States of America between 1949
and 1979.
[12]
187
-After the civil war in 1949 a communist government was established in China, the Communists
set up the People’s Republic of China. USSR and China encouraged the communist ruler of North
Korea, Kim II Sung to attack South Korea, they provided military equipment. In 1950 North Korea
attacked South Korea and the Korean War began. The USA was frightened of the spread of
communism in the Far East. The UN intervened by requesting member states to release their
armies, the USA provided a large portion of its military force. After the war the relations between
China and the USA became sour because the USA felt that China wanted to spread communism
in the Far East.
-Also the relation continued to be hostile when the USA supported Chiang Kai-shek and the
nationalists during a civil war in Taiwan while China backed Ho Chi Minh.
- In 1971 the Chinese invited an American table tennis team to visit China, the visit was successful
and the USA responded by calling off their veto of rejecting China’s membership to the United
Nations. Communist China was accepted as a member of the UN in October 1971, the relations
were now friendly.
- The relations improved further in 1978 when President Carter of the USA decided to withdraw
recognition of the Nationalist China who were his ally and the opponents of the Communist Party.
CHAPTER 10: PAN AFRICANISM
1. Describe the origins of Pan Africanism.
[8]
188
-Pan Africanism can be traced back as far as the beginning of the period of the trans-Atlantic slave
trade when Africans especially those in the east and West Africa resisted the trade I slaves.
-Upon arrival slaves were sold like beasts and separated from relatives. Treatment based on racial
slavery was harsh with lynching (killing) of slaves that resisted.
-In Africa, unfair colonial laws, oppression and exploitation as well as loss of land created the basis
for the origins of pan Africanism.
-The negative image associated with Africa by the whites later came to be challeneged by the
emerging educated blacks. Africa was described as primitive and technologically a backward dark
continent. Black Americans were angered by this and cited Africa as the cradle of mankind and
even cited the civilizations of Mesopotamia (Iran) and Egypt which include the development of
the irrigation system, surgery, writing, etc.
2. Explain how Pan Africanism was understood in the Diaspora/outside Africa (The
Caribbean and America).
[12]
-Some exploited Americans understood it as meaning the “physical return to Africa”, they formed
the Back to Africa Movement. They felt that the return would lead to the development of Africa
as a result of the technological experience and knowledge of ex-slaves from America. Sierra Leone
and Liberia were created to settle ex-slaves who returned to Africa.
-It was understood as meaning the liberation and improvement of Black Americans as more
important than the physical return. They understood it as meaning the “spiritual return” by
identifying themselves with Africa and promoting African culture outside Africa. Blacks in America
had to demand equal rights and treated just like the whites.
-It was understood as meaning “Double consciousness” whereby they had to practice both
cultures instead of rejecting American culture. This would promote positive aspect of the African
and American culture, this concept was the idea of William Dubois.
3. Explain how Pan Africanism was understood in Africa.
[12]
-Africans understood it to mean the total independence of all African states that were under
colonial rule.
189
-They understood it as cooperation by independent African states to help fellow Africans under
colonial rule to gain independence, they therefore formed the Organization of African Unity (now
African Union) whose main aim was to liberate Africa from colonial rule and bring independence
to all African states.
-Africans who were conservatives understood it as meaning cooperation with the colonial
government as a way of gradually preparing Africans to eventual self rule. This would be achieved
through the inclusion of Africans in the running of government and through the improvement of
Africans through Western education.
-The radicals in Africa understood it as forming liberation movements which rejected any form of
cooperation with the colonial masters and resorted to violent means to overthrow colonial rule,
this was the case with South Africa through the ANC and PAC, in Mozambique through FRELIMO
and RENAMO, in Angola through MPLA and UNITA, in Zimbabwe through ZANU and ZAPU. These
liberation movements eventually brought independence to their countries.
4. Explain how Pan Africanism was applied in the Diaspora/outside Africa (The Caribbean
and America).
[12]
-It was used through the use of force and protests which forced the white masters to listen to the
demands of the blacks.
-It was applied through the formation of movements such as the Universal Negro Improvement
Association (UNIA) and the African Communities League which made Africans in the Diaspora to
be conscious of their African origin.
-It was applied through training of military personnel in an effort to fight the white masters like
in Cuba.
-UNIA ran a shipping line known as The Black Star Line which returned African slaves to Liberia
and Sierra Leone.
5. Explain how Pan Africanism was applied in Africa.
[12]
-It was applied through holding a number of conferences in Africa and outside such as the
Manchester Conference in 1945 which demanded an immediate end to colonial rule. The
190
conference even resorted to the use of force if peaceful means or diplomacy failed to achieve
their aims. They worked under the banner of United State of Africa.
-It was also applied through diplomacy or peaceful instead of confrontation to attain their
objective of gaining, for example, Advisory Councils were formed to engage colonialists on a
continuous basis and there were a stepping stone to independence. In Bechuanaland LEGCO
paved the way for independence.
-It was also applied through the formation of liberation movements such as the ANC and PAC in
South Africa, UNITA and MPLA in Angola, RENAMO and FRELIMO in Mozambique, SWAPO and
SWANU in Namibia, ZAPU and ZANU in Zimbabwe. All these movements brought independence
to their respective countries.
6. Explain the role played by Marcus Garvey in Pan Africanism.
[12]
-He was an Afro- Jamaican who was very radical Pan Africanist who wanted a global mobilization
of the blacks in their struggle for independence or self-determination.
-He preached the doctrine of “Africa for the Africans”. The slogan has been embraced by Africans
all over the World today.
-He formed the Back to Africa Movement which called for the physical return of Africans back to
Africa. He organized transportation of all Black Americans from Africa back to Africa and all the
Whites in Africa out of Africa back to Europe and America.
-He was successful because many slaves were transported back to Africa and were settled in
Liberia (the land of the liberated ones).
-He founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) and the African Communities
League which made Africans in the Diaspora to be conscious of their origins. UNIA was successful
because it ran a shipping line known as the Black Star line through which millions of Africans were
transported back to Africa in Liberia and Sierra Leone.
7. Explain the role played by Wiiliam Bubois in Pan Africanism.
[12]
191
-He was an Afro-American by birth. He has been honored as the father of pan Africanism because
he and others organized Pan African Congress which led to the African Congress in Manchester in
1945 whose aim was to come up with strategies to uplift the social, economic, cultural and
political lives of Africans.
-He was an African American middle scholar who was not a radical activist but a great believer in
the power of knowledge and reasoned argument.
-He emphasized the importance of scholarly research on African conditions both in America and
abroad and dissemination of such information.
-Unlike Marcus Garvey, he was opposed to the Back to Africa ideas but instead called for equality
and justice to Blacks regardless of where they lived. He therefore came up with the “Double
consciousness Philosophy” which claimed that Afro-Americans had to adopt positive aspects of
both the African-American cultures for them to compete effectively with White Americans.
8. Explain the role played by Kwame Nkurumah in Pan Africanism.
[12]
-He was born in Ghana which was a British colony. He was influence by the ideas of Marcus
Garvey.He was the Secretary General of the Pan- African movement while in London.
-In 1958, he invited 28 leaders of African countries struggling to gain independence to the AllAfrican Peoples congress which was held in Accra, his capital. Its aim was to promote
understanding amongst Africans; to promote unity which will lead to a United States of Africa and
accelerate the Liberian movement.
-He wanted all African countries to unite and gain independence. He felt that the independence
of Ghana alone was meaningless and therefore struggled for independence of all Africans
countries.
-He considered Pan- Africanism “to be a higher level of the ideological development than
nationalism. He therefore regarded the independence of Ghana on lieu of a united Africa to be
meaningless.
-He returned to Ghana in 1947 to lead the struggle for independence and in 1957 Ghana became
the first democratic country to gain independence in Africa led by Nkrumah. This influenced other
African countries which were ruled by France such as Ivory Coast, Guinea and Senegal to gain
independence by the end of 1960s.
9. Explain the role played by Solomon Tshekiso Plaatje in Pan Africanism.
[12]
192
-He was a Morolong born in the Orange Free State in South Africa. He was a journalist and writer
who published a number of books and novels and even wrote in newspapers to make the world
aware of the evils and injustices of the racist policies of the Whites in South Africa.
-In 1912 he joined active politics and became secretary of the ANC.He was very active in
contributing to Pan –Africanism because he dedicated his life to changing the lives of fellow South
Africans despite having no huge financial resources.
-Furthermore, it has to be noted that African History has always been written by Whites and wrote
it in a manner that favored them, but Sol Plaatje wrote his first novel Mhudi in which he talked
about the experiences of Bantu groups during Mfecane wars.
-He also wrote a book called Native Life in South Africa in which he drew attention of the World
to the injustices of the Land Act of 1912 and racism in general.
CHAPTER 11: COLD WAR
1. Outline the differences between Capitalism and Communism.
[8]
193
-Capitalism encourages free elections and more than one political party in a country while
Communism encourages one party state (dictorship).
-Capitalism encourages ownership of industries and factories by individuals as it encourages
private ownership of property while in Communism the state owns the means of production
(industries and agriculture), people are encouraged to work for common good.
-Capitalists employ workers to produce and keep all the profits made, it encourages a class society
of the rich and poor while Communism encourages a classless society with no individual profit
making.
-Capitalism encourages limits government on interfering in people’s lives while in Communism
the government control most of the people’s lives
2. Explain the causes of any two Cold War crises between 1949 and 1962.
[12]
1.Berlin Blockade: The Soviet Union blocked off land and rail entrance into West Berlin in
1948. This made it impossible for people from West Berlin to get to West Germany, or supplies
to get into West Berlin. The response by the United States and Great Britain was to begin
dropping in supplies. Stalin gave up by 1949, discovering he could not stop all cooperation
between the alliances. This was the closest there was to a hot war in Europe during the Cold
War. Germany stayed separated between the East and West, and the Berlin Wall was erected on
August 13, 1961. Fences had existed before it, but now this permanent structure stopped people
in the East from heading west.
2. The Cuban Missile crisis of 1962
-In 1961 secret Soviet missiles were put into Cuba by Soviet Leader Nikita Khrushchev and Castro,
but the plan was exposed when the ships were spotted. This made the United States
and President Kennedy really nervous since it was so close they could easily be hit. At the same
time though, they had their own weapons in Britain and Italy, and to a lesser extent Turkey.The
United States put a blockade on the water so no more weapons could enter and became ready
for war, while the whole world watched. An agreement was finally reached though and the
United States would not invade Cuba and take back their weapons from Turkey (although this was
secret) and the Soviet Union would remove their weapons from Cuba.
3. The Korean War
194
-In June of 1950 communist North Korea invaded South Korea. South Korea was not the epitome
of democracy, but the United States supported them to uphold containment and stop the spread
of communism and create capitalism there. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union supported the
North.North Korea actually got pretty far, making use of weapons and tanks from the Soviet Union
and some support from China (though not openly). They even took control of South Korea’s
capital, Seoul. But then a United Nations (UN) backed invasion by Douglas MacArthur pushed
back the North Koreans. They continued, pushing further than the UN had originally said, getting
all the way to the border with Red China. However, there were people ready in China to help
North Korea and together they repelled MacArthur’s forces back to the 38th parallel. Then there
was a stalemate. During the Korean War, the Chinese and the Soviets, unlike the Americans, had
the ability to use their early-warning radar. They were able to appear out of nowhere and
descend on the United States Air Force (USAF). The USAF did have the advantage of radar gun
sights on their side, however.Eventually; a cease fire was signed on July 27, 1953 though South
Korea never did sign it. The United States saw this conflict as proof of the need for NSC 68 and
that communism was spreading across the world.
7. Describe the main ideas of the Truman Doctrine.
[8]
-This was introduced in 1947 by the USA to stop the spread of communism around the world; this
became to be known as the “Domino Theory”.
-Truman believed that if one country fell to communism, those nearby would be also at risk.
-The USA adopted the policy of containment whereby it would be assisting countries that were in
danger of being taken over by communism with military and economic aid.
-Truman outlined this policy in a speech he made in March 1947; this became the basis of
American policy against communism for the next 40 years.
12. Explain how the United States of America attempted to contain Communism in Europe
195
from 1945 to 1949.
[12]
1. The Marshall Plan of 1947: The plan was announced by the American Secretary of State,
General George Marshall, it was to help war-torn countries in Europe to revive their economies
such as factories, agriculture and trade. The USA believed that communism grew in countries that
were in poverty, it would use its wealth to help Europe recover economically. This aid included
cash, machinery, food and technological assistance. By September sixteen Western European
states set up the Organization for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC) to put the plan in
action. By 1953 the USA had provided $17 billion to help these countries. The USSR withdrew
from the discussions because it did not trust the USA; the USSR also prevented countries in
Eastern Europe such as Czechoslovakia and Poland from becoming the members of this
organization. This policy further divided Europe between East and West.
2. U2 Incident/crisis of 1960: In 1950 the US Strategic Air Command used flights to spy over
the USSR without permission from President Truman, when he found out he banned the planes
because they violated the USSR air space. In 1956 the planes began to fly over the USSR again
with the agreement of President Eisenhower, this time they used the brand new spy plane called
the U2 which could fly so high it could not be shot by anti-aircraft missiles. It also carried
sophisticated listening devices and powerful cameras that could be used from a distance of 23
000 meters above. The U2 spy planes kept the Americans fully informed about the USSR weapons
technology. The USSR improved its missiles and in 1960 one of the new missiles shot down a U2
spying plane which was piloted by Gary Powers. Powers was able to parachute the plane safely
and was arrested by the Soviet soldiers. The USSR paraded Powers on television and accused the
USA of spying on USSR, the USA first denied being involved in the incident but later admitted.
President Eisenhower refused to apologize or to promise there would be no more flights. Gary
Powers was sentenced to ten years in a Soviet prison, but was released on exchange for a
captured Soviet spy (Rudolf Abel) in February in 1962. The incident caused tension between the
USA and the USSR.
3. The Truman Doctrine: This was introduced in 1947 by the USA to stop the spread of
communism around the world; this became to be known as the “Domino Theory”. Truman
believed that if one country fell to communism, those nearby would be also at risk. The USA
adopted the policy of containment whereby it would be assisting countries that were in danger
of being taken over by communism with military and economic aid. Truman outlined this policy
in a speech he made in March 1947; this became the basis of American policy against communism
for the next 40 years.
CHAPTER 12: MIDDLE EAST
196
2. Explain the results of the Arab-Israeli War of 1948 to 1949.
[12]
-After defeating the Arab states, Israelis took some of the territories of the Arabs. They took about
three-quarters of Palestine land plus the Egyptian port of Eiliat on the Red Sea.
-The Palatines were homeless after the war, some were in the new Jewish state of Israel and some
lived in Jordan.
-Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan.
-The USA, Britain and France guaranteed Israel’s borders, but the Arab states did not regard the
cease fire as permanent.
4. Explain the relations between Israel and Arab states since 1973.
[12]
1. War over Lebanon- The 1982 Lebanon war was the result of the unresolved dispute with Israel’s
invasion of Lebanon provoking the clash with the PLO and Syria. Many of Palestinian guerrillas
had grouped in Lebanon after being expelled from Jordan by King Hussein, and began attacking
Israel from there. For the first time in Israel’s history, a consensus for war did not exist and Israel’s
1985 withdrawal from Lebanon confirmed that.
2. First Intifada- In December 1987, Palestinian in the West Bank and Gaza launched an uprising
against the Israeli occupation (First Intifada) supported by Iraq during the Gulf War. Massive
demonstration, economic boycott protesting the military occupation of their land and demanding
national independence. The movement lasted till 1993 and it brought them the attention of
international community. Several measures initiated by the Security Council to ensure the safe
protection of Palestinians were not adopted because of the lack of consensus among the
permanent members.
3. Second Intifada- The second Palestinian uprising against Israel due to the Sharon’s visit to the
Temple Mount in September 2000. Like the First intifada, the Second intifada highlights the
Palestinian rejection of the Israeli occupation, in particular the continuation of the colonization.
If the two intifadas defend the same objective, the second differs from the first, on the one hand
by the use of firearms and by the suicide bombings against Israeli civilians. The Sharm el-Sheikh
Summit on 8 February 2005 between Abbas and Sharon officially stopped the uprising.
197
5. Describe the results of the Six Day war of 1967.
[8]
-Three years before the Six-Day war began, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).It was
established in 1964 during the first summit of the Arab League14. This conflict was fought
between June 5 and 10 in 1967 between Israel, Egypt, Jordan and Syria.
-In May 1967, Egyptian troops entered the Sinai region and decided a blockade of the Israeli port
of Eilat because it located in Egyptian territorial waters. Israel attacked Egypt and Syria where
Jordan joined in the fighting but the Egyptian, Syrian and Jordanian armies were strongly defeated
and lost several territories (West Bank in Jordan, Golan Heights in Syria, Gaza Strip and Sinai in
Egypt).
-This event exacerbated Israel’s deepening international isolation in a context of economic crisis
in Israel with unemployment and economic stagnation.
-On 22 November 1967, the Security Council unanimously adopted the resolution 24216: (i) the
withdrawal of Israel forces from territories occupied, ii) termination of all claims or states of
belligerency and respect of the sovereignty.
6. Explain how the politics of oil in the Middle East had made it difficult to solve the Arab-Israeli
Conflict since 1973.
[12]
-It is quite evident, and amply documented in the historical literature, that preoccupation with oil
has been paramount in shaping the attitude of the UK, and later the USA, towards the region.
for example, the key episode of Iraq’s independence, whose final granting was subordinated to
the interests of the Iraq Petroleum Company; or the overthrow of the Mussadiq government in
Iran, which was tied primarily, though not exclusively, to the nationalization of Anglo-Iranian Oil
Company.
-Similarly, the United States entered in very close alliances with Saudi Arabia which was, and
continues to be, problematic on most accounts, yet remains inescapable because of oil—and Iran.
The latter developed following the inclusion of American companies in the Iranian consortium,
which became possible after Mussadiq’s demise and the return of Muhammad Reza Shah, and
ended the monopoly of Anglo-Iranian on Iranian oil, forcing it to share its control with several
other, primarily American, companies. (Anglo-Iranian also changed its name into British
Petroleum.)
-The diplomacy of other countries was also shaped by oil, though at a lower level of intensity,
simply because they had far fewer assets. Thus France attempted to hold on to Algeria, and did
what was necessary to protect the interests of CFP (today’s Total) in the UAE, but otherwise tried
to distinguish itself from ‘the Anglo-Saxons’ by taking a line emphasizing ‘cooperation’ with the
oil-producing countries Other examples of this are France’s immediate acceptance of the Iraqi
nationalization in 1972; refusal to become member of the IEA when it was established, in Paris,
in 1974; promotion of diplomatic initiatives for a ‘new international economic order’ and later for
the International Energy Forum; finally, the active undermining of US sanctions against Iran, at
least until the end of the Chirac presidency, and the flirting with the Saddam Hussein regime for
oil concessions after the lifting of the UN oil embargo—a love story that was never consummated.
198
7. Describe the factors that led to the Yom Kippur War of 1973.
[8]
-Egypt and Syrian forces attacked Israel during the religious feast known as Yom Kippur, hoping
to catch Israel off guard.
-The Israelis were able to defend themselves against the Egyptians and Syrians because they used
American weapons.
-The Israelis were able to retain the territories that they captured in 1917 and even crossed the
Suez Canal into Egypt.
-The USA and USSR intervened to bring about a peace settlement between these countries; they
organized a cease fire which was accepted by both sides.
8. Explain the results of the Yom Kippur War of 1973.
[12]
-A peace settlement was sort between sides, Egyptian and Israeli leaders came together, though
not in the same room in Geneva.
-Israel agreed to withdraw their troops from the Suez Canal, enabling the Egyptians to clear and
open the canal in 1975.
-The Arab oil producing states tried to bring pressure on the USA and on the Western countries
which were friendly to Israel to reduce their oil supplies. This caused oil shortages especially in
Europe.
CHAPTER 13: SOUTH ASIA: INDIA, PAKISTAN AND BANGLADESH
199
1. Describe the Amritsar Massacre of 1919 in British India.
[8]
-This incident took place in Amritsar, the holy city of the Sikhs.
- People were gathered in protest for the arrest of two of their leaders by the British.
- The soldiers British soldiers blocked the only exit from the enclosed square with armored cars,
they shot at the crowd.
-Dyer the British military commander ordered the shooting, about 379 Indians were killed during
the incident and 1200 were injured.
2. Explain the factors which led to the partitioning of Pakistan in 1971.
[12]
-Pakistan was divided between two parts, East and West. After she had problems similar to those
of India whereby two groups were fighting each other, Urdu in the West fought against Bengali
on the East.
-The two groups were separated 1500 kilometers away from each other, to the East of India.
These people spoke different languages
-East Pakistan had more people and produced most of the county’s wealth, but the government
was controlled by leaders from West Pakistan.
3. Describe the events which led to the independence of Bangladesh in 1971.
[8]
-Modern Bangladesh emerged as an independent nation in 1971 after breaking away and
achieving independence from Pakistan in the Bangladesh Liberation War. The country's borders
coincide with the major portion of the ancient and historic region of Bengal in the eastern part of
the Indian subcontinent, where civilization dates back over four millennia, to the Chalcolithic. The
history of the region is closely intertwined with the history of Bengal and the history of India.
-The area's early history featured a succession of Indian empires, internal squabbling, and a tussle
between Hinduism and Buddhism for dominance. Islam became dominant gradually since the
13th century when Sunni missionaries such as Shah Jalal arrived. Later, Muslim rulers initiated the
preachings of Islam by building masjid (mosques) and madrassas. From the 13th century onward,
the region was controlled by the Bengal Sultanate. Afterwards, the region came under the
suzerainty of the Mughal Empire, as its wealthiest province. Bengal Subah generated 50% of the
empire's GDP and 12% of the world's GDP, with the capital city Dhaka having a population
exceeding a million people.
-Following the decline of the Mughal Empire in the early 1700s, Bengal became a semiindependent state under the Nawabs of Bengal, before it was conquered by the British East India
Company at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, directly contributing to the Industrial Revolution in
200
Britain and to deindustrialization and famines in Bengal. The Bengali city of Calcutta served as the
capital city of British India up until the early 20th century.
-The borders of modern Bangladesh were established with the partition of Bengal and India in
August 1947, when the region became East Pakistan as a part of the newly formed State of
Pakistan following the Radcliffe Line. However, it was separated from West Pakistan by 1,600 km
of Indian territory. Due to political exclusion, ethnic and linguistic discrimination, as well as
economic neglect by the politically dominant western-wing, popular agitation and civil
disobedience led to the war of independence in 1971. After independence, the new state endured
famine, natural disasters, and widespread poverty, as well as political turmoil and military coups.
The restoration of democracy in 1991 has been followed by relative calm and rapid economic
progress. Bangladesh is today a major manufacturer in the global textile industry.
CHAPTER 14: CUBA
1. Outline the factors that led to establishment of communist rule in Cuba since 1959.
[8]
201
-American companies controlled the economy of Cuba; they owned Cuban industries such
as sugar, tobacco, textiles and rum. The USA even controlled half of the Cuban land, 3/5
of Cuban railway, electrical production and the telephone system. This angered the
Cubans like Castro who wanted the Cuban economy to be in the hands of the local people
and it led to communism when Castro became the leader.
-The other factor that led Fidel Castro to power was that Cuba was too dependent on the export
of sugar and the wealth of the country was concentrated in the hands of a few. Unemployment
was very high, yet there was no employment benefit. Trade unions did nothing to help. The
poverty of the people who were unemployed was in a sharp contrast to the wealth in Havana and
in the hands of the corrupt government officials. As a result social
tensions were high. This led to the rise of Fidel Castro.
-In 1952, Fulgencio Batista who was one of the leading politicians since
1933, seized power in a military coup and began to rule as a dictator. He introduced
no reforms and according to the historian Hugh Thomas, he spent a lot of time
dealing with his private affairs and his foreign fortunes, leaving himself too little time
for the affairs of the state. His regime was very corrupt and brutal. This factor led
to Castro's rise to power.
-The other factor was that there was no prospect of a peaceful social revolution.
This led to a feeling that perhaps violent revolutions were necessary. The leading
exponent of this view was Fidel Castro, who specialized in defending the poor.
Castro began a campaign of guerrilla warfare and sabotage in the cities. The rebels
soon controlled the mountainous areas of the east and north and non-popular
support
there
by
carrying
through
Castro's
land
reform policy.
2. Describe the Social reforms introduced by Castro in Cuba since 1959.
[8]
-Attempts were made to improve education, housing, health and medical facilities and
communications, sanitation and hygiene. There were reduced costs of public utilities as
202
in water, electricity e.t.c.
-There was equality for black people and more rights for women. There was much greater
sense of equality and stability than ever before. The regime attacked the vice which was
deep rooted in the island, especially in Havana with its casinos and army of its prostitutes.
Any form of discrimination was abolished e.g. racism, ageism, sexism e.t.c. Castro even
banned the Roman Catholic and officially declared Cuba an atheist state.
-There were touring cinemas, theatres, concerts and art exhibitions giving information as
well as entertainment to the people. Castro was constantly touring the island making
speeches and urging people to greater efforts, learning about their problems and winning
support for his policies in education. All children were now receiving the same education
instead of fewer than half before 1959.
-The regime befriended the poor as illiteracy was wiped out by the 1970s. All graduates
of medical schools had to do two years of health care service in the rural areas. Private
schools were banned and the progressively socialist state assumed greater responsibility
for children. Today, Cuba pride itself in having created a top - class education system that
stressed the practical application of Maths, science and humanities. As a result, Cubans
are today among the best educated people on the planet. The country has a 100% literacy
rate and more than 60% of Cubans have junior degrees. So successful has the Cuban
state been at ensuring that its citizens have access to health care that there is a doctor
for every 170 people.
3. Describe the Economic reforms introduced by Castro in Cuba.
[8]
-After assuming power Castro's intention was to transform Cuba into a centralized state.
He therefore came up with a number of socialist models. Almost all USA property was
taken by government by the end of 1960. By 1968 all shops were nationalized. The
government also nationalized farms larger than 400 hectares.
-The new government also introduced changes to modernize sugar production to increase
output. Sugar mills were established country wide for the harvesting of sugar. Industries
were diversified and new crops were introduced to reduce Cuba's dependence on sugar
export.
-Unemployment and corruption were reduced which brought a greater sense of economic
stability than ever before. Higher wages were paid to the workers. The tourist industry
was also diversified to absorb the unemployed.
-Cuba was operating a mixed system of centralized planning and some free enterprise to
encourage the production of extra food. Most of the economy was controlled. The
collectivization of agriculture was promoted by the National Institute of Agrarian reform.
The Agrarian Reform was the path for the peasantry and the proletariats to own land and
203
share the wealth.
4. Describe the Cuban missile crisis of in 1952.
[8]
-Castro and Khrushchev, the Soviet leader, also agreed in secret to turn Cuba into a soviet nuclear
missile base. In 1962 an American U-2 spy - plane took amazingly detailed photographs of missile
sites in Cuba. Missile sites were built by the USSR. According to Khrushchev, the missiles were
genuinely meant to defend Cuba. Khrushchev also wanted to close the missile gap between the
USSR and the USA.
-The USA found an excuse to mount a blockade and threatened to attack Cuba if the missiles
were not removed. This led the USSR to negotiate to the embarrassment of Khrushchev. The
USSR agreed to remove the missiles and the USA agreed not to attack Cuba. After this, relations
between Cuba and the US remained cool while relations between Cuba and the Soviet Union
became closer.
-The result of the crisis led to the two leaders, Kennedy of the USA and Khrushchev of Russia,
install a telephone- Hotline- to connect the Kremlin {Moscow} and the White House {Washington}
to solve international problems quickly and to help reduce the risk of a nuclear war. The crisis
also led to the signing of a Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963. It did not stop the development of
weapons, but it limited tests and was an important step forward.
-The success of the USA also depended on Russia's cooperation which also demanded that the
USA remove her missiles from Turkey in what came to be known as the "Jupiter missiles". The
USA agreed to remove her missiles from Turkey.
5. Describe the Bay of Pigs incident of 1961.
[8]
204
-USA decided to support the Cuban exiles that had been forced to flee from Cuba in an
attempt to overthrow Castro. The USA intelligence group (CIA) formed a group of exiled
Cubans into a committee in Florida to take power from Castro. In 1961 the new American
president, Kennedy decided to support the exiles to invade Cuba.
-The exiles intended to establish a base in Cuba from where they would launch attacks.
They thought that the Cuban people would support them. In April 1961, 1 400 exiles who
were supported by US bombers landed at the Bay of Pigs. The invasion was a disaster as it
was poorly planned, they had to face 20 000 Cuban troops.
-There were no uprisings in Cuba to support the exiles. The Exiles were easily defeated;
some were killed while others were imprisoned. President of USA, Kennedy denied being
involved in the plan to overthrow Castro, the Bay of Pigs incident was a humiliation to
Kennedy as he had failed to overthrow Castro in Cuba.
-This incident strained relations between USA and Cuba, after this incident Castro declared
Cuba a Communist state. Castro then asked USSR to provide weapons to Cuba so that Cuba
would defend herself from USA attacks in future. USSR agreed to provide Cuba with
weapons; the USA feared the possible spread of communism in Latin America. USA
decided to isolate Cuba and warned the USSR not to put nuclear missiles in Cuba.
6. Outline the achievements of Castro’s Domestic policy in Cuba since 1959.
[8]
-The regime befriended the poor as illiteracy was wiped out by the 1970s. All graduates
of medical schools had to do two years of health care service in the rural areas. Private
schools were banned and the progressively socialist state assumed greater responsibility
for children. Today, Cuba pride itself in having created a top - class education system that
stressed the practical application of Maths, science and humanities. As a result, Cubans
are today among the best educated people on the planet. The country has a 100% literacy
rate and more than 60% of Cubans have junior degrees. So successful has the Cuban
state been at ensuring that its citizens have access to health care that there is a doctor
for every 170 people.
-After assuming power Castro's intention was to transform Cuba into a centralized state.
He therefore came up with a number of socialist models. Almost all USA property was
taken by government by the end of 1960. By 1968 all shops were nationalized. The
government also nationalized farms larger than 400 hectares.
-The new government also introduced changes to modernize sugar production to increase
output. Sugar mills were established country wide for the harvesting of sugar. Industries
were diversified and new crops were introduced to reduce Cuba's dependence on sugar
export.
-Unemployment and corruption were reduced which brought a greater sense of economic
stability than ever before. Higher wages were paid to the workers. The tourist industry
was also diversified to absorb the unemployed.
7. Explain the relationship between Cuba and the USSR from 1960 to 1990.
[12]
-When Castro came into power in 1959, relations between Cuba and the USA were not bad at
first but USA became suspicious when Castro started to nationalize. American owned estates,
factories and oil refineries. They suspected that he was a communist. As Cuba's relations with the
USA got worse, those with the Soviet Union improved. When the US ended diplomatic relations
205
with Cuba and boycotted the import of Cuban sugar with the hope of bringing Castro to his knees,
Castro produced a trump card by establishing diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union who
stepped in to buy Cuba's sugar and to supply necessities such as oil. He further nationalized all
American companies in Cuba. As a result of this, Cuba became a member of the COMECON in
1972. Castro's Cuba became steadily communist.
-After Castro gained power, the USA decided to support Cuban exiles, the wealthier Cubans who
had fled from Cuba when Castro came to power. An armed force of these exiles planned to invade
Cuba and overthrow Castro's government. With the help of the CIA (America's secret service), an
invasion force landed in Cuba in April 1961 at a place called 'The Bay of Pigs". The whole plot was
badly planned and carried out. Castro's forces easily defeated the invaders and most were killed
or captured, much to the embarrassment of President John F. Kennedy. The Soviet Union agreed
to provide Cuba with weapons so that it could defend itself against another American attack. This
invasion of Cuba by American sponsored dissidents made Castro to announce that he was a
Marxist and that Cuba was a socialist state. This drew Cuba closer to the USSR.
-Castro and Khrushchev, the Soviet leader, also agreed in secret to turn Cuba into a soviet nuclear
missile base. In 1962 an American U-2 spy - plane took amazingly detailed photographs of missile
sites in Cuba. Missile sites were built by the USSR. According to Khrushchev, the missiles were
genuinely meant to defend Cuba. Khrushchev also wanted to close the missile gap between the
USSR and the USA. The USA found an excuse to mount a blockade and threatened to attack Cuba
if the missiles were not removed. This led the USSR to negotiate to the embarrassment of
Khrushchev. The USSR agreed to remove the missiles and the USA agreed not to attack Cuba.
After this, relations between Cuba and the US remained cool while relations between Cuba and
the Soviet Union became closer.
8. Explain the relationship between Cuba and the USA from 1959 to 1970.
[12]
-When Castro came into power in 1959, relations between Cuba and the USA were not
bad at first but USA became suspicious when Castro started to nationalize American
owned estates, factories and oil refineries. They suspected that he was a communist. To
show that it disapproved of these actions, the US government cut down the amount of
sugar it was to import from Cuba. This had serious effects on the Cuban economy which
relied on the export of sugar to the US for most of its income. This forced Castro to start
trade negotiations with the Soviet Union {Russia} which promised to buy Cuban sugar
instead. This made the US even more alarmed. It was the height of the cold war and it
did not want a soviet ally so close to the American coast.
-Relations between the US and Cuba got worse when Castro nationalized the remaining
American owned sugar estates. The US cut all trade links with Cuba and broke off
diplomatic relations. The US decided to support Cuban exiles, the wealthier Cubans who
had fled from Cuba when Castro came to power. An armed force of these exiles planned
to invade Cuba and overthrow Castro's government. With the help of the CIA (America's
secret service), an invasion force landed in Cuba in April 1961 at a place called "The Bay
of Pigs". The whole plot was badly planned and carried out. Castro's forces easily
206
defeated the invaders and most were killed or captured, much to the embarrassment of
President John F. Kennedy.
-Growing out of fear of increased Soviet and Cuban influence in Latin America, President
John F. Kennedy's administration came up with the Alliance for Progress and announced
that Cuba and the Dominican Republic would soon join the society of free men. The
Progress was in essence a Marshall Plan for Latin America. Cuba never embraced it and
saw it as a tool with which the Americans wanted to pacify the region with capitalism. In
1962, President Kennedy and his Alliance for Progress expelled Cuba from the
Organisation of American states. Castro's response was to form in 1966 the Latin
American Solidarity Organisation, to promote guerrilla activities to undermine capitalism
and the influence of the USA. Cuba became a constant thorn in the flesh of the USA
despite the fact that it was 100 miles off the coast of Florida.
9. Explain the contribution of Cuba to Africa from 1959 to 1990.
[12]
-Fidel Castro has played an important role in liberating the African continent. It was the
Cuban soldiers who sent about 30 000 soldiers to fight in Angola and restore MPLA.
Savimbi’s UNITA was defeated. Castro also played a role in fighting apartheid in South
Africa. This helped South Africa to be a democracy under the rule of a black presidentNelson Mandela.
-It has provided assistance to Botswana in areas of education and sport. Cuba has also
contributed to the education of Namibians, South Africans and Zimbabweans during the
days of the liberation movements and aftermaths. This played a role in eradicating
illiteracy in such countries. Ghana, Algeria, Eritrea, Equatorial Guinea and many other
countries have benefited from the work of Cuban health brigades. This has helped to curb
the problem of shortage of doctors in these different countries.
-Cuba and Botswana have signed a protocol in Havana to expand cultural exchange
between the two countries. This has promoted cooperation in the fields of performing and
visual arts, film making and holding cultural events/festivals. This has also helped the two
countries to preserve their cultural heritage.
-Cuba has also contributed to the human resource in Somalia and support in areas such
as education, health, and technology transfer and sugar industry. The sugar industry
continues to blossom in parts not affected by the civil war. Cuba also helped to preserve
the sovereignty of the Somali people during the invasion of Somalia in 1977-78 by the
USA. It sends military help to Somalia. The USA left
10. Explain the relations between Cuba and Latin America from 1959 to 1990.
[12]
-Castro sent Cubans to fight with guerrilla groups all over Latin-American. In Nicaragua
Cuba developed close relations with the 1979 Sandinista government and supported the
Sandinista insurgency against Anastacio Somozas dictatorship. Castro further sent 5000
troops, medical technicians, teachers and agricultural experts to Nicaragua. The two
207
countries continue to have bilateral relations.
-Castro also assisted Bishop Maurice to overthrow the right- wing regime of Eric Gairy of
the tiny island of Grenada. He supported Bishops leftist New Jewel Movement that took
power in Grenada in 1979. After this he sent doctors, teachers and technicians to aid the
country's development. He also sent construction workers to assist the construction of a
new international airport. Castro also helped to create a modest police force and helped
to expand its military.
-Castro also supported Argentina's rightwing military Junta in the 1982 Falklands War
with Britain, offering military aid to the Argentineans. Britain and Argentina had fought
over the Islands in 1982. Argentina surrendered and the Islands remain under British rule.
11. How successful was the USA during the Cuban Missile crisis of 1952?
[12]
-Castro and Khrushchev, the Soviet leader, also agreed in secret to turn Cuba into a soviet nuclear
missile base. In 1962 an American U-2 spy - plane took amazingly detailed photographs of missile
sites in Cuba. Missile sites were built by the USSR. According to Khrushchev, the missiles were
genuinely meant to defend Cuba. Khrushchev also wanted to close the missile gap between the
USSR and the USA. The USA found an excuse to mount a blockade and threatened to attack Cuba
if the missiles were not removed. This led the USSR to negotiate to the embarrassment of
Khrushchev.
The USSR agreed to remove the missiles and the USA agreed not to attack Cuba. After this,
relations between Cuba and the US remained cool while relations between Cuba and the Soviet
Union became closer. The result of the crisis led to the two leaders, Kennedy of the USA and
Khrushchev of Russia, install a telephone- Hotline- to connect the Kremlin {Moscow} and the
White House {Washington} to solve international problems quickly and to help reduce the risk of
a nuclear war. The crisis also led to the signing of a Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963. It did not
stop the development of weapons, but it limited tests and was an important step forward.
-The success of the USA also depended on Russia's cooperation which also demanded that the
USA remove her missiles from Turkey in what came to be known as the "Jupiter missiles". The
USA agreed to remove her missiles from Turkey.
208
209
210