Learning Unit 1: The teacher as a reflective
practitioner
https://mymodules.dtls.unisa.ac.za/pluginfile.php/29676563/mod_icontent/intro/Teaching%20Philosph
y.mp4
https://mymodules.dtls.unisa.ac.za/pluginfile.php/29676563/mod_icontent/intro/undefined_2.mp4
https://mymodules.dtls.unisa.ac.za/pluginfile.php/29676563/mod_icontent/intro/The%20teacher%20as
%20a%20reflective%20practitioner.mp4
INTRODUCTION
Novice teachers often enter the profession believing that teaching merely requires transferring
knowledge by implementing the methods and techniques learned at the university. Teaching is a
challenging profession, and requires teachers to think and reflect. Good teachers recognise that
teaching is not simple; they know which trick to use and when, how to apply the tricks in the
context, and how to adapt the learning content to fit the profile of learners. Also, good teachers
realise that no teacher education programme, no matter how first rate it may be, can ever fully
prepare a student-teacher for the complexities of the teaching profession. Being a good teacher
requires lifelong learning; it implies that you need to take charge of your own personal and
professional development. With this is mind, this unit looks at the teacher as a reflective
practitioner.
We will first explore the challenges of the teaching profession. Thereafter, we will deal with the
idea of reflection and what it means to be a reflective practitioner. We will then examine the
dimension of reflective teaching, and finally discuss some tools that can assist with reflection.
OUTCOME AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
OUTCOME
Apply reflection in teaching as a profession, including attributes like pedagogy of care and
developing pedagogical content knowledge.
ASESSMENT CRITERIA
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Apply the knowledge bases that are combined in good teaching.
Explain what is meant by reflective teaching practices.
Formulate questions that are useful in reflecting on teaching action.
Use the code of ethics as per South African Council for Educators Act 31 of 2000.
Discuss the principles of pedagogical content knowledge.
Apply DATA process to reflect on your teaching experience.
Use the guided reflection protocol to inform your future teaching practice.
Use a reflective journal to aid your personal and professional development as a teacher.
TEACHING AS A CHALLENGING PROFESSION
After studying teaching for 30 years, Shulman (2004:504) described classroom teaching as
“perhaps the most complex, most challenging, and most demanding and frightening activity our
species has ever invented”. Shulman (2004:227) claims that, at a minimum, good teaching
combines the following knowledge bases:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Content knowledge.
General knowledge about teaching and learning process (pedagogical knowledge) and
strategies of classroom management and organization.
Curriculum knowledge.
Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), the understanding of how best to teach the content
so that it is meaningful for learners.
Knowledge of learners and their characteristics, including backgrounds, needs, existing
knowledge on the topic, misconceptions they may hold, and possible barriers to learning.
Knowledge of educational contexts, ranging from the workings of the group or classroom
and facilities available, to the sociocultural context of the school and the policies that impact
education.
Knowledge of educational ends, purposes and values.
All these bases of knowledge should come into play and intersect during the planning and
teaching processes.
ACTIVITY 1.1: SELF-ASSESSMENT (Discussion Forum)
After reading Schulman’s assertion, do you agree with the statement made by Shulman?
Motivate why you agree or disagree.
Post your views in the discussion forum. Comment on two answers/posts from your fellow
students.
REFLECTION AND REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
Reflective practice is seen as a process that can facilitate teaching, learning and understanding,
and that plays a central role in a teacher’s professional development. It involves identifying one’s
assumptions and feelings associated with the practice, theorising about how those assumptions
and feelings are functional or dysfunctional as associated with the practice and acting based on the
resulting theory of practice.
Teaching is a complex and challenging profession and requires teachers that think and reflect
(Gravet, Du Plessis and De Beer, 2018). The process of reflection in teaching can be used to
explore our own practices and underlying beliefs about teaching and learning. The primary benefit
of reflective practice for teachers is a deeper understanding of their own teaching style and,
ultimately, greater effectiveness as a teacher. The approach adopted by Ferraro (2000) has also
been widely acknowledged by many researchers as one that could promote teachers’ professional
development and improve the quality of teaching and learning. Jacobs, Vakalisa and Gawe (2011)
contend that reflective teaching offers teachers the opportunity to renew their practice and to
understand the effects of their teaching.
Click on the link below to watch a video about reflective practice.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iBmtH0Qx0YU
ACTIVITY 1.2: FORUM
Instructions: Click on the Forum for this activity
Post your answer/s
Then comment on two answers/posts from your fellow students
Activity for discussion on the discussion forum
Below is a story about a teacher who believes that she has failed in her role as a teacher.
Both Mrs Bagone Morake and Mrs Odirileo have been teaching for the past ten years. Read
their views regarding reflection.
1. Discuss the benefits of reflection for teachers and learners.
2. What can be done to empower teachers like Mrs Morake and Mrs Odirileo to enhance their
theory of reflective practices
3. What can be done to change teachers’ attitudes towards the use of reflection to improve
their teaching practice?
DIMENSIONS OF TEACHING AS A REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
Click on the link below to watch a video about reflective writing.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ExcEZVTTE0g
Reflective practice is a skill that needs to be learned. Jones and Jones (2013) posit that all
professionals need direct instruction and opportunities to practice the complex skill of reflection.
Literature offers many suggestions on how teachers can reflect on their practice to ensure that they
develop as professionals and cater for the diverse needs of their learners. The process of reflective
teaching supports the development and maintenance of professional expertise.
Some of these strategies/tools are discussed in the next section:
1.4.1 Record the lesson
Audio or video recording of lessons can provide a basis for reflection in many aspects of
teaching. While there are many useful insights to be gained from diaries and self-reports, they
cannot capture the moment-to-moment processes of teaching. Many things happen simultaneously
in a classroom, and some aspects of a lesson cannot be recalled. For example, it would be of little
value to attempt to recall the proportion of Yes-No Questions to WH-Questions that a teacher used
during a lesson or to estimate the degree to which the teacher’s time was shared among higher and lower-ability learners. Many significant classroom events may not have been observed by the
teacher, let alone remembered; hence, the need to supplement diaries or self -reports with
recordings of actual lessons.
1.4.2 Observing your colleagues
Observation involves looking and watching someone in action. It is important to observe your
colleagues’ good teaching practices in the classroom. Observations will assist you with self introspection and making possible alterations in your practices. Once you can observe and refer to
your own lives and experiences as valuable sources of knowledge, you can easily apply this
knowledge in your own classrooms (Connelly and Clandinin, 1990). Newly appointed teachers gain
knowledge and skills as they observe experienced teachers. Therefore, good practices of
experienced teachers add value to the effectiveness of teaching and learning by newly appointed
teachers.
1.4.3 Being observed by your colleagues
You can ask your colleagues to observe your teaching and give you feedback on your lessons.
This act will require maturity – and you should take criticism well and not take it personally.
1.4.4 Self-reports
Self-reporting involves completing an inventory or checklist in which you indicate the teaching
practices you used within a lesson or within a specified time and how often you used it.
ACTIVITY 1.3: FORUM
Instructions: Click on the Forum for this activity
Post your answer/s
Then comment on two answers/posts from your fellow students
Activity for discussion on the discussion forum
(1)
Which other ways can be used to promote reflection in the teaching and learning context?
(2) In the textbook, read the paragraph about ‘a reflective journal’. Use the guidelines and
design a page for your own reflective journal.
This will be very helpful when you start your teaching practice and will help you to ensure that
you address important aspects that you observe or experience.
The information in this unit is clear that a teacher can assist his or her learners only if he or she
becomes a lifelong learner. You will have to do active research in your classroom to provide your
learners with the best opportunities for learning.
ACTIVITY 1.4: SELF-ASSESSMENT
To make sure that you have reached all the outcomes and assessment criteria for this learning
unit, complete the self-assessment and reflection activities.
1. Why is reflection so important for a teacher?
2. What have you learned in Learning Unit 1?
3. In your own words, describe the following concepts:
a)
Pedagogical content knowledge
b)
Caring professional
c)
Personal application
ACTIVITY 1.5. FORUM
Instructions:
Click on the Forum for this activity (Activity 1.5.)
Answer the questions as referred to the scenario.
Post your answer/s on the forum.
Then comment on 2 of your fellow student’s posts/answers.
Please make sure that you use academic language in your comments.
1.
Use the concepts that you have described above, to formulate your own philosophy.
Question:
In your own words, explain what an educational theory is.
Post your teaching philosophy on the Discussion Forum on teachers’ teaching
philosophies and how these influence their teaching.
2. What did you learn from this discussion?
3. How did your teaching philosophy change or was it influenced by the discussion online?
You need to be knowledgeable about new developments in all areas that can positively
influence how you manage your class.
Read the following article about lifelong learning:
Teachers’ lifelong learning: Emerging dialogues from Gert Biesta’s philosophical views by A
Guilherme (28 April 2017) available at:
journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1478210317705741
Make notes of the aspects that you feel are most important for your own lifelong learning as a
teacher. The focus is on specific aspects of teaching that will support you in managing your
classroom effectively.
THEORIES AND PRACTICE
People sometimes accuse universities of making teacher education too theoretical. This
accusation implies a separation between theory and practice, or formal book knowledge versus
practical real-world knowledge based on experience. Programmes need to be structured in a way
that students learn theory at the university and then apply it during their school experience (practice
teaching). Furthermore, the idea of reflective practice challenges the separation of theory and
practice. Hence, experience alone does not lead to learning. Learning from experience requires
reflection. The complexity of teaching and learning requires teachers to constantly update their
theory and practice. This implies reflecting on practice while using formal knowledge as a lens to
examine and enrich teaching practice. If teachers do this, the theory becomes “lived practice” and
practice, “lived theory” (Thompson and Thompson, 2008:162).
PROFESSION VALUES AND ETHICS
One of the hallmarks of any profession, including the teaching profession, is the commitment of
its members to a code of ethics that sets out professional values and responsibilities. In registering
with the South African Council for Educators (SACE), a teacher commits to the SACE Code of
Professional Ethics. The SACE Act No.31 of 2000 mandates SACE to provide for the registration of
all educators. According to this Act, no person is permitted to practice as a teacher unless he/she is
registered with the council. This code of profession ethics sets out ideals of the profession.
ACTIVITY 1.6: SELF-ASSESSMENT
List five actions that you should not do to jeopardise the reputation of the teaching profession.
A TEACHING PHILOSOPHY
1.7.1
•
•
•
•
What is a teaching philosophy?
It is a purposeful and reflective essay about the author’s teaching beliefs and practices.
It is an individual narrative that includes not only one’s beliefs about the teaching and
learning process, but also concrete examples of how the individual enacts these beliefs in
the classroom.
It serves to guide the teacher.
It is a self-reflective statement of the teacher’s beliefs about teaching and learning.
1.7.2 A teaching philosophy should include the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Your ultimate goals and aims as a teacher.
A description of how you are going to teach to achieve your goals.
A rationale for choosing teaching as a profession and the teaching techniques you choose.
Your important and uncompromised values.
Your view of learners and teaching.
A vision of what you are doing.
It is useful to write your own teaching philosophy. This will help you to formulate how you see
teaching and adjust your philosophy as you gain experience or see what you still need to add to it.
CASE STUDY
Mr Modise has been a teacher for several years. Teaching was his first love and he is studying
towards a bachelor’s degree in education at a local university. As the years go by, his love for
teaching has diminished; he always complains about the learners’ unruly behaviour and lack of
discipline in the school. He rarely prepares for his classes as he is demotivated and is
contemplating leaving the profession.
Mr Modise says, “I am just here because I don’t know what else to do. Every time I get to class
there is something new. The government introduces many changes with which I cannot cope. There
are always people who want to know how far you are with the syllabus. I cannot take it anymore.”
We all started our teaching careers with ideas on how learners learn and how teaching should
be done. However, our belief system is challenged when we get into the classroom. Sometimes this
can cause frustrations because what we find at school is not what we anticipated, or it does not
match our belief system.
Read the article: What inspires South African student teachers for their future profession? You
can download it from the internet or access it on myUnisa.
ACTIVITY 1.7: SELF-ASSESSMENT
1. Reflect on this article. Why did you choose the teaching profession?
2. What does good teaching mean to you?
3. Teaching should not be seen as a set routine of mechanical actions. Use your teaching
philosophy to outline your views about how learners learn, your role as the teacher, and the
ultimate goal of education.
4. Teachers should be committed to the preparation of being caring, accountable and critical
reflective educational practitioners who can support and nurture learning and development
in diverse educational contexts. Reflect on each of the underlined attribute s. What does it
mean in the classroom?
PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE (PCK)
Figure 1 Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)
Knowledge about your subject should always be balanced with knowledge about teaching and
learning. These aspects should be addressed together, and both need to be developed and
updated to the benefit of learners. To develop your PCK, you need to reflect on your teaching style.
From the professional conduct for teachers discussed in previous paragraphs, a teacher is
expected to be a caring professional. In your role as a teacher, the way you think and react to
situations – as well as how you are influenced by social, political and cultural systems – require
careful consideration and understanding of the context.
TOOLS TO GUIDE REFLECTION
The DATA process and Guided Reflection Protocol are useful tools to guide reflection in your
endeavour to become a reflective practitioner. Read the article below and answer the questions of
activity 1.8 on the discussion forum for this unit.
Chang, B. (2019). Reflection in learning. Online Learning, 23(1):95-110.
doi:10.24059/olj.v23i1.1447 http://dx.doi.org/10.24059/olj.v23i1.1447
ACTIVITY 1.8: SELF-ASSESSMENT:
1. Use the DATA process to reflect on this case. What did you personally learn from this
case?
2. Why is it important for the teacher to reflect after the lesson?
3. Describe the aspects of reflection
CONCLUSION
Being a teacher is both gratifying and challenging. Teachers are often exhilarated when a lesson
has worked or when they have made a positive difference in a learner’s life. However, teachers,
particularly new teachers, also often lose heart amidst the messiness of teaching. Being and
staying reflective helps to keep the bigger picture in perspective when you are confronted with daily
challenges. Being a reflective practitioner also implies that you take charge of your own personal
and professional development as a teacher.
REFERENCES
Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (1990). Stories of experience and narrative
inquiry. Educational Researcher, 19(5):2-14.
Ferraro, J. (2000). Reflective practice and Professional Development. Retrieved from on 3
August 2004, from, http://www.ericfacility.net/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed449120.html
Gravet, S., De Beer de JJ & Du Plessis, E. (2018). Becoming a teacher. UNISA custom edition.
Jacobs, M., Vakalisa, N.C.G., & Gawe, N. (2011). Pearson Education South Africa.
Jones, J. & Jones, K. (2013) Teaching reflective practice: Implementation in the teacher education setting. The Teacher Educator, 48(1):73-85.
Shulman, L.S. 2004. The wisdom of practice: essays on teaching, learning and learning to
teach. San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass.
Thompson, S. & Thompson, N. 2008. The critically reflective practitioner. Hampshire: Palgrave
Macmillan.
BTE2601-25-Y: Lesson 1: Reflection Questions: The Seven Roles of Educators
Purpose of the Lesson:
The aim of lesson 1 was to familiarise student teachers with the Seven Roles of Educators as
described in the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications (MRTEQ) in South
Africa. It seeks to:
•
•
•
•
Develop an understanding of the diverse aspects of teaching and learning.
Emphasize the professional responsibilities that teachers have beyond simply delivering the
teaching content.
Promote reflection on how each role enhances the overall growth of learners and
communities.
Motivate student teachers to start imagining the kind of educators they want to become: those
who are capable, caring, aware of their context, and driven for change.
Reflection/ Discussion Questions
Which of the seven educator roles do you currently feel most connected to, and why?
(This helps you identify their initial strengths or interests.)
Which role challenges you the most, and how might you begin to develop yourself in that area during
your B.Ed. Journey?
(This invites a growth mindset and intentional professional development.)
How do you hope to use these seven roles in combination to respond to the real-life needs of learners
in South African classrooms?
(This integrates the roles and prompts context-based thinking and practical application.)
BTE2601-25-Y: Lesson 2: Reflection Questions: The Teacher as a Reflective Practitioner
Purpose of the Lecture: "The Teacher as a Reflective Practitioner"
The purpose of this lesson was to introduce B.Ed. Student teachers to the concept and importance of
reflective practice as a core component of professional teaching. It aims to deepen their
understanding of teaching as a complex, dynamic, and ethical practice that requires not only
knowledge and skills but also continuous self-reflection, critical thinking, and responsiveness to
learners' needs and contexts. By exploring key reflective models (Schön, Kolb, Gibbs, DATA) and
linking theory to practice, the lesson help student teachers to grow professionally, enhance their
Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), and become more empathetic, adaptive, and learnercentered educators.
Reflection Questions
1. Imagine your first day of teaching in a Grade 6 classroom. Write a short reflection-on-action based
on the following scenario: Halfway through your lesson, you notice that many learners are distracted.
What do you think might be causing it? How would you feel? What might you do differently next time?
Use Gibbs’ or Schön’s model to guide your reflection.
2. Reflect on your own learning experiences as a school learner. Think of a teacher who made a
strong impact—positively or negatively. What teaching approach did they use? How did it affect your
learning? What would you emulate or change in your own future classroom?
Share your reflection in a short group discussion
Learning Unit 2: The teacher as a caring
professional
https://mymodules.dtls.unisa.ac.za/pluginfile.php/29676564/mod_icontent/page/51950/Leaning%20un
it%202%20Creating%20a%20caring%20pedagogy%20of%20care%20in%20the%20classroom%20%
281%29%20%281%29.mp4
https://mymodules.dtls.unisa.ac.za/pluginfile.php/29676564/mod_icontent/page/51950/Learning%20u
nit%202%20critical%20education%20theory%20mp4.mp4
INTRODUCTION
The first part will cover educational theories as a basis of thinking about the foundations on which
educational institutions such as schools are built. In the second part, we will show how the
foundation of critical education links with the idea of care and a pedagogy of care in education. We
hope that the framework we describe will enable you to make use of the elements you encounter in
later units to shape and redesign your pedagogy as a caring teacher. Eric Jensen’s book Teaching
with Poverty in Mind (2009) is a good practical guide for any teacher in our country with diverse
learners. It gives teachers information of ‘What poverty is and how it affects learning in the
classroom’. Jensen shares practical strategies and examples on why and how the effe cts of poverty
have to be addressed in classroom teaching.
OUTCOME AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
OUTCOME
The teacher as a caring professional.
Assessment criteria
•
•
•
•
Explain how critical theory is useful for analysing education and educational systems in
South Africa.
List four features of Noddings’ theory of care and describe the implications of each in an
educational situation.
Formulate two ways in which a teacher can show care and two ways in which a learner can
show care in an educational situation.
Describe how integration of participation, affective teaching and problem posing in the
classroom can promote a critical and caring pedagogy.
CRITICAL EDUCATION THEORY IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT
Critical education theory is not one theory, but a set of assumptions and beliefs that informs your
actions. Your beliefs make you act in a particular way and do certain things. In the context of the
classroom, these beliefs about learners, authority or punishment all influence how you teach and
practice in the classroom. There are several ways in which a critical theory lens can sharpen the
practice of education in South Africa.
Critical education has always stood alongside movements in education, teachers who work to
bring about change in educational contexts, and communities that aim to improve equity and justice
in a democratic society.
Critical theory aims beyond a simple understanding of practices in a school context to the idea
of action towards changing practices. These changes must aim to transform the context in which
they are situated.
The key benefit of critical education theory is to alert us to the role of care, and to that of
transforming and changing unequal practices in schools. You may wonder whether a teacher can
bring about change or transformation in a practical, implementable way. How could a teacher
possibly begin to change and transform schools?
ACTIVITY 2.1: FORUM
Instructions:
Read the scenario below about “Critical education in a school in Pretoria”.
Click on this activity (Activity 2.1)
Answer the questions about the scenario.
Post your answer/s on this activity.
Then comment on two answers/posts from your fellow students.
Please make sure that you use the academic language in your comments.
SCENARIO
Critical education in a school in Pretoria
Tshwane Primary School is a co-educational school in the leafy suburbs in the east of Pretoria
with English as the language of teaching and learning (LoLT). The school caters for learners from a
range of socio-economic backgrounds. Koos is a Grade 3 learner at the school and his mother,
Marie, works as a domestic worker for the family in the area. Marie herself has never been to
school beyond Grade 3 and could be described as someone who is functionally literate. As a result,
she does not always understand what the school requires in terms of notices that Koos brings home
from his teacher and is often not able to help him with his homework, especially with English and
Mathematics. Marie often asks her employers or their son who attends high school to assist, but
this is not always possible as they often arrive home long after she has completed her work and left
for her own home, which is quite a distance away. As a result, Koos does not always complete his
homework assignments or bring his notices back to school, properly filled in and on time and is
often in trouble with his teacher.
Use the ‘lens’ of critical theory to respond to the example in the scenario above.
How could the teacher have addressed the problem and shown care in this situation?
NODDINGS’ THINKING ON CARE IN EDUCATION
According to Noddings, the nature of a caring relationship is characterised by two elements
(1998:218). The first element is engrossment, in which there is “non-selective attention to the
cared-for for the duration of the caring interval”. For example, when you work with a learner, the
learner must feel that s/he has all your attention and care for the entire time. So, care is really a
focus on and attention to someone’s needs for that time. As a teacher it means you dedicate your
time and care to the learner.
Noddings’ second element is displacement of motivation, in which the ‘motive energy of the one
caring flows in the direction of the other’s needs and projects’ (Noddings,1998:218 -219). This
means that you must be aware of the learner’s needs and respond to what the learner and you
have identified as the problem area in the learner’s learning and communication with others. This
implies that you focus professionally on the learner in need and care as objectively as possible.
CREATING PEDAGOGY OF CARE IN THE CLASSROOM
How do you apply the principle of caring in the classroom?
We will use three values from the work of Shor, a critical educational theorist, to illustrate in
practice how to apply a pedagogy of care in the classroom.
Shor (1992) describes the following three values in a learner-centred curriculum:
1. Participation establishes the foundations for an interactive pedagogy from the beginning of
the teacher’s relationship with the learners.
2. Feelings, which we call the affective component. The affective value recognises the
important link between the learners’ emotions and their thinking, or cognitive processes,
during learning.
3. Problem posing in the classroom
Problem solving focuses on power relations in the classroom, in learning institutions (Shor,
1992:31).
In combination, these three values set the basis for a caring pedagogy that challenges passive
educational practices and the boredom and inertia of learners in the educational process.
ACTIVITY 2.2: FORUM
Instructions:
Read the scenario below about “Implementing a caring pedagogy in the classroom”.
Click on the Forum for this this activity (Activity 2.2)
Answer the questions about the scenario.
Post your answer/s on the forum.
Then comment on two answers/posts from your fellow students.
Please make sure that you use the academic language in your comments.
Read the following scenario about “Implementing a caring pedagogy in the classroom”.
Follow the instructions above.
SCENARIO
Two teachers, Ms Amerika and Mr Lee, have been teaching at Phelindaba High School for a
long time. One day, they met in the staffroom and started talking about a new, young teacher, Ms
Kago, who has recently joined the school. Mr Lee told Ms Amerika: “I heard from the learners that
Ms Kago started her first class by telling them about herself and asking them to share something
about themselves with one another in the classroom. She also thanked the learners about their
responses when they answered questions in the classroom. I don’t understand why she did that.
What purpose did it serve? The learners are not our friends, and they should be grateful that we
teach them. Why should we thank them for participating in class?”
Ms Amerika piped in “The other day I walked past her classroom and saw that the learners were
working in small groups and discussing the content. What a waste of time! These learners must be
kept busy all the time with individual work so that they learn to concentrate. Group work is another
fancy method of the Department of Basic Education that doesn’t work. I also heard that she asked
for their views about the learning content when she started a section of work and she told them that
she also learned something new about the content from them when she taught them. My view is
that I am a subject expert and that means I have to impart the knowledge to them. How else are we
supposed to learn what we want them to learn? Why does she have to ask for their views a nd
question what we are teaching them? It’s hard enough getting them to learn the material I give
them. I do not understand why she has to do things so differently!”
ACTIVITY 2.2.1: FORUM
Instructions:
Click on the Forum for this activity (Activity 2.2.1)
Answer the questions about the scenario.
Post your answer/s on the forum.
Then comment on two answers/posts from your fellow students.
Please make sure that you use the academic language in your comments.
Question:
How does Ms Amerika implement the values of participation and problem solving in her
classroom?
ACTIVITY 2.2.2: FORUM
Instructions:
Click on the Forum for this activity (Activity 2.2.2)
Answer the questions as referred to the scenario.
Post your answer/s on the forum.
Then comment on two answers/posts from your fellow students.
Please make sure that you use the academic language in your comments.
Question:
How does Ms Amerika support affective learning in the class?
ACTIVITY 2.2.3: FORUM
Instructions:
Click on the Forum for this activity (Activity 2.2.3)
Answer the questions about the scenario.
Post your answer/s on the forum.
Then comment on two answers/posts from your fellow students.
Please make sure that you use the academic language in your comments.
Question:
Explain to Ms Amerika and Mr Lee how Ms Kago’s methods of teaching are linked to
establishing a caring pedagogy in the classroom.
Benefits of applying a caring pedagogy
•
•
It can help the teacher to step outside the usual and practised ways of knowing and
teaching and responding differently to learners.
As the cornerstone of educational practice, it forces you to consider the issue of social
justice in teaching the curriculum.
•
•
It can guide you to find your voice and a different way of engaging learners with learning
material.
It allows learners to define learning in terms of how it relates to their social, economic, and
physical lives.
CONCLUSION
In this learning unit we discussed a pedagogy of care in teaching and learning. We also
discussed the concept of critical theory to allow you to visualise the change from a knowledge of
facts and process to a knowledge that addresses the question of why knowledge matters in the
lives of your learners. Such knowledge can be described as conditional or reflective. We argued
that pedagogy of care is important for teachers who prepare learners for life and careers in today’s
society.
REFERENCES
Foos, C.L. 1998. The ‘different voice’ of service. Michigan Journal of Community Service
Learning ,5:14-21.
Gravett, S., de Beer, J.J. & du Plessis, E. 2018. Becoming a teacher: UNISA custom edition.
Gilligan, C. 1993. In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Jensen, E. (2009). Teaching with poverty in mind: What being poor does to kids’ brains
and what schools can do about it. Alexandria, VA: ASCD
Noddings, N. 1984. An ethic of caring and it’s implications for instructional arrangements .
American Journal of Education, 96 (2): 215-230.
Shor, I. 1992. Empowering education: critical teaching for social change. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Learning Unit 3: The teacher as educational
theorist
https://teams.microsoft.com/l/meetingrecap?driveId=b%21kNqTuXmP_0GNcL3vne6AjpxVwaUJ4VNma0PxTrDA5wKuKv50e7fTIpBo_SlhWJd&driveItemId=01CUFWLNHGZ4WLH7JSJ
VFYVR73YH5SYZUJ&sitePath=https%3A%2F%2Fmylifeunisaacmy.sharepoint.com%2F%3Av%3A%2Fg%2Fpersonal%2Fmncubdw_unisa_ac_za%2FEebPLLP9Mk1
Lisf7wfssZokB92gvalyY7Ng0X5PH_TGzRA&fileUrl=https%3A%2F%2Fmylifeunisaacmy.sharepoint.com%2Fpersonal%2Fmncubdw_unisa_ac_za%2FDocuments%2FBTE2601%2520Onli
ne%2520class%2520Unit%25202%252024%2520April%2FBTE2601%2520Online%2520Lesson%25
20Unit%25203%2520-%2520Part%25201-20250508_150050Meeting%2520Recording.mp4%3Fweb%3D1&iCalUid=040000008200e00074c5b7101a82e00800000
000ee3d77d549bfdb01000000000000000010000000e4b6131e690e644f890438e4c0f35fca&threadId
=19%3Ameeting_Y2MzNDk2ZTAtYTE0NS00Njk3LWI5YTYtYjUzMjE3MDljNDNh%40thread.v2&organ
izerId=22ecb738-c9f9-4c6a-aaf5-24d1430b325f&tenantId=ca9a8b8c-3ea3-4799-a43e5510398e7a3b&callId=45c10a35-aa85-42bb-872305d88ec0dd39&threadType=Meeting&meetingType=Scheduled&subType=RecapSharingLink_Recap
Core
INTRODUCTION
Looking back at the years when you were still a learner at school, watching your teachers teach,
can you remember that they used different methods. Some taught by standing in front of the class
and sharing information, while others asked you to work more independently and explore the
information yourself.
As a teacher, you will find yourself working with colleagues who teach in different ways in the
classroom.
This learning unit shows how teaching styles and methods are influenced by the framework the
teacher uses to understand how teaching and learning happen. These frameworks influence the
relationship between how the teacher teaches and how the learners learn and are called theories
of learning. Two theoretical frameworks for learning are discussed in this learning unit, namely
behaviourism and cognitivism. Behaviouristic approach is strongly influenced by the work of BF
Skinner. The cognitive revolution and child-centred teaching is influenced by the works of Jean
Piaget, Lev Vygotsky and Howard Gardner.
Theories of learning explain how knowledge, skills, values and attitudes develop in learners as
they grow older and pass through the schooling system.
Activity: In your own words, explain what a theory of learning is.
OUTCOME
After completing this learning unit, you will be able to explain theories of learning.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
• Evaluate the usefulness of theories of learning and give examples of how they have
influenced educational methods.
•
Explain what behaviourism is and the effect it has had on teaching and learning in schools.
•
Explain the three phases of the information processing model.
• Describe the first four criteria of mediated learning experience (MLE) and give examples of
how you would apply them in your teaching.
•
Compare the interactive nature of the constructivist approach to that of rote learning.
• Explain the principles in the Curriculum Assessment and Policy Statement (CAPS) that are
referred to in this learning unit and how the National Curriculum Statements (NCS) links to cognitive
learning theory.
TOWARDS THE UNDERSTANDING OF TEACHING AND LEARNING
Theories assist teachers to interpret factors that influence the classroom situation. In outlining
the theories about how children learn, this learning unit aims to provide you with theoretical tools to
teach a variety of learners to their full potential.
ACTIVITY 3.2.1:
Instructions:
Click on the Forum for this activity (Activity 3.2.1)
Answer the questions in reference to the scenario.
Post your answer/s on the forum.
Then comment on 2 posts/answers from your fellow students.
Please make sure that you use the academic language in your comments.
Question:
In your own words, explain what an educational theory is.
BEHAVIOURISM
Read the section on behaviourism in the textbook.
The first learning theory and approach to be introduced is behaviourism. This theory states that
all behaviour is learned. This means that any observed behaviour is caused by external factors.
Outward behaviour is the focus of learning while psychological or internal processes are not
considered important to learning.
Behaviourism is strongly influenced by the work of BF Skinner (1904); the behaviourists
explained behaviour as being learned. The focus was on external events as the causes of changes
in observable behaviour. Behaviourism has had a great influence on class room teaching; for
example, reinforcement has long been used in classrooms to modify the behaviour of learners.
To summarise how the theory of behaviourism is applied in the classroom by using the principle
of reinforcement, do the following activity:
ACTIVITIES:
ACTIVITY 3.3.1
Instructions:
Click on the Forum for this activity (Activity 3.3.1)
Post your answer/s on the forum.
Then comment on 2 posts/answers from your fellow students.
Please make sure that you use the academic language in your comments.
Question:
Explain positive reinforcement and provide an example of how this can be used in the
classroom situation.
ACTIVITY 3.3.2
Instructions:
Click on the Forum for this activity (Activity 3.3.2)
Post your answer/s on the forum.
Then comment on 2 posts/answers from your fellow students.
Please make sure that you use the academic language in your comments.
Question:
Explain negative reinforcement and provide an example of how this can be used in the
classroom situation.
ACTIVITY 3.3.3
Instructions:
Click on the Forum for this activity (Activity 3.3.3)
Post your answer/s on the forum.
Then comment on 2 posts/answers from your fellow students.
Please make sure that you use the academic language in your comments.
Question:
Explain extinction and provide an example of how this can be used in the classroom situation.
ACTIVITY 3.3.4
Instructions:
Click on the Forum for this activity (Activity 3.3.4)
Post your answer/s on the forum.
Then comment on 2 posts/answers from your fellow students.
Please make sure that you use the academic language in your comments.
Question:
Explain how the theorists Vygotsky (1978) and Skinner (1973) interpreted the principle of
reinforcement.
THE COGNITIVE REVOLUTION OF CHILD-CENTRED TEACHING
In chapter 3 of your prescribed textbook, you will read about the theories of learning that
contrast or oppose behaviourism.
Cognitive psychology influences the development of new learning theories. Child -centred
teaching focuses on a teacher providing a stimulating environment where learners can find
challenging experiences to learn from. Four theorists’ research has contributed to cognitive
psychology and our understanding of learning.
Read the information on Jean Piaget (1896-1980) and Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) in the
prescribed textbook
The brief outline in the textbook explains their two theories of learning that are still relevant for
teachers in South Africa today.
Follow these links to read more about the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky online:
https://www.funderstanding.com/educators/jean-piaget- cognitive-development- in-theclassroom/
http://www.oercommons.org/courses/the-learning-classroom-theory-into-practice/ view
ACTIVITY 2.4.1.
Instructions:
Read the following scenario about “Implementing a caring pedagogy in the classroom by
applying theories of learning”.
Click on the Forum for this activity (Activity 2.4.1.)
Answer the questions in reference to the scenario.
Post your answer/s on the forum.
Then comment on 2 posts/answers from your fellow students.
Please make sure that you use the academic language in your comments.
Read the following scenario about “Implementing a caring pedagogy in the classroom by
applying theories of learning”. Follow instructions for Activities 2.4.1
SCENARIO
(2)
Read the following scenario:
Mrs Mukhati is planning a lesson on wild animals for a group of learners in the phase that she
teaches. When she asks the Head of Department for help, she suggests that Mrs Mukhati should
use the theory of Vygotsky when planning the lesson to address the learners’ specific needs.
Mrs Mukhati analyses the theory of Vygotsky and designs the following plan:
She introduces the theme at the beginning of the week and makes several copies of animal
figure outlines and puts them on the wall. During the week, she introduces one animal at a time.
The learners say the name of the animal and then put it in the outline where it fits best.
Learners could name any animal and indicate on the board what shape looked the same as this
animal.
Question:
Identify the aspects of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories that Mrs Mukhati uses in this lesson.
PERSPECTIVES ON TEACHING AND LEARNING
Read the section in the prescribed textbook on perspectives on teaching and learning.
The key theories described in chapter 3 of the textbook lead to perspectives of how learners
process information.
Study the diagram on information processing in the textbook, which illustrates the highly
interactive processes and the sequence of stages of learning.
The important building blocks of information processing form during the input, processing and
output phases. Metacognition is a very important aspect of this process. Learners need to be aware
of how they think and learn to structure and take responsibility for their own learning.
Before you read any further, stop and think about where we started and where we are going with
the information in this learning unit and chapter 3 of the textbook.
First, we learnt about research done in classrooms. From the knowledge gained from these
studies, theories were developed, which led to approaches or ways of thinking about learning. But
how do these influence teaching in the classroom? The approaches or thinking of the cognitive
theorists focused our own thinking on the important role of the learner in learning.
The focus on the learner that makes and constructs knowledge, is known as a constructivist
perspective.
Do you see how the generalised theory has been described and reworked to become a
perspective (a lens or tool) that will support a teacher to promote active learning in the class?
The constructivist perspective of teaching places the learner in charge of learning and the
teacher in a facilitating or supporting role. The teacher does not transmit knowledge and it is the
learner who plans and directs their own learning.
ACTIVITY 3.5.1
In your own words, explain what an educational theory is. You can give your own definition of
educational theory on the Discussion Forum and read how your fellow students define this concept.
You must also comment on two paragraphs from your fellow students. You should not merely
say “yes” or “no”, but give constructive feedback.
CLASSROOM DISCOURSE AND KNOWLEDGE
Read about the following aspects in the textbook:
• Cognitive construction
• Organising your classroom according to the constructivist approach
• Contextualism
• Social constructivism
• Reflective practice
Write down an example of how each aspect can be realised in practice in a classroom in South
Africa. Have you come across any of these approaches in school or in this BEd course?
From the constructivist viewpoint, classroom discourse or the dialogue between teachers and
learners in the classroom should be interactive, with learners and teachers collaborating in learning.
The theories, ideas and concepts about learning described in chapter 3 of the textbook have had a
significant influence on curriculum policy and classroom practice in South Africa.
ACTIVITY 3.6.1
Discuss the roles of the teacher and give examples of how learning theories influenced South
African policy and practice.
Instruction:
Post your answer on the Discussion Forum and read how your fellow students define this
concept.
You must also comment on two paragraphs from your fellow students. You should not merely
say “yes” or “no”, but give constructive feedback.
LEARNING THEORY IN SOUTH AFRICAN CLASSROOMS
Curriculum policy
In the early 2000s in South Africa, the NCS, which is the official school curriculum, was based
on a system known as Outcome Based Education (OBE). CAPS is not a new curriculum, but an
amendment to the NCS. Therefore, CAPS aims to provide more comprehensiv e support and
detailed information on what content teachers should teach and assess on a grade -by-grade and
subject–by-subject basis.
This curriculum is underpinned by seven principles, three of which resonate with what we have
discussed in this learning unit. The principles are:
-
Active and critical learning.
-
High knowledge and high skills.
-
Progression.
These principles are directly linked to cognitive learning theory. There is an interest in
developing learner’s thinking skills, the teacher is seen as a facilitator of learning, and the emphasis
is on progression and integration of the content to be learned.
As a teacher, you should always remember that learners are human beings capable of
processing whatever information is presented to them.
–
The learner is an active role player in making meanings and constructing knowledge.
–
The focus is no longer on memorising information as learners can generate meanings and
understanding.
–
Contextualism.
–
Learners bring their external environment into the learning situation. Therefore, let them
use outside knowledge to deal with school information.
–
Multiple intelligences.
–
Consider them when planning each lesson.
–
How and how much learners can learn will be determined by their intelligence.
–
Social interaction is very important.
–
Organise groups within the class; this will ensure sharing of information and generating
new ideas.
Read in the textbook about the influence of each theory on teaching and learning.
The social context in South Africa requires a variety of approaches to teaching and learning to
make provision for learners of all cultures. The applicability of these theories has been researched
by scholars in South Africa.
The findings of the studies are important for South African teachers; Donald, Lazarus and
Lolwana (2007) criticised Piaget’s stage theory indicating that certain aspects, such as the
sequence and ages, should be treated with caution. They further alluded t hat Piaget develop his
theory in a social context that is very different from our South African society.
Jean Piaget’s theory has a number of implications for teaching:
·
It facilitates teacher’s understanding of the maturing of cognitive development.
·
The teacher is in a better position to know what to expect from learners and how to
structure learning tasks appropriate to their level.
·
The theory views learners as actively engaged in their own learning as they develop
cognitive concepts.
Vygotsky’s notion has a number of implications for education:
·
It emphasises working together with others in collaborative learning.
·
It attributes a significant role to the parent, teacher or other educator.
·
It shows how learners can learn and progress to new levels with guidance from others.
Howard Gardner’s theory stipulates that teachers need to plan lessons in ways that engage
learners with varied intelligences, or else some learners will not get a fair opportunity to do well at
school.
ACTIVITY 3.7.1
Question:
Describe, in your own words, the value of learning theories for your teaching practice in the
classroom. Indicate how the learning theories discussed can be linked to the practice of teaching
and learning in your class with specific reference to CAPS.
Instruction:
Post your answer on the Discussion Forum and read how your fellow students define this
concept.
You must also comment on two paragraphs from your fellow students. You should not merely
say “yes” or “no”, but give constructive feedback.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES
Use the following link to learn more about the topics discussed in learning unit
3: https://study.com/academy/lesson/constructivism-definition-types-contributors.htm.
REFERENCES
Donald, D., Lazarus, S., & Lolwana, P. 2007. Educational Psychology in Social Context. 3rd ed.
Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Gravett, S., De Beer, J.J & Du Plessis, E. 2020. Becoming a teacher: Unisa Custom Edition.
South Africa: Pearson.
Minick, N. 1987. Implications of Vygotsky’s theories for dynamic assessment. In: C.S. Lidz
(ed). Dynamic Assessment: An international approach to evaluating learning potential . New York:
Guilford Press.
Mwamwenda, T.S. 1994. Educational Psychology: An African Perspective. Durban:
Butterworths.
Skinner, B.F. 1973. Beyond Human Dignity. England: Pelican Books.
Learning Unit 4: The teacher as curriculum
interpreter, designer and implementer
https://mymodules.dtls.unisa.ac.za/pluginfile.php/29676566/mod_icontent/intro/learning-unit-4-tylerfreire-and-stenhouse_Clmyrlty.mp4
https://mymodules.dtls.unisa.ac.za/pluginfile.php/29676566/mod_icontent/intro/learning-unit-4-theteacher-as-curriculum-interpreter-designer-and-implementer_4keqPXeE.mp4
INTRODUCTION
To optimize the quality of teaching and learning in the classroom, the teacher needs to
understand the influence of different approaches on curriculum development, be able to interpret
curricula, choose appropriate teaching strategies, and consider policies prescribed by the
Department of Basic Education. Only then will the teacher be able to interpret the curriculum
effectively and be able to mediate learning optimally.
The views of Tyler, Stenhouse, and Freire are used to encourage a deeper understanding of the
teacher’s role as interpreter and implementer of the curriculum, and how this role can be influenced
by theories about curriculum design. We use their views to encourage a deeper understanding of
the teacher’s role as interpreter and implementer of the curriculum and how his/her role can be
influenced by social backgrounds, personal views and attitudes.
OUTCOME AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
OUTCOME
The teacher as a curriculum interpreter, designer and implementer.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
•
•
•
•
•
•
Describe what curriculum is.
Compare different approaches to curriculum studies, referring to Tyler, Stenhouse and
Freire.
Discuss how the thinking about the curriculum changed over time.
Interpret the curriculum and adapt it in practice.
Discuss the nature, characteristics and key issues of the school curriculum in South Africa.
Interpret policy documents that are important for the South African school curriculum, with
specific reference to National Curriculum Policy Statements (CAPS).
WHAT IS A CURRICULUM?
The debate around the interpretation of “curriculum” is long-standing. As far back as 1975,
Stenhouse observed that the educationist “is confronted by two different views of the curriculum.
On the one hand, the curriculum is seen as an intention, plan or prescription, an idea of what one
would like to happen in schools. On the other hand, it is seen as the existing state of affairs in
schools, what does in fact happen” (Stenhouse, 1975: 94).
When we ask what “curriculum” means, we receive different answers according to the views,
background, and experience of the respondent. At a general level, an explanation can be
understood in relation to what is included and/or excluded in the description. For example, Eisner
(1985) defines a curriculum as a series of planned events that are intended to have educational
consequences for one or more learners, whereas Fraser (1993) has a much wider interpretation of
curriculum as the inter-related totality of aims, learning content, evaluation procedures and
teaching-learning activities, opportunities and experiences that guide and implement didactic
activities in a planned and justified manner.
The older, narrower definition says that when studying a curriculum, we must look at the
curriculum plan (i.e. the document that sets out the intention of what, how and why something
should be taught). In this definition, a curriculum is a “course of study” or “study programme”,
whereas the broader definition is a more inclusive concept that comprises all the opportunities for
learning and is viewed in historical perspective in its socio-political context. Narrow definitions are
likely to foster a conception of curriculum change as a limited and largely technical exercise.
An example of a broad definition is that of the National Education Policy Initiative (RSA, 1993):
“Curriculum refers to the teaching and learning activities and experiences which are provided by
schools.” The definition includes
•
•
•
•
the aims and objectives of the education system and the specific goals of the school
the selection of content to be taught, how it is arranged into subjects and what skills and
processes are included
ways of teaching and learning, and relationships between teachers and learners
forms of assessment and evaluation used.
ACTIVITY 4.2.1:
Instructions:
Click on the Forum for this activity (Activity 4.2.1)
Answer the question below.
Post your answer/s on the forum.
Then comment on two answers/posts from your fellow students.
Please make sure that you use the academic language in your comments.
Question:
Define the following types of curricula
–
Core curriculum
–
Subject-based curriculum
–
Official curriculum
–
Covert/hidden curriculum
–
Activity/experience curriculum
–
Integrated curriculum teacher
–
Centred curriculum
–
Learner-centred curriculum
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS OF TYLER, STENHOUSE AND FREIRE
The debate around the interpretation of “curriculum” is long-standing. As far back as 1975,
Stenhouse observed that the educationist “is confronted by two different views of the curriculum.
On the one hand the curriculum is seen as an intention, plan or prescription, an idea of what one
would like to happen in schools. On the other hand it is seen as the existing state of affairs in
schools, what does in fact happen” (Stenhouse, 1975: 94).
The older, narrower definition says that when studying a curriculum, we must look at the
curriculum plan (i.e. the document that sets out the intention of what, how and why something
should be taught). In this definition, a curriculum is a “course of study” or “study programme”,
whereas the broader definition is a more inclusive concept that comprises all the opportunities for
learning and is viewed in historical perspective in its socio-political context. Narrow definitions are
likely to foster a conception of curriculum change as a limited and largely technical exercise.
An example of a broad definition is that of the National Education Policy Initiative (RSA, 1993):
“Curriculum refers to the teaching and learning activities and experiences which are provided by
schools.” The definition includes
•
•
•
•
the aims and objectives of the education system and the specific goals of the school
the selection of content to be taught, how it is arranged into subjects and what skills and
processes are included
ways of teaching and learning, and relationships between teachers and learners
forms of assessment and evaluation used.
ACTIVITY 4.3.1:
Instructions:
Click on the Forum for this activity (Activity 4.3.1)
Answer the questions in the table below.
Post your answer/s on the forum.
Then comment on two answers/post from your fellow students.
Please make sure that you use the academic language in your comments.
Question:
In essence, these theories answer the Why, What and How about approaches to teaching and
learning.
When you read the section on different curriculum definitions and approaches, summarise
the What, Why and How of a curriculum (criteria). Copy the table below to your workbook or
notebook.
In the textbook, read about the universal principles that were applied in the approach to the
development of the CAPS document.
Go to the CAPS document available on myUnisa and list the principles highlighted to compare
the Why, What and How of Tyler, Stenhouse and Freire.
Criteria for analysis of
curriculum
Why
Tyler
Stenhouse
Freire
Rationale or purpose
What
Knowledge, skills and values
How to include
Knowledge, skills and values
How to evaluate success
Assessment
THE SOUTH AFRICAN CURRICULUM
Read the history of the development of CAPS in the textbook.
Figure 4.2 provides a summary of the stages that the policies and documents went through.
Curriculum change is an ongoing process. Changes to the curriculum imply that teachers’
pedagogical knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge need to be improved. It is important to
understand that the changes to the South African curriculum have occurred over time.
NCS and CAPS
Read the information in chapter 4 (textbook) on the changes that came into effect after the
CAPS documents became the new curriculum policy. The information below explains CAPS:
•
•
The National Curriculum Statement Grades R–12 represents a policy statement for learning
and teaching in South African schools.
The National Curriculum Statement Grades R–12 comprises the following:
o CAPS (National Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement Grades R–12 in schools) for
each approved school subject as listed in the policy document National Senior Certificate: A
qualification at Level 4 on the National Qualifications Framework (NQF).
o The policy document, National policy pertaining to the programme and promotion
requirements of the National Curriculum Statement Grades R–12.
o National Protocol for Assessment Grades R–12.
•
The Subject Statements, LPGs and SAGs are repealed and replaced by the CAPS Grades
R–12 (January 2012).
A very important feature on both the old and the new curricula is that the method (the “how” of
teaching) is on outcomes-based education.
The focus here, however, is on the change in the content (the “what”) of teaching in the new
CAPS. The content is described in detail in the new curriculum document. Specific aims have
replaced the outcomes. The content is focused and appears in a single d ocument (CAPS), which is
used for each subject. You must know how the different outcomes-based approaches in the NCS
and CAPS influenced aspects such as curriculum, teaching and learning, assessment and
classroom management in the South African context. According to the Department of Basic
Education (Pinnock, 2011), the CAPS is not a new curriculum, but an amendment to the NCS.
Kindly refer to the NCS, CAPS as there is no reference to this. It therefore still follows the same
processes and procedures as the NCS Grades R–12 (Pinnock, 2011). The amendments were
made to address four main concerns about the NCS, as identified by a task team and reported to
the Minister of Education in October 2009 (Department of Basic Education, 2009). The four
concerns were as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Complaints about the implementation of the NCS
Teachers who were overburdened with administration
Different interpretations of the curriculum requirements
Underperformance of learners
FIGURE 4.5: Curriculum developments in South Africa
Source: Pinnock (2011)
Much of the debate about the CAPS centres around whether it is an amendment, a repackaging
or even a whole new curriculum. If it is accepted that the NCS has been repackaged, it is to make it
more accessible to teachers and to give details for every subject in each grade in terms of what
content teachers should teach and assess. These details include clearly delineated topics for each
subject and a recommended number and type of assessments per term (Pinnock, 2011). This
means that the CAPS is an adjustment regarding what to teach (curriculum) and not necessarily
how to teach (teaching methods).
TOWARDS IMPLEMENTATION OF THE CURRICULUM
In this section we are going to focus on the general components to consider when implementing
curriculum.
The core of a curriculum generally concerns the aims and content of learning. Changes to this
core usually presuppose changes to many other aspects of (the plan for) learning and teaching
(Van den Akker, 2003).
There are specific core components and questions to ask when we develop and implement a
curriculum.
ACTIVITY 4.6
Read the specific core components in your textbook and formulate the core questions to ask
when we develop and implement a curriculum. Write the core questions in the table below (Table
4.6):
Instruction:
Post your answer on the Discussion Forum and read how other students pose the core
questions.
You must also comment on two core questions from your fellow students. You should not merely
say “yes” or “no”, but give constructive feedback.
Table 4.6: Core components of curriculum implementation
Component
Rationale
Aims and objectives
Content
Learning Activities
Teacher role
Learning and Teaching
Support Material
Grouping
Location
Time
Assessment
Core question
Source: Thijs & Van den Akker (2009:12)
4.6.1
Planning curriculum
When planning a curriculum, keep in mind that the plan you construct will guide your classroom
practice.
In the textbook, read about the key planning elements that you must consider when planning a
curriculum.
Schools must ensure that they have access to the following documentation to inform the
teaching and learning environment:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
CAPS per subject
National Policy Pertaining to the Programme and Promotion Requirements of the NCS
Grades R–12 (Department of Basic Education, 2012a)
National Protocol for Assessment Grades R–12 (NPA) (Department of Basic Education,
2012b)
The Regulations Pertaining to the National Curriculum Statement Grades R –12
Policy on Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications (MRTEQ),
Government Gazette No. 34467, which replaces the Norms and Standards for Educators
(Department of Higher Education and Training, 2011)
Revised Policy on the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications,
Government Gazette No. 38487 (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2015)
Government Gazette No. 32836, Curriculum Review (Department of Education, 2009)
Government Gazette No. 30880, Foundations for Learning (Department of Education,
2008b)
White Paper 6: Learners with Special Needs (Department of Education, 2001a)
Government Gazette No. 29466, Inclusive Education (Department of Education, 2006b)
Guides for learners and for teachers
New textbooks
o Platinum Teacher’s Guide (All Subjects) Grade R–12
o Platinum Learner’s Guide (All Subjects) Grade R–12
o Spot on Teacher’s Guide (All Subjects) Grade R–12
o Spot on Learner’s Guide (All Subjects) Grade R–12
o Shuters Teacher’s Guide (All Subjects) Grade R–12
o Shuters Learner’s Guide (All Subjects) Grade R–12
Stages of planning for curriculum interpretation and implementation
With whole school development in mind and working towards the holistic development of the
learner, there are four key stages (Figure 4.6.1) of planning:
1. Strategic school planning
Before planning for the school year, the school management team and the professional staff
should identify the curricular strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) in the
school. From this SWOT analysis, it should be possible to see at a glance what the teacher should
focus on with learners in a particular phase. We have given a very simple example in Figure 4.6.1.
2. Phase planning
The implementation of the curriculum must be a phase-long process of planning, managing, and
organising classroom practice. This means that what is planned must guide and inform what is
done in the classroom – all teaching, learning, and assessment.
3. Planning per grade
The year’s work for each grade in a phase must also be planned. The work schedule for each
subject is based on the CAPS and develops in terms of the sequencing, context, and core
knowledge and concepts at each level.
Although in many instances work schedules are already included in the CAPS documents,
teachers responsible for implementing the curriculum in a particular grade will have to work with the
realities of school and learner context when planning for each term and year.
4. Lesson planning
Individual teachers have to plan lessons for each grade based on the topics in the curriculum,
and must ensure that they plan for the particular learners in their class(es); there must be learning
outcomes/aims for each lesson. An example is given in Figure 4.6.1.
Figure 4.6.1: The four stages of planning in relation to each other
ACTIVITY 4.6.1
You must design a two-week Life Orientation learning programme for Grade 7 learners. The
learners live in a rural area and do not have access to internet resources.
Use the applicable curriculum document and write a short description of what you would
consider and plan regarding the following aspects. Provide examples from the curriculum
document.
•
•
•
•
•
Key planning elements
•
Whole school planning
Phase planning
Stages of planning
Resources
Assessments
Click on the Forum for this activity (Activity 4.6.1)
Instructions:
Post your answer/s on the forum.
Then comment on two answers/posts from your fellow students.
Please make sure that you use the academic language in your comments.
CONCLUSION
The focal point of this learning unit is to understand the background to a curriculum and how to
plan, design and implement it in the classroom. We described the curriculum and composed the
different approaches to curriculum studies, focusing on Tyler, Stenhouse and Freire.
We discussed how curriculum changed over time and focused on the curriculum changes in
South Africa over the past decades.
We illustrated and explained the stages of planning a learning programme, from whole school
development and the detailed development of learning programmes, which includes phase planning
across grades, the development of work schedule for the grade under c onsideration of grade
specific aims and the assessment programme.
REFERENCES
Department of Basic Education. 2009. Report of the task team for the review of the
implementation of the National Curriculum Statement. Pretoria: Government Printer.
Department of Basic Education. 2010. Curriculum news: improving the quality of learning and
teaching. Pretoria: Government Printer.
Department of Basic Education. 2011a. National Curriculum Statement Grades R–12, 11
September. Available at: http://www.education.gov.za (accessed on 4 June 2012).
Department of Basic Education. 2011b. CAPS Stakeholder Workshop presentations. October.
Learning Unit 5: The teacher an assessor
INTRODUCTION
In this learning unit, we'll examine the significance of assessments for both teaching and
learning. We will first consider the purpose of assessment, and then explain some important
assessment concepts that you may use as a mediator of learning. Next, we will discuss important
principles for effective assessment, identify different approaches, and finally provide some ideas for
implementing assessment in practice. The manner in which you teach should, however, be in line
with the way you evaluate your students, and it is intrinsically tied to your individual teaching
philosophy, which you learned about in Learning Unit 1. In this learning unit, we work with the
assumption that you are teaching for deep meaningful learning (rather than superficial learning,
often associated with mere memorisation), referred to as learning-centred approach. We also work
with the assumption that in the classroom, a teacher’s approach to teaching and learning has a
profound impact on how learners will learn. It is important to note that the way you teach should be
similar with how you assess your learners and is linked inseparably with your personal teaching
philosophy. This idea will be covered again later in this learning unit.
OUTCOME
At the end of this learning unit you will be able to examine the significance of assessments for
both teaching and learning.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
·
Define what assessment is and what the purpose of assessment in teaching and learning
entails.
·
Clearly distinguish between assessment for and of learning and indicate the purpose of
each of these assessments.
·
Compare different models of assessment and link them clearly to the types of assessment.
·
Interpret the principles of assessment to your own specialisation.
·
Explain how assessment can be utilised to support deep learning. Explain the importance
of self-assessments, peer assessments, assessment rubrics and feedback for teaching and
learning in your subject specialisation.
THE PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT
Assessment is the “collecting, analysing, and interpreting of information to assist teachers,
parents and other stakeholders in making decisions about the progress of learners” (DBE,
2011:293). Many teachers and students tend to focus on assessment because it is typically linked
to signs of achievement. The most common purpose of assessment is to show the extent and depth
of student learning by producing adequate evidence using various forms of assessment (DBE,
2011:294). There are also other major purposes, such as to create criteria for the selection of
candidates, to ascertain and maintain standards for educational and programmatic quality and to
allow admission to institutions, a school or a specific programme of study. Many professional
boards and bodies also demand that admission into their ranks be guided by some kind of uniform
testing that demonstrates the competence of applicants for a given profession, such as accounting,
nursing and educational psychology. The recent Government Gazette 24467 on the minimum
requirements for the qualifications standards advocates that assessment is considered a
fundamental task of the teacher who will use assessment to deepen student learning (DHET,
2012:50). Therefore, the purpose of assessment is to assist learners to ascertain where they are in
their journey, how they got there, and how they need to proceed. Such assessment motivates
learners and requires adequate and timeous feedback to learners, and also to teachers t o plan for
better learning opportunities.
There are many different types of assessments, and different methods of assessments are
chosen for different purposes. Assessment types can be either be informal or formal.
Informal assessment – is a daily assessment aimed at monitoring the learning in the
classrooms through feedback and support and can take on different forms.
Formal assessment – is the systematic evaluation of how well learners are progressing.
Look at the following examples of how the practice of assessment is interrelated with all
other aspects of teaching:
1. Subject specialist
You need specialist knowledge about the subject
and the assessment requirements for the subject.
This is available in policy documents and you will
study these in the subject didactics at Unisa.
2. Learning specialist
You need expert knowledge about approaches to
learning and teaching to plan for effective learning
and assessment of learners of diverse abilities.
3. Learning mediator
Communicating what is required from learners
specialist
and providing them with the correct opportunities to
show what they have learned or can do after
learning.
4. Curriculum specialist
You need to know how to plan your learning
programme and perform assessments as the
prescribed curriculum requires.
5. Professional education
You need to be trained in assessment practices
specialist
to the professional standard required for teachers in
South Africa.
6. Reflective practitioner
You need knowledge, abilities and skills to reflect
specialist
on your assessment practice to address challenges
encountered and to adjust teaching and assessment
techniques to support the learners.
7. Lifelong learner
You need to stay up to date with new ways of
assessment and new research on assessment.
8. Inclusive education
In South Africa, you have learners with diverse
specialist
abilities and multiple languages in one class. How
will this influence your choices regarding
assessment?
You may also include the Basic competence of a teacher with reference to Assessment.
Newly qualified teachers must be able to assess learners in reliable and varied ways, as well as
being able to use the results of assessment to improve teaching and learning.
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Find an article online about Moodle assessment. Read the article and write a paragraph on what
the author says about this important aspect of assessment and teaching:
a)
What are the important aspects of online assessment?
b)
Name three ways you can assess learners online.
c)
Give three challenges of online assessments.
Remember to reference correctly.
Learn more about online assessment via Moodle at https://enhancingteaching.com/ moodle2-how-to-tutorial-guides/moodle-2-how-to-tutorial-guides-for-teachers/ assessmentwithmoodle/.
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
Assessment can be understood to be a form of research that aims to find out what the learners
know, understand, and can do. In terms of outcome-based approaches, assessment is a process
during which evidence of performance is gathered and evaluated against agreed criteria.
The purpose of evaluation is making a judgement about learner’s learning. The most frequently
given definitions of evaluations are as follows:
·
Evaluation is the systematic acquisition assessment of the worth or merit of an object.
·
Evaluation is the systematic acquisition and assessment of information to provide useful
feedback about an object (Trochim and Donnelly, 2007).
Figure A: Assessment vs Evaluation
Source: www.pediaa.com
Research conducted in the classroom on what learners know is called assessment, and aims to
give teachers and students relevant feedback. Feedback on a student’s progress in their learning is
given to the teacher through assessment. In order to grade and report on student performance,
evaluation makes use of techniques and metrics to assess student learning and comprehension of
the subject matter.
Let’s discuss the following important assessment concepts:
Formative assessment (Assessment for learning) is most often conceptualised feedback
given to learners during daily classroom engagement or teaching event which serves to improve
and deepen student learning by giving them feedback as they progress (Harlen and James,
1997:2006). Hence, formative assessments involve frequently tracking students’ progress during a
course so that teachers can identify any early learning gaps and rectify them. Formative
assessment/Assessment for Learning (AfL) helps learners to learn through the tasks they perform
in relation to the module outcomes and the feedback we provide about their performance on these
tasks. AfL is the approach of teaching that creates feedback that is used to improve the
performance of students and teaching methods. Therefore, testing, correcting students’ work, giving
grades and reporting results are among teachers’ practices to assess their students’ learning.
·
Summative assessment (Assessment of learning) is most commonly associated with
evaluation and is used to certify the achievement of a certain level of education and to make
judgemental educational decisions. Learners are motivated to work harder by a summative
assessment. Hence, it provides them a goal to strive towards and they are able to witness the
results of their countless hours of study. Since summative assessments are given at the end of a
particular instructional period, they are typically evaluative rather than diagnostic. This means that
they are better suited for use in determining learning progress and achievement, assessing the
efficacy of educational programmes, tracking improvement goals, and choosing courses, among
other possible applications. Summative assessment/ Assessment of Learning (AoL) relates to high
stakes, frequently standardised testing that informs nationals or other significant choices about
accountability and standards; about how much students have learned, if the requi rements for
standards have been reached, and whether teachers have performed their duties. For example, the
Annual National Assessments (ANA) are standardised national assessments used in South Africa
for languages and mathematics in the senior phase (grades 7–9), intermediate phase (grades 4–6)
and in literacy and numeracy for the foundation phase (grades 1–3). Therefore, AoL is an
assessment that becomes public and results in statements or symbols about how well students are
learning in these grades.
ACTIVITY 5.1
Activity for discussion on the discussion forum
Instructions: Click on the Forum for this activity (Activity 5.1.)
Post your answer/s
Then comment on 2 posts/answers from your fellow students
Now that you know the difference between assessment of and for learning, answer the following
questions:
i.
What should a teacher keep in mind when planning assessment for learning?
ii.
What types of assessment are suitable to assess learning?
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF ASSESSMENT
Principle 1 – Assessment should be valid
Validity ensures that assessment tasks and associated criteria effectively measure student
attainment of the intended learning outcomes at the appropriate level.
Principle 2 – Assessment should be reliable and consistent
There is a need for assessment to be reliable and this requires clear and consistent processes
for the setting, marking, grading and moderation of assignments.
Principle 3 – Information about assessment should be explicit, accessible and
transparent
Clear, accurate, consistent and timely information on assessment tasks and procedures should
be made available to students, staff and other external assessors or examiners.
Principle 4 – Assessment should be inclusive and equitable
As far as is possible without compromising academic standards, inclusive and equitable
assessment should ensure that tasks and procedures do not disadvantage any group or individual.
Principle 5 – Assessment should be an integral part of programme design and should
relate directly to the programme aims and learning outcomes
Assessment tasks should primarily reflect the nature of the discipline or subject, but should also
ensure that students can develop a range of generic skills and capabilities.
Principle 6 – The amount of assessed work should be manageable
The scheduling of assignments and the amount of assessed work required should provide a
reliable and valid profile of achievement without overloading staff or students.
Principle 7 – Formative and summative assessments should be included in each
programme
Formative and summative assessments should be incorporated into programmes to ensure that
the purposes of assessment are adequately addressed. Many programmes should include
diagnostic assessment.
Principle 8 – Timely feedback that promotes learning and facilitates improvement should
be an integral part of the assessment process
Students are entitled to feedback on submitted formative assessment tasks, and on summative
tasks, where appropriate. The nature, extent and timing of feedback for each assessment task
should be made clear to students in advance.
Principle 9 – Staff development policy and strategy should include assessment
All those involved in the assessment of students must be competent to undertake their roles and
responsibilities.
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Think about one assessment task with its assessment criteria in any module which you are
currently registered. Analyse it according to the principles mentioned above.
i.
Identify and explain which principles were considered and which were not
ii.
Where a principle was not considered, think about why this might be
BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
Every assessment activity is set using action verbs that we are given by Bloom’s Taxonomy.
The cognitive domain has to do with the acquisition of intellectual skills, such as knowledge,
reasoning and problem solving. This domain is subdivided into six clas ses arranged hierarchically
from the simplest to the most complex: knowledge acquisition, comprehension, application,
analysis, synthesis and evaluation. Each successive class includes all the preceding ones. To give
a concrete example, a learner will not be able to calculate the break-even point for a business if he
or she does not know the fixed and variable costs.
Source: Armstrong, P. 2010
·
Knowledge acquisition: Here content functions as a goal. The learning activity required is
memorisation, for example terms, specific facts, procedures and formulas. This class does not
necessarily involve insight or understanding.
·
Comprehension refers to grasping, which suggests holding onto or retaining something.
People comprehend something when they understand it and can recognise and identify
connections. Whereas isolated facts are usually merely memorised (and soon beco me blurred),
comprehension is more lasting and “comprehenders’’ can give tangible proof of their
comprehension (e.g. by calculating, explaining, summarising, and comparing).
·
Application is the ability to apply information that has been comprehended in new
situations.
·
Analysis and synthesis are higher cognitive abilities, such as the ability to select from
relevant ideas, individual creative ability and the ability to make qualitative judgments.
·
Evaluation includes all the preceding classes. As the highest class of the cognitive domain,
it affects the qualities of the ideal, mature business economist (practitioner of business studies) and
is future oriented. Although the future is unpredictable and the detrimental effects of wrong
decisions are not felt immediately, errors of logic must be avoided as far as possible. Learners must
be able to compare, draw conclusions, criticise, and formulate their own criteria for effective action
(Armstrong, 2010).
ICT IN ASSESSMENT
“ICT is now a widely used as an aid to student assessment” (Moursund, 2005:77). Assessment
can be automated using ICT, but the human element of evaluation and feedback is crucial. ICT is
mostly used in self-assessment. Using a flipped classroom approach puts the revised Bloom’s
Taxonomy directly into practice. This can be done when learners view and do their activities at
home using home desktops, laptops, and cellphones to research answers. Moreover, ICT can be
used in testing to administer tests, to score the tests, to analyse the result and to facilitate teachers
in assessing learning outcomes. Besides, ICT can be integrated in completing student’s task such
as portfolio and project-based assessment. ICT provides opportunities for students to create
electronic versions of their portfolio (Marina, 2016).
Please read this article on aligning ICT in assessments with teaching and learning:
http://www.scielo.org.za/pdf/saje/v38s2/12.pdf
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Write a paragraph on how the integration of ICT in school can improve teaching and learning.
DIFFERENT ASSESSMENT METHODS AND APPROACHES
There are differing views on assessment. These views often depend on the model of
assessment we are using – usually the one we are most familiar with or that best fits our beliefs
about what teaching, and learning are about.
We can identify two basic contrasting beliefs. One is that learners are required to know what the
teacher has taught; we can then measure the degree to which they can reproduce what was taught.
This is known as the traditional model. A second belief is that learners are required to show
competence in a learning activity against a given set of criteria, producing their own learning, which
is then measured against the given criteria. This model is known as the criterion-referenced
model.
The traditional model
In this model, teachers teach a bit, then test and grade learners to quantify their progress by
awarding a measurable mark. We then organise these marks according to some sort of rating
scale, assuming that we have a clear object scale along which we can c ompare learners’
performance (Biggs, 2003). Teachers may often even design seating arrangements and group
activities in the classroom based on this model of assessment.
The criterion-referenced model
In criterion-referenced assessment, learner performance is judged against pre-specified criteria
or standards (HEQC, 2004:134). The score of each learner is plotted against an accepted set of
outcomes to measure how well the learner has managed to attain t he outcomes. This model allows
for criteria that relate to more authentic learning situations than the classroom. In contrast to many
traditional assessments, authentic assessment is mostly associated with tasks that assess learner
competence in scenarios that are close to what they might experience in real life. Some schools
use criterion-referenced tests to determine whether or not students have the acquired knowledge or
skill sets for admission. If the student receives a result that is above expectations , they will pass.
The norm-referenced model
Norm-referenced assessment refers to the practice of comparing learner performance to that of
peers in the same class or cohort. Therefore, judgements are based on measuring learners against
each other. A norm-referenced assessment compares a student’s performance to that of one or
more other students in the class. This kind of evaluation is used to evaluate the abilities or
knowledge of a group of students. These assessments establish a student’s intelligence and
compare it to that of the other students. Finding the top applicant from a class or group is the goal
of the norm-referenced evaluation.
SELF-ASSESSMENT:
Write down your personal assessment experiences with the traditional model and criterion
referenced model.
i.
Can you give an example of both traditional and criterion-referenced assessment
opportunity from your own experience?
ii.
Which model would you prefer to use, and why?
ASSESSMENT PRACTICES TO DEEPEN LEARNING
A number of assessments practices can be employed to deepen learning. These include
assessment that promotes meaningful learning, assessment that promotes reflection and
assessment that is authentic.
Assessments that promote meaningful learning
Good assessments practices can improve deep and meaningful learning. Viewing the teacher as
a mediator of learning implies assumptions about how the teacher might facilitate deep and
meaningful learning. Learners need to be actively involved in their own learning and they are
provided with mechanisms that encourage rather than discourage their progress. We also believe
that teachers communicate their expectations of learners from the start, explain the learning
outcomes as well as assessment criteria, explain the learning outcomes as well as the assessment
criteria and procedures early on. In addition, classroom assessment should do the following
(Stiggins, 2000:5):
·
Build and enhance learner’s confidence in themselves.
·
Enhance and promote self-directedness.
·
Help learners take responsibility for their own learning to lay a foundation for lifelong
learning.
·
Provide frequent feedback that is descriptive rather than judgemental.
·
Provide learners with specific insights into how they might improve.
Assessment that promotes reflection
We conceptualise reflection in assessment at two different levels:
·
Reflection on assessment: We use the act and skill of reflection as a way of deepening
learning.
·
Assessing learner’s reflections: A teacher assesses learner’s reflective writing on a
particular concept or academic issue with which they have engaged in the class (for example
through journalism or keeping process notes).
The importance of assessing learner’s reflections, particularly in a service -learning module, has
to be problematised as it is not always easy to objectively assess learners’ reflections, particularly
when they make observations about phenomena that are contrary to our beliefs, or understanding
as teachers. Reflective assessment is a form of metacognition that both teachers and learners can
use to identify what they know and what they still need to learn. As reflective practitioners, teachers
should engage in the following (Stiggins, 2003:5; Bond, 2006:2):
·
continuously think about how they will assess learning and teach to deepen learning
·
continuously think about and adjust the way they teach, based on feedback from learners
about their teaching styles and the results of classroom assessments
·
engage learners in regular self-assessment explicitly linked to the learning outcomes and
assessment criteria
·
actively involve learners in communication with their teachers and others about their
achievements or improvements, to improve and transform their learning experience.
To reflect honestly can be very challenging for learners, and one of two possibilities may exist:
i.
Learners’ thinking – they should say what the teacher wants to hear, in order to
get a good mark.
ii.
Despite knowing that their opinions may not match those of the teacher or their
peers, students are being generally honest.
Please read this article on using reflection and questions to engage and challenge online
graduates in education: https://telrp.springeropen.com/track/pdf/10.1186/s41039-019-0098-z.pdf
Assessment that is authentic
Authentic assessment is one that requires higher order thinking and skills, reflection on values
and attitudes, and more complex and dynamic behaviours and ways of being. Such assessment is
generally holistic and linked to real-life challenges and scenarios. Frey, Schmitt and Allen (2012:1)
identify multiple dimensions of authenticity, including assessments that are realistic, valid, real world based, involve learners’ participation, are complex and group-based with each individual’s
contribution required for success. The purpose of authentic assessment opportunities is to assess
learner’s competencies, which is useful for summative assessment or capstone assessment
opportunities. Capstone examinations are used to determine a student’s strengths and
shortcomings in reaching the required results.
Portfolios are an example of authentic assessment as they assess a range of cognitive skills,
practical skills, learner reflexibility, critical thought, creativity, and innovation. A portfolio most often
consists of multiple products and objects linked to specific learning outcomes.
ACTIVITY 5.2.
Activity for discussion on the discussion forum
Instructions: Click on the Forum for this activity (Activity 5.2.)
Post your answer/s
Then comment on 2 posts/answers from your fellow students
Now that you know the difference between assessment of and for learning, answer the following
questions:
i.
Would you consider using portfolio assessment in your area of specialisation?
ii.
What are the pros and cons of using a portfolio as assessment?
GROUP FEEDBACK
Assessments tasks that require learners to do presentations in class, and for which they receive
immediate feedback can save a lot of time. Feedback is the main component of formative
assessment. “For an assessment to be formative, it requires feedback which indicates the existence
of a ‘gap’ between the actual level of the work being assessed and the required standard” (Taras,
2005:468). Effectiveness of formative assessment is determined by the quality of feedback which
must be used by learners. Hattie and Timperley (2007) suggest that feedback is conceptualised as
information provided by an agent (e.g. teacher, peer, book, parent, self, expe rience) regarding
aspects of one’s performance or understanding which has a strong effect in terms of motivating
learners and their sense of self-efficacy. In large classes, it is preferable to give general rather than
individual feedback. A general checklist or reports that outline common mistakes are useful in such
cases. This feedback should outline what was done well, what may need improvement and clear
suggestions on how improvements could be made.
SELF-ASSESSMENT:
i.
What are the advantages of giving group feedback?
ii.
Write down how you would give meaningful group feedback to your learners.
THE USE OF RUBRICS
Rubrics are useful to reduce the time spent on assessment and simultaneously provide learners
with meaningful feedback. They also provide clear guidelines of what is expected before submitting
their work. Rubrics give feedback to multiple aspects of a task, and the descriptors provide the
learners with the assessment criteria before completing each task. They then provide feedback
about the extent to which learners succeeded against each criterion of the work, as they measure
performance along a scale of achievement. Preparing useful rubric is sometimes challenging and
time-consuming, but once developed, they aid learning, especially in large classes.
As a teacher you should constantly improve your rubrics to assess your learners. Some of the
ways you can acquire more examples to develop your own unique rubrics are as follows:
·
Collect as many types of rubrics as possible, and use them to develop your own rubrics of
assessment.
·
Collaborate with other learners/colleagues in designing and refining rubrics.
·
Search the internet for sites on the development of rubrics and other assessment tools.
·
Always make sure your assessment tools fit the purpose and the particular context.
SELF-ASSESSMENT
When confronted with a learner who seems to be struggling, the teacher’s task is to attempt to
discover what may influence the learning, and how the learner could be effectively supported in
his/her learning.
Write down how you would assess learners that require learning support.
CONCLUSION
In this unit, we discussed formative and summative assessments and how these concepts are
applied in the classroom. It is important to take the theories that inform learning into account and
also how we teach, because this shape how we assess learners. Therefore, learners should be
assessed to see how much they have learned and not how little, and assessment should encourage
success and thus promote deeper learning. Good assessment is linked to learning outcomes and to
the specific corresponding assessment criteria related to these outcomes.
REFERENCES
Armstrong, P. 2010. Bloom’s Taxonomy. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Accessed
[23 August 2022] from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/blooms-taxonomy/
Biggs, J.B. 2003. Aligning teaching and assessment to course objectives. Teaching and
Learning in Higher Education: New Trends and Innovations. Aveiro: University of Aveiro.
Bond, J. 2006. Reflective Assessment: Including Students in the Assessment Process. Forum
on Public Policy:1-17.
Department of Basic Education. 2011. Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement GRADES
4-6. Pretoria: South Africa
Frey, B.B., Schimitt, V.L. & Allen, J.P. 2012. Defining Authentic Classroom Assessment.
Practice Assessment. Research and Evaluations, 17(2):1-18.
Gravet, S., De Beer de JJ & Du Plessis, E. 2018. Becoming a teacher. UNISA custom edition.
Harlen, W. & James, W. 1997. Assessment and learning.: Differences and relationships
between formative and summative assessment. Assessment in education: Principles, Policy and
Practice, 4(3): 365-379.
Hasa. 2016. Difference Between Assessment and Evaluation. Downloaded: on 14 September
2022. Available online at: Difference Between Assessment and Evaluation | Focus,
Function/Purpose, Outcome (pediaa.com) Higher Education Quality Committee. 2004. Improving
Teaching and Learning Resources. Pretoria: Council on Higher education.
Hattie, J & Timperley, H. 2007. The Power of Feedback. Review of Educational Research,
77:81-112.
Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC). 2004. Improving Teaching and Learning
Resources. Pretoria: Council on Higher Education.
Marina, M. 2016. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and its role in Educational
Assessment. Universitas Malikussaleh, Indonesia.
Moursund, D. 2005. Introduction to Information and Communication Technology in Education.
University of Oregon.
Kumar, R. 2018. Downloaded on 14 September 2022. Available at Differences between
assessment and evaluation (slideshare.net)
Stiggins, R. J. 2002. Assessment Crisis. The absence of assessment for learning.
Edtechpolicy.org. Available
at: http://beta.edtechpolicy.org/CourseInfo/edhd485/AssessmentCrisis.pdf . Accessed 24 October
2018.
Taras, M. 2007. Assessment for Learning: understanding theory too. Journal of Further and
Higher education, 31 (40):363-371.
Trochim, W & Donnelly, J.P. 2007. The Research Methods Knowledge Base. 3rd Edition.
Cincinnatti, OH, atomic Dog Publishing.
Learning Unit 6: The teacher as an agent of
inclusivity
INTRODUCTION
In this learning unit, we will look at the essential role of the teacher in identifying and addressing
the diverse needs of all learners. The information in this learning unit will enable you to play a key
role in the transformation in the classroom, making sure that you understand the meaning of
inclusivity and how it is relevant to your practice as a teacher. United Nation Global Compact
Principle (UNGC) One Human Right, alludes that special attention should be paid to the rights of
vulnerable groups, including people with disabilities. In order to address diversity, you need to
understand why inclusive education has become such an important aspect of education in South
Africa. National Development Plan (NDP) 2030 states that inclusive education enables everyone to
participate effectively in a free society. We will first address the history on inclusive education in
South Africa, then look at how to develop an inclusive learning environment that supports the
inclusion of all learners. We will also investigate strategies to support the learning and development
of all learners, accommodate diversity, and address barriers to learning and development. National
Curriculum Statement (NCS) mentions that education needs to equip learners, irrespective of their
socio-economic background, race, gender, physical ability or intellectual ability, with the knowledge,
skills and values necessary for self-fulfilment, and meaningful participation in society as citizens of
a free country
OUTCOME
At the end of this learning unit, you will be able explain, identify and address inclusivity in the
classroom.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
·
Explain the philosophy of inclusive education.
·
Critically reflect on the different discourses on inclusion.
·
Describe what an inclusive school should be like.
·
Understand and discuss challenges to inclusion in the classroom.
·
Identify and address diversity in your classroom
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
It aims to get rid of discrimination and inequalities in society, so that teachers understand,
recognise and address barriers to learning and plan for diversity in the classroom. It attempts to
instil liberal, critical, progressive, and democratic values to create a society in which diversity is
celebrated and equality of opportunity is promoted. It is based on the notion of human rights; these
values call for education to be humane, caring, and inclusive. Inclusivity rests on the notion of
equity, equality, and social justice. Section 9(2) of the constitution commits the state to non discrimination, respect, tolerance, and care. It also seeks to create schools that welcome all
learners. Inclusive education transforms education system from segregated one to an inclusive one.
It introduces a new way of organising and running education, as well as the new way of
understanding it. Therefore, children with disabilities are given access to quality education. It’s the
practice and process of creating supportive classrooms and schools that involve and meet the
diverse needs of all learners, regardless of their age, ability, socio-economic background, talent,
gender, language, HIV status and religion. UNCG Principle One mentions that supporting human
rights involves making a positive contribution to human rights, to promote or advance human rights.
NDP 2030 mentions that education provides knowledge and skills that people with disabilities can
use to exercise a range of other human rights, such as the right to political participation, the right to
work, the right to live independently and contribute to the community, the right to participate in
cultural life, and the right to raise a family. Ensuring that all children with disabilities have access to
quality education will help South Africa meet its employment equity goals in the long run. RSA
(2015) states that “Newly qualified teachers must understand diversity in the South African context
in order to teach in a manner that includes all learners. They must also be able to identify learning
or social problems and work in partnership with professional service providers to address these.
Newly qualified teachers must be able to manage classrooms effectively across diverse contexts in
order to ensure a conducive learning environment.”
“Inclusivity should become a central part of the organisation, planning and teaching at each
school. This can only happen if all teachers have a sound understanding of how to recognise and
address barriers to learning, and how to plan for diversity. The key to managing inclusivity is
ensuring that barriers are identified and addressed by all the relevant support structures within the
school community, including teachers, District-Based Support Teams, Institutional-Level Support
Teams, parents and Special Schools as Resource Centres. To address barriers in the classroom,
teachers should use various curriculum differentiation strategies such as those included in the
Department of Basic Education’s Guidelines for Inclusive Teaching and Learning (2010)” (DOE,
2014).
Watch this video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kEyjlqixq9c
Please read the article below on inclusive education in South Africa:
http://www.scielo.org.za/pdf/pelj/v18n1/08.pdf
SELF-ASSESSMENT:
In your own words, define inclusive education and name three benefits of inclusive education.
REFLECT ON DIFFERENT DISCOURSES ON INCLUSION
An inclusive school should embody the concept of community, diversity and collaboration based
on the principles that everyone
·
belongs
·
is valued by the school
·
has access to the same curriculum.
Discourse
Traditional medical
approach
Associated meaning
Ability and inability are
objective. Learners diagnosed
as “physical”, “slow”, “mentally
retarded”, “hearing impaired”,
etc. are seen as special,
inferior, and deficient, with an
emphasis on their limitations
and weaknesses.
Implementation
A “normal” education system
cannot accommodate
individuals with inabilities. They
require segregated facilities and
a different education system.
The focus is on medication,
therapy, aids and even surgery
to help “correct” their disability to
fit the normal environment.
Charity
People with disabilities need
Separate institutional
help and pity and depend on
systems are created for these
others. They are
learners, such as social work,
underachievers in need of
physiotherapy, and occupational
institutional care, and in certain therapy.
sense, are powerless and
voiceless.
Lay
Learners who are different,
These learners are excluded,
particularly if they deviate from isolated, discriminated against,
“normal” physical appearance, stereotypes, and even hated.
need to be feared, ignored,
patronised, and disrespected.
Holistic social rights
All learners have equal
People with differences are a
approach
rights to opportunity, selfvalued part of the school
reliance, independence, ideals, community. Learners deserve
and dreams, and belonging in equal, equitable, just and
the community.
appropriate opportunities to
develop in any institutions and
practices are fully inclusive and
transform to accommodate each
and every learner where
practicable. Learner difficulties
are influenced by a dynamic
interaction between learner,
school and system.
Source: Engelbrecht, P., Green, L., Naicker,S and Engelbrecht, L. (eds). 1998.
The major international turning points in the development of inclusive education are:
1)
1990 World conference in Jomtien, Thailand (UNESCO, 1990):
·
Conference theme – Education for All Meeting the basic learning needs.
2) 1994 Conference in Salamanca, Spain results in the Salamanca Statement on Principles
and Practice in Special Needs Education (UNESCO, 1994):
·
Formulation of FIVE principles regarding learners with diverse needs.
3)
1994 Statement and Framework for Action report is developed from Salamanca conference:
·
The Conference adopted a new Framework for Action, the guiding principle of which is that
ordinary schools should accommodate all children, regardless of their physical, intellectual, social,
emotional, linguistic, or other conditions. All educational policies, says the Framework, should
stipulate that disabled child attend the neighbourhood school ‘that would be attended if the child did
not have a disability.’
National development of inclusive education:
a) 1995 South African Federal Council on Disability calls for development of a single inclusive
education system for South Africa:
·
Learners with Special Needs (LSEN) have a right to equal education and need to be
accommodated in schools.
b)
1995 White Paper on education and Training (DoE, 1995):
·
Confirms the use of the term “learners with diverse educational needs” refers to learners
whose diverse needs are based on intrinsic and extrinsic factors.
c)
1996 South African Constitution (RSA, 1996):
·
Stipulates that every person has a right to basic education and equal access to educational
institutions.
d) 1997 National Commission on special Needs in Education Support Services (NCESS)
produce a report suggesting a vision for education and training in South Africa (DoE, 1997):
·
The report envisions a society that provides equal rights, education and training system
that enables learners to actively participate in the educational process, providing learners centres of
excellence that regard learners as equal, acceptance of the principles and values of the
Constitution and in the White Paper on education and Training, human rights and social justice for
all learners, participation and social integration in the community, access to the curriculum, equity
and redress, and an education system responsive to the community.
e)
2001 White Paper 6 on Special Needs Education (DOE, 2001):
The paper outlines the process for, and among other things:
·
A move away from segregation by category of disability, identifying, assessing and
gradually incorporating learners with disabilities into special, full-service and ordinary schools,
providing facilities and support services and assisting teachers to cope with diversity of learning and
teaching needs. DOE (2001) states that “Central to the accommodation of diversity in our schools,
colleges, and adult and early childhood learning centres and higher education institutions, is a
flexible curriculum and assessment policy that is accessible to all learners, irrespective of the
nature of their learning needs. This is so since curricula create the most significant barrier to
learning and exclusion for many learners, whether they are in special schools or s ettings, or
‘ordinary’ schools and settings. These barriers to learning arise from within the various interlocking
parts of the curriculum, such as the content of learning programmes, the language and medium of
learning and teaching, the management and organisation of classrooms, teaching style and pace,
time frames for completion of curricula, the materials and equipment that are available, and
assessment methods and techniques. Barriers to learning and exclusion of this kind also arise from
the physical and psycho-social environment within which learning occurs.”
Please read the following report on Education White Paper: Special Needs Education
Education White Paper 6.pdf
(f) National Development Plan 2030 on Inclusive education:
·
Stipulates that all children with disabilities have access to quality education that will help
South Africa meet its employment equity goals in the long run.
(g) Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG4):
·
It aims to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all.
ACTIVITY: 6.1. FORUM
Activity for discussion on the discussion forum
Instructions: Click on the Forum for this activity (Activity 6.1)
Post your answer/s
Then comment on 2 posts/answers from your fellow students
i.
create?
What kind of attitudes and perceptions does each of the discourses in the table above
AN INCLUSIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
An inclusive learning environment supports “all learners and an education system so that a
range of learning needs in the classroom can be met ... It focuses on overcoming barriers in the
system that prevent it from meeting the full range of learning needs ” (DOE, 2001:20). A teacher can
create an inclusive learning environment by applying the following:
·
A transformative approach
·
A caring pedagogy
·
Awareness of intrinsic and extrinsic factors
CHALLENGES TO INCLUSION IN THE CLASSROOM
Challenges to learning and development:
a)
Visual barriers
b)
Physical barriers
c)
Disruptive behaviour
d)
Socio-economic barriers
e)
Learning difficulties
f)
Parental involvement
Read the following article on the challenges of realising inclusive education in South
Africa: http://www.scielo.org.za/pdf/saje/v34n2/03.pdf
It is acknowledged that different learning needs may arise from intrinsic as well as systemic and
societal factors. According to the Education White Paper 6, barriers to learning and development in
education are identified as the following:
·
negative attitudes to and stereotyping of difference
·
an inflexible curriculum
·
inappropriate languages or languages of learning and teaching
·
inappropriate communication
·
inaccessible and unsafe built environments
·
inappropriate and inadequate support services
·
inadequate policies and legislation
·
the non-recognition and non-involvement of parents
·
inadequately and inappropriately trained education managers and educators
(DoE, 2001:7)
ADDRESSING DIVERSITY IN YOUR CLASSROOM
Curriculum differentiation is the process of modifying or adapting the curriculum according to the
different ability levels of the learners in the classroom. It is a strategy that teachers can use with a
view to provide meaningful learning experiences for all learners. Differentiation takes account of
learner differences and matches curriculum content and teaching and assessment methods to
learning styles and learner needs and characteristics. It may focus on input, task, outcome, output,
response, resources, or support. (UNESCO, 2004b).
UNESCO (2001) highlights a plan for a teacher to deal with diversity in the learning
environment:
1)
Effective communication
2)
Classroom management
3)
Having individual education plans
4)
Use of assistive devices
5)
Preparation of lessons
6)
Individual help for learners
7)
Management of learner behaviour
8)
Fostering social inclusion of all learners in the school
SELF-ASSESSMENT:
How would you attempt to create an inclusive environment for learners who are facing the
above-mentioned challenges? Write two points for each challenge.
CONCLUSION
This learning unit provides information about how you can develop an inclusive learning
environment in your classroom. It also emphasises that it is important to get to know your learners
so that you can accommodate, plan and prepare your lessons, use different teaching methods, and
adapt your assessment strategies to the individual needs of your learners. To become a champion
of inclusion, you need a positive and respectable attitude towards yourself and other people, and
the ability to focus not on the deficits in learners, but on their potential as well. We hope you will
become that teacher!
REFERENCES
Department of Education. 2001. Education White Paper 6 on Special Needs Education. Building
an Inclusive education and training system. Pretoria: Government Printer. Available
at: https://www.education.gov.za/Portals/0/Documents Downloaded: 12 September 2022.
Department of Education. (2014). Department of Basic education Guidelines for Inclusive
Teaching and Learning (2010). Pretoria.
Department of Education. (1995). White Paper on education and Training. Pretoria. Available at:
http:// www.gov.za. Accessed 19 December 2022.
Department of Education. (2001). White Paper 6 on Special Needs Education. Pretoria.
Available at: www.gov.za. Accessed 19 December 2022.
Department of Education. 2014. Guidelines to ensure Quality Education and Support in Special
Schools and Special School Resource Centres. Pretoria: Government Printer. Available
at: https://www.education.gov.za/Portals/0/Documents/Policies/Inclusive%20Education Downloaded
: 27 September 2022.
Gravet, S., De Beer de JJ & Du Plessis, E. 2018. Becoming a teacher. UNISA custom edition.
Engelbrecht, P., Green, L., Naicker, S & Engelbrecht, L. (eds). 1998. Inclusive Education in
Action South Africa. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
National Development Plan 2030. | South African Government. Available at: www.gov.za.
Accessed: 19 December 2022.
Republic of South Africa (RSA). 2015. Revised Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education
Qualifications. Government Gazette No. 38487. Pretoria: Government Printing Works.
South African Constitution (1996). Pretoria. Government Printer. Available at: www.gov.za.
Accessed 19 December 2022.
UNESCO. 2001. The open file on inclusive education. Paris: UNESCO.
UNESCO. 2004. The Right to Education for Persons with Disabilities: Towards Inclusion.
UNESCO, Paris.
United Nation Global Compact Principle. Available at: www.unglobalcompact.org/what-isgc/mission/principles. Accessed: 19 December 2022.
Learning Unit 7: Teaching for the 21st century:
Preparing learners for success
INTRODUCTION
The information in this learning unit is specifically looking at preparing learners for a world of
work and success after school which will be very different from our own. This requires a
combination of knowledge, competencies and mindsets that form the entrepreneurial mindset (also
known as the solution-seeking mindset). The entrepreneurial mindset empowers learners to take
ownership of their learning, become purpose-driven opportunity finders and problem solvers who
are able to succeed in employment, entrepreneurship and further education.
Teachers therefore need to be architects or designers of learning environments that
●
create opportunities for learners to practise and develop their entrepreneurial mindset.
●
sustain the intrinsic motivation to learn that we are all born with.
Project-based learning is one approach to developing this environment. Learners work on
identifying and solving real-world, relevant problems through a project designed to activate the skills
needed for a changing world.
As you work through the activities in this unit, you will begin to understand the science and
principles behind project-based learning and know how to create learning environments that
develop the skills for a changing world. This type of teaching is relev ant to all subjects, developing
the entrepreneurial mindset is universal; we all need an entrepreneurial mindset to succeed in an
ever-changing world.
Outcome:
To prepare teachers to become 21st century educators who effectively prepare learners with
skills and competencies for a changing world.
Assessment Criteria:
Explain and describe, to others, the vital role of a teacher in preparing young people for
success in a changing world.
-
Identify and define an entrepreneurial mindset.
Reflect and critically analyse classroom environments that are conducive to developing
the skills and competencies needed to succeed in a changing world.
Apply the theory to design activities that support learners to grow their skills and
competencies.
We are all worried about the high rate of youth unemployment in South Africa, and want to do
something about this!
The world is changing quickly; it is complex, and is uncertain. Many of the jobs that exist today
probably won’t exist when learners finish high school.
So, the questions we must ask ourselves are:
●
for?
How do we prepare young people for a future that we can’t begin to imagine or plan
●
How do we prepare young people with the skills they will need not only to succeed, but
also to thrive, to fulfill their potential and to be happy, healthy young adults?
One solution lies in the opportunity for the schooling process to create learning environments
that continue to grow the discovery learning skills that children have from birth. Schooling
should create opportunities for learners to practise these skills so that they are prepared for the
changing world.
If we know that young people need to be adequately prepared to thrive, then we need to
understand how they can be prepared. If being prepared means knowing how to learn to survive
and thrive, then we need to look at what the science of learning tells us ab out how people learn
best.
The science of learning draws upon research from the field of educational psychology on social
and emotional learning to prove how learning happens in humans. This is particularly relevant
because it promotes skills, habits and mindsets that enable self-regulation, interpersonal skills,
perseverance and resilience – all vital components of the entrepreneurial mindset.
The science of learning explains how children learn best, (through guided play), which then
informs how teaching and learning should happen in the classroom. These elements of learning are
imperative to create a sustained playful environment in every class room to cultivate the
entrepreneurial mindset.
If you want to find out more about the science of learning, click on the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1VoUImKYDE&t=3s
Recommended resources
●
Read chapter 1 of the teacher’s guide:
https://www.uj.ac.za/faculties/education/teaching-for-learning-in-a-fast-changing-world/
●
Watch the introduction video
here: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLW5gyG4sWkJ0cmupDtjRAS_jhn3aGJuBb
●
Listen to the audiobook https://soundcloud.com/dbe-e3/sets/introduction-to-project-based
Activity 7.1 SELF-ASSESSMENT
In the words of John Dewy – we do not learn from experience; we learn from reflecting on
experience. Reflection is an essential part of the learning process and in this unit, there are several
reflection questions. There are no right or wrong answers here; the process of reflection is an
incredibly important part of the learning process.
1. When you have finished studying this unit (unit 7), what do you hope to have learnt and
accomplished?
2. What are you curious to learn more about?
3. As you continue your learning journey, start to think about the sort of classroom
environment that you would like to create for your learners when you start teaching. Think
about how you want them to feel, how you want them to learn, how you want them to
behave and so on.
WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO BE PREPARED FOR SUCCESS IN A CHANGING WORLD?
The Entrepreneurial Mindset
Summary:
We start by explaining what it means to be prepared for a changing world, by exploring the skills
and competencies young people need. We make a bold argument that all young people need an
entrepreneurial mindset to succeed in a rapidly changing world. We go further by saying that this
mindset is developed from birth as infants discover their learning and develop their entrepreneurial
skills and that schools have a wonderful opportunity to grow and sustain these skills.
Key concepts:
●
What “prepared” means – discovery-learning skills acquired as infants
●
Role of schooling in sustaining discovery-learning and the skills of the entrepreneurial
mindset
●
Schooling mirroring real life
●
Schooling driven by external motivations
●
Cultivating the intrinsic motivation to learn
●
Creating the optimal learning environment
Before you start, let’s see if you have an entrepreneurial mindset.
ACTIVITY 7.2: SELF-ASSESSMENT
(1)
Complete the table below as honestly as possible.
Question
Answer (yes/no)
Give a personal example
Are you a curious person who asks lots of
questions?
Do you enjoy learning new things?
Can you think of a time when you made a
mistake and learnt from it?
Do you solve problems often?
If you answered yes to any of these questions, then you have some of the qualities of an
entrepreneurial mindset!
ACTIVITY 7.3: FORUM
Activity for discussion on the discussion forum
Watch Videos 2 and
3 https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLW5gyG4sWkJ0cmupDtjRAS_jhn3aGJuBb
Instructions: Click on the Forum for this activity (Activity 7.3)
Post your answer/s
Then comment on 2 answers/posts from your fellow students
Now answer the following questions:
(1) Did you ever think that you, as a trainee teacher, might also have an entrepreneurial
mindset? How does that make you feel?
(2)
Why might it be important that teachers have an entrepreneurial mindset?
(3)
What is the difference between a traditional project and PBL?
Recommended resources
●
Read chapter 2: The Entrepreneurial Mindset of the Teaching-for-Learning Guide
●
Listen to the Audiobook https://soundcloud.com/dbe-e3/sets/introduction-to-projectbased
Did you know that we are all born wanting to learn and discover the world around us? When we
were children, this desire to learn was not motivated by external rewards (extrinsic motivation), but
was motivated by the desire to learn. This is called intrinsic.
This process of discovery learning, by making mistakes, reflecting and trying something new, is
called iteration. Iteration helps children to build their skills (develop mastery). As they get better and
better at these new skills, they start feeling joy.
This way of learning is motivated by a bigger purpose. Infants learn to walk because they want to
be free to explore their surroundings. When we were young, our learning was self-directed; it is not
directed by an adult. As we explored our world and gained new skills, we developed confidence to
make our own choices and decisions (this is also known as agency and autonomy).
This very learning experience that happens when we are young, happens to be the very same
learning experience that a group of people called entrepreneurs use.
Characteristics of entrepreneurial people
●
Being self-directed
●
Being curious and observant of opportunities in the world around them
●
Seeing and understanding problems
●
Working out solutions
●
Taking calculated risks
●
Learning from mistakes, getting up and doing it again, but each time doing it better
●
Communicating effectively
●
Working collaboratively with others in a team
●
Thinking critically
7.2.1 21st century skills and the entrepreneurial mindset
These skills can be summarised into THE BIG FIVE: Collaboration which
needs Communication, which helps with Critical Thinking, which leads to Creative Innovation –
none of which will happen without Curiosity.
These 21st century skills also happen to be the characteristics of entrepreneurial thinking, what we
call “The entrepreneurial mindset” and is what we believe can increase a learner’s chances of thriving
in the world.
7.2.2 Entrepreneurials
We call people with these skills and mindset “entrepreneurials”, not entrepreneurs. They do not
only find solutions to start businesses, but they also find solutions to the problems of the world and
others.
All of us have the potential for all these skills because we developed them through our intrinsic
motivation to learn that we are born with. Remember, intrinsic motivation is the motivation to do
something without expecting a reward.
What keeps entrepreneurials motivated is their curiosity, enthusiasm and wonder at the world, and
the possibility of finding solutions to life’s challenges. This motivation is always in entrepreneurial
people and is what keeps them ‘hungry’ to learn. This is known as intrinsic motivation.
7.2.3 Intrinsic Motivation
Remember we said that we are all born with intrinsic motivation to learn. Well, this intrinsic
motivation is what makes entrepreneurial people so successful. Entrepreneurials keep their
motivation going because they feel connected to something bigger than themselves – this is known
as purpose. They have the satisfaction of getting better at something that matters to them – this is
referred to as mastery. They have the desire to have control over their own lives and learning paths –
this is called autonomy.
School has the wonderful opportunity to create the environment to sustain and grow the
entrepreneurial mindsets that children have developed already during infancy. But how can it do this?
7.2.4 The natural learning cycle and project-based learning
The way to create these environments in schools is using learner-centred teaching approaches
such as project-based learning (PBL).
This teaching approach uses the tried-and-tested natural learning cycle of planning,
experimenting, learning, reflecting, applying feedback and planning again to solve an inspiring,
meaningful project.
The process of this learning cycle develops the learners’ knowledge of HOW TO LEARN which is
the key outcome of effective schooling.
By “doing” PBL over and over, learners will become good at the tools of learning, namely
accessing information, reading, researching, consulting experts, analysing information, using
evidence, sharing and comparing ideas, identifying useful information, learning from mistakes, and
recording learnings.
So, a prepared learner is one who has the entrepreneurial mindset and the skills to solve
problems innovatively. PBL is a great way of unlocking and cultivating these skills.
YOUR RESEARCH:
●
Read this excellent article on the Entrepreneurial Mindset by the Entrepreneurial Mindset
Initiative https://elimindset.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/The-Entrepreneurial-MindsetImperative.pdf
CREATING THE RIGHT ENVIRONMENT
A caring environment
Summary:
This section aligns with Learning Unit 2 where you look at the teacher as a caring
professional and study the values that create caring pedagogy in the classroom. You will have
reflected on the benefits of applying a caring pedagogy and have insight into the seven roles of a
teacher. All of this will help you develop your own teaching philosophy. In this section, you will go
deeper into the concepts around creating a caring environment.
(This section in unit 7 builds on all of this. However, it goes on to emphasise that you can only
practise and grow the skills you need for a changing world if you have a learning environment that
is caring – one that fosters trust and respect between teachers and learners and between learners).
Key Concepts:
●
Teacher attitude and mindset
●
What a caring, safe environment is
●
How to create it
●
Benefits
7.3.2 What is a caring and enabling environment in the classroom?
An enabling and caring classroom climate is one where children feel free to be curious, make
mistakes, ask questions, learn so that they develop their confidence to collaborate, communicate,
think critically, create innovative solutions – all elements of the entrepreneurial mindset.
7.3.3 Benefits
A caring environment has great benefits for learning such as:
●
It encourages curiosity, exploration, and discovery – all critical elements for nurturing the
entrepreneurial mindset.
●
It boosts learners’ self-esteem and self-worth.
●
It builds positive relationships.
●
It creates the environment where the critical skills of the entrepreneurial (namely
collaboration, communication, critical thinking, and creative innovation) can happen successfully.
●
It leads to happiness in teachers and learners.
●
It reduces absenteeism while also improving discipline because learners tend to like, trust,
and respect their teachers because they feel safe and supported by them.
7.3.4 Myths
There are myths that creating a caring environment cannot work unless teachers become
psychologists; that learners must be happy all the time; that learners will behave badly and there
will be no discipline and that it is expensive. None of these myths is true. Read the more detailed
information in the teachers’ guide to see why this is so.
Without the caring environment described above, none of the other essential elements needed
to prepare learners for a changing world will succeed. It is therefore imperative that this first step of
creating a safe learning environment, is in place before preparing to teach using project-based
learning.
ACTIVITY 7.4: FORUM
Activity for discussion on the discussion forum
Instructions: Click on the Forum for this activity (Activity 7.4)
Post your answer/s
Then comment on 2 answers/posts from your fellow students
Scenario 1:
(1) Your memories of school: think back to an experience at school and reflect on these
questions. How did you feel in the classes of teachers that you loved and respected and what made
learning a joy?
(2) Now think about how you felt in the classes where teachers did the opposite – those
teachers who made school a misery.
(3) Read scenario 1 below and answer the questions that follow:
(3a) Why do you think Lebo asked the question?
(3b) What emotions did he feel after this interaction?
(3c) Do you think he will ever ask another question again?
(3d) How do you think he feels about his teacher?
(3e) What do you think other learners learnt from this interaction?
(3f) Do you think an experience like this would improve learners’ behaviour?
Scenario 2:
In the first picture (scenario 1) we can see the effect that an unsafe and uncaring environment
has on learners. Uncaring environments actually discourage learning. In the second picture
(scenario 2), we can see that caring environments encourage deep lear ning to take place, and
support learners to flourish and thrive.
(3g) Which of these two classrooms would you like to learn in and why?
Recommended resources
1. Read chapter three of the Teaching-for-Learning guide, Creating a Caring Learning Environment.
2. Watch video
four https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLW5gyG4sWkJ0cmupDtjRAS_jhn3aGJuBb
3. Listen to the audio book: https://soundcloud.com/dbe-e3/sets/introduction-to-project-based
YOUR RESEARCH:
Read the following – Carl Rogers and Classroom Climate – download the article at the bottom of
this page http://www.curee.co.uk/node/4831
A S.P.E.C.I.A.L. Learning environment
Summary:
Together with the caring environment, this next section introduces and explores what it means
to create enabling learning environments by bringing in seven principles that optimise or boost
learning.
Key Concepts:
●
The elements of a learning environment, based on the principles of guided play
●
The teacher’s role in creating an environment for learning
Once you have created a caring and emotionally safe space, the next key element to creating a
lifelong learning experience for learners – where they are intrinsically motivated to learn, discover
and solve problems – are the seven S.P.E.C.I.A.L. principles of learning.
Discovery learning
Research tells us that infants learn through discovery, trying and trying again, pursuing a goal
(like learning to walk) and all while they are having fun! Remember we also said they had an inborn
and intrinsic motivation to learn.
Research has summarised the key principles that are essential to learning, namely:
Social interaction, Purpose, Enjoyment, Curiosity, Iteration, Active engagement and
Learner autonomy.
To help you remember these, we have created a word that is easy to remember: S.P.E.C.I.A.L.
– an acronym for these seven critical principles of learning.
If we are going to prepare learners for a changing world, we need to make sure that the
principles that will prepare them to learn are in place. Some teachers may already be performing
many of these S.P.E.C.I.A.L. principles.
Let’s compare a traditional classroom with a S.P.E.C.I.A.L. classroom
Believing it’s possible (your heart)
The first step is to believe that a S.P.E.C.I.A.L. learning environment and PBL will prepare
learners. This belief will drive your motivation and give you the energy to create your S.P.E.C.I.A.L.
classroom. Just like the intrinsic motivation to learn – you will need to be intrinsically motivated to
teach in this way. You will need to be purpose-driven in your belief in this approach, to have
confidence because of your mastery of your profession and feel free and independent to do what
you know works, that is to have the autonomy to make your own best choices.
Understanding how it works (your head)
The second step is for you to know how to create a S.P.E.C.I.A.L. classroom and what your role
is in this environment. This guide will give you more detail on how to do this.
Creating the environment (your hands)
The third step is to just do it! Have the confidence to start. First make sure you have created a
caring environment where learners feel free to “fail”. Then ensure that each element of
S.P.E.C.I.A.L. is present as you teach. Look out for opportunities to nurture skills such as
collaboration, communication, critical thinking and creative innovation in all learning activities
because these are the skills that will prepare learners for their future.
The S.P.E.C.I.A.L. learning environment
Social Interaction
Social interaction is all about interacting or working together with others to achieve a goal. This
is one of the most important ways that humans learn.
Humans learn best by watching, copying, asking, listening, discussing, helping, and sharing with
others. We don’t need to teach social interaction to people; it is a natural human characteristic.
However, we do need to provide opportunities for learners to practise social interaction so they can
get better and better at social interaction. Some of the best methods of social interaction include
listening, discussing and helping each other.
Purpose
“Purpose” is the reason why we do things or why something exists. Purpose is like a battery that
powers our behaviour. We are likely to focus on information or activities that we find purposeful,
meaningful, and useful. As a teacher it is important to connect the learning in school to learners’
lives outside of school. You can make the learning real or connect what learners are learning now
to their future.
Enjoyment
The principle of joy, or enjoyment in the context of a S.P.E.C.I.A.L. learning environment does
not mean fun and games. It means the deeper sense of joy we feel when we work hard and finally
master a challenge. There is natural joy in learning, and we often see it in young children.
Curiosity
Curiosity is sparked by a need to explain the unexpected and discover more about the unknown.
All the world’s greatest innovations and discoveries were powered by curiosity, by somebody asking
Why…? Or I wonder what…? Or What if…? Or How…?
Iteration
Iteration (repeating) is part of the natural learning cycle. Trying, failing, learning from mistakes
and trying again is the way people learn. Learning to walk is iterative as toddlers go through the
natural cycle of standing, walking, falling and standing up to try again – helping each other; each
time improving and getting a little better until they have mastered the skill and can walk and run
around with confidence.
Active engagement
To be active or to act is to do something and be involved. When people are actively engaged
with an activity, they are fully focused and absorbed in what they are doing. You know those times
when a child is so deeply involved in what they are doing they don’t even hear you call? That’s an
example of active engagement.
Learner autonomy
The main purpose of the DBE-E3 programme is to prepare learners for a changing world. A big
part of being prepared is being responsible for yourself, to have the skills that make you
independent, that help you organise yourself and make wise decisions. Young children fight for
independence. They want to feed themselves, choose their clothes and make their own decisions
about who to play with. This is the spirit of independence that learners need as part of their
preparation for a changing world, and is the purpose of learner autonomy.
ACTIVITY 7.5 - FORUM
Activity for discussion on the discussion forum
Watch video
five https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLW5gyG4sWkJ0cmupDtjRAS_jhn3aGJuBb
Instructions: Click on the Forum for this activity (Activity 7.5)
Post your answer/s
Then comment on 2 answers/posts from your fellow students
(1) What is an enabling environment?
(2) Why is it important to create an enabling environment in your classroom?
Recommended reading
●
Read chapter 4: The S.P.E.C.I.A.L. Learning environment
●
Listen to Episode four of the audiobook https://soundcloud.com/dbe-e3/sets/introduction-toproject-based
Additional reading
●
Read: Accessing the Inaccessible: Redefining Play as a
Spectrum https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01124/full
●
Watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rwKPvzEQYwE
7.5 Project-based Learning
Summary:
In this last section you will look at the keystone that links the entrepreneurial mindset and the
environment (a caring and enabling S.P.E.C.I.A.L. learning environment). Here you will analyse an
effective approach to growing learning called project-based learning (PBL). This approach, when
rooted in caring and the enabling environment of a S.P.E.C.I.A.L. classroom, creates opp ortunities
for learners to practise and grow the skills that make up the entrepreneurial mindset.
Key concepts:
●
What PBL is
●
The natural learning cycle
●
Why it is an ideal teaching-for-learning approach
●
Why it activates the entrepreneurial mindset
●
Why it activates intrinsic motivation to learn
The role of the teacher in PBL
Recommended Resources
●
Read chapter 5 of the teacher’s guide
●
Watch video
six https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLW5gyG4sWkJ0cmupDtjRAS_jhn3aGJuBb
●
Listen to the Episode five of the audio book https://soundcloud.com/dbe-e3/sets/introduction-toproject-based
7.5.1 What is Project-based Learning?
Project-based learning is a way of teaching that encourages learners to work together to solve
problems that are real to them, and which come from their daily lives. While solving these problems,
learners will grow their skills of collaboration and working together in groups. They will impr ove their
communication abilities and develop their abilities to think critically, ask questions and challenge
options. Most importantly for their entrepreneurial mindset growth and the development of their
entrepreneurial activities, they will creatively solve problems in new and innovative ways using
knowledge from CAPS and other sources.
7.5.2 The natural learning cycle
The natural learning cycle is at the heart of entrepreneurial thinking and the heart of lifelong
learning. Through the cycle of learning, we learn how to learn, something every learner at school
should also know.
The natural cycle of learning is not about memorising information, it is about using what you
learn in innovative and creative ways to survive and thrive in a constantly changing world. This is
the process where learners plan, experiment, learn, reflect, apply feedback and plan again. This
also happens to be the cycle that Project-based learning uses.
7.5.3 Why is Project-based Learning so important?
Entrepreneurs who leave school prepared with the skills and mindset to solve problems are
also those that employers are looking for. They are searching for people who can think critically,
innovate, and learn without fear of failure and communicate clearly and confidently. The world
needs young people who can collaborate dynamically and participate actively in productive
dialogue. These are people who risk small, regular and carefully designed experiments and who
persevere and do not give up when a solution isn’t immediately obvious. They can adapt to change
with as little anxiety as possible.
7.5.4 Project-based learning is not “doing projects”
Did you know that project-based learning and projects are not the same thing?
You might be thinking that you are already doing a project because the third term school-based
assessment is a project. Project-based learning is slightly different! It is all about solving real-world
problems that mean something to the learners.
Let’s unpack some of the key differences.
If you want to know more, please watch this video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dhwuQU2-g5g
ACTIVITY: 7.6: FORUM
Activity for discussion on the discussion forum
Instructions: Click on the Forum for this activity (Activity 7.6)
Post your answer/s
Then comment on 2 answers/posts from your fellow students
(1) Think back to a project you did when you were at school; what ideas can you think of to
transform it into a project-based learning project?
First describe the project and what you had to do. Think about the elements mentioned in
column A in the table above.
How would you turn it into a project-based learning project? Think about the elements in column
B and the seven S.P.E.C.I.A.L. principles. Be as creative as you can.
LIST OF RECOMMENDED MATERIAL
•
•
•
•
•
Read this excellent article on the Entrepreneurial Mindset by the Entrepreneurial Mindset
Initiative https://elimindset.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/The-Entrepreneurial-MindsetImperative.pdf
Read the following - Carl Rogers and Classroom Climate - download the article at the
bottom of this page http://www.curee.co.uk/node/4831(PDF) Fostering 21st Century Skills
For Future Teachers (researchgate.net
Accessing the Inaccessible: Redefining Play as a
Spectrum https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01124/full
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rwKPvzEQYwE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dhwuQU2-g5g