How to Write a Thesis: A Scientific Guide to Academic Research

UC-NRLF $B 266 800 HOW TO WRITE A THESIS PUBLIC SCHOOL PUBLISHING COMPANY CALIFORNIA O L F.THE A . SE UNIVERSITY OF THERE BE THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Education GIFT OF Professor George C. Kyte ( BER HOW TO WRITE A THESIS BY WARD G. REEDER Assistant Professor of School Administration Ohio State University PUBLIC SCHOOL PUBLISHING COMPANY BLOOMINGTON , ILLINOIS Copyright1995 Pahise Verani Punishing Company Education 444'1 G 632369 R4 cap.2 EDUC. LIBRARY CONTENTS PAGE SECTION PREFACE ....... THE SCIENTIFIC NATURE OF THE THESIS . II ......... I 5 9 ... THE SELECTION, DELIMITATION, AND PLANNING OF THE PROBLEM ..... 19 III THE WORKING BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 29 IV THE COLLECTION OF MATERIAL ..... 34 V CONFERENCES WITH INSTRUCTORS .. 41 VI THE ORGANIZATION AND INTERPRE- VII THE NECESSITY FOR GOOD ENGLISH .. 49 VIII THE FORM OF CITATIONS AND FOOT- TATION OF MATERIAL.44 NOTES • .. .... IX THE PREPARATION OF STATISTICAL TABLES .. .... X 55 65 THE PREPARATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS .. 73 ......... XI THE FINAL, BIBLIOGRAPHY . 79 XII MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 82 XIII SUGGESTIONS ON PUBLICATION ..... 90 XIV QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW PURPOSES .. 98 XV MISCELLANEOUS SAMPLES OF PAGES OF THESES . ....... 108 ..... INDEX .......... 133 618 i 1 PREFACE The thesis requirement is perhaps the most characteristic respect in which a graduate curriculum of a university differs from an undergraduate one. In the work of the undergraduate curriculum the student is guided at practically every step in his work, but in the work of the graduate curriculum he is placed more and more on his own resources and responsibility ; moreover, he is expected to show a high and constantly increasing degree of intellectual independence. Preparing the thesis aids in developing this intellectual independence; furthermore, the quality of the thesis produced is one of the best measures of the degree of intellectual independence which the student has attained. The preparation of the thesis is calculated to give the student definitely intensive and scholarly training in the collection, organization, and presentation of facts. Since it does these things, it should not be looked upon as only another chore to be perfunctorily performed or as only another requirement designed to make a graduate degree a little more difficult to secure, but rather should be regarded 5 6 How to Write a Thesis as one of the most worth while types of training which the graduate curriculum gives. At present, the typical candidate for a graduate degree enters upon the task of writing his thesis with little or no idea of methods of procedure or of standards to be met. The result to him is the loss of considerable time in writing and re-writing the thesis. Moreover, much time and energy of the instructor, who is directing the thesis, is consumed in pointing out again and again shortcomings in such matters as the organization of statistical tables, citation of authorities, general organization of the thesis, and arrangement of the bibliography ; still more, these directions must be given to each tyro in thesis writing. Those writing theses are in need of, and are entitled to, stimulation, guidance, and help, and it would seem that much of this assistance might be obtained through written directions and suggestions were such available. It is the chief purpose of this manual, therefore, to record some directions and suggestions, which it is hoped may be serviceable not only to those writing theses but also to those directing the writing of them. Most of the suggestions, it is thought, will be found helpful in the Preface 7 preparation of other scientific papers as well as theses. It is believed that the manual contains a fairly comprehensive, reasonably harmonious, and withal practical set of rules and suggestions on the preparation of the thesis and other scientific papers. Manifestly, however, it cannot claim to cover every point, nor to utter the final word on those points it does cover. Many things must be taken for granted, and common sense must always be used in applying to each situation as it occurs the rules and suggestions herein set forth. Rules of rhetoric and grammar have not been included because such material is already available in many textbooks. The manual could hardly have been prepared without the many helpful suggestions received from numerous sources. Some printed and mimeographed suggestions-few though they were were gladly made available by the deans of various graduate schools and departments of universities. Many suggestions were also freely given by several professors and reference librarians of various universities. For this assistance the author is greatly indebted ; particularly is he indebted to his colleague, Professor B. R. Buckingham, whose sympa 8 How to Write a Thesis thetic interest, incisive criticisms, and kind suggestions have been an invaluable help and stimulus. He is also much indebted to his students who, through their requests for information on the methods of research and the technique of writing theses and other scientific papers, have been the inspiration for most of the suggestions. WARD G. REEDER. Scientific Nature of the Thesis I. 9 THE SCIENTIFIC NATURE OF THE THESIS A thesis is a report of a research on a given problem or topic; it should be a scientific document. It is presumed that its author stands ready to defend it with the facts that have been collected and organized; it is presumed also that it shall be a contribution to existing knowledge. This contribution to existing knowledge may be made in either one or both of two ways : ( 1 ) by the derivation of a new method or technique or by the improvement of an old method or technique ; (2) by the use of an old method or technique in making a scholarly collection and organization of facts on a given problem or topic. If it be insisted that a thesis , particularly one for the baccalaureate or master's degree, cannot always be expected to be a contribution to existing knowledge, certainly in all cases it should be expected to be a scholarly document worthy of the degree for which it is submitted. An excellent statement of the boundaries, nature, and purpose of research and science is found in a recent inaugural address of a Uni 10 How to Write a Thesis versity President ; the statement being help- fully pertinent is quoted herewith : "There exists in the public mind much uncertainty as to the nature and purpose of research. The problem of research is the problem of searching for the truth of searching for what is 'so,' as the man in the street would probably express it. It is not a search for those fragments of the truth which have already been found and are now described in books, more or less scarce, or obscure, but a search for existing truth which has not yet been found by anybody. A professor engaging in research work is looking for something that already exists. He does not invent the truth, he does not develop the truth, he does not do anything whatever to the truth except to uncover it or discover it, and expose it to the comprehension of his fellowmen. .. "We must guard against a too narrow use of the words ' research' and 'science.' When a scientist is spoken of, most people have the chemist or biologist or astronomer or the modern farmer in mind. The chances are that they will leave out the student of Greek or of the history of religions ; and that is frequently a mistake. A classical scholar who devotes himself seriously to the study of the evolution of the Latin language, or who searches for the forces which produced the wonderful Greek civiliza- tion, and for the other forces which later operated to destroy it, is as truly a scientist as he who studies X-rays or the decomposition of radium. If a professor of history endeavors to trace the effects of the continuous working of ethnic, economic, climatic, religious, and other forces upon the develop Scientific Nature of the Thesis 11 ment of nations and civilizations, he is a real scientist. A scientist is one who studies any subject with due and impartial regard to the facts, and always with reference to cause and effect." 1 Being a scientific document the thesis should bear the earmarks of such documents. Among the most characteristic of these earmarks which the thesis should unfailingly show are the following : 1. Accuracy. Because of the harm which it may do in disseminating erroneous information, an investigation which is not accurate is less pardonable than no investigation at all. It is worth emphasizing that all data of the thesis should be collected, organized, and reported with extreme care. It is a good plan to check and re-check the data of the investigation until one has complete confidence in their accuracy. An adoption of the plan of checking all data will save the writer many embarrassments in having to apologize for his inaccuracies when they have been brought to light by more careful workers. Typists and compositors, who type or set up the manuscript, frequently make errors, and their work should also be carefully Campbell, W. W. Universities and the Truth. School and Society, XX ( 1924) , p. 294-295. 12 How to Write a Thesis checked. One's reputation as a scholar depends very largely on the carefulness with which one's work is done. It is impossible to secure and maintain an enviable reputation as a scholar when inaccurate work is produced. 2. OBJECTIVITY. The thesis should be objective, not subjective, in its method; that is, facts and evidence (objective data) must buttress the document, and not merely the unsupported opinion (subjective data) of the writer. Subjective statements such as "I believe this was the cause and that is the result" should usually be avoided in a thesis. For the establishment of any point, only objective data can be relied upon. If the writer's opinions be given, either they should be supported with data collected in the investigation of the thesis problem or the reader should be cited to other investigations which substantiate the opinions expressed. It is well to keep in mind that facts and evidence can help to solve problems, but mere opinion can never solve them. However , on many topics at present, only opinion can be secured as evidence; in such instances, opinion-particularly the opinion of several people-may be used as evidence, but it should not be used as conclusive evidence. Most theses, Scientific Nature of the Thesis 13 particularly when first submitted, have as one of their greatest shortcomings the violation of the principle of objectivity. 3. IMPARTIALITY. Such things as prejudices, feelings, and preconceived notions about the thesis problem should not be allowed to vitiate one's work on it. Only the truth is wanted, and it should be assiduously and impartially sought after and recorded however much against one's feelings, personal interests, or anything else it may be. If there be two or more sides to the question being investigatedand there frequently are-one should be fair to all sides. The aim should be to discover and report "the truth, and nothing but the truth ;" this penchant for the truth is the guiding aim of all true scientists, all other aims being corollary and secondary to it. 4. VERIFICATION. The investigation should be so reported that, if desired, it may be readily duplicated and verified. Therefore, the method of attack, sources of data, and other aspects of the investigation, which will aid anyone, who may care to do so, readily to duplicate and verify the whole investigation or any part of it, should be carefully indicated. Fre 14 How to Write a Thesis quently, data of minor import, which, if presented in the thesis would tend to clutter it, may well be filed somewhere, say, in the university library where they would be available, if needed, to other investigators. SOME COMMON VIOLATIONS OF THE PRINCI- PLES OF SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURE. Some common violations of the aforementioned principles of scientific procedure are set down below; these and other violations should be carefully avoided : 1. Stating one's opinion as a fact without any evidence or without sufficient evidence to support it. Example : "I am sure that the script method of presenting words in spelling is better than the print method." A statement such as the foregoing, unless it is supported with ample evidence, is merely an opinion and, therefore, cannot be expected to establish any point. In scientific writing, if opinions are given, they should be stated as only opinions, not as facts. 2. Stating the opinion of a reputed authority as a fact. Example : "Professor Smith, a noted physicist, gives his opinion that the Ein- stein theory is correct, therefore, the theory cannot be successfully assailed." Scientific Nature of the Thesis 15 The foregoing statement illustrates the unfortunately common tendency to accept as absolute truth an opinion of a reputed authority. The chances are that an outstanding authority will always have evidence to support his statements; but, if he does not have, then his pronouncements can be accepted as opinions only, not as facts. Someone has facetiously remarked, but, perhaps with considerable truth, that " one man's opinion is just as good as another's, probably a little better. " The theory that "the king cannot be wrong or do wrong" has no place in science. 3. Stating the opinion of a committee as a truth. Example : "The committee decides that the best work can be done in high school classes that have no more than twenty-five pupils." Many people believe that the opinions of committees, particularly the opinions of those committees composed of people of eminence, should always be accepted as truth. However, it ought to be evident that even a "congress of notables," however honest and diligent in searching for the truth the members of it may be, can go astray in its search for the truth. Frequently the opinion of the committee will have been arrived at through a series of com 16 How to Write a Thesis promises-compromises that have done violence to the truth. The function of the scientist is to discover the whole truth and to make it known to his fellow-men ; the function is not to discover half truth, nor is it to compromise the truth in any regard. Two plus two equal four, and a view which would make two plus two equal three or five can never be accepted by a true scientist. In the realm of science a thing is true or not true, the vote of a "congress of notables" to the contrary notwithstanding. 4. Stating the opinion of the majority as a fact. Example : "Most people believe that consolidated schools are less expensive and better than one-room schools ; therefore the point is proved." The only comment needed on the foregoing statement is that the opinion of the majority does not necessarily establish truth. The opinion of the majority has frequently been proved untenable. One of the worst incubuses of progress, past and present, is the wide-spread belief that the opinion of the majority settles a question. 5. Reasoning from analogy. Example : "It has been demonstrated that rats, guinea pigs, Scientific Nature of the Thesis 17 and monkeys learn by this method, therefore, we may conclude that children learn by the same method." The false logic in the foregoing statement is evident. The only sure way to demonstrate how children learn is to experiment on them, not on rats, guinea pigs, monkeys, and other animals. Experimentation might prove that children learn in an entirely different manner from the animals mentioned. 6. Reasoning from silence. Example : "The tale that Washington cut down his father's cherry tree has never been disproved ; therefore the tale must be accepted as fact." Even though a belief has not been disproved, the fact does not necessarily prove the belief to be a correct one. We cannot be sure whether a belief is tenable or untenable until all of the available evidence has been collected on it. About the foregoing tale, it were as logical to say that, " The tale that Washington cut down his father's cherry tree has never been proved true, therefore, the tale cannot yet be accepted as fact." 7. Omission of evidence contrary to a certain theory which the author supports. This omission may be either intentional or uninten 18 How to Write a Thesis tional, but in either case, it evinces unscientific work. 8. Failure to indicate how and where data were secured. Failure to indicate how and where data were secured makes an investigation unverifiable, and, therefore, unscientific. 9. Inaccurate or vague citations, quotations, dates, etc., etc. 10. Wrong interpretation of data; for example, the stating of a possible fact as a probable or certain fact. The Selection and Planning 19 II . THE SELECTION, DELIMITATΙΟΝ , AND PLANNING OF THE PROBLEM RESPONSIBILITY FOR SELECTING THE PROB- LEM . The responsibility for selecting the thesis problem should be on the student, not on his instructors. One good index of the ability of the student to do graduate work is the degree to which he is able to discover problems in his major field. The foregoing statements do not imply, however, that problems are not to be called to the attention of students-quite the contrary is meant. Consultations with instructors on feasible thesis problems are always desirable, but, in order that the student may receive full benefit from the preparation of the thesis, it should be expected that he do the actual selecting of the problem. The selecting of the problem and the planning of the attack upon it are as important in the training of the student as is the solving of the problem. In fact, many problems are largely solved when the methods of attacking them have been determined. 20 How to Write a Thesis MAKING A WRITTEN RECORD OF LIVE PROB- LEMS. In order that live problems may not be forgotten, it is a good plan to make a written record of all such problems as they come to mind. The writer of this manual has followed for several years the practice of writing on an index card a statement of each particularly live and unsolved problem in his field that occurs to him; this list of problems he finds to be particularly helpful in guiding both his personal research work and that of his students. Unless some plan for making a record of them is followed, problems come to mind, then tend to flit away frequently never to return. WHEN TO SELECT THE PROBLEM. The problem should be selected and work begun on it as early in the student's graduate work as possible-during the first weeks, if at all possible. This will give more time to mature one's thought on the problem, and the result will be a better thesis. A hastily produced thesis is almost always a poor one, and, if poor, is everlastingly to the discredit of both the student that produces it and the university that accepts it. CRITERIA FOR SELECTING THE PROBLEM . Much thought will be necessary on the part of 21 The Selection and Planning the student, if a suitable problem is to be selected. When selecting the problem the following criteria, among others, should be kept in mind : I. The novelty of the problem. That is, how much work, if any, has already been done on the general problem and will further work on it be feasible ? Before plunging into a problem, the student should make sure that he is not duplicating, unawares at least, the work of someone, particularly the work of someone who has made a scholarly investigation of the problem. The time of scientific workers is generally too valuable to spend in working on problems that have already been sufficiently investigated by other workers. However, such considerations as the discovery of new methods and techniques, which methods and techniques were not extant at the time of making a given investigation, might make it advisable to duplicate in part the earlier investigation for verification and further discoveries. 2. The student's interest in the problem. It goes without saying that a problem should be selected in which the student has genuine interest. It is curiously true, though, that work 22 How to Write a Thesis on almost any problem grows increasingly interesting to the true research scholar. 3. The practical value of research on the problem to the student and others. Other things being equal, an attempt should be made to select a problem whose solution will be of practical value to the student and other persons as well . 4. The student's special qualifications to attack the problem. That is, does the student have the special qualifications prerequisite for an effective attack upon the proposed problem or would he do better to select another problem on which his special qualifications would show to better advantage. It should be noted that the attack on some problems requires large ability in statistics ; on others, unusual power of description ; on others, large knowledge of experimental procedure; on others, thorough familiarity with the historical method ; and on still others, other special abilities are required. 5. The availability of data on the problem. That is, are data which bear on the problem available and reasonably accessible. It should be noted that data on some problems are difficult if not impossible to secure. 23 The Selection and Planning 6. The cost of investigating the problem. 7. The time the investigation of the problem will probably require. DELIMITING THE PROBLEM . Well defined limits being necessary to the effective and economical collection, organization, evaluation, and interpretation of data on a problem, it is usually advisable, after the general problem has been decided upon, to delimit it. This delimination of the problem implies, among other things, an exact statement of it. Thus, not "The Teaching of Spelling" as a statement of a thesis problem, but, "The Script versus the Print Method of Presenting Words in Spelling. " The latter statement of the problem is definite, and, if followed, would prevent the common mistake of taking in too much territory ; moreover, it would prevent "flut- tering in all directions and flying in none." The investigation should arrive somewhere, should establish some point or points, and this usually cannot be accomplished unless the general problem is delimited. A problem sufficiently limited in scope should be selected so that one can attack it exhaustively. A thesis is not an essay, and the effusiveness of the 24 How to Write a Thesis typical essay should be avoided in preparing it. On the contrary, the less common mistake of defining the problem so narrowly that it is hopelessly isolated from every other problem should be avoided. The broader implications of problems selected for research must be kept in mind, if one is to avoid being merely a research drudge. PLANNING THE ATTACK ON THE PROBLEM . All details of attacking the problem should be carefully planned before work is begun on the problem. Unless this is done, disappointments in such matters as securing data, and choice of methods will be frequent. Failure to do this preliminary planning will frequently necessitate that either the whole investigation or a large part of it be done over. Admitting that the trial and error method is the only one that can be used in many instances, nevertheless, careful planning will reduce to a minimum the necessity for relying on this method. A definite and complete outline of the problem should be worked out before work is begun on the problem; this outline may then be revised in pursuing the problem as necessity demands. Such an outline will tend to aid in securing proportion, in The Selection and Planning 25 avoiding superfluity, and in preventing wandering. Even the most eminent investigators plan their work with great care ; if so, how much more necessary it is for the novice to plan his work with great care. The following is a general outline which may be adapted to the needs of most research problems. Some such outline should be worked out in detail to meet the special needs of the particular problem that is being investigated. I. Title. A title that consists of as few words as possible-yet words that indicate as accurately and comprehensively as possible the contents of the manuscript should be selected. The title should be designed to attract the reader's attention, but it should not be misleading. 2. Introduction . The introduction should not be disproportionately long, nor should any part of it, as is often the case, be prolix. The introduction might well include the following : (a) a statement of the problem and an exact delimitation of it ; also a mention of the importance of the problem ; (b) a statement of any work that has already been done on the problem or on closely related problems by other investigators ; (c) a description of the 26 How to Write a Thesis materials and methods that are used in the investigation ; if thought best, a brief statement of the materials and methods might be made in the introduction, then a more detailed description of them might be made as needed in later sections of the manuscript. 3. Results. The presentation of results will, of course, probably require the major part of the manuscript; in this part of the manuscript the following things should be presented : (a) a detailed presentation of the data of the investigation and a mention of how the data were secured ; (b) an interpretation of the data. 4. Summary. The summary should bring out succinctly the more important things of the investigation . For a more detailed statement of what a summary should contain, see pages 47 and 48 of this manual. "BROWSING” THROUGH SOME GOOD THESES . To discover how their authors outlined and attacked their problems, it will probably be helpful for the student to "browse" through some of the better theses that have been prepared. The student's instructors will be glad to suggest some of these better theses. The Selection and Planning 27 However, in this examination of theses, the student should not get the idea, as some students tend to do, that the aim is to prepare a thesis as good only as the typical one, for the typical thesis and even the best one for that matter-may be of such poor quality that a particularly able student would not care to admit having written it. The aim should be to prepare a thesis that excels even the best in both content and form. Only by following this ideal can increasingly eminent scholarship result. TYPES OF THESES. A classification of theses cannot be categorically made, because few theses are wholly of one type. In fact, most theses, although they may use primarily the technique of one method of research, nevertheless use to some extent all or most of the various methods of research. It should be mentioned, however, that the "unity of spirit" of a thesis may oftentimes be injured by the use in it of too many different methods of research. Most theses are primarily, if not wholly, of one of the three following types : 1. Experimental. In this type of thesis, an experiment is performed according to correct 28 How to Write a Thesis experimental procedure to ascertain the effect or effects of a given factor or factors on another factor or factors. Examples : "The Effect of Different Types of Soils on Growing Corn ;" "The Relation Between the Physical Condition of Children and Their Ability to Learn ." 2. Historical. An historical thesis uses the historical method of research and traces for a given period the development of a given situation or situations. Examples : "A History of the Democratic Party in the United States from 1828 to 1920;" "The Evolution of the Office of County Superintendent of Schools in the United States from 1835 to 1924. " 3. Descriptive. In this type of thesis, attempt is made to describe a given situation so that it will be entirely intelligible. Examples : "Distribution of Income in the United States in 1923 ; " " The Legal Status of the Business Manager of Schools in the United States in 1924." The Working Bibliography III . 29 THE WORKING BIBLIOGRAPHY WHY AND WHEN TO MAKE THE WORKING BIBLIOGRAPHY. One of the first things to do after the problem has been selected or tentatively selected is to survey the literature of the general field of the problem to discover what, if anything, has already been done on the problem or on closely related problems. In the first place, this preliminary survey should be made because it may be the means of suggesting such things as subordinate problems which might be attacked, sources of data, methods of attack, and possible mistakes to be avoided ; in the second place, it should be made to discover whether the problem has already been solved or partly solved by some other person, thus making it perhaps inadvisable for another worker to cover the same field. It is a good plan to summarize briefly at some appropriate point in the thesis (usually at the beginning) any work which has already been done on the problem by others. PROCEDURE IN MAKING THE WORKING BIBLI- OGRAPHY. Everything that shows a possibility of containing pertinent material should be ex 30 How to Write a Thesis amined . Those references that are found to be helpful in furthering the investigation should be perused and listed, and those not helpful should be discarded. The care with which a reference should be examined will depend, of course, on its prospective relevancy and probable helpfulness. A mere turning of the pages of some references will be sufficient to show that the references are not pertinent to the study at hand, and, therefore, should be discarded. The sources that should be examined in the bibliographical survey will vary with the problem, but the following general suggestions on those that should usually be examined may be given : ( 1 ) Ask instructors, reference librarians, and others competent to suggest references and likely leads. (2) Examine books, government documents, reports, theses, and special investigations that deal with the same general problem or with related problems ; examine particularly the bibliographies at the ends of the various chapters or topics of these works. (3) Consult the card catalog of the library on the problem. (4) Consult the various periodical and subject indexes such as the Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature, Poole's Index, The Working Bibliography 31 Book Review Digest, Cumulative Book Index, International Index, and Magazine Subject Index. Note also that certain subjects have their own indexes, and that the pertinent ones of these indexes should be consulted; some of these indexes are : Agricultural Index, Busi- ness Digest, Dramatic Index, Engineering Index, Index Medicus, Industrial Arts Index, and International Military Index. Consult the index volumes of periodicals in the general field of the problem. (6) Consult the New Guide to Reference Books (published, 1923, by the American Library Association) ; this book contains probably the best classification of reference books that we have ; it gives a complete list of all the sources listed above and several other sources as well. In brief, one should follow up all leads that appear to be worth while ; the finding of one reference will frequently be the means of discovering others. It is a good plan to make the working bibliography on filing cards, using one card for each reference. This will permit the arranging of the cards to allow in the final bibliography an alphabetical or any other organization of the references that may be desired. Filing cards of 3 by 5 inches are a good size to use. 32 How to Write a Thesis In order to save time in having to do it later, one should get all needed bibliographical data on a reference at the time the reference is first examined. In organizing a large final bibliography, several hours might be required to secure from the card catalog of the library only one missing item on each reference. The library number of the reference should be entered in the upper left-hand corner of the card (see accompanying sample) so that if there is need to refer again to the work time may be saved in securing it from the library. If, upon examination of the reference, it is found pertinent, it will be helpful for its future use to LB5 3 . R 96 V. 141 Ayres, L. P. An Index Number for State School Systems. New York : Department of Education, Russell Sage Foundation, 1920. 70 р. A statistical study which ranks the several states and territories of the Union on the efficiency of their school systems. The Working Bibliography 33 enter on the card a brief annotation indicating the general contents and merits of the reference. A completed card might well follow the form of the accompanying sample :2 * The sample follows closely the catalog scheme of the Library of Congress. It should be mentioned that there are in use at present several schemes of recording bibliographical data. These schemes vary only slightly and it matters little which one is used so long as one is adopted in the beginning and is used consistently throughout. For suggestions on how to prepare the final bibliography, see pages 79 to 81 of this manual. 34 IV. How to Write a Thesis THE COLLECTION OF MATERIAL The material for the thesis may be collected either through personal investigation or by means of a questionnaire. PERSONAL INVESTIGATION. Whenever possible the data for the thesis should be collected through personal investigation rather than by means of a questionnaire; by personal investigation is meant the use of such means and devices as personal correspondence, interviews, the examination of needed sources, and the setting up of an experiment or experiments to secure needed data. A following of the foregoing suggestion will make for greater accuracy of data and will save the time of busy people in having to fill out a questionnaire. There are hundreds of published documents such as State and Federal reports that contain invaluable data which are frequently overlooked in making investigations ; some of our most eminent studies have secured their data from these documents. Before sending out a questionnaire, one should make sure that the data desired cannot be feasibly secured by other and better means. The wide-spread use-fre The Collection of Material 35 quently unnecessary use of questionnaires, and particularly the flood of poorly designed questionnaires, has brought into disrepute in recent years the questionnaire method of collecting data. THE QUESTIONNAIRE. 3 As noted above, the questionnaire method of collecting data should not be used, except when personal investigation is impracticable. When it is necessary to use the questionnaire the following things, among others, should be kept in mind in designing and distributing it : 1. Each question should be immediately clear. A question should be so stated that only one interpretation will be placed on it. A questionnaire which is difficult to understand either will not be answered at all or will be answered inaccurately or incompletely. 2. The questionnaire should be so designed that as little time and trouble as possible will be required to answer it. To this end, reduce to a minimum the necessity for writing long answers . 3. No point of information that is not needed or that is available in printed form or See page 130 for a sample questionnaire. 36 How to Write a Thesis that can be feasibly procured through personal investigation should be asked for. On the other hand, lest further correspondence be required, one should make sure that no point of information that is wanted is overlooked. 4. The questionnaire should be so designed that the information secured from it may be easily tabulated and organized. The investigator should look ahead to try to determine how the data may be best tabulated and organized. Data that may be objectively tabulated and organized should be secured on most questions of the questionnaire. However, in investigating some problems, it will often be deemed feasible, on some questions of the questionnaire, to give the one, who is expected to fill out the questionnaire, an opportunity to express himself somewhat fully. 5. Plenty of space should be left after each question to write in the information asked for. 6. In order to secure a larger response, a personal touch between the investigator and his informants should be gotten. Some ways of getting this personal touch are by enclosing a short personal letter with the questionnaire or by promising a copy of the results to those The Collection of Material 37 who coöperate in the investigation; once made, this promise to furnish a copy of the results of the study should be kept. If data are wanted from only a few people, and the number of questions to be asked is small, it is recommended that, whenever possible, the questions be asked in a personal letter. Personal letters will almost always draw a one hundred per cent response, but form letters and questionnaires will not. 7. If the questionnaire is on a sheet of paper, it is advisable to use the standard letter size, 8½ XII inches, so that the sheet will fit the ordinary letter file. If a card is used, it should be one of the standard sizes, 3 x 5 inches, 4 x 6 inches, or 5 x 8 inches ; this will permit a ready filing of the cards in standard index drawers. The paper used should be of a good grade ; furthermore, the printing, mimeographing, or typing should be neatly done. 8. Before the questionnaire is sent out it should be criticised and approved by the student's instructors or other persons who are capable. It should then be tried out on a small group of those to whom it is to go finally ; after this trial it should be revised where 38 How to Write a Thesis needed and then forwarded to all those from whom information is desired. 9. It is feasible usually to enclose with the questionnaire a self-addressed and stamped envelope for reply. Personal letters do not necessitate the sending of self-addressed and stamped envelopes as much as form letters do. 10. When printing or mimeographing the questionnaire, some extra copies should be secured so that they will be available for follow-up purposes. It is an unusual questionnaire that secures a one hundred per cent response even after one or two follow-ups have been sent out. The number of follow-ups to be sent will be determined, of course, by the degree of need for the data not yet sent in. PRIMARY VS. SECONDARY SOURCES. Second- ary sources are those that take their data from other sources, either primary or secondary, while original or primary sources are those that secure their data at the origin of the data. Thus, a first-hand investigation of the population of a city would give one the most original or primary data on the population of the city ; a report of the U. S. Census Bureau on the population of the city would give data that The Collection of Material 39 are a little less original or primary ; while a work which quotes, say, a publication of the U. S. Bureau of Census on the population of the city would give data that are still less original or primary-so much more so that we would wish to call such a source a secondary one. From what has just been said it is evident that sources can differ much in their degree of primacy. In collecting and using data, chief reliance should be placed on original or primary sources rather than on secondary ones. For example, to secure desired information on a given law it would be better to look up the law in a copy of the statutes rather than to risk a report of someone on the law ; or, to secure certain statistics it would be better to go to original sources than to take the statistics from secondary sources. It is evident that when original or primary sources are used one does not risk inaccuracies inaccuracies of the author, his typist, or the compositor as much as when secondary sources are utilized. One criterion for judging the merit of an investigation is the extent to which the investigator used original or primary sources to the exclusion of secondary ones. One can never be absolutely 40 How to Write a Thesis sure of the accuracy of secondary data; however, in spite of this limitation, lack of time will frequently make it either necessary or advisable to use secondary data, particularly on subordinate matters . MENTIONING WEAKNESSES OF THE INVESTI- GATION. If there are gaps or possible errors in the data, one should be frank in indicating them. One should be diligent in pointing out any limitations of the data and the general difficulties under which the investigation was pursued. It is more honest and scholarly to make apologies for the weaknesses of an investigation than to attempt to "cover up" the weaknesses. However, a true scientist will not be forever making excuses and apologies, but instead will obviate whenever possible the necessity for excuses and apologies. AMOUNT OF DATA TO SECURE. Sufficient data should be secured to give the thesis enough substance and stability to permit a few conclusions to be drawn with probability of accuracy. It seems to be worth mentioning that most theses tend to have too few data rather than too many. Conferences with Instructors V. 41 CONFERENCES WITH INSTRUCTORS THE IMPORTANCE OF CONFERENCES. As was remarked in the first pages of this manual, the chief purpose of the thesis is to give the student training in doing research and in the orderly and otherwise scholarly presentation of the results of research. In order, therefore, that the student may receive his proper training he should keep closely in touch with the instructor who is directing his thesis. However, this does not mean that conferences are to be held with instructors in order to get the work of the thesis done. The student should not ask his instructors to do work that he can do. When in doubt, however, on some important matter he should consult his instructors, for some point improperly handled may require that either the whole thesis or a large part of it be re-written. It is well to keep in mind that instructors can be expected only to direct the writing of theses ; manifestly they cannot be expected to write them. SOME SUGGESTED TIMES FOR CONFERENCES . A few times when conferences with instructors 42 How to Write a Thesis would appear desirable are : ( 1 ) when choosing a problem and planning the general attack upon it ; ( 2 ) when a definite outline of the problem has been prepared; this outline should include in general a definite delimitation of the problem, a statement of the method or methods of attack, and a mention of the sources of data ; ( 3 ) after the investigation of the problem has been begun, one's technique has been tried out, and a few data have been collected ; (4) when all data have been collected and are ready to be organized into final form; and ( 5 ) after the instructors have read the complete thesis or a part of it and are ready to report their criticisms. INITIATIVE IN ARRAnging conFERENCES. Since the responsibility for preparing the thesis is primarily on the student, he should take the initiative in seeking out his instructor or instructors whenever a conference is needed. In order that time may be saved, the student should come to a conference armed with some definite questions or propositions. ACCEPTING CRITICISMS. One grows from constructive criticism, therefore, criticism of shortcomings in one's work should always be Conferences with Instructors 43 welcomed and sought. Praise, when properly bestowed, may be helpful, yet it alone is never enough ; some imperfections and all works have some imperfections need to be called to the attention of the author if he is to continue developing. The function of the critic is not altogether to bestow praise ; it is largely, or at least partly, to find fault. 44 How to Write a Thesis VI. THE ORGANIZATION AND INTERPRETATION OF MATERIAL THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD ORGANIZATION. However difficult and however important the task of collecting the material for the thesis is, nevertheless, of still greater difficulty and importance is the task of organizing and interpreting the material. In organizing and interpreting his material the writer has his chief opportunity to display his ability. Manifestly that research is most valuable which advances human progress in some manner. Research which is reported in well organized and otherwise readable form will be sought after more and consequently will tend to further human progress more than research reported in a less intelligible form. Frequently, even highly technical material can be presented so that it may be easily read and will thus tend to make its appeal to a larger group ; at any rate, the ideal should always be to present one's material so that it will be as easily read as possible and will make its appeal to the largest group possible. It follows, therefore, that everything which will aid the reader should be Organization and Interpretation 45 utilized in the organization and interpretation of the material of the thesis. SUGGESTIONS ON THE ORGANIZATION AND INTERPRETATION OF MATERIAL. A few general suggestions on the organization and interpretation of the data of the thesis are recorded herewith . 1. Unity. The thesis, like any other piece of writing, should have unity ; that is, it should deal with only the subject which it announced in the beginning it would deal with. It may, of course, include with propriety a number of subordinate topics, if these topics are logical divisions of the main one. In order that unity may be had, all material should be selected with great care ; this implies that only material which contributes to the solution and under- standing of the problem should be included. In order that the interests of both the writer of the thesis and the reader of it may be better served, it will probably be desirable to organize the thesis into divisions such as parts, chapters, and sections, with each of these divisions having a well chosen caption. ( See page 112 for suggestions on this point.) However, too many divisions tend to make a manuscript too mechanical and thus difficult to read. 46 How to Write a Thesis 2. Coherence . The thesis, like any piece of writing, should have coherence; that is, one part should logically follow another. Much re-arranging of material and tying together of various parts will generally be necessary if this standard is to be met. An order of topics, that best serves the needs of clearness and logic, should be chosen; this order may be determined by and based on such matters as importance, time, complexity, cause and effect, or similarity or contrast. 3. Emphasis. In addition to having unity and coherence, the thesis, like any piece of writing, should be written with regard to the relative importance of the several topics and the relative need of developing them. The more important topics should be fully developed, while those of less importance, or those that are somewhat commonplace should be discussed only briefly. 4. Generalizations. The data should be organized so that some generalizations may be made. Merely to show the data is hardly sufficient; they need to be interpreted as well as shown. The writer of the thesis, having worked on his problem perhaps several hun Organization and Interpretation 47 dred hours, ought to be in a better position to interpret his data and to draw conclusions therefrom than any other person and the opportunity should be taken advantage of. How- ever, judiciousness should always be used in drawing conclusions and in making interpretations ; possibilities or probabilities should not be stated as demonstrated facts, nor mere possibilities as probabilities. Such conclusions and interpretations as are affirmed should grow out of the data of the investigation ; they shouldn't be merely guesses, prejudices, or wild theories. 5. Summary. The thesis should be summarized at either its end or beginning in a few outstanding propositions. It is worth remembering, however, that an accurate and clear presentation of the material obviates the necessity of much space being given to the summary. The summary should emphasize the significant matters of the investigation and should not be merely a "rehash" of unimportant detail. Some excellent writers summarize briefly each chapter at its close, then at either the end or beginning of the manuscript they summarize the whole work. A good summary should do the following things : (a) it should enable anyone, who doesn't have the time or inclina 48 How to Write a Thesis tion to read the whole manuscript, to secure from the summary the outstanding facts and conclusions ; (b) it should give anyone who has read the whole manuscript a new, integrated, and more lasting view of it ; and (c) it should tell the reader whether or not he should read the whole manuscript. The general practice is to place the summary at the end of the manuscript, but there has developed of recent years a considerable tendency to place it at the chief point of vantage in the manuscript, namely, at the beginning. Necessity for Good English VII. 49 THE NECESSITY FOR GOOD ENGLISH A careless reader of St. Paul's letter to the Corinthians might gain the idea that literary excellence is of minor importance. Nevertheless the fact remains that many a well organized thesis has been badly handicapped because its author failed to speak with the tongues of men and of angels. Even the touchy little tentmaker from Tarsus would admit that the sounding brass and the tinkling cymbal of precise and clear diction have helped many an inferior piece of work to gain attention. Let us, therefore, turn our attention to some dressmaking hints that are designed to assist the student to clothe his thesis in attractive, forceful form. The student should devote the most con- scientious care to the English composition of his thesis ; he should ever bear in mind that his scholarship is judged very largely on the basis of his ability to present his material properly to the reader . Assuming that one really has something to say, there are but three prerequisites to good 50 How to Write a Thesis writing, namely : accuracy, clarity, charm. In order that the standards of accuracy, clarity, and charm may be better met, meticulous care should be devoted to such matters as spelling, punctuation, capitalization, sequence of tenses, choice of words, italics, sentence structure, and paragraph structure. In all forms of expression, whether written or oral, the student must keep in mind the meaning of Von Moltke's final instructions to his officers at the beginning of the FrancoPrussian War : "Remember, gentlemen, that any order which can be misunderstood, will be misunderstood." It is not enough that a statement be so written that it may be understood ; it should be so written that it cannot be misunderstood . The basis of both accuracy and clarity rests upon mutually understood definitions of terms. Much of the vitality of long-winded and seemingly endless debates-whether in the barber shop, the rural store, or the United States Senate-is derived from the fact that the contend- ing parties attach differing meanings to the same word or words. After the smoke of battle has cleared away the debaters often learn that they have been arguing fiercely for the Necessity for Good English 51 same point. It is the duty of the writer to lay down explicit definitions for the terms he uses so that the reader can follow him intelligently. Most students will find it advisable to re- write, perhaps several times, many of their propositions, in order that all obscurities and ambiguities may be removed. It is reported that Lincoln, throughout his life, would reduce to writing and then re-write many times any proposition about which he was thinking in order that there should be no obscurities or ambiguities, even for the uneducated, in the final statement of it. To secure clarity the student should be extremely careful in the use of illustrations, allusions, and associations of ideas with which to develop his thought. For example, when I allude to St. Paul's Epistle to the Corinthians in the first paragraph of this chapter or were I to say, "do not hide the light of clarity under the bushel of inappropriate and irrelevant illustration " do I know whether you ever read the Bible sufficiently to understand those allusions ? Or again, were I to say, "Many a young writer escapes the Scylla of poor organization of his theme to fall into the Charybdis of poor expression"-how do I know whether 52 How to Write a Thesis or not you ever heard of either Scylla or Charybdis ? Having achieved accuracy in the logical steps by which he has organized his thought, the student must, however, be careful to make sufficient use of association of ideas and depth of treatment to bring out exactness of meaning. As an aid to lucid writing, one should study words. Such study will be found as engaging as it is useful. Such books as Crabb's English Synonyms, and Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases, will be found as interesting as they are helpful in teaching one the exact meanings of words. Words that are obscure, ambiguous, too technical, or otherwise inappropriate should be avoided. The practice of Robert Louis Stevenson who, it is reported, would oftentimes spend several hours in searching for a particular word that he needed to express a certain meaning, might well be kept in mind as an ideal. Having the words, one must work for good sentence structure. Short sentences are the most forceful, generally speaking. At the same time terseness is always subject to the danger of ambiguity. The brevity for which the soldiers of ancient Sparta were famed, Necessity for Good English 53 while often possessing a sturdy, rugged sort of epigrammatic charm, by its very bluntness often missed the clearness and ease of under- standing attained by their more loquacious rivals of Athens. The student must use sufficient qualifying words and phrases to make his meaning precise. The sentences must be properly grouped in paragraphs. A paragaph represents a single unit or step in the development of the chapter or thesis. The component sentences of a paragraph must be arranged to bring out the thought in orderly sequence and, in general, to prepare the ground for what is to follow. The questions of punctuation, the use of abbreviations, and capitalization, are largely decided by the usage learned by the individual student, unless subject to specific rules of the school or publisher to whom the thesis is to be submitted. It is essential, however, that the writer adopt and maintain uniformity in matters of the mechanics of composition. As for charm, we must fall back on the old rhetorical dictum that "the style is the man." Charm is a fickle, temperamental goddess who must be courted long and assiduously. 54 How to Write a Thesis Charm is the essence of the courage, sunshine, and zest reflected "between the lines" from the author to the reader. This quality is developed only after much effort and study and practice by the writer. Generally speaking, the student will have achieved sufficient charm in the production of his thesis if he succeeds in achieving accuracy and clarity. That theses be written in a charm- ing style though a splendid ideal is probably too much to insist upon ; but it is not too much to expect that they be written in precise and clear diction. One way to improve one's ability to write is to devote meticulous care to everything that one writes. Unless this care is given to writing the thesis, the student misses some of the valuable training which the writing of the thesis is expected to give. Citations and Footnotes VIII. 55 THE FORM OF CITATIONS AND FOOTNOTES THE NECESSITY FOR CITING AUTHORITIES. The authority for each important statement of fact and for each opinion quoted literally or otherwise should be cited. Unless authorities are cited, the reader may be left in doubt as to the scientific merit of the investigation ; moreover, the failure to cite authorities tends to make the research worker careless, a habit which he cannot afford to have fasten itself upon him. In order to save time in having to obtain them later, all necessary data on a reference, such as the name of the author, the exact title of the reference, and the exact pages that are referred to, should be secured at the time the reference is first examined. Meticulous care should be taken to see that all references are correctly cited. THE TWO PLANS OF CITING AUTHORITIES. Two plans of citing authorities are in use at the present time. The plan which is usually followed is to cite authorities in the footnotes ; the other plan, which is coming to be more widely used, is to cite them in the body of the How to Write a Thesis 56 pages of the manuscript. Whichever plan of citing is adopted should be followed consistently throughout the manuscript. 4 PLAN I - FOOTNOTE CITATIONS A footnote citation should always give enough information to permit the reader readily to locate the reference. Complete bibliographical data on a reference are not needed in the footnote citation, if such data are given in a final bibliography. Note the following models for footnote citations :5 A. Models for books and similar works : 1 Koos, L. V. The Junior High School, p. 43-48. * James, William. Principles of Psychology. Vol. I, p. 96. * The Federalist, p. 46. McCracken, C. C. Logan County and Bellefontaine, Ohio, School Survey, p. 17. B. Models for periodical articles : * Arps, G. F. Work with Knowledge of Results versus 4 *These suggestions are based in the main on A Manual of Style of the University of Chicago Press, (7th ed. ) , and on Catalog Rules of the American Library Association, (American ed.) . For more detailed suggestions, if needed, those works may be consulted. See pages 113 and 114 for sample pages containing footnotes . Other orders of entry of data and other plans of punctuation may be used, provided they are followed consistently throughout the manuscript ; consistency in the matter is sine qua non. Citations and Footnotes 57 Work Without Knowledge of Results. The Psychological Monographs, XXVIII (1917) , p. 7. Bobbitt, J. F. High School Costs. The School Review, XXIII ( 1915) , p. 505-534. Note that some magazines in numbering their pages begin each issue with page number one; in such cases it is necessary to give the month of the issue as well as the year; for example : Sears, J. B. Some Data on the Cost of School Hous- ing. The American School Board Journal, LXVIII (June, 1924) , p. 42-45. C. Models for statutes, government, and miscellaneous documents : • California . Laws, Statutes, 1891, Sec. 1793. 9 U. S. Laws, Statutes, etc., 1889-1890 (51st Cong., 1st Sess .) . 1ºAlton, Ill. Board of Education. Annual Report, 1918-19, p. 54. Ohio. School Laws, 1922, p. 75. In order to avoid unnecessary repetitions of references or parts of them the following terms may be frequently used in making citations : 1. Ibid. ( for ibidem, meaning, in the same place) indicates a reference to a work that has been cited immediately above. It indicates that the reference is to be repeated exactly. Example : *Cubberley, E. P. p. 50-53. Ibid., p. 83-86. Ibid., p. 185. The Principal and His School, How to Write a Thesis 58 2. To avoid repetition of the title, a work previously referred to in the footnotes may be cited by giving the name of the author, followed by the abbreviation, op. cit. ( opere citato, meaning, the work cited) , and the pages of the work referred to. Example : Swift, F. H. A History of Public, Permanent Common School Funds in the United States, p. 72-80. Smith, H. L. A Survey of a Public School System, p. 60-71. * Swift, F. H. op. cit., p. 120-123. 3. The abbreviation, loc. cit. , or l. c. ( loco citato, meaning, the place cited) , following an author's name, denotes a reference to the same work previously referred to and to the identical passage of the work. Example: •Buckingham, B. R. Spelling Ability ; Its Measurement and Distribution, p. 40. 1º Buckingham, B. R. loc. cit. CAUTIONS concerning CITATIONS AND FOOTNOTES. The following cautions and suggestions concerning how to make citations and arrange footnotes will be worth keeping in mind : 1. All footnotes, except those to tables and illustrations, should be separated from the re Citations and Footnotes 59 mainder of the page by a line of, say, two or three inches or longer drawn across the page beginning at the left hand margin ; for footnotes to tables and illustrations, see suggestions 5 and 6 below. 2. It is suggested that each footnote be paragraphed. 3. If the thesis is divided into chapters or parts, it is suggested that the footnotes for each chapter or part be begun with footnote 1 . If it is not divided into such separates, the footnote references should be numbered consecutively, beginning with 1 , through the whole manuscript. However, some authorities and style books suggest that the numbers be continuous on the page, and not continuous throughout the manuscript or a division of it. 4. For reference indexes, as a rule, numerals should be used. Only in special cases should letters ( a, b, c, etc. ) , asterisks ( *) , or other types of indexes be used ; for example, in tabular or algebraic matter, where numerals would be likely to cause confusion. 5. For reference indexes to tables and illustrations, to avoid confusion, it is advisable to use the letters ( a, b, c, etc. ) , asterisks ( *) , or 60 How to Write a Thesis some other type of index, instead of numerals , although the use of numerals is permissible. Unlike reference indexes to other portions of the manuscript, those to tables and illustrations need not be consecutive through all tables or illustrations of the manuscript ; for example, the asterisk (*) may be used as a reference index to Table I and re-used in each succeed- ing table if desired. 6. Footnotes to tables and illustrations should appear immediately following such tables and illustrations. ( See the models on pages 117 and 120 ) . 7. It is suggested that the reference index in both the text and the footnote be elevated slightly, as 1 , 2, 3, 4, etc. 8. One should note carefully the punctuation, capitalization, and order of entry of the data of each footnote ; uniformity in these matters should be had. 9. The reference index should come after the punctuation mark that follows the word, sentence, etc., to which the footnote refers. (See the example under point 11 below) . 10. Footnotes should be single spaced. 11. If the author's name is given in the text in connection with a statement referring to, Citations and Footnotes 61 or a quotation from, his work, his name need not be repeated in the footnote ; for example : M. W. Jernegan shows that Massachusetts passed, as early as 1647, a State-wide law re6 quiring communities to establish schools. 12. It is better to give the exact pages of a work that is referred to rather than to use the symbols " f. " and "ff. " ; thus, not p. 435 f., but p. 435-436 ; and not p. 435 ff., but p. 435-43713. It is recommended that the abbreviation "p." be used for both page and pages. The abbreviation "pp.", although commonly used for pages, is apparently poor form ; there appears to be no such abbreviation as "pp." 14. Other material, as well as citations, should be placed in the footnotes, if the placing of it in the text would seriously interfere with the consecutive and clear treatment of the subject. Explanatory material of a less important character, say, a reconciliation of conflicting authority or a qualification of a statement, might well be placed in the footnotes. All material of large importance should be included in the text ; unimportant and irrelevant material should be entirely omitted. • The Beginnings of Public Education in New England. The School Review, ΧΧΙΙΙ ( 1915) , p. 361-380. (Note that the author's name is omitted ) . 62 How to Write a Thesis PLAN 2 - BODY OF THE PAGE CITATIONS Instead of placing the citations in footnotes at the bottoms of the pages, which plan has been described immediately above, a few authors prefer to place them in either parentheses or brackets and to run them in the body of the page and immediately after the statement or statements which they are meant to support. Many authors, when using this plan, number the references in the bibliography, then in citing to one of these references they merely give its number in parentheses or brackets in the text at the place where needed, as ( 15 ) . Other authors, when using the plan, place in the parentheses or brackets the number of the reference as it occurs in the bibliography and also the exact pages of the reference cited to, as ( 15, p. 63-70) , or ( 15, Bobbitt, The Curriculum, p. 63-70) . If this plan of citing is followed, it is recommended that, for the convenience of the reader, fairly complete data on the reference be given, as ( 15, Bobbitt, The Curriculum, p. 63-70) ; (19, Ashbaugh and Stevenson, Educational Research Bulletin, p. 34) . The reader usually wants to know the name of the author and the work referred to and the giving of these data Citations and Footnotes 63 as recommended will save the time required to refer to the bibliography to secure this desired information. This method of citing authorities, although not widely used at present, seems to be growing rapidly. It has the advantages of being more convenient for typists and printers engaged in typing or printing the manuscript and is more economical of space in the manuscript. When used too much, however, as is frequently the case in historical research, it tends to make the contents of the manuscript difficult to read. ABSTRACTS. A reference to a work is usually made in the form of an indirect quotation or brief abstract that summarizes the portion of the work that is pertinent to the study at hand. Credit for ideas taken from any publication, lecture or other source should be given. Indirect quotations should not be inclosed in quotation marks. QUOTATIONS. When direct quotations are used, they should be inclosed in quotation marks. If the quotation is of some length, say, of more than five or six lines, it should be given in a separate paragraph ; short quotations, say, those under five lines in length need not be placed in separate paragraphs. How to Write a Thesis 64 Quotations within a quotation should be inclosed in single quotation marks. Care should be taken to reproduce exactly the work quoted. Any corrections or remarks inserted by the one who quotes should be placed in square brackets ( ) . When for any reason a part of a sentence or paragraph of the quotation is omitted, ellipses, that is, periods should be used to indicate the omission. The general practice is to use four periods, each separated by a space, for an ellipsis at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of a sentence. When a whole paragraph or paragraphs is or are omitted, a full line of periods is usually inserted to indicate the omission ; for example : "The evidence for all cities goes to indicate a greater increase in the cost of buildings than is shown by the general index of the cost of building made up from the wages of workmen and the cost The school building of building materials. figures should therefore be compared with the general index numbers for building six months or a year later. • • These factors tending to increase costs have been offset by very considerable building "7 economies which have been introduced . 7 Burgess, W. R. Trends of School Costs, p. 104. Preparation of Statistical Tables IX . 65 THE PREPARATION OF STATISTICAL TABLES One among the first steps in analyzing statistical data is to organize them in tables. A good beginning on the work of interpreting the data will have been made when the data have been properly organized in tables. The following suggestions should be kept in mind in preparing tables :8 1. Each table should be given a number so that it may be readily referred to in the text. Tables should be numbered consecutively throughout the manuscript. The tendency in practice is toward using Roman numerals ( I , II, III, etc. ) in numbering tables. Space is saved by placing the table number on the same line with the table heading rather than above it. 2. Each table should have a heading or title stating succinctly and exactly its contents. The title or heading should appear above the table, not below it. Avoid in the title or heading the use of superfluous phrases such as "table showing." When a table is continued * See pages 116 to 118 for sample tables illustrating several of these suggestions. How to Write a Thesis 66 1 on the next page it helps the reader to grasp its contents if the table heading and the colunin headings are repeated. 3. One practice is to write all letters of the words of the title or heading in CAPITAL LET- TERS. Another practice is to capitalize oniy the first letter of the important words of the title, that is, all words, except articles, conjunctions, and prepositions ; still another practice is not to capitalize any words, except those that are always capitalized such as the first one in the title, and all proper names. In column headings and in line headings of the table, only the first letter of the first word need be capitalized, except in the case of proper names. 4. In table headings, column headings, and line titles, in the interest of clarity, the use of abbreviations should be avoided whenever possible. 5. The tendency in practice is not to use periods in column headings and line titles, except at the end of a sentence which does not complete a heading or title. Some style books, however, particularly the Style Manual of the Government Printing Office, permit the use of periods in the foregoing instances. Preparation of Statistical Tables 67 6. Periods should not be used in the body of the table, except after abbreviations, and to separate dollars from cents and units from tenths. 7. When financial data are exhibited in a column of a table, the dollar sign should appear only before the first entry in the column and again before the total. 8. Whenever decimal points are used in the data of a column, the data should be arranged in the column so that the decimal points appear in vertical lines with one decimal point above the other. All decimals, dollar signs , and other concrete values should be aligned. 9. To avoid any possibility of confusion, many writers prefer to indicate footnotes for tables by means of letters, asterisks, daggers , etc. , rather than by numerals ; the use of numerals, however, is permissible. Whenever table footnotes are used they should appear immediately following the table and before the inclusion of any other matter. (See page 59, rule 5, for further suggestions on footnotes for tables) . 10. In case no data are available for a particular item, the omission should be indicated 68 How to Write a Thesis either by dashes, - - -, by dots, . , or preferably by leaving the space entirely vacant ; one should not indicate an omission or omissions by a zero or zeroes ; however, when zero value is meant, a zero, o, should be used to indicate it. Some authors insert index numbers in any blank spaces and in the footnotes indicate why the data are missing. 11. In most cases it is preferable to exhibit only one or two units of information in one table; too many units of information tend to make a table confusing, particularly if the units of information are of very different kinds. In other words, a table, like any other piece of writing, should have unity. 12. It is helpful to the reader to introduce a table before it appears in the text. This may be done by explaining briefly the arrangement of the table, if the table is a little com- plex, or by pointing out one or two particularly significant facts in the table. After the table has been presented, other important facts in it, and conclusions to be drawn therefrom, should be given ; somehow the outstanding facts of the table should be made clear to the reader. Preparation of Statistical Tables 69 13. Since typists and printers can conveniently insert tables in the text at certain places only, it is advisable not to refer to tables with such remarks as "the above table" or "the following table ; " instead, they should be referred to by number by using such an expression as "the data of Table X. " . 14. A short table is clearer than a long one ; therefore, if it can be avoided, too much material should not be presented in one table ; long tables tend to be confusing. Frequently, original, gross, or raw data, which, if presented in the text, would tend to clutter it, may well be presented in the Appendix. Origi- nal, gross, or raw data of minor import, which cannot be feasibly presented anywhere in the thesis, should perhaps be filed somewhere, say, in the university library, so that they will be available to other investigators who might desire to verify the investigation or to attack another angle of it. 15. Both original, gross, or raw and derivative data should be presented. Summary and distribution tables are generally necessary to summarize for the reader the original, gross, or raw data of longer tables . 70 How to Write a Thesis 16. In addition to the absolute figures, tables frequently should show percentages, ratios, totals, averages, etc.; such information is usually of great aid in interpreting the absolute figures. 17. One should study carefully the kinds of dividing lines and other mechanical aids that help to make tables more clear. Horizontal lines should enclose the box heads (that is, the heads at the top of columns in a table) ; such a line should also appear at the bottom of a table. Use either heavy or double perpendicular lines when a table is doubled up and it is desirable to separate these parts. Tables may be either open or ruled; the practice is to use rules in tables with more than two columns ; see pages 116 to 118 for samples of ruled and unruled tables. 18. Each item in a table should be checked for correctness. Any existing errors will more likely be discovered if this checking is done on a different day from that on which the original tabulations and computations were made. THE USE OF NUMBERS. Note the following suggestions on the use of numbers whether in or out of statistical tables : Preparation of Statistical Tables 71 1. One should be consistent throughout the manuscript in the use of numbers. Do not show quantities in figures in one paragraph and express them in words in another paragraph. 2. The practice is to use figures for showing all numbers taken from tabular material. 3. Since in such instances a figure is apt to be confusing, a sentence should never begin with a figure ; revise the sentence to avoid this, or, if this revision cannot be made, express the number in words. 4. Commas should be used in figures to separate hundreds from thousands, thousands from millions, etc.; as in 11,567; 24,346,589. The comma may or may not be used in four figures ; as, 5,435 or 5435; however, the tendency in practice is not to use the comma in four figures. 5. Spell out all numbers where the use of figures to express them would be apt to cause confusion ; for example : three 14-year- old children ; twenty-five 50-watt lamps. 6. Do not confuse per cent and percentage. Per cent should be preceded by a number ; for example : Total population increased 300 per cent in the last 50 years, but the percentage 72 How to Write a Thesis of increase of school population was 400. Most style books do not permit the use of the symbol " % ; " use the expression, "per cent," instead. Preparation of Illustrations X. 73 THE PREPARATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS VALUE OF GRAPHIC PRESENTATION. Graphic presentation of facts frequently enables the reader to obtain a more comprehensive grasp of the essential facts than could be gotten in the same amount of time from a written description. Moreover, graphic presentation may oftentimes be used as either an alternative of or a supplement to a table. Still more, such presentation often permits the reader to make his own interpretations, whereas in a written description the reader must largely accept the interpretations and conclusions of the author. SUGGESTIONS ON THE PREPARATION OF IL- LUSTRATIONS. The following suggestions on the preparation of charts, graphs, and other types of pictorial illustrations should be noted : º 1. Each illustration should be given a number so that it may be readily referred to in the text. Illustrations should be numbered consecutively throughout the text. The practice is to use Arabic numerals, ( 1 , 2, 3, etc. ) in numbering illustrations. See pages 119 to 129 for sample charts and graphs showing some of these suggestions. How to Write a Thesis 74 2. Each illustration should also have a title stating succinctly and exactly its contents. One should avoid in the title the use of superfluous phrases such as "graph showing." 3. The number and title of the illustration may appear either above or below the illustration, though most writers prefer to place them below. 4. One practice is to write all letters of the words of the title in CAPITAL LETTERS ; for other practices, see suggestion No. 3, p. 66. 5. Since typists and printers can conveniently insert illustrations in the text at certain places only, it is advisable not to refer to illustrations with such remarks as "the above graph" or " the following chart ;" instead, they should be referred to by number; for example : " for a better view of the data, the reader is referred to Figure 5." 6. In the interest of clarity one should avoid attempting to bring out too many things in one illustration; too many matters tend to clutter an illustration. Illustrations largely defeat their purpose if the reader is not enabled to grasp their contents at a glance. 7. To avoid confusion, many writers prefer to indicate footnotes for illustrations, as for Preparation of Illustrations 75 tables, by letters, asterisks, etc., rather than by numerals ; however, the use of numerals is permissible. Footnotes for illustrations, as for tables, should appear, if used, immediately following the illustrations. 8. One should not have illustrations merely for the sake of having them. If the data are already clearly presented in tables or in a written description, it is usually superfluous to present them again by means of illustrations. 9. Black, water-proof ink should be used in making illustrations, particularly those that are to be photographed or blue-printed; other col- ors cannot be easily photographed or blueprinted. If the drawing is to be photographed or blue-printed, the minor coördinate lines of the drawing should be faint while the important lines should be heavy. If certain lines should not show in the photograph or corre- sponding cut, such lines should be made in blue. 10. If the illustration is to be photographed or blue-printed, it should appear, together with its number and title, on a page by itself. Furthermore, if the illustration is to be reproduced in a photograph or blue-print, all lines and other parts of it should be clear and distinct. A How to Write a Thesis 76 good grade of white paper or cardboard should be used for the copy of the illustration. NATIONAL "STANDARDS FOR GRAPHIC PRES- ENTATION. " At the invitation of the Ameri- can Society of Mechanical Engineers, a number of national associations have appointed representatives to serve on a joint committee to formulate "Standards for Graphic Presentation." This committee has recently made a preliminary report containing several excellent suggestions on elementary graphic presentation; these suggestions are as follows : 10 "I. The general arrangement of a diagram should proceed from left to right. 2. Where possible, represent quantities by linear magnitude, as areas or volumes are more likely to be misinterpreted. 3. For a curve, the vertical scale, whenever practicable, should be so selected that the zero line will appear in the diagram. 4. If the zero line of the vertical scale will not e normally appear in the curve diagram, the zero line should be shown by the use of a horizontal break in the diagram. 5. The zero lines of the scales for a curve should be sharply distinguished from the other coördinate lines. 10 Report of the Joint Committee of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers on Standards for Graphic Presentation. Preparation of Illustrations 77 6. For curves having a scale representing percentages, it is usually desirable to emphasize in some distinctive way the 100 per cent line used as a basis of comparison. 7. When the scale of the diagram refers to dates, and the period represented is not a complete unit, it is better not to emphasize the first and last ordi- nates, since such a diagram does not represent the beginning and end of time. 8. When curves are drawn on logarithmic coördinates, the limiting lines of the diagram should each be of some power of 10 on the logarithmic scale. 9. It is advisable not to show any more coördi- nate lines than necessary to guide the eye in reading the diagram. 10. The curve lines of a diagram should be sharply distinguished from the ruling. II . In curves representing a series of observations, it is advisable whenever possible, to indicate clearly on the diagram all the points representing the separate observations. 12. The horizontal scale for curves should usually read from left to right and the vertical scale from bottom to top. 13. Figures for the scale of a diagram should be placed at the left and at the bottom or along the respective axes . 14. It is often desirable to include in the diagram the numerical data or formulae represented. 15. If numerical data are not included in the diagram it is desirable to give the data in tabular form accompanying the diagram. 16. All lettering and all figures in a diagram should be placed so as to be easily read from the How to Write a Thesis 78 base as the bottom, or from the right-hand edge of the diagram as the bottom. 17. The title of a diagram should be made as clear and complete as possible. Sub-titles or descriptions should be added if necessary to insure clearness." BLUE-PRINTING OF ILLUSTRATIONS. If only a few copies of an illustration are desired, blue-printing is generally the cheapest and most satisfactory way of securing them. Onion-skin paper, either glazed or unglazed, may be used for copy ; however, since erasures cannot be easily made on onion-skin paper, a light- weight, high-grade, white, bond paper is preferred; the latter paper prints perfectly, permits erasures, and does not crack with age. SELECTED REFERENCES The following works are worth perusing by those who desire further suggestions on the preparation and use of illustrations : Brinton, W. C. Graphic Methods of Presenting Facts. New York : Engineering Magazine Co., 1914. 371 р. Haskell, A. C. How to Make and Use Graphic Charts. New York : Codex Book Co., 1919. 539 р. Marshall, W. C. Graphical Methods for Schools, Colleges, Statisticians, Engineers, and Executives. New York : McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1921. 253 р. Report of the Joint Committee on Standards for Graphic Presentation. New York : American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1918. 50 р. The Final Bibliography XI. 79 THE FINAL BIBLIOGRAPHY 11 PURPOSE OF THE BIBLIOGRAPHY. The thesis should have as a concluding section a bibliography containing a list of the references which the writer has found to bear directly on the thesis problem.12 In addition to being a justification of one's work the bibliography is expected to aid others, who may be interested in the problem, to secure material on it with a minimum expenditure of time and effort. Therefore, the writer should not be afraid of appearing pedantic by supplying in full and with absolute accuracy all necessary bibliographical data for each reference. 13 A. Models for books : 14 James, William. Principles of Psychology. 2d ed. New York : Henry Holt and Co., 1889. 2 vols. See pages 131 to 132 of this manual for a sample bibliography. 12 A few writers prefer to make the bibliography the first section of their manuscript; that is, they place it immediately before the body or text of their report. 13 For further suggestions on preparing bibliographies, see Catalog Rules of the American Library Association. *Other orders of entry of data and other plans of punctuation may be used, provided they are followed consistently throughout the manuscript; consistency in the matter is sine qua non. 80 How to Write a Thesis Johnston, Alexander. American Political History, 1763-1876 ... Ed. and Supplemented by J. A. Woodburn ... New York : Putman, 1905. Pt. 1. Morrison, J. C. The Legal Status of the City Super- intendent. Baltimore : Warwick and York, 1922. 162 р. B. Model for periodical articles : Haggerty, M. E. Intelligence Examination Delta 2. The Journal of of Educational Psychology, XIV (1923) , р . 257-277 . Note that some magazines in numbering their pages begin each issue with number one ; in such cases it is necessary to give the month of publication as well as the year ; for example : Henry, N. B. Index Numbers and the Cost of Schools. The American School Board Journal, LXIX (July, 1924 ) , p. 58. C. Models for statutes, government, and miscellaneous documents : California. Laws, Statutes, 1881, Sec. 1793. Madison, Wis. City Board of Education. Annual Report, 1899-1900. Madison, Wis.: City Board of Education, 1900. 70 р. Ohio. State Department of Education. School Laws, 1922. Columbus, Ohio : F. J. Heer Printing Co., 1922. 773 р . U. S. Bureau of Education. Report of the United States Commissioner of Education for the year 1898-99. Washington : Government Printing Office, 1900. 2 vols. Note with particular care the order of entry of the data for each reference and the punctuation. ORGANIZATION OF THE REFERENCES. In order that their use may be facilitated, the ref The Final Bibliography 81 erences entered in the bibliography should be grouped as much as possible. The number and kinds of groups will depend, of course, on the subject. Within each group the references should be listed alphabetically by authors' names . If citations to references are made in the body of the text, according to Plan 2 described on pages 62 to 63 of this manual, the references should be numbered according to alphabetical arrangement. ΑΝ ΑΝΝΟΤATED BIBLIOGRAPHY. An annotated bibliography is one which has comments after each reference telling succinctly the contents and merits of the reference. From the standpoint of usability such a bibliography has obvious advantages over an unannotated one. The following is a sample of an annotated reference : Judd, C. H. The Junior High School. The School Review, XXIII ( 1915) , p. 25-33. A scholarly argument for a real, not a nominal, reorganization; proposes plans for a broader educational opportunity for pupils ; emphasizes particularly the necessity for a new curriculum better adapted to the needs of adolescents. How to Write a Thesis 82 XII . MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS PREPARATION OF AN OUTLINE OR A TABLE OF CONTENTS. The thesis should have an Out- line or a Table of Contents containing the captions at least of the main divisions of the manuscript. The Outline or Table of Contents may be analyzed much or little as thought best. If the thesis has an Index, the Outline or Table of Contents need not be so analytical as when there is no Index. ( See the Table of Contents, page 3 of this manual, for a sample of an unanalyzed Table of Contents ; and see page 109 for a sample of an analyzed Table of Contents ) . The rank of headings for the various divisions of the manuscript should be indicated in the Outline or Table of Contents by graded indentations. The main headings should be begun flush with the left-hand side of the page. The subdivisions of the main headings should be indented a few spaces, while subdivisions of the subdivisions should be indented still a few more spaces. PREPARATION OF A LIST OF TABLES. A List of Tables should be prepared, particularly if there are several tables, say, more than three Miscellaneous Suggestions or four. 83 The list should be made up by re- producing exactly each table number and its heading. ( See page 110 for a sample List of Tables) . PREPARATION OF A LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. The comments made immediately above on the preparation of a List of Tables are also pertinent to the preparation of a List of Illustra- tions. (See page III for a sample List of Illustrations) . ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Frequently the student will desire to acknowledge the help that has been given him in the preparation of the thesis. Any acknowledgments that are made should be made with simplicity and tact. Effusive acknowledgments may be embarrassing to those to whom they are meant to do honor ; however, mention can and should be made in an appropriate way of the suggestions, criticisms, or other forms of assistance that have been received in the investigation. When acknowledgments are expressed, they are frequently placed on a separate page and usually appear immediately following either the Table of Contents or the List of Illustrations. Some writers make their acknowledgments in a par 84 How to Write a Thesis agraph, usually the last paragraph, of the Preface or Introduction ; for suggestions on how acknowledgments should be expressed, see pages 7 and 8 of this manual. ORDER OF THE PARTS OF THE THESIS. The order of the parts of the thesis should be approximately as follows : 1. Title page. 2. Table of contents . 3. List of tables, if several tables ( say, three or more ) are used. 4. List of illustrations, if several illustrations (say, three or more) are used. 5. Body or text of the thesis. 6. Bibliography, if there is one on the subject. (A few writers place the bibliography before the body or text of the thesis) . 7. Appendices, if any are used. 8. Index. ( If there is a well analyzed table of contents, an index is not necessary in a short thesis) . LENGTH OF THE THESIS . Students frequently inquire concerning faculty expectations or requirements regarding the length of the thesis. There is no specified length for the Miscellaneous Suggestions 85 t thesis. In general, the length will depend on the nature of the problem. Some theses of only a few pages make outstanding contribu- tions and are acceptable, while others, in order to treat their problems satisfactorily, must run up to several hundred pages in length. Not quantity but quality is the thing desired. Padding a manuscript can never be justified. AMOUNT OF TIME TO SPEND ON THE THESIS . How much time is expected to be spent on the thesis is another question frequently asked by students. The amount of time to be spent on the thesis is usually not specified. Obviously, some problems selected for theses are much more difficult and time consuming than others ; furthermore, some students work much more rapidly and efficiently than others. About all that can be said on the question of time to be spent is that students are expected to do well the work which they undertake however great the time that may be required to do it. Students should be stimulated to do the very best work of which they are capable by the thought that their merit as scholars, present and potential, is judged very largely on the basis of the worth of the thesis produced. A poor thesis is neither to the credit of the stu 86 How to Write a Thesis dent who writes it nor to the reputation of the university that accepts it. An excellent thesis, on the contrary, increases the prestige of its author and also that of the university. The university does the student a real favor when it rejects a poor thesis ; moreover, it enhances its standing as a center for graduate study. WHEN TO SUBMIT THE THESIS. The university requires that the thesis be submitted at a certain date previous to the commencement at which the student expects to receive his degree ; however, it should be handed in as long as possible before that date in order that sufficient time will be had for its criticism and for making any corrections that are necessary. It is an unusual thesis that does not need considerable revision after it has been first submitted, and ample time should be reserved for this. Some theses have to be entirely re-written ; in fact, some have to be re-written several times before they are acceptable. MEETING OTHER REQUIREMENTS FOR THE THESIS. To avoid any possibility of delay in securing his degree, the student should make sure that all of the university requirements regarding the thesis are met. These require Miscellaneous Suggestions 87 ments generally have to do with such matters as getting the subject of the thesis approved by the proper authorities at a certain date before the student expects to receive his degree ; the form of the title page of the thesis ; the number of copies of the thesis to be presented to the university ; the typing ; the publication, if required; the kind of paper to be used; and the university fees to be paid. TYPING THE THESIS. Note the following suggestions on typing the thesis : 1. Only one side of the paper should be used. 2. All pages should be numbered consecutively in Arabic numerals in either the upper middles of the pages or the upper right-hand corners ; the tendency in practice is to number the pages in the upper right-hand corners. 3. Ample and uniform margins should be left at the four sides of each page. To permit of binding, a margin of about one and onehalf inches should be left at the left side ; a margin of about one inch should be left at the other three sides . 4. All unnecessary divisions of words at the ends of lines should be avoided. It is not good 88 How to Write a Thesis form to divide very short words (say, of four letters or less) . Words slightly longer (say, of five or six letters) should be divided only rarely. When there is not enough space at the end of a line to write all of a short word it should be so written at the beginning of the next line. The division of a word on the bottom line of a page should be avoided if at all possible. 5. Double spacing should be used throughout, except in such cases as footnotes, tabular data, and direct quotations of some length, which should be single spaced. Direct quotations of some length (say, of more than five or six lines) should be single spaced, and should have the lines shortened about an inch. All direct quotations should be placed in quotation marks. For further suggestions on quotations, see pages 63 and 64. 6. One should make sure that the typist to whom the thesis is given is efficient ; obviously some typists are much more efficient in copying theses than others. One should make sure also that the manuscript will be typed when it is wanted ; efficient typists tend to be unusually busy just before commencement season, therefore, one should be engaged as early as possible. Miscellaneous Suggestions 89 : 7. After the thesis has been typed it should be carefully proofread by its author and all needed corrections made. In marking the manuscript for corrections it is recommended that a standard set of proofreader's marks (see pages 96 and 97 of this manual for a standard set ) be used ; an author's system of marks might be perfectly clear to him, but might not be clear to the typist or compositor. 8. When the thesis is first handed in for professorial criticisms it should be either typewritten or in perfectly clear handwriting. A slovenly written manuscript is very apt to prejudice one's case. 9. Many universities require a certain grade of paper for the thesis and inquiry concerning this requirement should be made. In the ab- sence of a requirement on the point a good grade of white bond paper is recommended. Paper of a standard size (81/2 by 11 , or 8 by 101½ inches ) should be used ; the 8/2 by 11inch sheet is the size most generally used. 10. Enough carbon copies of the manuscript should be secured so that the author will be able to retain one. 90 How to Write a Thesis XIII . SUGGESTIONS ON PUBLICATION WHY THESES SHOULD BE PUBLISHED. If theses are to be of much service to the general public they must be published so that the public may have access to them. Therefore, it is urged that the possibility of publishing the thesis in whole or in part, after it has met the requirements for the degree, be kept in mind. A keeping in mind of the possibility of publishing the thesis will tend to help bring out the author's best efforts on it, for no author worth his salt wants a piece of poor workmanship to be printed and thus be made available to his fellows. At present, entirely too many theses are being written, then buried in the archives of universities never to be resur- rected. There are many editors of magazines, government, and other publications who are frequently glad to publish, in whole or in part, scholarly written theses ; and often they will publish them without any cost to the author. GETTING THE "COPY" IN GOOD FORM . Меticulous care should be taken to see that the "copy" (that is, the written material which is put into type) is exactly right in every particular before it goes to the printer or compositor. Suggestions on Publication 91 The necessity for such care will be evident when it is noted that changes in the type are expensive to make and are usually charged in whole or in part to the author. If the manuscript is to be published in whole as a book, bulletin, or monograph, every part of it should be written out before it is sent to the publisher. The "preliminary pages" ( that is, such pages as the "short title," the title page, the copyright page, the Preface, the Table of Contents, the List of Tables, and the List of Illustrations ) are frequently overlooked by the author ; these, however, are an integral and necessary part of the work. It should be kept in mind that it is not the duty of the publisher to write any part of the copy for the author. Every part of the work should be written out before it goes to the publisher. The more complete the manuscript is, the better its chances for acceptance will be. Frequently, the author will want to publish his material serially in magazines. If so, he should prepare his copy for each article just as he wishes it to be printed. In preparing his manuscript for a magazine he should attempt to follow the technique of publication of that particular magazine. 92 How to Write a Thesis SEEKING A PUBLISHER. The manuscript should be submitted to a publisher who would be apt to accept it for publication. Frequently manuscripts are rejected, not because they lack merit, but because they are not available to that particular publisher. The author should use discrimination in seeking a publisher ; a novel, for example, would likely be returned as unavailable, if sent to a publisher of religious works ; likewise a manuscript would likely be unavailable, if a publisher already had a publication covering the field of the submitted manuscript. When the manuscript is submitted, a letter should accompany it, telling succinctly the nature and scope of the manuscript. The letter should not be an effusive recommendation of the manuscript, for publishers like to be permitted to determine for themselves the merits of manuscripts. SPECIFYING KINDS OF TYPE. The publisher usually takes care of specifying the kinds of type to be used in setting up the manuscript, but occasionally the author will need or want to do this, particularly if the manuscript is not published in a magazine. Complete specifications for the manuscript include an indication Suggestions on Publication 93 of the styles and sizes of type for the body, the various kinds of headings, the tables, the quotations, the references, etc.; they also include a mention of such things as the desired kind of paper, the size of page, and the kind of binding. The following are the kinds of type in general use at present : 1. Roman. The Roman is the style of type in ordinary use. There are three kinds of Roman type : (a) CAPITALS ( caps. ) , which may be indicated to the printer by drawing three straight lines under the word or letter to be capitalized ; (b) SMALL CAPS (s. с. ) , which may be indicated by drawing two straight lines under the word or letter to be capitalized ; (c) lower-case letters (1. c. ) , that is, ordinary small letters . 2. Italic. To make a certain figure, word, phrase, or sentence stand out, italic type may be used. Such type may be indicated by drawing one straight line under the part to be italicized. 3. Bold face. To indicate bold face type, underscore with a wavy line the part or parts to be bold faced. This style of type is seldom used, italics being usually preferred to make a given part stand out. How to Write a Thesis 94 SIZE OF TYPE. The following are illustrations of the sizes of type in most common use ; This line is set in 5-point type. This line is set in 6-point type. This line is set in 7- point type. This line is set in 8-point type. This line is set in 9-point type. This line is set in 10-point type. This line is set in 11-point type. This line is set in 12-point type. Of course, there are larger types, but these are seldom used, except in headings and titles. PROOFREADING. After the manuscript has been typewritten it should be carefully proofread by its author ; it should also be proofread after it has been set in printer's type. Corrections should be made by means of a standard set of proofreader's marks such as that found on page 96 of this manual. Cor- rections should be clearly and neatly made, preferably in ink. In order that all corrections may be seen, they should preferably be made opposite the lines in which the errors occur. Any correction that is written between the lines should be placed above the line to which it applies so that it will be seen by the typist or printer before he or she reaches the part concerned. Suggestions on Publication 95 If possible, two persons should do the proofreading ; one should read aloud from the copy or manuscript, while the other follows the proofs and makes all necessary corrections. The one who reads the copy should call attention to every paragraph, punctuation mark, capitalized word, italicized word, etc. It is recommended that all proofs be read twice, at least . It should be noted that changes in the manuscript, after it has been set in type, are very expensive to make, and most publishers charge such changes partly or wholly to the author. The printer or compositor will, of course, set up the manuscript just as it comes to him, therefore, the author should make sure that the manuscript is correct in every detail before it goes to the printer or compositor ; genuine . errors, though, should be corrected even though they may be expensive to correct. If the manuscript is published in book, bulletin, or monograph form, the typical publisher will send proofs to the author without the author's requesting it ; however, the publisher of the typical magazine will not ; therefore, when a manuscript is submitted to a magazine, if the author desires to read the proof of his manuscript, he should so inform the publisher. 96 How to Write a Thesis SYMBOLS FOR CORRECTIONS AND PROOFREAD- ER'S MARKS. The following generally accepted symbols and marks are taken from the Style Manual of the Government Printing Office . See the next page of this manual for a sample page illustrating the use of these symbols and marks. Period. ‫ و‬Comma. - Ilyphen. : Colon. Semicolon. Apostrophe. 44/22 Quotations. 44/22 Em quadrat. m One-em dash. 2 Two-em parallel dash. Push down space. Closeup Less space. Caret-left out, insert. う Turn to proper position. #Insert space. コ Cor Пот ப Move to left or to right. Move up or move down. ti. Transpose. ..... or stet . Let it stand. Dele-take out. Broken letter. Paragraph . No No paragraph. fWrongfont. ‫الله‬ 7 or eq . # Equalize spacing. = or Caps Capitals. = or s. e. Small capitals. L. e . Lower-case. or1 Superior or inferior. ital. Italic. rom Roman. Brackets. / ) Parentheses. ( 10- Suggestions on Publication 97 SAMPLE CORRECTED PAGE. This page15 is designed to illustrate the use of the symbols for corrections and proofreader's marks mentioned on the preceding page. TYPOGRAPHICAL ERRORS 6:pt. stal. capa 4.C. Itdoes not appear that the earliøst printers had e 11 anymethodof correctingerrors before the form 1 ch notproof/readersin our sense/they were rather ‫راز‬ was on the press/ The learnedThelearned correctors of the first two centuries of printingwere what we should jerm office editors. Their labors 3/8 not were chiefly to seethat the proof correspondedto the copy, but that the printed page was correct in its latinity/ hat the words werethere, and stet. the sense was right. They cared alittle of / that about orthography, bad letters or purelyprinter tu errors, and when the text seemed to them wrong they consulted fresh authorities or altered it on their own responsibility Good proofs in the ‫ها‬ not# modern sense, were possible until professional m readers were employed/ men who had first a tr i printer's education, and then spent many years in the correction of proof. The orthography of English, which for the past century has under gonelittlechange, wasvery fluctuating untilafter the publication ofJohnson's Dictionary, and capi- Turf. tals, whichhavebeen used with considerable reg lead . past30years,were previouslyused spell ularityforthe on the missfor hit plan. The approach to regularity, su far as we have may be attributed to the fit growth of a class of professional proof readers, and it is to them that we owe the correctness of mod- printing. More er/ors have been found in the 8/r ern many gen lead Bible than in any other one work Formany . erations it was frequently the case that Bibles were brought out stealthily, from fear of govern- コ Emental interference. They were frequently Out, seecopy. printed from imperfect texts , and were often modified to meet the views of those who publised them The story is related that a certain woman h inGermany, whe was the wife of a Printer and lc had become disgusted with the continual asser- le/who the superiority of man over woman which 3/f/romlionsof she had heard, hurried into the composing room while her husband was at supper and altered a w.fr sentence in the Bible,whichhe wasprinting, so ৬/২ 1 that itread Narrinstead of Herr, thus making the verse read"And he shall be thy fool " instead of And he shall be thyford " The word not ৬/২ was omittedby Barker, the King s printer in Englandin16:32,inprintingtheseventh commandment up. He was fined £3,000 on this account. 4/? 15 The page is taken from the Style Manual of the Government Printing Office, p. 3. How to Write a Thesis 98 XIV . QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW PURPOSES16 I. The Scientific Nature of the Thesis. 1. What is a thesis ? 2. What are the purposes of the thesis requirement ? 3. What are the outstanding earmarks which a scientific document such as a thesis should have ? 4. What are some examples of common violations of the principles of scientific procedure ? II. The Selection, Delimitation, and Planning of the Problem. 1. What should be the responsibility of the student in selecting the problem? 2. What are the advantages of making, as they come to mind, a written record of live problems ? 3. When should the problem be selected ? 1. It will be helpful for the student, after he has carefully studied the manual, to attempt to answer these questions which are designed to review the more important topics of the manual. The questions may be profitably used as a basis for class discussion. Questions for Review Purposes 99 4. What are some of the more important criteria that should be kept in mind in selecting a problem ? 5. What does it mean to delimit a problem ? Why is this delimitation generally necessary ? 6. Why should the investigation of the problem be planned through so far as possible before work is begun on it ? III . The Working Bibliography. 1. Why should a working bibliography be made ? When should it be made ? 2. How should one proceed to make a working bibliography on a given topic ? What sources should one examine ? What advantages are there in listing each reference on a filing card? 3. What data on each reference should be secured ? How should these data be entered ? 4. What is an annotation ? standards should an What annotation meet ? What are the advantages of having annotated references ? 100 How to Write a Thesis IV. The Collection of Material. 1. What are the advantages of the personal-investigation method of collecting data over the questionnaire method? 2. If necessary to use the questionnaire, what things should be kept in mind in designing and using it ? 3. What are primary sources ? Secondary sources ? When should each type of source be used ? 4. Should one ever acknowledge a weakness in an investigation ? When ? V. Conferences with Instructors. 1. Why should frequent conferences be had with one's instructors when a thesis is being prepared ? 2. What are some appropriate times for conferences ? VI. The Organization and Interpretation of Material. 1. What can be said of the importance of good organization of material compared with its collection ? Questions for Review Purposes 101 2. What are some things to keep in mind in organizing material ? What can be said of the importance of the principles of unity, coherence, and emphasis? 3. To what extent should interpretations be placed on the data ? How should interpretations be stated ? 4. What are the advantages of a summary ? In general, what should a summary contain ? Where should it appear? VII. The Necessity for Good English . 1. What is the importance of good English in a report of an investigation compared with the content ofthe report? 2. What general criteria should the English of a written document meet ? • 3. What things should be done to make sure that the English is all right? 102 VIII . How to Write a Thesis The Form of Citations and Footnotes . 1. Why should authorities always be cited, and cited with meticulous care? 2. What are the two plans for citing authorities ? What are the relative merits of the two plans ? 3. Using the plan of footnote citation, give a model citation to a book ; also to a magazine ; also to a State Law. 4. What is the meaning of the term, ibid? When should this term be used? 5. What is the meaning of the abbreviation, op. cit. ? When should this expression be used ? 6. What is the meaning of the abbreviation, loc. cit., or l. c. ? When should this expression be used ? 7. Since there is no best method of citing, what principle should guide one in his selection and use of a plan? 8. What kinds of reference indexes should be used in the text ? Questions for Review Purposes 103 9. What that are some cautions should be kept in mind in using footnote citations ? IX. The Preparation of Statistical Tables. 1. Why should tables be numbered ? In what order should they be numbered ?. With Roman or Arabic numerals ? 2. Why should tables be headed ? To what standards should a good heading measure up ? 3. How should footnotes to tables be indicated ? Where should such footnotes appear ? 4. When should capitals be used in tables ? Periods ? Dollar signs ? Abbreviations ? 5. How should one indicate the omission of data in a table ? 6. What is the advantage in introducing briefly a table before the table is presented ? How may this introduction be given ? 7. Why should the use of such expressions as "the above table" and "the following table" be avoided ? How should tables be referred to ? 104 How to Write a Thesis 8. Where with reference to a table should the discussion of the table appear? 9. Why should all data of tables be checked? 10. How much material should be presented in one table ? 11. What are original data ? Derivative data ? 12. What further things should be kept in mind in getting up tables so that the reader will be able to interpret them readily? 13. What things should be kept in mind in the use of numbers both in and out of tables ? X. The Preparation of Illustrations. 1. What can be said of the value of graphic presentation of data? In general, when should such presentation be used ? 2. Why should illustrations be numbered ? In what order should they be numbered ? or Arabic numerals ? In Roman Questions for Review Purposes 105 3. Why should each illustration be given a title ? Where should the title appear ? What further criteria should the title meet ? 4. How should footnotes to illustrations be indicated ? Where should such footnotes appear ? 5. What is the advantage of briefly introducing an illustration ? How may this be done ? 6. Where with reference to the illustration should the discussion of the illustration appear? 7. What good reference books are there on graphic presentation of data? XI. The Final Bibliography. 1. What are the purposes of the final bibliography? 2. Where should it appear in the text ? 3. What bibliographical data should be secured for a book ? For a periodical ? For a statute ? 4. How should the references be organized? 106 How to Write a Thesis 5. What are the advantages of having an annotated bibliography ? XII . Miscellaneous Suggestions. 1. Why should there be a Table of Contents ? How should the Table of Contents be made up ? 2. Should there be a List of Tables ? How should it be made up ? 3. Should there be a List of Illustra- tions ? How should it be made up? 4. What standards should the Ac- knowledgments, if any are made, meet? 5. What should be the order of the parts of the completed thesis ? 6. How long should the thesis be ? How much time should be spent on it ? When should it be submitted for faculty criticism ? 7. What things in typing the thesis should be kept in mind ? How many sides of the paper should be used ? Numbering ? Margins ? Division of words ? Spacing ? Necessity for proofreading ? Questions for Review Purposes 107 XIII . Suggestions on Publication. 1. Why should theses be published, if at all possible ? 2. Why should the copy be in excellent shape before it goes to the printer? 3. How should one go about seeking a publisher ? 4. What care should be given to the proofreading? 5. What symbols for corrections and proofreader's marks should be used ? 108 XV. How to Write a Thesis MISCELLANEOUS SAMPLES OF PAGES OF THESES (Sample title page of a thesis) . A COMPARISON OF THE LEGAL STATUS OF SCHOOL BONDS IN THE FORTYEIGHT STATES A Thesis Presented for the Degree of Master of Arts By RALPH C. WATERS, B. SC. IN ED. THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY 1923 Approved by: 109 Samples of Pages of Theses (Sample analytical table of contents) . CONTENTS PAGE I INTRODUCTION PRELIMINARY INFORMATION Selection of Work by Pupils ......... ... 3 Tabulation of Selection Blanks and Sum- mary Sheet . 4 Class Sections Recitation Sections 5 7 MAKING THE SCHOOL PROGRAM The Block System . .. ... 9 Distribution of Recitation Sections ......... 10 Assignment of Teachers and Rooms to Reci....... tation Sections 15 Indication of Block Numbers upon the Pupil's Selection of Studies Sheet .......... 16 Tabulations and Equalization of Recitation Sections .. 17 Determination of Home Rooms and Study ... .. Rooms 18 Schedule of Recitation and Study Rooms ... 19 Making of Pupils' Programs by Teachers ... 19 Teachers' Schedules of Work .......... 20 SUMMARY Efficiency 23 ... The Program in Relation to Expenses ...... 24 The Program in Relation to the Interests of 26 the Pupils General Importance of the Program ........ 26 BIBLIOGRAPHY .. APPENDIX 27 30 .... INDEX 36 110 How to Write a Thesis (Sample list of tables) . LIST OF TABLES TABLE I PAGE EVOLUTION OF THE OFFICE OF CHIEF STATE SCHOOL OFFICIAL IN THE VARIOUS STATES ... 8 II YEAR OF EACH STATE'S ADMISSION ; YEAR OF FIRST PROVISION FOR THE OFFICE, WHETHER SEPARATE OR EX OFFICIO, IN EACH STATE ; YEAR WHEN IT WAS FIRST MADE A SEPARATE ONE IN EACH STATE ; AND YEAR FROM WHICH IT HAS BEEN A SEPARATE AND CONTINUOUS ONE IN EACH STATE .. III CONSTITUTIONAL ... PROVISIONS MADE FOR 9 THE OFFICE OF CHIEF STATE SCHOOL OFFICIAL AT VARIOUS TIME INTERVALS ... ... IV 17 EVOLUTION OF THE OFFICIAL DESIGNATION OF THE OFFICE OF CHIEF STATE SCHOOL OFFI- 26 CIAL IN THE VARIOUS STATES . V SUMMARY OF THE VARIOUS TITLES USED, AND THE NUMBER OF STATES, PAST AND PRESENT, USING EACH TITLE ; VI ALSO THE NUMBER OF STATES USING EACH TITLE IN 1923 ......... LEGAL QUALIFICATIONS REQUIRED FOR HOLDING THE OFFICE OF CHIEF 28 STATE SCHOOL OFFI- CIAL, ALSO THE MANNER IN WHICH THESE QUALIFICATIONS ARE FIXED, 1923 .......... VII SUMMARY OF THE VARIOUS KINDS OF LEGAL REQUIREMENTS FOR HOLDING THE OFFICE OF VIII NUMBER OF CHIEF STATE SCHOOL OFFICIALS, CHIEF STATE SCHOOL OFFICIAL, 1923 ...... 40 43 DURING THE LAST TWENTY-FOUR YEARS, WHOSE NAMES HAVE APPEARED IN WHO's 44 WHO IN AMERICA .. IX METHODS X SUMMARY OF THE VARIOUS METHODS OF SE- OF SELECTING THE CHIEF STATE SCHOOL OFFICIALS IN 1896, 1909 AND 1923 .. 60 LECTING THE CHIEF STATE SCHOOL OFFICIALS 63 .... IN 1896, 1909, AND 1923 . 111 Samples of Pages of Theses (Sample list of illustrations) . LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ILLUSTRATION 1 THE PAGE ESTABLISHMENTS OF THE OFFICE OF CHIEF STATE SCHOOL OFFICIAL AT VARIOUS 11 TIME INTERVALS 2 THE KIND OF PROVISION FOR THE OFFICE OF CHIEF STATE SCHOOL OFFICIAL IN EACH 23 OF THE STATES, 1923 ....... 3 THE SECTIONAL PREFERENCES FOR THE VARIOUS LEGAL TITLES USED IN DESIGNATING THE CHIEF STATE SCHOOL OFFICIALS, 1923 4 OUS METHODS OF SELECTING THE CHIEF STATE SCHOOL OFFICIAL, 1923 ... 5 ... 98 THE RELATION WHICH EXISTS BETWEEN THE CHIEF STATE STATE BOARD IN WHICH ELECTS THE SCHOOL OFFICIAL THE AND TYPICAL FORMER BY THE STATE POPULAR ... 144 ..... VOTE, 1923 7 73 THE SALARIES PAID THE CHIEF STATE SCHOOL OFFICIALS, 1923 6 32 THE SECTIONAL PREFERENCES FOR THE VARI- THE RELATION WHICH EXISTS BETWEEN THE CHIEF STATE STATE BOARD SCHOOL WHICH PERMITS IN OFFICIAL THE THE AND TYPICAL GOVERNOR THE STATE TO AP- POINT THE FORMER, 1923 .... 149 8 THE UNIFIED SYSTEM WHICH IS FOUND OF SCHOOL CONTROL IN THE TYPICAL STATE WHICH PERMITS THE STATE BOARD TO SE- LECT THE CHIEF STATE SCHOOL OFFICIAL, 1923 9 THE .... • IDAHO PLAN TROL, 1923 OF STATE SCHOOL 153 CON.... 253 .... 10 THE WYOMING PLAN OF STATE SCHOOL CON- TROL, 1923 .... ... 257 112 How to Write a Thesis (Sample page showing topic headings, etc. 1 . THE CHIEF STATE SCHOOL OFFICIAL IN THE UNITED STATES INTRODUCTION Purpose of the Study In its educational progress a State is helped by a comparison of the features of its school system with the same features in other States. Such comparisons serve to set in clear perspective likenesses and differences, and since our State educational systems have been developed not only according to the experience of the individual State but also according to that of other States the facts thus established may be used as one worthwhile basis for any needed reorganization of the features of the school system. At present, one of the most important and also one of the most common features of the school systems of the several States is the office of chief State school official. This office is studied herewith. In brief, the study seeks to show both what are and what ought to be the conditions pertaining to the office just named, and particularly, it seeks to present these conditions as reflected by the current legislation on the office. Nature of the Study With the problem thus stated it can be seen that Samples of Pages of Theses 113 (Sample page showing a footnote citation. See next page also) . Formative Influences for the First Office What were the influences that brought forth the first provision for the office, namely, that of New York? In discussing this question the first thing to note is that in the early educational organization of the State of New York a dual system of school administration was the characteristic feature. The University, with its board of regents, had jurisdiction over colleges and academies, and was one part of the administrative machinery. The office of superintendent of common schools, which had jurisdiction over the common schools, was the other part of the dual system. The establishment of the University preceded the creation of the office of superintendent of common schools, and, as will be shown directly, it was the agitation of the University and its regents which was instrumental in getting provision made for the office of superintendent of common schools . The University was not, however, in the commonly accepted sense, a University at all, but rather a State board of education with control over colleges and academies, the whole being governed by a body of regents. It was incorporated in 1784. Sherwood, Sidney. University of the State of New York, Origin, History and Present Organization, p. 223228. See also Laws of New York, 1784, Ch. 51. 114 How to Write a Thesis (Sample page showing footnote citations. See preceding page also) . Under the same act Kings College was revived and was given the name of Columbia College. This act was primarily for the benefit of the college and secondarily only for the benefit of the State. It had served the purpose, however, of giving form, even though imperfectly, to the idea of State control in education. In 1787 the law of 1784 was revised, giving the board of regents definite powers over the colleges and academies of the State. The University was henceforth to overshadow Columbia College and the system was truly to become a State system co- extensive with the political organization of the State; furthermore, it was to be used for the good of the State as a whole. The University regents suggested the establishment of a system of common schools in their reports of 1793 and 1794," but nothing was done by the legislature. In 1795, again, they stated that they had the supervision of two colleges and twelve academies, and these, "with the establishment of schools for common branches of education, were the legislature pleased to grant it, must soon have the most beneficial effects on the state of society. " " * Sherwood, Sidney, op. cit., p. 228-272. •New York Assembly Journal, 1793, p. 211. 1º Ibid., 1794, p. 32. " Ibid., 1795, p. 86. Samples of Pages of Theses 115 (Sample page showing citations in the body of the page) . How are we to account for the long delay in es- tablishing an office which today is considered so necessary that it is found in every State ? Clearly the delay was not due to lack of interest in education for this interest was early evidenced by the building of many academies and private and church schools ; moreover, many communities everywhere, of their own initiative, had established public schools even before the State had passed laws requiring them to do so. (6, Jernegan, p. 361-380) . At least two retarding influences to the establishment of the office stand out. First, the prevalent theory of individual and community rights met with popular approval. Second, the idea of the association of the church and the school was hard to eradi- cate from the minds of the people. (4, Brown, p. 6) . These influences made for decentralization in school organization down to almost the middle of the nine- teenth century. (4, Brown, p. 6-7) . In addition to these influences it should be noted also that no model for the office existed in any form. Even county and city superintendents were unknown until many years after the establishment of the office of chief State school official. (5, Cubberley, p. 37 and p. 58) . The office of United States Commissioner of Education could not serve as a model for it was not created until 1867. The office must wait, therefore, until unmistakable needs should bring it into being. 116 How to Write a Thesis (Sample statistical table containing original data) . TABLE I. SALARIES OF THE CHIEF STATE SCHOOL OFFICIALS IN 1896, 1909, AND 1923 State Salary in Salary in Salary in 1896 1909 1923 Percentage increase since 1909 Alabama . Arizona . Arkansas . California . $2,200 1,200 1,600 3,000 3,000 Colorado... Connecticut . 3,000 3,000 3,500 Delaware Florida Georgia . Idaho . Illinois . Indiana . Iowa . Kansas Kentucky . Louisiana . Maine .. (nodata) (no office) 1,500 2,000 1,500 3,500 2,500 2,200 2,000 2,500 3,000 1,500 Maryland....... (no office) Massachusetts .. Michigan . Minnesota Mississippi . Missouri .. Montana . Nebraska Nevada... New Hampshire . New Jersey NewMexico... 4,500 1,000 2,500 2,000 Utah... Vermont . Virginia. Washington. West Virginia Wisconsin... Wyoming . Median ... 2,500 2,000 2,400 7,500 3,000 2,200 2,500 2,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 4,500 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,500 2,000 2,500 5,000 2,400 7,500 3,000 2,000 3,000 2,000 2,000 1,200 1,800 4,000 3,000 Texas . (no office) 2,000 Ohio . Rhode Island . South Carolina .. South Dakota .. Tennessee .... 2,500 2,500 5,000 1,500 Pennsylvania. 2,000 3,000 2,500 3,000 3,000 3,000 New York .... North Carolina .. North Dakota . Oklahoma . Oregon. $3,000 2,000 1,900 2,500 2,000 2,500 1,500 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,500 3,000 5,000 4,000 1,900 1,800 2,500 2,500 2,400 2,000 $5,000 3,300 2,500 5,000 3,000 9,000 5,000 3,600 4,500 2,400 7,500 5,000 4,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 4,600 8,000 9,000 5,000 5,000 4,500 3,000 3,600 5,000 3,600 4,500 10,000 3,000 12,000 4,000 3,000 6,500 2,500 4,000 12,000 6,000 2,500 1,800 3,600 4,000 4,000 6,000 3,500 3,500 2,500 3,000 3,000 1,500 1,200 2,000 3,000 5,000 5,000 2,000 3,000 5,000 $2,303 $2,739 $4,250 Arithmetic mean 2,970 4,834 2,273 Range.. 1,000-5,000/ 1,800-7,500 1,800-12,000 66.6 65.0 0.0 66.6 0.0 157.1 44.0 125.0 0.0 0.0 66.6 81.8 20.0 60.0 150.0 84.0 166.6 100.0 150.0 66.6 80.0 0.0 16.6 150.0 80.0 80.0 100.0 25.0 60.0 33.3 50.0 225.0 0.0 33.3 140.0 50.0 31.6 0.0 44.0 60.0 66.6 200.0 0.0 0.0 66.6 0.0 50.0 55.2 62.8 0.0-225 117 Samples of Pages of Theses (Sample page showing a distribution and summary table, also how footnotes to tables should be written, etc.) . Although the salaries of the chief State school officials are increasing rapidly, they are still small compared with what they should be. It is a sad commentary that two States (South Dakota and Wyoming) pay at present (1923) less than $2,500 annually while eighteen States pay less than $4,000 annually. The distribution of the salaries for 1923 may be seen more clearly from Table II. FABLE II . DISTRIBUTION OF THE SALARIES OF THE CHIEF STATE SCHOOL OFFICIALS, 1923º Salary groups Number of States in each group $1,800-$2,499 .. 2,500-3,199 . 3,200-3,899 . 3,900-4,599 . 4,600-5,299. 5,300-5,999. 6,000-6,699 .. 6,700-7,399. 7,400-8,999 .. 8,100-8,799 . 8,800-9,499 .. 9,500-10,199 ... 10,200-12,000 .. 2 10 6 Total . Median . 48 030 0 2 21 Arithmetic mean. Range. 9 11 2 1 2 $4,250 4,834 1,800-12,000 • For Idaho and Wyoming, which have two chief State school officials, the salaries of only the superintendents of public instruction are included in the tabulations. The salary everywhere should be made compatible with the large functions and important responsibilities of the office. 118 How to Write a Thesis (Sample statistical table ) . TABLE III . THE DISTRIBUTION OF MARKS OF EACH GROUP IN ENGLISH IN GRADES 9 TO 12 INCLUSIVE Grades Class intervals 9 10 11 12 Total Junior high school group 95-100 ....... 23 19 15 12 69 90-94.99 ..... 40 24 23 20 107 85-89.99 .... 62 53 53 45 213 80-84.99 .. 52 71 78 70 271 75-79.99 ...... 23 13 18 12 66 1 5 9 7 22 65-69.99 ..... 9 2 1 12 60-64.99 ...... 1 70-74.99 .... 1 Non-junior high school group 95-100. 19 19 19 16 90-94.99 .... 32 22 13 10 77 85-89.99 . 67 44 47 40 198 80-84.99 .. 59 83 84 70 296 75-79.99 .... 16 18 19 10 63 70-74.99 .... 6 5 8 3 22 65-69.99 ..... 2 5 8 4 19 73 60-64.99 . The table shows there to be little difference between the marks of the junior high school group and the non-junior high school group. The comparison seems to prove nothing about the relative efficiency of the two types of school organization ; more data are still needed for that. Samples of Pages of Theses 119 (Sample circular or pie chart) . Note that an attempt is made in the next few pages to illustrate some of the more common types of charts and graphs in use at present. If other samples are needed, the books cited on page 78 of this manual will be found helpful in supplying them. STATE GOVERNMENT 12.6 CENTS COUNTYGOVERNMENT 17CENTS EDUCATION STATE & LOCAL 31.8 CENTS MUNICIPAL COVERNMENT 38.6 CENTS FIGURE I.- HOW THE NEW JERSEY TAX DOLLAR WAS SPENT IN 1923. 120 How to Write a Thesis (Sample line chart). Note that in charts that have more than one curve the curves may be identified either by using a key or by lettering the information on the curves) . 160 160 140 STOCKS 28 COMMODITIES 120 110 100 90 800 NUMBERS INDEX 130 PRODUCTION 64 COMMODITIES 70 60 50 UNFILLED ORDERS & COMMODITIES commun 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 FIGURE 2. – RELATIVE PRODUCTION, STOCKS, AND UNFILLED ORDERS FOR MANUFACTURED COMMODITIES, 1920-19249. (From Survey of Current Business, p. 10. Bulletin of the United States Department of Commerce, Feb., 1925, No. 42) . @ The 1920 monthly average = 100. 121 Samples of Pages of Theses (Sample line chart ) . Per cent 140 Purchasing power of Wages of factory workers . 130 120 110 1913 = 100 per cent 100 90 Purchasing power of produce raised by farmers 80 70 60 1920 1921 1922 1923 FIGURE 3.—COMPARATIVE PURCHASING POWER OF FARM AND FACTORY EARN- INGS FROM 1920 ΤΟ 1923. How to Write a Thesis 122 (Sample bar chart ) . Millions 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 FIGURE 4.-POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES FOR EACH DECADE FROM 1860 ΤΟ 1920. Samples of Pages of Theses 123 (Sample bar chart ) . 22 25 23126 36 1229 16 162 30 4 446 5423 42 24 6120 753255 1 15333 581 34 72 73 39 82 50 11 2743 35 2383 40 74 86 56 27 47 1045 37 52 53 49 874677 62 32 58 85 5976 88 64 78 21 93 57 3884 2445 142 63 70 7 67 60 89 92 80 91 95 68 90 69 96 79 66947265 19 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 FIGURE 5.—AVERAGE SCORES MADE IN SPELLING BY 96 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS". (From Judd, C. H. Measuring the Work of the Public Schools, p. 84) . a The figures below the chart show the percentages and the ones in the squares of the chart show the numbers of the schools . How to Write a Thesis 124 (Sample bar chart) . DD 3 C- B C LABORERS... 48 TAILORS... 47COBBLERS... 129 GENERALMINERS. 271 TEAMSTERS . OCCUPATIONAL 124.MINE DRILLRUNNERS 21 FARMERS...... CONCRETE WORKERS-27 HORSCHOSTLERS ...... 45 BARBERS ... INTELLIGENCE STANDARDS 139 GEN BOILER MAKERS.. .. HORSCSHOERS 60 RRSHOP MECHANICS40C CATCRERS... 26 BRICKLAYERS40 COOKS. LENGTH OFBAR SHOWS RANGE OF MIDOLE 50 PERCENT VERTICAL CROSSBAR SHOWS POSITION OFMEDIAN 15 LAUNDRYMEN ... 25. STATGAS ENGINEMEN 406 BAKERS ... 27 HORSE TRAINERS13 PAINTERS GENBLACKSMITHS . 8.BRIDGE CARPENTERS 231HEAVY TRUCK DRIVERS . BGENCARPENTERS 47 MARINE ENGINEMEN41 BUTCHERSLOCOMOTIVE ENGINEMEN. 1 LATHE HAND-- GEMMACNINISTS LOCOMOTIVE FIREMEN 214 HAND RIVETERS- 156 BRAKEMEN 321TEL &TEL LINEMEN15. RRCONDUCTORS-M GEN PIPEFITTERS .. 22 MOTORCYCLISTS M PLUMBERS Sto TOOL&GAUCE MAKERS . GUNSMITHS22.AUTO CHAUFFEURS GEM MECHANCS. 299 GENAUTOREPAIRMEN-& TOOL ROOM EXPERTS82 DETECTIVES & POLICEMEN 24 AUTO ENGINEMECHANICS- 21. AUTO ASSEMBLERS--. STOCK CHECKERS. SHIP CARPENTERS28 FARRER&VETERINARIANS.. 251-TRUCKMASTERS33.TELEPHONE OPCRATORS 50 CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION FOREMEN .. RECEIVER &SHIPPERSTOCK KEEPER- 34PHOTOGRAPHER .. 10 GEM ELECTRICIANS 416 BAND MUSICIANSSitTELEGRAPHERS.. 38 RRCLERKS ... 381 FILING CLERKS-38 GEN CLERKS MECHANICAL ENGINEERS--ARMY NURSES ЗЬ ВОоккССРERS--DENTALOFFICERS- 21 MECHANICAL DRAFTSMEM. 39 STENOGRAPHERS &TYPISTS37 ACCOUNTANTS... 105 CIVIL ENGINEERS ---YMCA SECRETARIESMEDICAL OFFICERS ARMY CHAPLAIMS.. ENGINEER OFFICERS.. D- D с- C C B A FIGURE 6.—INTELLIGENCE STANDARDS OF MEN IN THE UNITED STATES ARMY DURING THE WORLD WARº. •Bar shows range of middle 50 per cent. Vertical crossbar shows median. The chart is based on the data from 36,500 men. The numbers at the extreme left of the chart are occupational key numbers. 125 Samples of Pages of Theses (Sample bar chart) . Cabinetmakers 85 10 5 Helpers 12 72 16 Brick and stone masons 67 22 11 Carpenters 20 61 19 Builders and building contractors 29 29 42 Painters andglaziers 42 25 33 Sheetmetal workers and tinsmiths 40 42 18 Plumbers, g'as and steam fitters Foreign born 23 45 32 Nativeborn of foreign parents Nativeborn of native parents FIGURE 7.- PERCENTAGE OF WORKERS IN BUILDING TRADES THAT ARE FOR- EIGN- BORN, NATIVE-BORN OF FOREIGN PARENTS, AND NATIVE-BORN OF NATIVE PARENTS . (From Shaw, F. L. The Building Trades, p. 33) . How to Write a Thesis 126 (Sample organization chart. ) The organization chart is frequently used to show the relation of one official or department to other officials or departments in an organization. People of the State represented in the Legislature State Superintendent of Public Instruction People of the City School District County Superintendent of Schools CityBoard of Education Educational Committees ofthe Board Business Committees of the Board CITY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS Special Supervisors Business and Office Clerk SCHOOL Stenographer PRINCIPALS Attendance Officer School Janitors Kindergarten Teachers Regular Special Teachers Teachers Pupils Parents FIGURE 8.—PLAN OF EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR A SMALL CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM . (From Cubberley, E. P. Public School Administration, p. 167 ) . Samples of Pages of Theses 127 . Mathematics in Ability (Sample correlation chart ) . Ability in Languages. 65-70 7580-85- 9035-40-45-50- 55-60 39 69 44 74 84 94 79 89 49 54 59 64 95100 10095 94४ 90 8985 84- 80 79- X 75 7470 6965 FIGURE 9.—DISTRIBUTION OF CORRELATED ABILITIES IN LANGUAGES AND MATHEMATICS FOR 130 COLLEGE STUDENTS . ( From Rugg, H. O. Statistical Methods Applied to Education, p. 241 ) . How to Write a Thesis 128 (Sample map chart ) . Wash. N. D. Kont Minn Idaho S. D. W1 10 Wyo Wich . 10 Conn . Pa Lowu. Bev Cal. N.J Nebr . Ind Utah Ohio 111 Colo Kas. No Ky N.O. Ariz Tenn, Okla. N. Mex S.C. Ark. Ge. Mis Ala. Texas popular vote La gubernatorial app't . State board app't. Fla SCALE FIGURE 10.—SECTIONAL PREFERENCES FOR THE VARIOUS METHODS OF SELECTING THE CHIEF STATE SCHOOL OFFI- CIALS, 1923 . Samples of Pages of Theses 129 (Sample picture chart) . Ways of using hours after 3 o'clock FIGURE 11.— ILLUSTRATING THE IMPOR- TANCE OF AFTER-SCHOOL ACTIVITIES. How to Write a Thesis 130 (Sample questionnaire) . TREASURY DEPARTMENT U.S. PUBLICHEALTH SERVICE UNITED STATES PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE Form9408B Epidemiological Study of Common Colds and Other Minor RespiratoryAffections 15, 1925. April 1TO 1. During the above-mentioned period have you suffered from an attack of any of the ailments men- CLINICAL REPORT FOR THE PERIOD FROM tionedbelow? yes no 2. Ifso, please indicateby check (X) in proper spaces below the nature of such attack: Nature ofAttacks Reported ( Check ) Cold(includes "cold in head" or"nose cold" ) Bronchitis (includes cold in Was this attack reported inpreceding report? Yes Areyou now well? DateofOnset No Yes Ifwell, givedate ofrecovery No chestwith cough) Influenza (includes "grippe" or "flu") Tonsillitis or pharyngitis (sore throat) Hay fever ("pollen fever" or "rose cold") ☐ Pneumonia (only if so diagnosed byphysician) yes no 3. Did this attack keep you from work during this period? No. ofdays in this period Π No. ofdays in this period 4. Did this attack keep you in bed during this period? 5. Did you have the attention of a physician for this attack ? 6. Please indicate by checks (X) in proper spaces below the symptoms of the attack reported above (except in case of pneumonia): yes no (1) (2) (3) (4) yes no yesno Sudden onset Chill or chilliness Headache Fever (6) (7) (8) Running ofnose Aching in body orlimbs (11) (12 ) Obstruction ofnostrils (13) (14) Expectoration Sore throat Constipation (9) Tightness of chest Other symptoms (5) Inflammation of eyes (10) ☐ ☐ Cough (State) ....... 7. Are you aware of any special circumstances, such as exposure to draft, chilling, wetting, overheating, or fatigue, which seem toyou wholly or partly responsible for the onset of your attack? yes no ㅁㅁ 8. If"yes," please give brief statement of circumstances, with dates: 9. Have you any definite knowledge of having been'ncontact with any similar case within one to five days prior to the onset ofyour attack? yes no Π コ 10. If "yes," please give brief account of the exposure, with details as to intimacy anddatesofcontact: 11. In case you have reported an attack of "influenza," "flu" or "grippe," in this period, in what respectdid it differ from an ordinary "cold?". Dated 192 Signed Please indicate any change of addresshere INFORMATION FURNISHED UPON THIS RECORD WILL BE CONSIDERED CONFIDENTIAL, TO BE USED BY THE PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE ONLY FOR STATISTICAL PURPOSES. Samples of Pages of Theses 131 ( Sample bibliography) . BIBLIOGRAPHY " This bibliography contains the references which have been found especially helpful in preparing this manual . A Manual of Style. 7thed. Chicago : The University of Chicago Press, 1923. 300 p. Baldwin, C. S. How to Write. New York : Macmillan Co., 1905. 202 р. Booth, W. S. A Practical Guide for Authors in Their Relations with Publishers and Printers. Bos- ton : Houghton Mifflin and Co., 1907. 180 p. Brinton, W. C. Graphic Methods of Presenting Facts. New York : Engineering Magazine Co., 1914. 371 р. Catalog Rules, Author and Title Entries. American Library Association, American Library As- sociation Publishing Board, 1908. 88 p. Frost, Harwood. Good Engineering Literature : What to Read and How to Write; with Suggestive Information on Allied Topics. Chicago : Codex Book Co., 1911. 422 p. Greever, Garland, and Jones, E. S. The Century Handbook of Writing. New York : Century Co., 1918. 228 p. Hall, G. S. What is Research in a University Sense, and How May It Best Be Promoted ? Pedagogical Seminary, IX ( 1902 ) , p. 74-80. " It is the practice to number the references when citations are made in the body of the page as described on page 62 of this manual. 132 How to Write a Thesis Haskell, A. C. How to Make and Use Graphic Charts. New York : Codex Book Co., 1919. 339 р. Heisch, C. E. The Art and Craft of the Author. London : Elliott Stock, 1905. 123 р. Ives, G. B. Text, Type, and Style. Boston : Atlantic Monthly Press, 1921. VI + 305 p. Marshall, W. C. Graphical Methods for Schools, Colleges, Statisticians, Engineers, and Executives. New York : McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1921. 253 p. Mudge, I. G. Chicago : New Guide to Reference Books. American Library Association, 1923. 278 р. Perry, F. M. A Punctuation Primer, with Notes on the Preparation of Manuscript. New York : American Book Co., 1908. 103 р. Report of the Joint Committee on Standards for Graphic Presentation. New York : American So- ciety of Mechanical Engineers, 1918. 50 р. Style Manual of the Government Printing Office, ed., February, 1923. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1923. 224 р. Wood, G. M. Suggestions to Authors. Washington : Government Printing Office, 1913. 64 р. Vizetelly, F. H. The Preparation of Manuscripts for the Printer. New York : Funk and Wagnalls Co., 1905. 148 р. INDEX Abbreviations : consistency in use of, 53 ; use of in tables, 66. Abstracts, use of, 63 . Accuracy: necessity for and how to secure, 11; in citations, 55; in quotations, 64 ; in tables, 70; in "copy" for printer, 90; in sources, 40. Acknowledgments : standards for, 83 ; illustrated, 7. Aligning figures, decimals, and dollar signs in tables, 67. Amount of data to secure, 40. Amount of time to spend on thesis, 85 . Annotations, purposes of and specimens of, 32, 81. Arabic numerals, use of in numbering illustrations, 73 . Bibliography. See working bibliography; see also final bibliography. Blue-printing of illustrations, 78 . Bold face type: when to use, 93 ; illustrated, 93 ; how indicated, 93 . Box-heads of table: defined, 70; how enclosed, 70. "Browsing" through examples of theses : purposes of, 26; how to do, 27 . Capitals: how indicated, 93 ; consistency in use of, 53 ; use in tables, 66; use in illustrations, 74. Carbon copies of manuscript, 89 . Charm in writing, definition of, 53 . Charts. See illustrations . Checking data of manuscript, 11, 70. Citations : necessity for citing authorities, 55%; footnote citations : models for books, 56 ; models for periodicals, 56 ; models for miscellaneous documents, 56 ; use of ibid., 57 ; use of op . cit ., 58 ; use of loc. cit. , 58 ; cautions concerning use of footnote citations, 58 ; body of the page citations: how to use, 63 ; sample pages, 113, 114, 115 . Clearness : necessity for, 50 ; how to secure, 50; in tables, 68 ; in illustrations, 74; in questionnaires, 35. Coherence: what it is, 46 ; necessity for, 46 ; aids in securing, 46. Comma, use of in numbers, 71. Conclusions . See interpretation of data. Conferences : importance of, 41 ; when to have, 41; arranging for, 42. Contents : standards for, 82 ; examples of, 3, 109. Contribution to knowledge, what constitutes, 9. "Copy" for illustrations, how to prepare, 75. "Copy" for publisher, getting "copy" in good form, 90. Copyholders , suggestions to, 95. Corrections in quotations, how indicated, 64. Corrections, symbols for. See proofreading. Criteria for selecting problem : novelty of and interest in, 21 ; practical value of and student's special qualifications to attack, 22 ; availability of data, 22; cost of and time required, 23. Criticisms : necessity for, 42 ; how to give and accept, 42. Index 134 Cuts , preparation of, 75 . Definition of terms, necessity for, 50 . Delimiting the problem, necessity for and examples of, 23 . Descriptive theses, 28. Divisions : of manuscript, 45 ; of words, 87 . Earmarks of scientific documents, 11. Ellipses : rules for use of, 64 ; examples, 64. Emphasis: necessity for, 46; how to secure, 46. English : necessity for good English, 49; general standards of: accuracy, clarity, charm, 50 . Experimental theses, 27. F. , ff. ( = "following" ) , use of, 61 . Final bibliography : purpose of, 79 ; consistency in entering data, 79; models for books, 79 ; models for periodicals, 80 ; models for miscellaneous documents, 80 ; organization of, 80; annotations, 81 ; specimen, 131. First drafts of manuscript, how to write, 89. Footnotes : to text, 55; to tables and illustrations, 59, 67 ; specimens, 113, 114, 117 . Generalizations. See interpretation of data. Graphs. See illustrations. Headings : for divisions of text, 45; for tables, 65 ; for illustrations, 75 ; in Table of Contents, 82. Historical theses, 27. Ibid. , use of, 57 . Illustrations : value of, 73 ; numbering of, 73 ; titles of, 74; referring to, 74; clearness of, 743; footnotes to, 59 , 74 ; kind of paper to use, 75 ; suggestions on preparing, 76 ; blue-printing, 78 ; selected references, 78 ; how to prepare a List of Illustrations, 82 ; sample illustrations, 119 . Impartiality, necessity for, 13 . Indentations, in Table of Contents, 82. Index for work, when needed, 84. Index symbols for citations : how to number and sequence, 59 ; when to use figures and when to use letters, etc. , 59. Indexes for periodicals and subjects, list of, 31 . Ink, kind to use in making illustrations, 75 . Interpretation of data: wrong interpretations, 18 ; necessity for proper interpretations, 46. Introduction: to manuscript, 25 ; to tables, 68. Italic type : when to use, 93 ; specimen, 93 ; how indicated, 93 . Length: of sentences, 52 ; of tables, 69 ; of thesis, 84. List of illustrations, sample of, 111. List of tables, sample of, 110. Loc. cit. , use of, 58. Lower case type, defined, 93 . Margins, width of, 87. Meeting other requirements, 87. Mentioning weaknesses in investigation, necessity for, 40. Methods of collecting data. See personal-investigation method ; see also questionnaire method. Minor data, where to file, etc., 14. Numbering of pages, 87. Numbers : consistency in use of, 71 ; when to use figures and when to spell out, 71; commas in, 71; percentage, 71. use of per cent and Objectivity, what it is and necessity for, 12. 135 Index Omissions : how indicated in tables, 67 ; in quotations, 64. Op. cit. , use of, 58 . Open tables: definition of and when to use, 70 ; specimen, 117. Opinions : when to use and when not to use, 12 ; stating opinions as facts, 14. Order of parts of thesis, 84. Organization of material : importance of, 44; suggestions on, 45. Original sources. See primary sources. Outlines: necessity for, 24; standards for and examples of, 25. P., pp. , use of, 61. Paper: for illustrations, 75, 78 ; for manuscript, 89 ; for questionnaires, 37. Paragraph structure, 53 . Per cent and percentage, 71 . Periods : use of in tables, 66 ; to show omissions, 64. Personal-investigation method of collecting data; what it is, 34; advantages over questionnaire method, 34 . Planning the problem: necessity for, 24; trial and error methods , 24 ; example of a plan, 25. Primary sources : definition of, 38 ; advantages over secondary sources, 39 ; Problems: examples of, 38. making a written record of, 20 ; when to select, 20; criteria for selecting, 20 ; delimiting, 23 ; responsibility for selecting, 19, planning the attack on, 25. Proofreading : necessity for, 89, 94 ; how to do, 94; marks to use, 94, 96, 97 . Proofs, making requests for, 95. Publication of theses : why publish, 90 ; where to publish, 90 . Punctuation , 53 . Purposes of thesis requirement, 5. Questionnaire method : when to use, 35 ; standards a questionnaire should meet, 35 ; sample questionnaire, 130. Questions for review purposes, 98. Quotations : how to arrange, 63 ; use of quotation marks, 63 , 88; ellipses, 64; corrections in, 64. Reasoning from analogy, 16. Reasoning from silence, 17. See indexes for references . Reference indexes. References to literature . See citations . Referring to illustrations and tables, how to do, 69, 74. Research and science, nature, boundaries, and purpose, 9. Roman numerals, use of in numbering tables, 65 . Roman type : various kinds illustrated, 93 ; how indicated, 93 . Ruled tables: definition of and when to use, 70 ; specimen of, 118. Rules, cross, in tables : when to use, 70 ; illustrated, 118. Science and research, nature, boundaries, and purpose, 9. Scientific nature of thesis : accuracy, 11; objectivity, 12 ; impartiality, 13 ; verification, 13 . Secondary sources : definition of, 38 ; examples of, 38 ; when to use, 40. Seeking a publisher : general hints on, 92 ; kind of letter to accompany the manuscript, 92 . Selection of problem: responsibility for selecting, 19 ; importance of, 19 ; making a written record of, 20 ; when to select, 20 ; criteria for selecting, 21. 136 Index Sentence structure, 52. Sizes of type, 94. Small caps, how indicated, 93. Sources: sources to examine in making the working bibliography, 30. See primary sources ; see also secondary sources. Spacing, 88. Specifications for publication, 92. Subjectivity, what it is, 12. Summary: purposes of, 26, 47 ; standards for, 26, 47 ; where to place, 48 . Table of contents. See contents . Tables: necessity for numbering, 65 ; how to number. 65 ; how to head, 65 ; periods, abbreviations, and capitals in, 66; footnotes to, 59, 67 ; omission of data in, 67 ; unity and clearness, 68 ; referring to, 68 , 69 ; use of gross and derivative data, 69; use of rules, 70%; how to prepare a List of Tables, 82 ; specimens, 116. Title of thesis: standards for, 25 ; sample title page, 106. Type: different styles of, 93 ; different sizes of, 94; difficulty in making changes in, 95. Types of theses : experimental, 27; historical, and descriptive, 28. Typing of thesis : numbering of pages, 87 ; margins, 87 ; divisions of words, 87; spacing, 88 ; quotations , 88, proofreading, 89; first drafts, 89; kind of paper, 89. Typist, hiring of, 88. Unity: what it is, 45; necessity for, 45 ; aids in securing, 46 ; in tables, 68. Verification, necessity for and methods to pursue, 13. Violations of principles of scientific procedure, common examples of, 14. When to submit thesis, 86. Word study, importance of and aids in, 52 . Working bibliography : why and when to make, 29 ; procedure in making, 29 ; sources to examine, 30 ; use of filing cards, 31; securing all necessary data, 32; data to secure, 32 ; sample card, 32; annotations, 33 ; necessity for consistency, 33. Zero, when to use in tables, 68. # 1433 YA 04324 90 U.C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES C005405487

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