Preparing a Basic First Aid Kit
First Aid is the immediate care given to a person who
has been injured or suddenly taken ill. It includes selfhelp and home care, if medical assistance is delayed or
not available (Philippine Red Cross Basic First Aid
Manual, 2005). First aid is an essential life skill that
BHWs need to learn how to perform. The
administration of first aid can alleviate suffering,
prevent further injury or danger, and prolong the life of
the victim. Before we begin the administration of first
aid, it is important to bear in mind the basics of
responding to an emergency and the purpose of
performing first aid.
THREE C's OF EMERGENCY
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Check if the scene or surroundings are safe. Then,
proceed with checking the condition of the victim.
Call emergency hotlines immediately for help and
assistance from health care professionals and/or
facilities.
Care must be provided appropriately until medical
professionals arrive on the scene.
THREE P's OF FIRST AID
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Preserve life.
Prevent Deterioration/ worsening of the patient's
condition
Promote Recovery by providing comfort,
attempting to relieve pain, etc.
LEGAL CONCERNS: According to the Article 12 no. 4 of
Act No. 3815 of the Philippine Revised Penal Code Book
One: “any person who, while performing a lawful act
with due care, causes an injury by mere accident
without fault or intention of causing it” is exempt from
criminal liability.
individual may be held to a standard of reasonable care
to prevent injury or harm.
Standard of care - skills and learning commonly
possessed by members of the profession.
Negligence - misconduct or practice that is below the
standard expected of an ordinary, reasonable, and
prudent person.
Abandonment - ignoring or leaving or never returning
back to someone who needs help.
Confidentiality - keeping secret.
TOPIC : Providing Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation
(CPR)
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation or CPR is an emergency
procedure intended to revive the beating of a heart.
CPR is best conducted with chest compressions and
rescue breaths using a mask and gloves. Before
performing CPR check for the patient's responsiveness.
Open the airway and assess for normal breathing using
visual cues such as chest rise. The prescribed minimum
depth of compression for adults is 5 cm or 2 inches
while the minimum depth for children is at least ⅓ the
depth of the chest size. This can be 5 cm for a child and
4 cm for an infant. Using a combination of chest
compressions and breaths is most effective especially
for children and infants who experience cardiac arrest
as a result of hypoxia or severe lack of oxygen. In
addition, other underlying causes of cardiac arrest such
as drowning, trauma, drug overdose and other noncardiac causes will benefit from breaths and
compressions. However, if you are not trained,
unwilling or unable to do this, you can provide
compression-only or hands-only CPR.
Expressed - when two parties agree and discuss, maybe
oral or written
You should stop Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR)
when:
o Spontaneous signs of breathing and circulation
have occurred.
o Turned over to the professional provider.
o The operator is exhausted.
o The physician assumes responsibility.
o The scene becomes unsafe.
Implied - exist when an individual’s non-verbal
behavior indicate agreement
Using an Automated External Defibrillator in
Providing CPR
Duty to act - is a legal duty requiring a party to take
necessary action to prevent harm to another person or
to the general public. In personal injury law, an
Automated External Defibrillators (AED) are
computerized devices that are attached to a pulseless
victim using adhesive pads. AEDs can give you visual
and voice prompts to guide your actions. The use of
Consent - an agreement by a client to accept a course
of treatment or a procedure after being provided
complete information.
AEDs is advised when victims have no response,
breathing, and pulse.
TOPIC: Chain of Infection
The Chain of Infection is series of events that has to
happen to enable pathogens or disease-causing
microorganisms/ pests to cause infections in a person.
We can think of each part of the process as a separate
‘link’ in the chain. And if we can break a link at any part
of the chain, we can stop the infection from arising.
Infection is a state which exists when pathogenic
microorganisms have invaded and multiplied in the
tissues. The types of infection vary according to their
causes:
Bacterial infection - Bacteria are single-celled
microorganisms, also known as prokaryotes. Bacteria
can live in almost any type of environment, from
extreme heat to intense cold, and some can even
survive in radioactive waste.
Fungal infection - A fungus is often a multicellular
parasite that can decompose and absorb organic
matter using an enzyme. However, some types, such as
yeasts, are single-celled. Fungi almost always
reproduce by spreading single-celled spores. The
structure of a fungus is usually long and cylindrical, with
small filaments branching from the main body.
Viral Infection - A microorganism that is smaller than a
bacterium that cannot grow or reproduce apart from a
living cell. A virus invades living cells and uses their
chemical machinery to keep alive and to replicate itself.
Prion disease - A prion is a protein that contains no
genetic material and is usually harmless. Scientists do
not class prions as living microorganisms. However, if a
prion folds into an abnormal shape, it can become a
rogue agent and cause infection.
Opportunistic microorganisms - Opportunistic
microorganisms
are
typically
non-pathogenic
microorganisms that act as a pathogen in certain
circumstances. They lay dormant for long periods of
time until the host’s immune system is suppressed and
then they take that opportunity to attack.
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It is, however, worth highlighting the ‘silent’ threat
which is too often faced in healthcare work. If work
stress is intense and goes on for some time, it can lead
to mental and physical ill health. The form of injury
generally associated with work-related stress is called
‘psychological injury’. Psychological injuries can occur
as a result of one-off events (including critical incidents)
or can develop over time.
If you are experiencing high levels of stress or feel that
you are unable to cope, you should seek help early. You
should discuss your concerns with either your chain of
command, your local medical staff or contact a
Psychologist/Counsellor directly.
Hazard Identification & Control
o Spot the Hazard
o Assess the Risk
o Fix the Problem
o Evaluate the Results
Risk Assessment
Doing a risk assessment is about identifying the risks
and hazards in your workplace that might cause harm
to patient/clients, visitors and staff. It is the law that
employers have to carry out risk assessments of their
workplaces, but as an employee, you too have a
responsibility to constantly be on the lookout for
hazards and take action to remedy them.
A risk assessment in your workplace might involve the
following:
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TOPIC 2: Risk Identification and Control
These are some of the workplace hazards you may
encounter in a healthcare facility.
o Physical - noise, physical environment
Chemical – exposure to certain medications,
cleaning agents
Ergonomic - manual handling, repetitive / awkward
tasks
Psychological - stress
Radiation - X-Rays, UV
Biological – COVID-19, other bacterial infections,
body fluids
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Walking round the environment taking note of the
hazards you see
Deciding who is most at risk from these hazards
Evaluating the risks from the hazards, with
decisions being made on whether current safety
policies and procedures are adequate
Identifying ways of removing the hazards
Preparing a report on the findings.
That sounds like a very formal set of steps, but you
can develop a less-formal risk assessment
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‘mindset’. As you go about your work, think about
‘RISKS’:
Regularly look for hazards
Identify those most at risk
See whether your current policies are protective
enough
Keep your area hazard-free
Share your findings with your manager
TOPIC: Practicing Hand Hygiene
Routine hand hygiene must be performed before and
after every episode of patient contact. including:
o before touching a patient
o before a procedure
o after a procedure or body substance exposure risk
o after touching a patient
o after touching a patient’s surroundings.
Use of Aseptic Non-Touch Technique
Asepsis or aseptic refers to the absence of
microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, and other
pathogens. Healthcare professionals use aseptic
techniques to protect patients from infection. These
are standard healthcare practices that help prevent the
transfer of germs from the surrounding to the patient
through an open wound and other susceptible areas on
a patient’s body during healthcare procedures known
as healthcare-associated infections (HAIs).
Here are some measures involved in the performing
ANTT:
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Always decontaminate hands properly.
Never contaminate ‘key parts’ of the equipment or
the patients’ susceptible site.
Touch non ‘key parts’ of the equipment with
confidence.
Use of personal protective equipment (PPE).
Wear sterile gloves if the procedure requires
cannot be carried out without the risk of touching
a key part.
Maintain a clean environment including trolleys
and trays.
Types of Aseptic Techniques
Healthcare professionals receive specialized training in
aseptic technique practices. However, a person can also
receive aseptic technique training if they need to use
these practices at home.
People working in a variety of healthcare settings use
aseptic techniques. Here are several common aseptic
technique practices:
Using barriers
These prevent the transfer of germs between
healthcare professionals, patients, and the
environment. Aseptic barriers include:
Aseptic techniques range from simple practices, such as
using alcohol to sterilize the skin, to full surgical asepsis,
which involves the use of sterile gowns, gloves, and
masks. These practices can be done in hospitals,
surgery rooms, outpatient care clinics, and other
healthcare settings.
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Aseptic Non-Touch Technique (ANTT) avoids infection
by identifying the "key parts" and "key sites" of a
procedure and avoiding direct or indirect contact with
these areas to avoid contamination.
Healthcare professionals must thoroughly prepare
both the patient and the equipment before a medical
procedure takes place.
Key sites are areas in the body that are susceptible to
infection such as open wounds and insertion/puncture
sites for invasive medical devices. Meanwhile, key parts
are parts of the equipment that if contaminated are
most likely to cause infection. Common examples are
needles, syringe tips, intravenous line connections and
tops of ampoules.
sterile gloves
sterile gowns
sterile masks
sterile drapes
protective wrappers on sterilized instruments
Patient and equipment preparation
Aseptic preparation may involve:
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disinfecting a patient’s skin using antiseptic wipes
sterilizing equipment and instruments before a
procedure
keeping sterilized instruments inside plastic
wrappers to prevent contamination before use
Environmental controls
Healthcare professionals also have to consider the
patient’s immediate surroundings. It is essential to
maintain an aseptic environment before and during
procedures. The designated procedural area is also
called an aseptic field.
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Maintaining an aseptic environment involves:
keeping doors closed
minimizing movement in and out of the aseptic
field
limiting entry to necessary personnel only
permitting only one patient per aseptic field
Contact guidelines
Once a healthcare professional has washed their hands
and donned their sterile barriers, they must follow
sterile-to-sterile contact guidelines. These guidelines
prohibit any contact between sterile and nonsterile
items.
At this point, healthcare professionals can only touch
sterile objects and surfaces, and they must avoid
touching non-sterile items and surfaces at all costs.
The same guidelines apply to sterile devices. If a sterile
instrument falls on the ground and the wrapper
sustains damage, a healthcare professional must
remove the instrument and re-sterilize it before use.
Use of Aseptic Non-Touch Technique
Performing the Clean Technique
This is a simpler technique for untrained individuals.
Clean technique differs in aseptic technique because it
focuses on reducing the number of microorganisms in
general. This involves the following steps:
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Thorough handwashing
Wearing gloves
Maintaining a clean environment
Non-touch practices such as avoiding touching key
parts (i.e. syringe tips and inside of sterile dressings).
Clean technique is often sufficient for long-term care,
in-home care, and some outpatient clinical settings.
Healthcare professionals use clean technique for
people who are not at high risk of infection. For
example, they may use clean technique when changing
the dressing on a wound that is healing.
Reusable medical devices are devices that health care
providers can reprocess and reuse on multiple patients.
Reprocessing is a validated process used to facilitate
the reuse of reusable medical devices. During
reprocessing, the device is decontaminated through
cleaning, disinfection and/or sterilization.
Point-of-Use Processing - includes prompt, initial
cleaning steps and/or measures to prevent drying of
contaminants in and on the device and to facilitate
subsequent cleaning steps.
Thorough Cleaning - done in a dedicated cleaning area.
Disinfection or Sterilization - the device is disinfected
or sterilized depending on its intended use and routed
back into use.
Examples of reusable medical equipment and
instruments include surgical forceps, digital
thermometers and stethoscopes. To determine
whether or not reusable medical equipment and
instruments can be reprocessed, you can consider the
design of the device as well as if it is safe to reuse or
reprocess.
Design - There are medical devices that allow their
users to clean, disinfect and sterilize them for reuse.
These devices may also come with dedicated cleaning
accessories or instructions. There are also devices that
come with single-use parts that need to be replaced
after every use.
Safety - Always refer to the packaging/ labelling of the
device to determine if it can be reused. These
information, together with the instructions on how you
can reprocess a device, should be explicitly and clearly
stated in its packaging. Otherwise, do not reprocess the
device for reuse.
TOPIC: Occupational Health and Safety
Health and safety is a joint responsibility of
management and workers. A health and safety program
is a definite plan of action designed to prevent
accidents and occupational diseases. This must include
the elements required by health and safety laws.
To fulfill your individual responsibilities, you must:
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Know
what
these
responsibilities
are
(communication required).
Have sufficient authority to carry them out
(organizational issue).
Have the required ability and competence (training
or certification required).
As a worker, your common responsibilities in ensuring
health and safety include:
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Using personal protection and safety equipment as
required by the employer.
Following safe work procedures.
Knowing and complying with all regulations.
Reporting any injury or illness immediately.
Reporting unsafe acts and unsafe conditions.
Participating in joint health and safety committees
or as the representative.
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TOPIC: Good Housekeeping
5S is a simple method of organizing the workplace
safely and efficiently to enhance productivity. It is a
systematized approach to organize work areas, keep
rules and standards, and maintain the discipline
needed to do a productive workplace. 5S leans on the
idea that productivity is achieved by organizing the
work area because it eliminates wasting resources,
such as time.
It traces its origin to the production techniques
observed in some of the world-leading manufacturing
companies. This method is divided into five phases:
Seiri, Seiton, Seiso, Seiketsu, and Shitsuke. Each phase
is named after a Japanese term recognizing the
Japanese companies which lead the practice of this
method.
o Sorting (Seiri) - includes identifying all the
necessary items in the workplace, and removing all
the unnecessary ones.
o Set in order (Seiton) – necessary items are labeled,
color-coded, and well organized in the proper
places.
o Shine (Seiso) – cleaning up of the workplace
thoroughly.
o Standardize (Seiketsu) – team members are
trained on the above three steps and know how to
perform them with consistency.
o Sustain (Shitsuke) – monitoring system is set up to
observe that the organized and standardized work
is being continually maintained.
Practicing Proper Waste Segregation
There are five (5) general classifications of waste. these
are:
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Biodegradable Waste - organic materials that
decompose through composting or other similar
processes;
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Recyclable Waste - waste materials that can be
recovered and/or reused;
Residual Waste with Potential for Recycling residual materials that have potential for diversion
through alternative recycling methods; and
Residual Waste for Disposal - non-compostable
and non-recyclable waste.
Hazardous Waste - household waste that are toxic
or that pose potential danger;
Healthcare Waste - waste materials generated by
healthcare activities such as needles and blades,
blood-contaminated waste, body parts and tissues,
pharmaceuticals and radioactive waste; and
Bulky Waste - includes disaster and demolition
debris, bulky yard waste and tires.
Waste segregation is the practice of separating
different solid waste for recycling and reuse to reduce
the volume of waste for collection and disposal. It
emphasizes source segregation which can be done by
practicing waste segregation at the household or
workplace level.
A caregiver is defined as a person who regularly attends
to the needs or concerns of a person with short- or
long-term limitations caused by illness, injury, or
disability in a private household, child care, or senior
home support care. Caregivers can work in three
different areas: hospitals, healthcare facilities, or
homes. These settings may provide differences in the
caregivers’ scope of work, but the essence of their job
as providers of care and assistance still remains.
COMMUNICATION SOURCES
Here are the types of sources of communication in the
workplace
1. Internal Sources - these are the people you
communicate with who are working with you in your
organization
o Team Members
o Supervisor/Department Head
2. External Sources - these are the people you
communicate with who are outside your company
o Suppliers
o Trade Personnel
o Local Government
o Industry Bodies
o Customer/Guests/Clients
TOPIC: Obtaining, Conveying, and Storing Workplace
Information
Appropriate Medium of Communication in the
Workplace
1. Memorandum – workplace document intended to
point out and resolve the issue
2. Circular - formal and official letter addressed to a
group of people in the workplace, a department, or
a whole organization
3. Notice - short formal documents that are sent to
send urgent or important matters.
4. Information Discussion
5. Follow-up or Verbal Instructions
6. Face to Face Communication
7. Storing Organizational Information
After collecting and assessing information for relevance
to the activities of the organization, they are usually
stored for future use, or passed on to another person
for use within the organization. It is important to store
the records in their appropriate place after use in order
for them to be easily located when needed again. Since
records can be stored for many years, the storage
system needs to keep records in good condition, secure
and accessible. Your organization may have different
systems for storing print documents, electronic
documents, confidential documents, and archive
documents. Archives are old documents that are kept
in long-term storage. These documents cannot be
destroyed, for legal or other reasons, before a specified
date.
In the health care industry, there is a lot of information
that must be kept confidential such as the client’s
name, date of birth, age, sex and address, medical
history, and guardianship orders. Because of this,
organizations have developed policies and procedures
that aim to store and disclose information based on
privacy legislation and regulations.
Information Storage Protocols
Organizations establish policies and procedures that
intend to handle and safely keep their documents and
records. This involves documentation, methods of filing
and retrieval, the release of information, and
maintenance of confidentiality.
The following are examples of relevant information
storage policies
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Record keeping policy
Access policy for confidential information
Record disposal policy
Confidentiality policy
Privacy policy
Using Databases
A database is the structured collection of data.
Examples of databases include sets of client records
saved on a computer or kept in files or folders in a
cabinet or contact details or records kept on an index
card system. A protocol in naming the files and storing
them in appropriate folders must be established to help
the employees locate and access the files they need.
Be it in a physical or digital format, the information
used must be up-to-date and accurate. The information
must also be managed well because its maintenance
can get difficult and critical when they become
accessible to a lot of users. Hence, there must be a
time-efficient, simple, and effective system that the
organization can use to ensure the accuracy of data. In
addition, employees must be aware of their
responsibilities in ensuring the maintenance of the
system.
Organizational structure is defined as the “system that
outlines how certain activities are directed in order to
achieve the goals of an organization. These activities
can include rules, roles, and responsibilities” (Kenton,
2021). It also helps identify the flow of information
between the levels within an organization, thus also
determining the process of submitting and reporting
important documents. Basically, the organizational
structure shows the company’s chain of command.
Home Caregiving
Caregiving organizations for home care, respite care,
and live-in care follow a flat delivery structure that is
headed by the care coordinator. The care coordinator
then reports to the service coordinator who is part of
the management team. The management team is
headed by the managing director.
Aged Care Facilities
Aged care facilities such as homes of the aged and
nursing homes serve as a home for older people who
need holistic care and support. Some aged care
facilities can have organizational charts as complex as
the hospitals because of the numerous departments
that work together to fulfill their function. Also, since
these facilities are homes to the clients, designated
departments for domestic work such as catering and
housekeeping are also established.
TOPIC: Solving and Addressing General Work
Problems
It is typical for a workplace to have different kinds of
people with different personalities, perspectives, and
attitudes. It is also common for these differences to be
the cause of workplace issues. If not addressed and
resolved, these issues may lead to stress and tension
for the employees involved, and situations of bullying,
harassment, or discrimination, which could, in turn,
affect their performance, productivity, and work
output.
The following are common workplace problems
experienced by employees, as identified by Good
Therapy:
o Interpersonal conflict
o Communication problems
o Gossip
o Bullying
o Harassment
o Discrimination
o Low motivation and job satisfaction
o Performance issues
o Poor job fit
TOPIC: Developing Career and Life Decisions
SELF-MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
Self-management skills help people take control of
their thoughts, feelings, and actions. Having these skills
allows them to set goals independently and work
toward achieving them.
The following are examples of self-management skills:
Organization - being organized helps in planning,
prioritizing, and carrying out important activities,
which enables you to manage your essential workplace
responsibilities
Goal Setting - being able to clearly and definitely know
what you want to achieve helps in prioritizing and
coming up with an action plan that lets you reach your
goals
Time Management - having strong time management
skills enables you to work on tasks with no distractions,
defined priorities and clear focus, which helps set and
meet deadlines and become highly productive.
Self-motivation - completing tasks while encouraged
by your desire to succeed and not by external factors
allows you to be more productive and progressive with
your projects and activities in the workplace.
Stress Management - managing stress can be done
through different activities such as maintaining a
healthy diet, exercising regularly, meditation and
journaling. It is important to have this skill so that you
can remain calm and manage your emotions in times of
stress, and keep steady progress at work.
Accountability - being able to maintain responsibility
for your actions and thoughts helps in evaluating work
and determining the best way to move forward.
Developing and Maintaining Positive Attitude at
Work
Your career and life at work are influenced by your
attitude. It is important to have a positive attitude in
the work to have the following benefits:
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Foster a positive workplace environment
Limit stress
Increase levels of productivity
Give more energy
Improve relationship with clients and workmates
Demonstrate capacity as a leader
Develop decision-making skills
Inspire others
TOPIC: Contributing to Workplace Innovation
Employees who continuously seek ways to improve
themselves and enjoy contributing to the innovation
effort regardless of their roles are needed by
organizations to be more efficient and productive. It is
helpful for employees to be curious about work
practices’ productiveness and effectiveness, instead of
just following them as they are. Innovativeness is a trait
that is very essential to the employees of an
organization.
Innovation is important because it can lead businesses
to new and better products and services, and thus can
help them achieve commercial success. With
innovation, businesses are able to respond faster and
better to changing environments, grasp opportunities
and develop necessary partnerships to generate and
act on ideas.
Both clients and employees also benefit from
innovation. For the clients, innovation can provide
them with improved products and efficiencies and
better prices. The benefit of innovation for the staff is
the fostering of a better and more productive
workplace and thus making them more involved and
happier at work.
Innovation in an Organization Leads to:
o Competitive advantage in capabilities that gives
your organization an edge over other competitors
and provide better products and services to clients
o Maximized return of investment (ROI) since
innovation has a direct impact on performance and
profitability
o Increased productivity and improved efficiency
o Development of a positive company culture
According to Covey, our self is divided into four parts
that need to be fed and developed:
o The spiritual self
o The mental self
o The physical self
o The social/emotional self
Occupational safety and health (OHS) standards are a
set of rules established to reduce, remove or replace
hazards in the workplace and minimize their effects.
Organizations benefit from these standards because
they help look after the employees’ health, therefore
making them more productive. Employers are required
to adopt such standards to ensure the safety of their
employees.
TOPIC: Identifying, Controlling and Preventing
Workplace Hazards and Risks
In the caregiving industry, there are numerous health
and safety hazards that you may encounter, namely:
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Risk of illness or infection caused by blood or bodily
fluids exposure when changing diapers,
administering first aid, etc.
Risk of getting exposed to infectious diseases if you
work closely with infected persons or in areas with
infected persons
Getting exposed to chemicals in household
cleaning products
Getting exposed to soiled linen
Working in awkward postures or doing tasks
repetitively
Risk of getting injured from lifting or carrying heavy
loads
Slipping, tripping, and falling
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Working with needles, sharp knives, and other
potentially hazardous tools
Getting burnt from ovens, deep fryers, and steam
from pots
Stress
Getting fatigued or experiencing other health due
to long hours of work or shift work
Working alone
Workplace violence
Good general safe work practices that you can follow:
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Practice safe lifting techniques.
Follow or establish safety procedures for working
alone, working alone with patients, or for avoiding
working alone wherever possible.
Attend training on chemical hazards, WHMIS and
SDSs.
Know basic and emergency first aid.
Comply with company safety rules.
Know the process in reporting hazards.
Practice good housekeeping procedures.
Practice safe client handling.
Understand the risks associated with blood-borne
diseases (e.g., hepatitis B).
Hierarchy of Controls
Occupational hazards must be controlled to protect
workers. In order to do this, a hierarchy of controls is
usually followed by organizations. This also helps in
determining ways to apply practical and effective
control solutions.
The hierarchy of controls is typically presented in an
inverted pyramid where the bottom part represents
the least effective measure and the top represents the
most effective measure.
Infectious diseases are illnesses caused by bacteria,
viruses, fungi, parasites, or other organisms. These
organisms that cause infectious diseases are called
pathogens.
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Causes of Infectious Diseases:
Bacteria - single-celled organisms that can cause
disorders like strep throat, urinary tract infection,
and tuberculosis
Viruses - organisms smaller than a bacteria that
can cause many different diseases, from common
colds to AIDS and COVID-19
Fungi - organisms that can cause many skin
diseases such as ringworm and athlete’s foot, and
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can also cause infections in the lungs or nervous
system
Parasites - organisms that latch onto a host
organism and cause illnesses like malaria
Such organisms are usually harmless or even helpful
but can cause diseases under specific situations.
The infection can be manifested by different signs and
symptoms depending on the organism causing the
infection. Fever and fatigue are the usual symptoms.
Mild infectious diseases can be treated by resting and
other home remedies. However, severe infections may
require hospitalization.
Asepsis and Infection Control
Asepsis is the state of being free from disease-causing
contaminants (such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and
parasites) or, preventing contact with microorganisms.
The term asepsis often refers to those practices used
to promote or induce asepsis in an operative field in
surgery or medicine to prevent infection.
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Vaccines and frequent and thorough hand washing can
help protect you from some infectious diseases.
Medical asepsis
Includes all practices intended to confine a specific
microorganism to a specific area
Limits the number, growth, and transmission of
microorganisms
Objects referred to as clean or dirty (soiled,
contaminated)
Surgical asepsis
Sterile technique
Practices that keep an area or object free of all
microorganisms
Practices that destroy all microorganisms and
spores
Used for all procedures involving sterile areas of
the body
Working in healthcare facilities makes us exposed to
different kinds of infection and at risk of acquiring
them. This lesson will help us learn information,
policies and procedures, performance monitoring, and
implementation of infection control so that we can
have the necessary skills and understanding needed to
prevent us and our clients from getting infected.
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First aid is the initial and prompt action done to assist
or care for a person who suddenly got sick or injured.
First aid must be administered as soon as possible after
an accident or illness, and before the ambulance
arrives.
Principles of Aseptic Technique Only sterile items are
used within sterile field.
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B - breathing
Sterile objects become unsterile when touched by
unsterile objects.
Sterile items that are out of vision or below the
waist level of the nurse are considered unsterile.
Sterile objects can become unsterile by prolong
exposure to airborne microorganisms.
Fluids flow in the direction of gravity.
Moisture that passes through a sterile object
draws microorganism from unsterile surfaces
above or below to the surface by capillary
reaction.
The edges of a sterile field are considered
unsterile.
The skin cannot be sterilized and is unsterile.
Conscientiousness, alertness and honesty are
essential qualities in maintaining surgical asepsis
C – circulation
Infection
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TOPIC: Performing Primary Survey of the Victim
Primary survey is the quick way of determining how to
tend to a patient’s life-threatening conditions
according to priority. Doing an initial assessment helps
the emergency medical responder identify all
immediate threats to life. The letters D R A B C can
guide you on what to do:
D - danger
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R - response
A - airway
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Signs of Localized Infection
Localized swelling
Localized redness
Pain or tenderness with palpation or movement
Palpable heat in the infected area
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Loss of function of the body part affected,
depending on the site and extent of involvement
Signs of Systemic Infection
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Fever
Increased pulse and respiratory rate if the fever
high
Malaise and loss of energy
Anorexia and, in some situations, nausea and
vomiting
Enlargement and tenderness of lymph nodes that
drain the area of infection
Factors Influencing Microorganism’s Capability to
Produce Infection
o Number of microorganisms present
o Virulence and potency of the microorganisms
(pathogenicity)
o Ability to enter the body
o Susceptibility of the host
o Ability to live in the host’s body
Anatomic and Physiologic Barriers Defend Against
Infection
o Intact skin and mucous membranes
o Moist mucous membranes and cilia of the nasal
passages
o Alveolar macrophages
o Tears
o High acidity of the stomach
o Resident flora of the large intestine
o Peristalsis
o Low pH of the vagina
o Urine flow through the urethra
NANDA Diagnosis
Risk for Infection
o State in which an individual is at increased risk for
being invaded by pathogenic microorganisms
Risks factors
o Inadequate primary defenses
o Inadequate secondary defenses
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Related Diagnoses
Potential Complication of Infection: Fever
Imbalanced Nutrition: Less than Body Requirement
Acute Pain
Impaired Social Interaction or Social Isolation
Anxiety
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Interventions to Reduce Risk for Infection
Proper hand hygiene techniques
Environmental controls
Sterile technique when warranted
Identification and management of clients at risk
Chain of Infection
1. The chain of infection refers to those elements that
must be present to cause an infection from a
microorganism
2. Basic to the principle of infection is to interrupt this
chain so that an infection from a microorganism
does not occur in client
3. Infectious agent; microorganisms capable of
causing infections are referred to as an infectious
agent or pathogen
4. Modes of transmission: the microorganism must
have a means of transmission to get from one
location to another, called direct and indirect
5. Susceptible host describes a host (human or
animal) not possessing enough resistance against a
particular pathogen to prevent disease or infection
from occurring when exposed to the pathogen; in
humans this may occur if the person’s resistance is
low because of poor nutrition, lack of exercise of a
coexisting illness that weakens the host.
6. Portal of entry: the means of a pathogen entering
a host: the means of entry can be the same as one
that is the portal of exit (gastrointestinal,
respiratory, genitourinary tract).
7. Reservoir: the environment in which the
microorganism lives to ensure survival; it can be a
person, animal, arthropod, plant, oil or a
combination of these things; reservoirs that
support organism that are pathogenic to humans
are inanimate objects food and water, and other
humans.
8. Portal of exit: the means in which the pathogen
escapes from the reservoir and can cause disease;
there is usually a common escape route for each
type of microorganism; on humans, common
escape routes are the gastrointestinal, respiratory
and the genitourinary tract.
Breaking the Chain of Infection
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Etiologic agent
Correctly cleaning, disinfecting or sterilizing articles
before use
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Educating clients and support persons about
appropriate methods to clean, disinfect, and
sterilize article
Reservoir (source)
Changing dressings and bandages when soiled or
wet
Appropriate skin and oral hygiene
Disposing of damp, soiled linens appropriately
Disposing of feces and urine in appropriate
receptacles
Ensuring that all fluid containers are covered or
capped
Emptying suction and drainage bottles at end of
each shift or before full or according to agency
policy
Portal of exit
Avoiding talking, coughing, or sneezing over open
wounds or sterile fields
Covering the mouth and nose when coughing or
sneezing
Method of transmission
Proper hand hygiene
Instructing clients and support persons to perform
hand hygiene before handling food, eating, after
eliminating and after touching infectious material
Wearing gloves when handling secretions and
excretions
Wearing gowns if there is danger of soiling clothing
with body substances
Placing discarded soiled materials in moistureproof refuse bags
Holding used bedpans steadily to prevent spillage
Disposing of urine and feces in appropriate
receptacles
Initiating and implementing aseptic precautions for
all clients
Wearing masks and eye protection when in close
contact with clients who have infections
transmitted by droplets from the respiratory tract
Wearing masks and eye protection when sprays of
body fluid are possible
Portal of entry
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Using sterile technique for invasive procedures,
when exposing open wounds or handling dressings
Placing used disposable needles and syringes in
puncture-resistant containers for disposal
Providing all clients with own personal care items
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1.
2.
3.
4.
Susceptible host
Maintaining the integrity of the client’s skin and
mucous membranes
Ensuring that the client receives a balanced diet
Educating the public about the importance of
immunizations
Modes of Transmission
Direct contact: describes the way in which
microorganisms are transferred from person to
person through biting, touching, kissing, or sexual
intercourse; droplet spread is also a form of direct
contact but can occur only if the source and the
host are within 3 feet from each other;
transmission by droplet can occur when a person
coughs, sneezes, spits, or talks.
Indirect contact: can occur through fomites
(inanimate objects or materials) or through vectors
(animal or insect, flying or crawling); the fomites or
vectors act as vehicle for transmission
Air: airborne transmission involves droplets or
dust; droplet nuclei can remain in the air for long
periods and dust particles containing infectious
agents can become airborne infecting a susceptible
host generally through the respiratory tract
Course of Infection
Incubation: the time between initial contact with
an infectious agent until the first signs of symptoms
the incubation period varies from different
pathogens; microorganisms are growing and
multiplying during this stage
Prodromal Stage: the time period from the onset of
nonspecific symptoms to the appearance of
specific symptoms related to the causative
pathogen symptoms range from being fatigued to
having a low-grade fever with malaise; during this
phase it is still possible to transmit the pathogen to
another host
Full Stage: manifestations of specific signs &
symptoms of infectious agent; referred to as the
acute stage; during this stage, it may be possible to
transmit the infectious agent to another,
depending on the virulence of the infectious agent
Convalescence: time period that the host takes to
return to the pre-illness stage; also called the
recovery period; the host defense mechanisms
have responded to the infectious agent and the
signs and symptoms of the disease disappear; the
host, however, is more vulnerable to other
pathogens at this time; an appropriate nursing
diagnostic label related to this process would be
Risk for Infection
Inflammation
The protective response of the tissues of the body to
injury or infection; the physiological reaction to injury
or infection is the inflammatory response; it may be
acute or chronic
Body’s response
1. The “inflammatory response” begins with
vasoconstriction that is followed by a brief increase
in vascular permeability; the blood vessels dilate
allowing plasma to escape into the injured tissue
2. WBCs (neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages)
migrate to the area of injury and attack and ingest
the invaders (phagocytosis); this process is
responsible for the signs of inflammation
3. Redness occurs when blood accumulates in the
dilated capillaries; warmth occurs as a result of the
heat from the increased blood in the area, swelling
occurs from fluid accumulation; the pain occurs
from pressure or injury to the local nerves.