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ORIGINAL PAPERS
Effects of an Eight Week Military Training
Program on Aerobic Indices and Psychomotor
Function
JP Hickey1, B Donne2, D O’Brien3
Medical Officer, Irish Defence Forces, Army Medical Corps; 2Department of Physiology, University of Dublin, Trinity
College; 3 Clinical Psychologist, Irish Defence Forces, Army Medical Corps.
1
Abstract
This study assessed the effects of eight weeks of military training on aerobic fitness indices, military skills and neuropsychological
function. Thirty five (n=35) male Irish Defence Forces personnel, divided into training (n=20) and control (n=15) subgroups, completed tests of military aptitude (Kim’s games, judging distance, fire order, map reading, weapon assembly) and
neuropsychological function (Symbol digit modalities test (SDMT), Trail making test, Stroop test and grooved pegboard test)
pre- and post-intervention. The repeated measures study design sought to account for any learning effect. Participants also
completed a 10km route march, a two mile run and three by 20m shuttle run tests at both time points to quantify changes in
fitness variables. The training sub-group significantly (P<0.001) improved mean 20m shuttle-run distance and consequently
estimated VO2 max pre- to post-intervention (49.8±1.0 vs. 52.4±0.9 mL.kg-1.min-1). Two mile run time was not significantly
improved. Mean %HRmax during the 10km route march was significantly higher in both training (P<0.001) and control
(P<0.01) sub-groups post-intervention (71±1 and 83±1%) compared to pre-intervention (65±1 and 77±1%). However,
the training sub-group conducted the route march at a significantly faster speed on the second occasion. Military training
significantly improved performance in 3/18 neuropsychological test components and 2/12 military skills test components.
Training significantly improved ability to estimate both short (error; 36±6 vs. 12±1%) and intermediate (error; 72±12 vs.
11±3%) distances post-intervention. The training sub-group significantly (P<0.01) improved SDMT score and mean Trail 1
time pre- to post-intervention (58.0±2.8 vs. 69.5±3.4; 18.1±0.8 vs. 14.4±0.8s, respectively). In Part 3 of the Stroop test, time
mediated a significant (P<0.05) and selective improvement in the training sub-group (51.3±3.2 vs. 63.8±5.4). In conclusion,
aerobic fitness and a minority of neuropsychological and military skills tests improved following 8 weeks of military training.
Introduction
The beneficial effects of exercise on cognition have been the
subject of speculation since antiquity. While the notion of “mens
sana in corpora sano” is far from universal, there is little doubt that
a positive relationship exists between chronic aerobic exercise and
improvements in overall cognitive capacity [1]. Chronic exercise
associated with an increase in VO2max, defined as maximal
oxygen uptake or aerobic capacity of an individual and measured
in mL.kg-1.min-1 [2], is thought to increase oxygen saturation in
areas of the brain crucial for task performance [3]. The cerebral
circulation hypothesis proposes that higher levels of aerobic
fitness result in increased cerebral blood flow and oxygenation as
a consequence of higher VO2max. The increased availability of
oxygen to brain cells allows them to work more efficiently [4]
and increased cerebral capillary growth has also been implicated
[5]. While a recent meta-analysis questioned the direct causal role
of physical fitness in the augmentation of cognitive performance,
86% of the studies in question demonstrated a positive correlation.
However, the role of confounding factors was considered to be
significant in mediating this effect [1].
Corresponding Author: JP Hickey, St Bricin’s Military
Hospital, Infirmary Road, Dublin 7, Ireland
Tel: +353 87 6982333 email: hickeyjohnpaul@gmail.com
J R Army Med Corps 158(1): 41-46
Whatever the relationship, the interaction of physical activity
and cognitive processes is particularly relevant to military personnel,
as they are required to maintain a high level of physical fitness and
a cognitive functional reserve during physical exertion in order
to carry out their duties effectively. Executive control, reaction
time and fine motor function are particularly relevant traits.
Collectively, they constitute the ability to differentiate and select
appropriate responses from a pool of potential but inappropriate
responses to a given stimulus, to react quickly to such a stimulus
and to affect a motor response. The soldier in training is a suitable
research model to examine this relationship. Military training
combines physical, academic and technical facets, and physical
training in the military often incorporates technical or tactical
scenarios. From the recruitment process through to the syllabus
of training and the methods of instruction, the goal of military
training is to prime the soldier to function effectively on a number
of levels. The Irish Defence Forces Three Star training syllabus
provides a homogenous cohort of participants who have already
undertaken 16 weeks of recruit training and are well versed in
fundamental military skills. The effect of further training on these
modalities can be gauged by comparing against controls who are
not yet engaged in further training.
Much research conducted in the military concentrates on
performance of tasks in adverse conditions such as extremes
41
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Military Training and Psychomotor Function
JP Hickey, B Donne, D O’Brien
of cold [6-8], heat [9], dehydration [10], sleep and nutritional
deprivation [11]. The specific interaction of military training with
aerobic fitness and cognitive processes relevant to performance of
military tasks in the field is not addressed in these studies.
We hypothesised that an eight week military training program
would induce an improvement in the level of participants’ physical
fitness, a potential marker for an associated improvement in
cognitive function. We also hypothesised that such an improvement
in cognitive function would not only be reflected in the
performance of military specific tests, but would be demonstrated
by improvements in ancillary neuropsychological tests.
whereas combining training units to increase the sample size would
have introduced a number of potential confounders. In addition,
normative data for the military skills tests were not available. A power
calculation with an α level of 0.05 and a β level of 0.80 inferred
that a sample size of 13 per group would be required to detect a
change of 1 standard deviation (SD) between groups. Participants
within study cohorts were not randomised as both sub-groups were
pre-designated. A single platoon (n=27, 1 female) comprised the
study sub-group, and all current Air Corps trainees (n=23, 1 female)
comprised the control sub-group. No personnel declined to take
part and all eligible participants were included.
Materials and Methods
Physical Fitness Assessment
Study permission was obtained from the relevant Defence Forces
authorities, standard academic institutions ethical guidelines
were adhered to and informed voluntary consent was obtained
from participants prior to study commencement. Enrolled
participants were assessed by a medical officer in accordance with
Defence Forces regulations and completed a short questionnaire
to establish basic sociological variables within the cohort. All
personnel passed their annual fitness test in compliance with
army training instructions. This comprises assessment of body
mass index (BMI) and subsequent anthropometry for individuals
with a BMI of greater than 30 kg.m-2, press-ups and sit-ups, a
3.2km run and a loaded march over 10km in full battle dress.
Those eligible for inclusion in the study were members of the Irish
Defence Forces who had completed initial recruit training but
not Three Star training, male or female, aged 18-30 yr. Exclusion
criteria were injury, illness and those with difficulty in reading,
writing or performing basic arithmetic.
Since 2006, 566 personnel have completed the Three Star syllabus,
approximately 6% of whom were female. Sample size calculations
were not performed on the basis that the size of the training group
was limited by the nature of military training, which usually occurs
in platoons of 30 personnel subject to the same training conditions.
Sampling from within the same platoon ensured consistency,
Participants performed three 20m shuttle run tests (20 MST) in
a gymnasium, a 3.2km run and a terrain walk conducted over
10km carrying a 20kg pack. Outdoor assessments within subgroups were conducted at separate sites, there were no significant
gradients, weather was seasonal and conditions varied as expected.
Neuropsychological and Military Aptitude Tests
A battery of neuropsychological tests was applied (Table 1). These
tests were rapidly and easily administered, easily interpreted by a
non-psychologist, and accessible across wide social, educational
and intelligence ranges. A further battery of tests assessing military
skills was also conducted (Table 2).
Intervention
Three Star training is conducted over a 12 week period (Table 3).
There is a strong emphasis on physical training, with 41 hours of
physical education, front-loaded to the initial eight weeks of the
course. Training outputs include completing a 15km open terrain
march, an endurance run over 9km, a 7km march at scout pace
and a 10km march in full battle dress. Since the greatest gains
in physical fitness were likely to occur during the initial period,
assessments were performed during weeks one and two and again
during weeks eight and nine. During this period the control sub-
Test
SDMT [12]
Trail making test [12]
Stroop test [12]
Pegboard test [12]
Format
Group
Group
Group
Individual
Description
Single part test.
Match series of
symbols to digits
using a symbol-digit
key in 90 s
Two part test.
Trail 1
Draw lines connecting numbers (1
to 25) in ascending order.
Trail 2
Draw lines connecting numbers
(1 – 13) and letters (A – L) in an
alternating ascending pattern
Three part test.
Part 1 – Name word
(RED)
Part 2 – Name colour
(XXXX).
Part 3 – Name colour
with a distraction in
place (BLUE)
Outcomes
Score
Errors
Trail 1: Time, errors, near misses
and prompts
Trail 2: Time, Letter errors, number
errors, near misses
and prompts
Part 1
Part 2
Part 3
Interference score
Time
Drops
Total score
Variables
assessed
Divided attention
Visual scanning
Motor speed
Orientation
Concentration
Visuo-spatial capacity
Problem solving ability
Cognitive flexibility
Attention
Fine motor function
Manual dexterity
Reliability
coefficient
0.80 [12]
Trail 1: 0.55
Trail 2: 0.75 [13]
Part 1: 0.90
Part 2: 0.83
Part 3: 0.91 [14]
0.67 (dominant)
and 0.73 (nondominant) [15]
Insert 25 identical
pegs into randomly
orientated grooves as
quickly as possible
Table 1. Descriptions of the neuropsychological tests used. SDMT (Symbol Digit Modalities Test)
42
J R Army Med Corps 158(1): 41-46
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Military Training and Psychomotor Function
JP Hickey, B Donne, D O’Brien
Test
Format
Description
Kim’s games
Group
Memorise 20
items in 60 s,
immediately recall
as many as possible
in 60 s , repeat 90
min later
Judging distance
Individual
Short (<100m),
intermediate (100250m) and long
(>250m) distance,
measured by laser
range finder.
% error = computed
Fire order
Individual
Group –
pre-assigned unit.
Range –
distance to target.
Indication –
pre-selected marker.
Type of fire –
heavy artillery
Time (s)
Score (1–4)
Outcomes
Delayed recall
Memory
attenuation
Variable
assessed
Short-term
memory
Reliability
coefficient
No data available
Short distance
error (%)
Intermediate distance
error (%)
Long distance
error (%)
Visuo-spatial
Visuo-spatial
perception
perception
Short-term memory
No data available
No data
available
Map reading
Individual
Participants
identify within
30 s point of
maximum
elevation on an
ordnance survey
map
Time (s)
Score (0/1)
Weapon skills
Individual
Candidates identify the
groups of the Steyer
5.56mm calibre rifle
– trigger, barrel,
gunlock, housing and
butt
– assemble weapon
within 60 s
Component score (1–5)
Assembly score (0/1)
Assembly time (s)
Visual scanning
Fine motor function
Manual dexterity
No data available
No data available
Table 2. Description of military tests used
Subject
Weapons training
Physical education
Internal security and public order training
Advanced unarmed combat
Operating in a field environment
Battlefield first aid
Troop operations with helicopters
Ceremonial
Time (Hrs)
61
41
31
16
15
12
8
5
Subject
Tactical training
Map reading
CIS
Education and development
CBRN
Field craft
Administration
Hygiene and sanitation
Time (Hrs)
61
33
19
16
12
9
8
2
group were restricted to classroom based and technical activity
with recourse to personal and recreational physical training in
non-military settings. Participants in the control sub-group
received no formal tactical military instruction during this period.
Statistical Analysis
Data were contemporaneously recorded in hard copy format and
transferred to Microsoft Excel. Group data are presented as mean
and standard error of the mean unless stated otherwise. Data
across group and time were analysed using a two factor ANOVA
with time as a repeated measure. Where significant differences
were detected across either group or time, post-hoc Bonferroni
tests and weighted Student’s T tests were used to identify the subgroup within which changes were detected, for all statistical tests
an α level of 0.05 inferred significance.
Results
Thirty five male participants (mean age ± SD 21±2 yrs), 20 in
training (21.1±1.1 yrs) and 15 controls (20.9±2.3 yrs) completed
all study elements. Reasons for not completing all elements of
testing included non-availability due to unforeseen commitments
and injury incurred outside of the study setting. The control
sub-group spent an average of 13.9±1.9 yr in formal education
compared to 13.5±1.1 yr in the training sub-group.
J R Army Med Corps 158(1): 41-46
Mean VO2 max (mL.kg-1.min-1)
Table 3. Components of the Irish Defence Force Three Star training programme. CIS ( Communication and Information Services); CBRN (Chemical,
Biological, Radiological and Nuclear).
Time (pre- and post-intervention)
Figure 1: Graph of predicted VO2 max in training and control subgroups pre- and post intervention. Bars denote SEM. Filled bars
denote training group; unfilled bars denote control group. χχχ infers
significant time within group difference at P<0.001
Aerobic Fitness Indices
Mean shuttle run distance and subsequently estimated VO2max,
derived using data developed by Ramsbottom [16], increased
significantly in the training sub-group pre- to post-intervention
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(49.8±1.0 vs.52.4±0.9 mL.kg-1.min-1 , P<0.001). No significant
differences were detected in the control sub-group (Figure 1). Two
mile run time did not change significantly in either sub-group
between assessment time points. Both training and control subgroups were working at significantly higher mean percentage
of maximal heart rate (%HRmax) during the post- (71±1 and
83±1%) compared to the pre-intervention route march (65±1and
77±1%). However, the training sub-group performed their
second route march at a significantly faster speed than their first,
while the control sub-group performed a slower pace (Figure 2).
JP Hickey, B Donne, D O’Brien
Mean SDMT score (arbitrary units)
Military Training and Psychomotor Function
Mean velocity (m.s-1)
Time (pre- and post-intervention)
Figure 3 Graph of mean SDMT score in training and control subgroups pre- and post intervention. Bars denote SEM. Filled bars
denote training group; unfilled bars denote control group. χ χ infers
significant time within group difference at P<0.01. β infers significant
group within time difference at P<0.05
Figure 2: Graph of mean velocity measured during 10km route
march in training and control sub-groups performed pre- and postintervention. Bars denote SEM. Filled bars denote training group;
unfilled bars denote control group. χχ infers significant time within
group difference at P<0.01
Neuropsychological Tests
The training sub-group recorded a significant (P<0.01)
improvement in Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT) score
pre- to post-intervention (58.0±2.8 vs. 69.5±3.4), a finding
not observed in the control sub-group (Figure 3). Significantly
(P<0.01) fewer errors were committed performing the SDMT
after intervention. However, the effect was not isolated to either
training (from 0.50±0.17 to 0.05±0.05) or control (from 0.80±0.3
to 0.0±0.0) sub-groups and could therefore not be attributed to
the intervention of training.
A significant time effect (P<0.01) was observed for Trail 1
time (Figure 4). Post-hoc analysis revealed a selective within
group difference (P<0.01) for the training sub-group. Their mean
performance improved from pre- to post-intervention (18.1±0.8
vs. 14.4±0.8s) compared to a non-significant change in the
control sub-group. No other significant effects were observed for
either part of the trail making test.
The significant time effect (P<0.05) observed for Part 1 of the
Stroop test was not exclusive to the training sub-group and no
significant effects were observed for part 2. In part 3 of the Stroop
test, time appeared to mediate a significant (P<0.05) and selective
performance improvement in the training sub-group from pre- to
post-intervention (51.3±3.2 vs. 63.8±5.4) when compared with
the control group (65.3±5.3 vs. 65.0±3.1).
Error commission performing the grooved pegboard test was
unaffected by the intervention. A significant time effect (P<0.001)
44
Mean trail 1 time (s)
Time (pre- and post-intervention)
Time (pre- and post-intervention)
Figure 4: Graph of mean trail 1 time in training and control subgroups performed pre- and post-intervention, bars denote SEM. Filled
bars denote training group; unfilled bars denote control group. χχ
infers significant time within group difference at P<0.01
was observed for pegboard test time. However, post-hoc analysis
revealed that this improvement was only significant (P<0.01)
in the control sub-group pre- to post-intervention (64.3±2.4
vs. 56.6±1.7s), corresponding times for the training sub-group
were 66.2±2.3 and 63.7±1.9s, respectively. This selective and
significant (P<0.01) improvement was also manifested in total
pegboard score.
Military Skills Assessment
Both memory attenuation and delayed memory recall
components of Kim’s games were unaffected by the intervention.
The training sub-group demonstrated significant improvements
post-intervention in their ability to estimate short (P<0.01)
and intermediate (P<0.001) distances, but not longer distances
(Table 4).
J R Army Med Corps 158(1): 41-46
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Military Training and Psychomotor Function
Pre-intervention
Variable
Control
Short distance
32
% error (%)
Intermediate
distance %
40
error (%)
Long distance
% error (%)
32
JP Hickey, B Donne, D O’Brien
Post-intervention
Training
Control
Training
36
36
0χχ
71
40
8χχχ
21
30
13
Table 4. Changes in distance estimation with training. xx Significant
time within group difference for training sub-group (p<0.001), xxx
Significant time within group difference for training sub-group
(p<0.001)
GRIT score was unaffected by the intervention. While time
did have an overall significant effect on speed of fire order delivery,
this effect was not specific to the training sub-group. A significant
overall time effect (P<0.05) was noted for GRIT time. However,
post-hoc analysis failed to demonstrate a greater pre- to postintervention sub-group effect in training compared to control.
Across time the training sub-group demonstrated a slight
deterioration in map reading performance whilst the control subgroup demonstrated a slight improvement, neither change was
considered significant.
Significant time effects were noted for weapon component
identification score (P<0.01), weapon assembly result (P<0.01)
and weapon assembly time (P<0.001), these effects were
observed across both sub-groups and could not be attributed to
the intervention. For weapon component identification score,
training sub-group pre-intervention data left little room for
improvement post-intervention (4.95±0.05 vs. 4.85±0.11), with
a maximum possible test score of 5. In contrast, the control subgroup started from a lower pre-intervention score (3.60±0.41)
and recorded a significant (P<0.05) improvement (4.67±0.21)
over time. Similar findings were recorded for weapon assembly,
pre-intervention score of the training sub-group (0.95±0.05) was
unchanged and the control sub-group recorded a non-significant
improvement post-intervention (0.60±0.13 vs. 1.00±0.00). For
weapon assembly time, although a significant (P<0.05) time
within group difference was observed pre- to post-intervention
for the training sub-group (37.6±2.6 vs. 26.5±2.2s) a significant
improvement (P<0.01) was also recorded in the control subgroup (52.6±5.0 vs.32.3±2.0s) and therefore the improvement
could not be attributed to the intervention.
Discussion
Summary of Results
We hypothesised that Three Star military training would induce
an improvement in participants’ physical fitness. Our results
support the hypothesis with clear and significant improvements
observed in 20 MST time, estimated VO2max and faster pace
during the post-intervention route march. We also hypothesised
that an eight week program of military training would induce an
improvement in military skills tests. Twelve variables were assessed
but only two variables, judgement of short and intermediate
distance, were positively influenced as a result of the intervention.
As an overall battery, these tests do not support the hypothesis.
It was further hypothesised that military training would induce
J R Army Med Corps 158(1): 41-46
improvement in performance of neuropsychological tests.
However, a significant effect was observed in only three of the
eighteen neuropsychological test components – SDMT score, Trail
1 time and Part 3 of the Stroop test. The significant improvement
in Part 3 of the Stroop test must be viewed in the context of the
low pre-intervention score in the training sub-group. These results
do not support the study hypothesis that the Three Star training
intervention improved the military skills or neuropsychological
skills of Irish Defence Force soldiers.
Interpretation
Given the lack of support for the hypothesis provided by our data,
one or more conclusions may be reached. It may be that the testing
protocol may not be capable of demonstrating relevant changes in
performance; relevant changes in performance may not be taking
place over the course of the intervention or may have already taken
place in an earlier phase of training. Alternatively, the changes in
performance deemed relevant by the lead investigator may not be
deemed relevant by the training authority.
Given that a fundamental course objective is ‘to develop the
basic military skills required at unit level’, the latter is not the case.
In addition, all personnel in the training sub-group successfully
completed the Three Star course; thus completing their training
objectives. For some of the military skills, a ceiling effect induced
by previous training may account for the lack of improvement.
The high pre-intervention scores of the training sub-group left
little room for improvement during post-intervention testing in
weapon skills, map reading and fire order delivery. The control
group, individuals not engaged in military training, had limited
exposure to these activities, and consequently starting from a
lower pre-intervention score achieved a significant improvement
over time. It is also likely that the testing protocol employed was
not sufficiently sensitive or specific to detect changes over time. A
number of neuropsychological and military skills test components
were scored within very narrow ranges, making subtle differences
within sub-group and time difficult to detect. In addition, there is
no specific evidence to validate the neuropsychological tests used
in this population as measures of military aptitude, even though
the variables assessed are relevant to the duties of a soldier.
Potential Methodological Flaws
Potential confounders exist within the study data. Although
female personnel comprise approximately 5% of the Defence
Forces, only two female volunteers were recruited and neither
completed the testing or were included in the data analysis.
Although the control sub-group were Air Corps personnel
engaged in technical training and the study sub-group were
mainly drawn from the army, no significant demographic or
sociological differences were identified. During the intervention,
it was not possible to account for all activities in the control subgroup, particularly during non-directed time. Some individuals
were involved in ongoing sporting activities, training with teams,
and while the training sub-group were not prohibited from similar
activities they would have had limited time to engage to the level
equivalent to the control sub-group. In addition, it was not
possible to fully account for the activities of those in the training
sub-group. Some modules of the Three Star course directly taught
skills which were assessed (map reading, weapon handling) while
other skills were indirectly taught and alluded to throughout the
course (judgement of distance and fire order). This significantly
limits the value of these assessments as markers of aptitude. The
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Military Training and Psychomotor Function
personal motivation of individuals in both sub-groups to practice
test elements between the two testing points cannot be accounted
for, though individuals were specifically asked not to practice
any element of the assessment. An additional concern in using
the same neuropsychological battery on more than one occasion
was that individuals would learn how to complete the tests more
effectively on each subsequent occasion. Performance of the
Stroop and trail making tests on multiple occasions has been
shown to have a significant and cumulative learning effect [17].
The repeated measures design of the current investigation sought
to reduce this effect. Other factors such as diet, hydration and
mood were outside the realm of influence of the study. The effect
of circadian variation was not accounted for correctly as it was not
possible to precisely schedule testing for the same time each day.
Practical Applications
This study attempted to identify a set of scientifically validated
neuropsychological variables which are enhanced by military
training and correlate with military aptitude. Such tests could be
used to enhance the specificity of the Defence Forces recruitment
process as demonstrated in other organisations [7]. The process for
retention of valuable personnel may also be similarly enhanced.
Indeed several studies [1,18,19] suggest that experience is a
significant moderating factor in whether or not exercise impacted
positively on cognitive performance.
Future Research
If the changes in performance which we had hoped to measure
had already taken place in recruit training, a similar study in that
setting may demonstrate performance changes. There are also
deficiencies in the current testing protocol which question its
validity. The sample size should be increased in order to detect
low level change in performance indices. Prior to further study,
additional neuropsychological tests should be trialled. While the
current study focussed on functional and behavioural variables,
the addition of electrophysiological and biochemical markers of
evolving cognitive function merits consideration. In addition,
inclusion of participant and instructor reported data would add
to the weight of evidence.
Conclusions
An eight week program of military training induced an improvement
in physical fitness as measured by estimated VO2 max and mean
speed measured during a 10km route march. The performance of
a minority of neuropsychological (3/18) and military skills (2/12)
tests improved following eight weeks of military training. The
proposed hypothesis is therefore not supported by study findings.
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J R Army Med Corps 158(1): 41-46
Downloaded from http://jramc.bmj.com/ on May 10, 2015 - Published by group.bmj.com
Effects of an Eight Week Military Training
Program on Aerobic Indices and
Psychomotor Function
JP Hickey, B Donne and D O'Brien
J R Army Med Corps 2012 158: 41-46
doi: 10.1136/jramc-158-01-11
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