Were the peace treaties of 1919-23 fair?
Main Focus
Specified Content
● What were the motives and aims of
the Big Three at Versailles?
● Why did all the victors not get
everything they wanted?
● What was the impact of the peace
treaty on Germany up to 1923?
● Could the treaties be justified at
the time?
● The peace treaties of 1919–23: –
the roles of individuals such as
Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd
George in the peacemaking
process
● – the impact of the treaties on the
defeateD countries
● – contemporary opinions about the
treaties
The big three
● Georges Clemenceau, Prime Minister of France
Woodrow Wilson, President of America
David Lloyd George, Prime Minister of Britain
● The different victorious powers wanted different things, so there is no way that
they could ALL get what they wanted
○ Wilson insisted on a League of Nations, even though Britain and France
did not.
○ Clemenceau wanted to destroy Germany with huge reparations USA and
Britain did not.
○ They came from different countries who had been affected differentlypublic opinion at home affected the leaders’ decisions
○ Wilson was an idealist with different policies, George and Clemenceau
were imperialists and realists- different ideas due to national self-interest
Country/Who
France:
George
Clemenceau
Aims
● Permanent disarmament
-High reparations
● Alsace-Lorraine and Saar
Basin given to France
● Rhineland to be an
independent state so France
would not share a border with
Germany
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Motives
● If Germany was
weakened they would
not attack Europe and
France again
● France had suffered
more than Britain or the
US and there was a
national desire for
● No League of Nations
● Germany to be broken into
small states
revenge
● France shared a border
with Germany and had
already been invaded in
1870 and 1914
Britain: Lloyd
George
● Wanted Germany to lose its
navy and colonies as they
threatened the British Empire
● Reparations to be not too
high as it would hurt
Germany’s economy
● If Germany didn’t have the
Rhineland, where most of its
industry was, they would not
be wealthy enough to buy
British goods.
● Britain had suffered
direct attacks, 1 million
casualties, food
shortages and
economy had suffered
and so the public
wanted revenge. Lloyd
George had to reflect
these views as a
re-election was coming
up
● However, Britain
needed Germany to
have a good economy
as they were a valuable
trading partner
● A weak Germany would
be susceptible to
communism
USA:
Woodrow
Wilson
● Devised the 14 points in 1918
in which Wilson hoped would
form the basis of the TOV
● The US had not
suffered as much in
WWI, removed from the
conflict, no territory had
been invaded, only
entered the war in April
1917, 800 civilians
dead
● If the treaty was too
harsh on Germany then
communism would take
over, like in Russia
1917 and Germany
would take revenge
when their economy
recovered
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Wilson’s Fourteen Points
1. No secret treaties – had to lead to misunderstandings and suspicion in the past
2. Free navigation of the seas in peacetime and wartime
3. Free trade between countries
4. Disarmament for all countries​– build-up of weapons had been one of the
causes of war
5. Colonies have a say in their own future
6. German troops to leave Russia
7. Independence for Belgium
8. Return Alsace Lorraine to France
9. The frontier between Austria and Italy adjusted
10. Self-determination for people of Eastern Europe
11. Serbia to have access to the seas
12. Self-determination for people in the Turkish Empire
13. Poland to become an independent state with access to the seas
14. League of Nations to be set up
Countries created by self-determination:
Treaty of Versailles
Poland, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia
Treaty of Saint Germain
Czechslovakia
Treaty of Trianon
Yugoslavia
Treaty of Versailles 28 June 1919
❖ War guilty (Clause 231) - Germany had to accept full responsibility for the war.
This provides a justification for other clauses of the ToV.
❖ £6.6 billion reparation: The major powers agreed, without consulting Germany
that Germany need to pay reparations to allies for the damage of the war.
❖ Loss of territories and colonies
➢ German colonies became mandates controlled by LoN (Britain and
France)
➢ Alsace Lorraine given to France
➢ Danzig in Polish Corridor became a free city by the LoN, that cut East
Prussia from Germany
➢ Saar Basin under LoN for 15 years, then a plebiscite to decide if it should
be France, Germany or LoN. In the meantime, coal profits go to France
➢ Anschluss was forbidden
➢ Estonia, Lavia and Lithuania were set up as independent countries. Treaty
of Brest Litovsk cancelled
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❖ Restriction and reduction in military force
➢ No submarines, tanks, or aeroplanes. Only 6 battleships are allowed.
➢ An army of 100,000 men. No conscription.
➢ Rhineland became a demilitarised zone.
Reaction to the ToV
● German
○ German public felt cheated, stunned, hated, angry, unfair of these harsh
terms in ToV (diktat).
■ The treatment was not in keeping with Wilson’s Fourteen Points
■ A blow to Germany’s pride and economy.
■ The Big Three had not negotiated with Germany in Paris - the
German government didn’t present the peace talks.
■ Germany’s comments on the treaty were largely ignored.
■ Germany had not been invaded by the allies and German leaders
had pretended that they were winning, right up to the signing of the
armistice.
● Britain: some satisfaction
○ Britain gained most of Germany’s colonies which help it recover its wealth
and power.
● France: not very satisfied
○ They thought Germany was not weakened enough and would rise again in
decades.
● The USA: refuse to ratify the treaty
○ Congress which was mostly consist of Republicans refused to sign the
ToV because:
■ Republicans against President Wilson (Democrat)
■ Republicans wanted isolation.
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Justification
● Fair
○ Avoid future war started by Germany
○ Germany had the ability to pay reparation
■ By 1925 German steel production was twice that of Britain
○ Countries need reparation from Germany to rebuild infrastructures
■ With a population of 40 million, half a million died and 700
thousand were disabled.
■ almost one million British soldiers, sailors and airmen had
been killed.
● Unfair
○ It is considered as diktat
■ German government didn’t present the peace talks.
■ Germany’s comments on the treaty were largely ignored.
■ The treatment was not in keeping with Wilson’s Fourteen
Points
○ It increased instability and life harder for ordinary people
■ Increased tax to pay reparations
■ The invasion of Rhur → job lost → saving wiped out
Austria: The Treaty of St Germain, 1919
● Massive territorial loss which was taken by newly independent countries:
Bohemia-Moravia to Czechoslovakia; Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia to
Yugoslavia; Galicia to Poland and the land to Italy.
● Its army was reduced to 30,000 soldiers.
● Suppose to pay reparation (never set though)
● Forbidding the union between Austria and Germany (Anschluss)
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- Why did the allies want Austria to be kept permanently?
● Italy feared a resurgence of Austrian power in the region
- Significance of the treaty
● The treaty formalised the break-up of the old Austro-Hungarian Empire.
● The harshness of the treaty contributed to the Austrian support for Hilter after he
came to power.
- Impacts of the treaty
● The treaty had an economic impact because land given to Czechoslovakia
contained much of Austria's industry. As a result, Austria's economy collapsed in
1921.
● Europe was impacted politically because eastern Europe was now made up of
lots of newer smaller states, instead of several powerful empires. This meant
there was a lot of instability.
● Europe was impacted socially because the new states formed as a result of the
treaty contained a mix of different nationalities, who often clashed.
Bulgaria: The Treaty of Neuilly, 1919
● Bulgaria lost 10% land to Greece, Romania and Yugoslavia.
● Its army was limited to 20,000.
● £100 million in reparation.
Bulgaria had less hash treatment because they were the first of the Central Power to
surrender. However, many Bulgarians were governed by foreign powers by 1920.
The Bulgarian leader who sign the treaty was assassinated in1923
Hungary: The Treaty of Trianon, 1920
●
●
●
●
●
Hungary had to accept the break up of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
Hungary lost land to Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Austria and Romania.
Hungary lost more than two-thirds of its territory and a third of its population.
Its army was limited to 35,000 troops.
It was supposed to pay reparations, but its economy collapsed so they were
never set.
○ Its industries suffered from the loss of population and raw materials.
Turkey: The Treaty of Sevres, 1920
● The Ottoman Empire lost substantial amount of land.
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● Parts of Turkey were defined as zones of influence controlled by the British,
French or Italian.
● The tax system, finances and budget were all controlled by the Allies.
● The army was limited to 50,000 troops.
● The Ottoman Empire lost control of the Dardanelles Strait between the Black and
Mediterranean seas, which became an international waterway.
Turkey had long been a great and proud empire, and Turks were angered and
humiliated nu the terms.
→ overthrow of the government
→ Britain did not want a return to war so they agreed to create the new Treaty of
Lausanne.
- Significance of the treaty
● It showed the other treaties were not enforceable. If there were protests against a
harsh settlement there was little the Allies could do as they were afraid to return
to war, to enforce the treaties' terms.
● When Britain decided to create a new treaty that Turkey might consider fair, this
was seen as acceptance the old treaty was unfair. Therefore it undermined all
treaties created under the peace settlement.
● The Treaty of Sevres and its subsequent renegotiation gave Hitler and Mussolini
an excuse to break international law.
To what extent was the League of Nations a success
Main Focus
Specified Content
• How successful was the League in the
1920s?
• How far did weaknesses in the League’s
organisation make failure inevitable?
• How far did the Depression make the
work of the
League more difficult?
• How successful was the League in the
1930s?
The League of Nations:
– strengths and weaknesses in its
structure and
organisation: work of the League’s
agencies/
humanitarian work
– successes and failures in peacekeeping
during
the 1920s
– the impact of the world depression on
the
work of the League after 1929
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– the failures of the League in the 1930s,
including Manchuria and Abyssinia
The organizations and membership of the League of Nations
The Assembly
● The League’s parliament
● Met once a year
● Decisions made had to be
unanimous
The Secretariat
● Civil service
● Bring together experts from across
the world
The Council
● Five times or more a year
● Permanent members: Britain,
France, Italy, Italy and Japan.
● Each permanent member has a
veto.
● Powers: moral condemnation,
economic sanctions and armed
force from member countries.
The Permanent Court of International
Justice
● Aim to settle disputes
● Had no way of making sure that
countries followed its ruling.
Four aims of the League of Nations
1. Discourage aggression
2. Encourage disarmament
3. Encourage cooperation
4. Improve living standards
How successful is the LoN in the 1920s?
Discourage aggression
Success
Failure
Bulgaria incidence 1925
- Greece invaded Bulgaria because
their soldiers were killed on the
border.
- The secretary-general immediately
called a meeting of the LoN in
Paris.
- League’s judgement: Greece
withdrew and pay 45,000 pounds
in compensation
Corfu incidence 1923
- Italian General Tellini was killed on
the border between Italy and
Greece. Mussolini blamed Greece
and demanded compensation. He
then invaded the island of Corfu.
- Council of the LoN → the Council
of Ambassadors
- Greece has to apologise to Italy
and pay compensation.
Aaland Islands 1921
Vilna 1920
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-
-
Both Sweden and Finland claimed
the island and were threatening
war.
The LoN: the islands belong to
Finland but the Swedish on the
islands can decide in what ways
they want to be ruled.
Sweden accepted this judgement
-
Poland took control of Lithuania.
The LoN told poles to leave, but
they didn’t.
France and Britain were not
prepared to act.
Encourage disarmament
Success
Failure
The Disarmament Commission worked to There is no disarmament conference until
persuade member countries to reduce the 1932.
size of their armed forces and to cut down
- Nations disagree to disarm
their stocks of weapons.
The Washington Conference, 1921-22
- Britain, Japan and the USA agreed
to limit the size of their navies
Locarno treaties
- Germany accepted its western
border as set out in the ToV.
Encourage cooperation
Success
Economic recovery/trade
- Daws plan
- Marshall plan
The league helped to develop an
internationalist mind-set among leaders
- Pave the path for the UN
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Failure
Improve living standers
Success
Failure
The Refugee Committee
- Introduced ‘Nansen Passport’
which helped genuine refugees to
travel across borders easier.
- 400,000 prisoners were returned
home by the League’s agencies.
The Refugee Committee
- Lack of funds
- Complicated international situation
in the 1930s
The International Labour Organisation
The International Labour Organisation
- New resolution: Maximum 48-hour
- Only a few countries adopt the new
week, 8-hour day
resolution as the industrial cost
- Banning poisonous white lead from
would increase
paint
- Lack of funds → broke the
resolution themselves
The Health Committee
- Develop vaccines and other
medicines to fight deadly disease
(leprosy and malaria) in research
institutes they sponsored.
- Advice on preventing plague in
Siberia (USSR).
How successful is the LoN in the 1930s? Failure to a great extent
Invasion of Manchuria
- In 1931, China appealed to the League of Nations which condemned Japan and
ordered its troops to be withdrawn. Manchuria should be returned to China.
- Japan rejected this and left the League in March 1933.
→ Japan was a leading member of the League
→ Japan successfully trampled the League and the prestige of the League was
damaged.
→ A great power using force, contrary to the Covenant, could only be stopped by
a greater force, of which was found lacking.
The Great Depression in the 1930s: Britain and France suffered from
serious economic problems and were reluctant to exert economic
pressure on Japan or apply a trade boycott of Japan in case it led to war.
Abyssinia (Ethiopia)
- In 1934, the Italian army had built a fort at Wal-Wal, an oasis in Abyssinia.
- There was a dispute between Italian soldiers and Abyssinian soldiers.
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-
Mussolini claimed there was Italian territory and demand an apology.
In Oct 1935, Italian troops invaded Abyssinia.
→ The sanctions did not include a ban on exports of oil, coal and steel to Italy.
→ the Suez Canal (supply route )which was owned by Britain and France was
not closed to Mussolini’s ships.
→ Small states lost all faith in the League and Hitler himself was encouraged to
break the Versailles Treaty (remilitarise Rhineland)
→ Mussolini allied with Hilter to form Rome-Berlin Axis.
Effect/ Consequences
1. Undermind the authority of the LoN
2. Lose faith in the effectiveness of the League
3. Only work with backup of powerful countries
4. Show self-interest> collective interest
5. It succeeded in settling disputes between small nations, but the League failed to
preserve peace among the major powers.
Reasons for failure
1. Absence of major countries: no major power = no authority = no effectiveness
a. The USA: isolationist policy
i. Economic sanctions against an aggressive nation could not be very
successful if the United States continued to trade with it.
b. The USSR: ideology
c. Germany: the Tov is the source of pain for Germans. After ww1,
resentment of Germany still existed.
2. Self-interest> collective interest
a. Britain: maintain peace and encourage economic recovery after the war.
France: potentially dangerous Germany
3. The Great Depression: Member nations became more concerned with solving
their own economic problems than with preserving peace.
a. Some countries tried to protect their own industries by putting tariffs on
imports. Trading partner so did the same thing and trade got even worse.
b. Many countries started to rearm as a way to get industries working and
giving jobs to the unemployed. But these new armies caused alarm and
tension.
c. The internationalist spirit of the 1920s was replaced by a more exploiting
my neighbors approach in the 1930s.
d. Countries put their own (domestic) affairs, especially economy, on top
priority and help sort out international problems at low priority.
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4. Lack of power to enforce decisions
a. it did not have the force to make countries stop fighting
b. Unwillingness to impose economic sanctions on aggressive nations
i. It would harm their own trade as much as an aggressor’s.
ii. The USA was absent.
Disarmament Conference 1932
● Achievement: limited the size of artillery, the tonnage of tanks and prohibit
chemical weapons
● Failure: the bombing of civilians was to be prohibited, but all attempts to agree to
abolish planes capable of the bombing were defeated ( the proposal of ban the
manufacture of chemical weapons).
● Germany withdrew from the Disarmament Conference and the LoN and started
reaming secretly. Other countries also began to rebuild their own armaments. It
finally failed in 1934.
Locarno Treaties 1925
Germany accepted its western borders as set out in the ToV. This was greeted with
great enthusiasm, especially in France. It paved the way for Germany to join the LoN.
Why had international peace collapsed by 1939?
Main focus
-
-
-
-
What were the long-term
consequences of the peace
treaties of 1919–23?
What were the consequences of
the failures of the League in the
1930s?
How far was Hitler’s foreign policy
to blame for the outbreak of war in
1939?
Was the policy of appeasement
justified?
How important was the Nazi-Soviet
Pact?
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Specified Content
• The collapse of international order in the
1930s
• The increasing militarism of Germany,
Italy and
Japan
• Hitler’s foreign policy to 1939:
– the Saar
– remilitarisation of the Rhineland
– involvement in the Spanish Civil War
– Anschluss with Austria
– appeasement
– crises over Czechoslovakia and Poland
– the outbreak of war
-
Why did Britain and France declare
war on Germany in September
1939?
Germany’s rise
Hilter’s foreign policy aims
1. Abolish the ToV
a. The root of economic, social, and political problems in Germany.
b. A constant of defeat and humiliation.
c. ‘November Criminals
2. Expand German territory
a. Anschluss (reunite with Austria)
b. Get former German land back
c. Lebensraum (‘living space’ for German)
3. Defeat communism
a. He believed that Bolsheviks had helped to defeat Germany in the WW1
b. He thought the Bolsheviks wanted to take over Germany.
Terms of the ToV
What Hitler did and
when
The reasons he
gave for his action
The response from
Britain and France
Germany’s armed
force to be severely
limited
- 1933: Germany
left the LoN and
began to rearm
secretly.
- 1935: massive
military rallies
- 1936: conscription
reintroduced
- Foreign policy
aim: reverse the
ToV.
- ‘Self defence’:
100000 men was a
small army and
other nations had
failed to disarm in
1934
- Reduce
unemployment
- Britain felt the
terms of the ToV
were too harsh: In
1934 the Anglo
Naval agreement
allowed the
German navy to
rearm 35% of the
British navy,
- Britan also
thought a strong a
Germany would be
a good buffer to
communism.
The Rhineland to a
demilitarised zone
- March 1936: Hitler
marched German
troops into the
Rhineland with
strict demands to
retreat if French
- The action was in
defiance of the ToV
and Lorcano pact.
- Hitler claimed
Germany was
under threat
- Britain felt the ToV
was too harsh and
the Rhineland itself
was comparable to
‘their back garden’.
- France had an
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retaliate.
because France
and the USSR
signed an
agreement to
protect each other
from German
attack.
- The LoN was
preoccupied with
the Abyssinian
crisis.
exaggerated view
of the strength of
the German forces
- French leaders
were about to hold
an election.
- France would only
act with British
support.
Germany forbidden
to unite with Austria
- In March 1938
Hilter marched into
Austria: Mussolini
and Hilter were
allies
→ Hilter tried a
union in 1934 but it
was stopped by
Mussolini
- Nazi party stirred
up troubles in
Austria: riots and
demonstrations.
- The Austrian
people were
mainly German.
- Austria was
Hilter’s homeland.
- Fulfilled his
foreign policy
- Austria had
soldiers, weapons
and rich deposits of
gold and iron ore.
- Austria was
economically weak.
→ unite German
speakers in a
strong Germany
- France and Britain
were not prepared
to go to war to
defend a flawed
treaty.
- Austrian
Chancellor
Schuschning called
a plebiscite after
Britain and France
failed to give
support.
The Sudetenland
take into new state
of Czechoslovakia
- In May 1938 Hiter
declared his
intention to invade
Czechoslovakia.
- 15th Sep, Hilter
said he was only
interesed in the
parts of
Sudetenland where
Sudeten German
live and want to join
Germany through a
plebiscite.
- 22nd Sep, Hilter
increased his
demand, he wanted
all the Sudetenland.
- Foreign policy aim
- A large number of
German: once a
part of the
Austro-Hungarian
empire.
- Skoda factory and
mineral resources.
- Leave
Czechoslovakia
defenseless – next
step to Poland and
the USSR.
- Justification:
Czech government
mistreated Sudeten
Germans.
- Britain and France
thought Hitler’s
initial demands
were reasonable.
→ They put their
plan to Czechs.
- The British navy
was mobilised.
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The Polish Corridor
given to Poland
- On 15th March
1939, German
troops marched into
Czechoslovakia.
- On 1st Sep 1939,
the Germany army
invaded Poland.
- Foreign policy:
reverse the ToV.
- After years of
Appeasement,
Hilter thought B and
F would not risk a
war.
- The end of
Appeasement: B
and F declared that
if Hitler invaded
Poland they would
declare war on G.
- On 2nd Sep, they
declared war on G.
The Saar Plebiscite 1935
● The Saarland was run under the LoN for 15 years and was given a vote to decide
if this region should be returned to Germany
○ 90% voted to return to German control
■ Genuine support for Hilter - Germans hated the ToV and loved
Germany more than they feared the Nazi regime
● Hilter worried because many of his enemies fled to the Saarland
○ Goebbles mounted a massive campaign to persuade the people to vote
for the Reich
○ 1700 Nazis threatened to invade the Saar and impose Nazi rule
■ The League was scared to confront violence
The Spanish Civil War 1936 - 1939
● Stalin’s USSR supported the Republican government.
○ Weapons, aircraft, pilots, International Brigades
● Hilter and Mussolini supported General Franco’s right-wing rebels.
○ Nationalists won the war and a right-wing dictatorship ruled Spain for the
next 36 years.
● Devastating impact of modern weapons convinced Chamberlain and others not
to intervene at all costs.
○ Hilter may form an alliance with Britain or persuade them (plus France) to
remain neutral in future wars.
→ Encourage Hitler in his main plan to reverse the ToV.
→ It gave combat experience to German and Italian forces.
→ It strengthened the bond between Mussolini and Hitler.
Militarism and the Axis
● Winston Churchill describe the 1930s as ‘gathering storm’.
● Hilter and Mussolini’s armed forces were effective.
● Mussolini was aggressively trying to assert his authority in the Mediterranean and
North Africa.
● Japan was under the control of hardline nationalists such as General Tojo.
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○ Japan was looking to expand an empire across Asia - In 1937 they invade
China
● Japan, Germany (1936) and Italy (1937) signed an anti-Comitern pact, standing
against communism called the Axis alliance.
Appeasement
For
Against
Germany provide a
buffer to
communism.
Memories of the
horrors of WW1 avoid a repeat
Hilter could see
other fascist
leaders got away
with the wrongs.
Stalin and the
USSR’s suspicious
of Britain and
France’s
Mistaken idea that
Hitler was
trustworthy.
Countries see
Germany was
better armed than
Britain or France.
Appeasement
encouraged Hitler’s
aggression - he
made increasing
gambles.
willingness to let
Hitler invade
Russia → caused
the Nazi-Soviet
Pact.
Britain could not
guarantee the
support of its
empire, the
Commonwealth or
the USA (isolation)
- they required aid.
Many felt the ToV
was unfair to
Germany - once
these wrongs were
put right Germany
would become a
peaceful country.
Hindsight –
Germany was not
as strong as
believed, B and F
could have stopped
war by acting far
earlier.
A betrayal of the
people of
Czechoslovakia.
It gave Britain and
France more time
to rearm.
France and Britain
had a huge amount
of debts and huge
unemployment,
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The Munich Agreement 1938 after the Sudetenland incident
● The leaders of Britain, France, Germany and Italy announced that
Czechoslovakia lose Sudetenland to Germany.
● They did not consult with the Czechs nor the USSR.
● On 1st Oct German troops marched into the Sudetenland.
○ Hitler went back on his promises. - ‘undreamt-of triumph’
○ Britain would not risk a war.
→ Hilter would increase gambles
→ Chamberlain approved a massive increase in arms spending in preparation for wars.
→ Opinion polls in Sep 1938 show British people didn’t believe Appeasement would
stop Hilter.
The Nazi-Soviet Pact 24 August 1939
● To Hitler: the USSR was less sure if he moves toward Poland
○ Benefits:
■ Avoid a two-front war.
■ Gained half of Poland and reunite East and West Prussia.
● To Stalin: Fears and suspicions
○ Stalin could not reach any lasting agreement with B or F.
○ The LoN was too powerless to guarantee his security against G.
○ The Munich agreement: B and F were happy for Hitler to take over
Eastern Europe → eliminating the threat of communism.
○ Benefits:
■ They agreed not to attack each other - time to prepare for an
inevitable war with G.
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■ Gain the territory of half of Poland.
→ G invaded P on 1st Sep 1939.
→ B and F declared war on G.
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Reasons for the outbreak of the war.
1. Treaties after WW1, particularly The ToV
2. The failure of the LoN
3. The worldwide economic Depression
4. The policy of Appeasement
5. The Nazi-Soviet Pact
6. Hilter’s actions and his foreign policy.
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Who was to blame for the Cold War?
Focus Points
● Why did the US–Soviet alliance
begin to break down in 1945?
● How had the USSR gained control
of Eastern Europe by 1948?
● How did the United States react to
Soviet expansionism?
● What were the consequences of
the Berlin Blockade?
● Who was the more to blame for
starting the Cold War: the United
States or the USSR?
Specified Content
The origins of the Cold War:
● – the 1945 summit conferences
and the breakdown of the
US–Soviet alliance in 1945–46
● – Soviet expansion into Eastern
Europe to 1948, and American
reactions to it
● – the occupation of Germany and
the Berlin Blockade
● – NATO and the Warsaw Pact
The Potsdam Conference July-August 1945
Allied leaders: Stalin (the USSR), Truman (the USA), Attlee (Britain)
● Stalin’s armies were occupying most of eastern Europe.
○ Stalin insisted that his control over eastern Europe was a defensive
measure against possible future attacks.
○ Truman was more anti-communist than Roosevelt. He saw Soviet actions
in eastern Europe as a preparation for a Soviet take-over of the rest of
Europe.
● Atomic bomb tests 6th August 1945
○ Stalin felt more insecure and thought America was going to use this take
over the world.
○ Truman wanted the bomb to a weapon that could exert pressure in the
USSR
→ Distrust, suspicion, make further cooperation impossible
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The ‘Iron Curtain’ Speech 1946
● Delivered by Churchill
● Western Europe was free and democratic led by the Western powers while the
East was under Soviet rule and subject to Communism.
● Stalin accused Churchill of trying to stir up war with the Soviets.
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Soviet expansion in eastern Europe
American reaction
● Truman Doctrine 12th March 1947
○ The USA was willing to send economic aid to any country trying to resist
communism.
○ The USA wanted to contain the spread of communism.
○ $400 million would be provided to Greece and Turkey.
● Marshall Plan (European Recovery Plan) 1948
○ By 1953, $17 billion given to Europe.
○ A propaganda tool - a way of saying “Look how wealthy we are, you don’t
need communism. Stick with us and you’ll be wealthy too”.
Soviet Reaction
● Cominform 1949: the Communist Information Bureau which had as its aim to
tighten Soviet control in Eastern Europe
○ Regularly bring leaders of each Communist party to Moscow to be briefed
by Stalin.
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■ Allow Stalin to keep close eyes on them – replace
independent-minded leaders with people who were completely loyal
to him.
● COMECON 1949: Soviet version of Marshall Plan
Berlin Blockade
Cause
● Using money from the Marshall Aid programme, the Allies were helping the
Germans to rebuild their economy.
○ This meant introducing a new, stable currency and more jobs for workers
in the Western sectors.
● Introduction of Deutschmark.
● Bizonia (B and the USA) and Trizonia (+F)
● Polar ideologies
○ Stalin feared the influent of capitalism.
● Stalin wanted Germany to remain weak, unthreatening and as a ‘buffer zone.
Result
● West Germany → the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG); East Germany → the
German Democratic Republic (GDR)
● NATO (1949) and Warsaw Pact (1955)
○ Europe became divided into two opposing armed camps.
○ A spat between any two members of opposing alliances could easily
escalate into a much larger conflict.
● Increasing tension
○ Berlin would remain a powerful symbol during the cold war.
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How effectively did the USA contain the spread of
Communism?
Focus points
Specified Content
This Key Question will be explored
through case
studies of the following:
• The United States and events in Korea,
1950–53
• The United States and events in Cuba,
1959–62
• American involvement in Vietnam.
Events of the Cold War
• Case studies of:
– American reactions to the Cuban
revolution, including the missile crisis and
its aftermath
– American involvement in the Vietnam
War, e.g. reasons for involvement,
tactics/strategy, reasons for withdrawal
– American reactions to North Korea’s
invasion of South Korea, involvement of
the UN, course of the war to 1953
Korean War 1950-1953
Background
● The North was Communist-controlled, with a Communist leader (Kim II Sung)
who had been trained in USSR.
● The South was not very democratic but anti-Communism enough to win support
from the USA (Syngman Rhee).
● China turned to a communist nation in 1949 and USSR developed its own atomic
bomb (the USA was no longer the world’s only nuclear power).
● For Tuman and many Americans, containment was not so much a policy they
wanted as a policy they had to make (avoid a full-scale war with the USSR)
→ They were not so much believed in containment but believed they could not
accept anything less (further soviet expansion)
Why did the North invade the South
1. Want of uniting Korea
2. Support from the USSR and China
3. North Korean’s forces were
stronger than the South
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Why did the USA send troops to the
South
1. Fear of an attack from China to
Japan who was a key trading
partner to the USA.
2. Domino Theory
American reaction
● The North attacked the South in 1950.
● Truman immediately sent advisors, supplies and warships to waters around
Korea.
● Truman preferred a UN intervention to direct American involvement.
○ The USA was the single biggest contributor to the UN budget and
therefore in a powerful position to influence the UN’s decisions.
○ The USSR didn’t use veto and was boycotting the UN over the issue of
whether Communist China should be allowed to join the UN)
○ General MacArthur was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the UN forces
by Truman.
● MacAuther was sacked by Truman by he ignored China’s warning and openly
threatened an attack on China.
→ Truman didn’t think it was the right place and the right time to attack against
China because it could potentially involve Russia and start a great and far too
costly war.
Consequences
● Over 30,000 Americans were killed and more than 1.5million South
Koreans and 3.5million North Koreans were killed.
● The world was further divided ideologically.
● Border at 38th parallel.
Success - show American will and means to contain Communism; Korea was nit fully
under communism.
Not a success - high cost and casualty; limits of the policy (had to accept NK was
communist); tensions between American leaders (hardline anti-communists VS
moderate politicians)
Cuba Missile Crisis 1962
Cuban revolution
● In 1959, Castro overthrew American supported Batista.
● Castro took over some of the American businesses in Cuba, particularly the
agricultural businesses. He took their land and distributed ot to his supporters
among Cuba’s peasant farmer population.
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The USA response to Cuban revolution:
1. They seized all imports of Cuban sugar starting from 1960.
2. They ended all trade with Cuba in October 1960.
3. All diplomatic relations were ended with Cuba in January 1961.
→ Cuba turning to the USSR, the USA’s enemy for help and protection.
Bay of Pigs Invasion 1961: 1400 Cuban exiles VS 20,000 Cuban soldiers
- Created by Eisenhower, enforced by Kennedy
Reason of failure
1. The plan was openly published
on American press.
2. Airstrikes missed their target
and Cuban air force left intact.
Also photos of the repainted
American planes became
public and revealed American
support.
3. Exiles are poorly trained by the
CIA.
Consequence
1. Castro’s popularity increased
as he repelled American
invasion.
2. Make th bond between the
USSR and Cuba stronger.
3. Disaster and humiliation to
Kennedy’s image.
Cuba Missile Crisis
Naval blockade (quarantine) 24 Oct: any soviet ships carrying military weapons
would be sink if enter this quarantine.
→ Kennedy described 24 Oct as the darkest day.
Reasons of the USSR put missiles in Cuba
1. To defend Cuba (an excellent propaganda for Communism in America)
2. To close the missile gap – The USA had also recently placed missiles in Turkey
which bordered the USSR
3. To show soviet strength
A deal:
- The Cuban Quarantine will be removed
- ONLY if USSR removes the Cuban Missiles (Shown to the public)
- AND if the USA removes the missiles from Turkey (Secret to the public)
- AND Cuba remains safe from the US threats.
- Because the removal of Cuban missiles were public, Khrushchev looked weaker and
came out weak.
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Aftermath
For the USA
For the USSR
● Kennedy’s
reputation improved
as he had made
Khrushchev back
down.
● He had also stood
up to critics in his
own government
that wanted to
invade Cuba - not
worth the high risk
● Allies in NATO were
unhappy with the
secret deal of
removing missiles
from Turkey.
● Kennedy accepted
Castro’s Cuba
would be communist
- still restrictions on
trade today
● Khrushchev shown
to be responsible
peacemaker.
● Keeping Cuba safe
was a major
achievement useful communist
ally.
● USSR humiliated
that they forced to
back down and
remove missiles.
● 1964 - Khrushchev
forced from power maybe due to
Cuban Missile
Crisis.
For Cuba
● Castro upset with
deal but needed
USSR’s support
● Stayed communist
and highly armed helped communists
in Angola 1970s
● Kept control of
American
companies - still a
source of dispute
today
The Vietnam War 1955-1975
Reason of American involvement
● Domino Theory
○ The US were afraid that if Vietnam fell to communism, other countries in
Asia would as well.
● Under ceasefire terms (Treaty of Geneva), an election was to be held within two
years for reunification.
○ The US attempted to prolong elections as they knew the Communists
would win. 8:2
● Diem and his government in South Vietnam was unpopular and quite hated.
○ Diem was a corrupt leader who refused to give peasants land.
○ He was a Christian and did not like Buddhism (the religion for the majority
of Vietnamese ) and treated the mainly Buddhist population badly.
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● The civil war
○ The Vietminh wanted to unite the country under communist leader Ho Chi
Minh.
○ Many of the South Vietnamese people supported Ho Chi Minh as they
were unhappy with Ngo Dinh Diem.
● The Gulf of Tonkin Incident 1964: North Vietnamese boats attacked a US Navy
destroyer, patrolling in the Gulf of Tonkin.
○ The congress passed the Tonkin Gulf Resolution: President Johnson
could take the USA into full-scale war if he felt necessary.
American tactics
Viet Cong tactics
Bombing
● It damaged North Vietnam’s effort
and it disrupted supply routines
● From 1970 to 72, intense bombing
of NV forced them to negotiate
peace.
● Civilian casualties helped turn the
Vietnamese people against the
Americans.
Search and destroy
● The raids were often based on
inadequate information.
● Inexperienced US troops often
walked into traps.
● Innocent villages were mistaken for
Viet Cong strongholds.
● This made the US and the South
Vietnamese forces very unpopular
with the peasants. It pushed them
towards supporting the Viet Cong.
US troops
● Many soldiers were young and had
nver been in the military before.
● The majority of combat troops
came from poor and immigrant
backgrounds. (inequality problem)
● The conscripts knew little about
Vietnam while Viet Cong were
fighting for their own country.
● As soon as soldiers gain
experience they were sent home
because of a policy of a one-year
Guerilla warfare
● Attack when the enemy is tired,
retreat when attacked, raid enemy
camps.
● Guerrillas didn’t wear uniforms nor
had no known headquarters.
● US soldiers lived in constant fear
of ambushes or booby traps.
Supplies
● The Viet Cong developed on
supplies from NV that came along
the Ho Chi Minh trial.
● 40,000 Vietnamese workeed to
keep it open whatever the cost.
Commitment
● Large amount of casualties but
they refused to give in.
Civilians
● Viet Cong fighters were expected
to be courteous and respectful to
the Vietnamese peasants.
● They helped the peasants in the
fields during busy periods.
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term of service.
Chemical weapons
● Agent Orange was a highly toxic
weedkiller sprayed from planes to
destroy the jungle where Viet Cong
hid.
● Napalm burned through skin to the
bone.
● Moral failure – the American
always presented their campaign
against Communism as a moral
crusade.
The Tet offensive 1968
● During the New Year holiday, Viet Cong fighters attacked over 10 cities and other
military targets. → they lost around 10,000 experienced fighters
● It raised hard questions in the USA
○ There were 500,000 troops in Vietnam and the USA spent $20 billion a
year on the war.
○ The war was draining money that could be used to better purposes at
home.
○ Racial inequality was highlighted as 30% African Americans were drafted
in comparison to 19% White Americans.
● The media
○ Many journalists showed the terrible situation in Vietnam (the burning of
villages; napalm Bombs; killing children)
○ Vietnam was no longer a symbol of America’s war against communism but
a representation of defeat and moral corruption.
○ This led to anti-war protests during 1968-1970 with over 100
demonstrations.
The My Lai massacre 1968
● A unit of American soldiers called Charlie Company set out on a search and
destroy mission
● hey received information that the villages within the My Lai area were Viet Cong
headquarters.
● They were ordered to destroy everything and kill everyone in sight
○ They killed over 300-400 civilians including a large amount of women and
children.
● However, there was no Viet Cong present at all- this had been a pointless
● massacre.
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○ This however, was lied about and covered up. It was reported that only 20
non-combatants had died and the rest were members of the Viet Cong.
○ This was uncovered later and many were investigated and trialled.
Why did the USA withdraw from the War?
● People back home did not support it - My Lai massacre and death and injuries
● North Vietnamese had better tactics - Guerrilla warfare
● North had the support of the Vietnamese civilians
● It was draining the US’s economy (20m a year) and they had problems at home
which had to be solved.
Ending the war
● Election of President Richard Nixon in 1969 where he promised to have a
peaceful end to the conflict.
○ Improved relationship with the USSR and China.
■ End block on China’s membership in the UN
■ Visits to China
■ Visits to the USSR which achieved better understanding of each
other
○ Vietnamisation: between April 1969 to the end of 1971 almost 400,000 US
troops left Vietnam.
○ Peace negotiation with NV in1969
○ Increased bombing against NV to show he was not weak.
● 1973 peace treaty signed in Paris.
○ Peace with honour
○ North conquered the South in 1975.
Effects on the policy of containment
● It had failed militarily – the USA’s vast military strength could not stem the
spread of communism.
● It had failed strategically
○ Bombing helped Communism win support not only in Vietnam but in Laos
and Cambodia.
○ It speeded up the Domino effect.
● It was a propaganda disaster
○ Use of chemical weapons damaged the USA’s reputation.
○ In terms of a crusade of democracy, Americans were seen to be propping
up a government that did not have the support of its own people.
● Vietnam syndrome
○ The USA lost confidence in foreign affairs.
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Additional tension in the cold war
Method of containment
● Alliances: a network of anti-Communism around the world
○ NATO; SEATO in South East Asia and CENTO in central Asia and Middle
East
● Arms race
○ USA developed the first atomic bomb in 1945 which caused detrimental
effects to Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
○ Spied on each other
○ Both perfected nuclear weapon that could be sent off via submarines or
planes
The impact on the Arms race: quality and quantity
● Missile map
○ It was believed that the USSR had more missiles than the USA, this
alarmed many and increased funding and spending in the military and the
development of weapons .
○ However, this was not true. But Khrushchev was more than content to go
along with this as he would look foolish and weak.
● Race in technology (Space Race) - USSR sent the first man up to space.
○ The Cold war was also a propaganda war and a race to show what
country and system was more superior.
Deterrence and MAD (Mutually Assured Destruction)
● No one dared attack the other as this would result in their own destruction.
● MAD: having nuclear weapons deterred the other side from attacking first.
Fear
● The nuclear arms race has raised the stakes so high that one suicidal leader, one
poor decision or a mistake could trigger a catastrophe that could destroy Europe,
the USA and the USSR.
● Children were taught what to do in the event of a nuclear attack.
● Some were concerned with the vast amounts spent on the military.
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How secure was the USSR’s control over Eastern
Europe, 1948–c.1989?
Focus Points
● Why was there opposition to Soviet
control in Hungary in 1956 and
Czechoslovakia in 1968, and how
did the USSR react to this
opposition?
● How similar were events in
Hungary in 1956 and in
Czechoslovakia in 1968?
● Why was the Berlin Wall built in
1961?
● What was the significance of
‘Solidarity’ in Poland for the decline
of Soviet influence in Eastern
Europe?
● How far was Gorbachev personally
responsible for the collapse of
Soviet control over Eastern
Europe?
Specified Content
● Soviet power in Eastern Europe:
○ resistance to Soviet power
in Hungary (1956) and
Czechoslovakia (1968)
○ the Berlin Wall
○ ‘Solidarity’ in Poland
○ Gorbachev and the collapse
of Soviet control over
Eastern Europe
Methods the USSR used to seize power in E Europe
● After the war, there was a political vacuum in many countries in EE. Staline
helped the Communist parties in them to win power.
○ Cominform: Communist Information Bureau
■ Ran meetings and sent instructions to communist governments
about what the USSR wanted them to do.
○ One-party state
○ Secrete police
● Station soviet troops in communist countries.
○ To restore law and order (excuse)
● Comecon: co-ordinate the industries and trade in EE.
○ Members of it mostly traded with one another than trading with the West
■ Prevent western influence osmosis into EE
○ Comecon favoured the USSR with a good market to sell goods.
○ It forced other countries to sell raw materials to the USSR at a very low
price.
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How did Soviet control affect the people of EE?
Freedom
Wealth
-
-
-
Travel to WE was
forbidden
People cannot
criticise the gov
Press was censored
No free speech
-
Wages in EEC fell
behind those in
other countries and
in the Soviet Union.
Apply for Marshall
Plan was forbidden.
Consumer goods
-
Short of coal and
milk.
Shoes and clothing
were expensive.
Goods like radios
were rare.
Factories didn’t
produce want
ordinary people
needed but what
USSR wanted.
Khrushchev, become the leader of the Soviet Union in 1955
● De-stalinisation (radical)
○ Cominform closed
○ Release thousands of political prisoners
○ He invited Marshall Tito to Moscow
■ Tito was the leader of Yogoslavia which is a communist country but
resisted Soviet control. The Soviet Union criticised it in the press.
○ Agree to pull out Soviet troops from Austria.
● He created the Warsaw Pact in1955
→ sent a signal to opposition groups in EE that they could now press for changes
Case Study 1: Hungary uprising in 1956
Causes
1. Matyas Rakosi was placed in charge of Hungary by Stalin in 1945.
a. Rakosi imprisoned 200,000 political opponents and use secret police to
monitor ordinary people.
b. In 1952, Hungary experiences its lowest harvests, and Rakosi became
extremely unpopular.
c. Hungary joined Comecon - not receiving a fair price for its exports
2. Stalin died suddenly in 1953.
3. Want of political freedom
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What happened
(1)
● On 23rd Oct 1953, students and workers took to streets of Budapest to protest
about their lack of political freedom and the problems created by poor harvests.
● Khrushchev sent in Soviet troops to restore order and decided to replace Rakosi
with Imre Nagy.
● Nagy announced to release political prisoners, to end the one-party state in
Hungary and to withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact.
○ It damaged the Warsaw Pact
○ Security fear of capitalism spreading beyond the iron curtain and into the
soviet influence sphere.
○ Fear of loss control of the EE: Hungary may be the first domino.
○ Khrushchev needed to establish his authority and prestige in the Soviet
Union.
(2) Soviet responses
● 1000 tanks and 200,000 Soviet soldiers rolled into Budapest.
● 20,000 Hungarians were killed.
● A new pro-communist government was set up.
● 200,000 Hungarians fled to Austria to escape Soviet forces.
● The Soviet Union would not follow a softer approach after Stalin’s death.
Case study 2: Czechoslovakia and the Prague Spring, 1968
Cause
1. Alexander Dubcek’s reforms: less censorship, more freedom of speech and
reduction in activities of the secret police.
2. Brezhnev worries the reforms would lead to Czechoslovakia leaving the Warsaw
Pact, allowing NATO to move in.
a. It would split the Warsaw Pact into two and advance NATO’s frontier
700km further to the east so that it boarded the Soviet Union itself.
3. Czechoslovakia was becoming closer to West Germany.
a. Fearing WG might soon dominate the economy of Czechoslovakia and
other eastern bloc countries.
Soviet response
● To start with, it tried to slow down Dubeck.
○ Soviet, Polish and EG troops performed public training on the Czech
border.
● On 20 August 1968, 500,000 Warsaw Pact troops invaded Czechoslovakia and
ended the Prague Spring.
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○ The bulk of these troops were from the Soviet Union but to give the
impression that they represented the whole of the Warsaw Pact.
○ 100 Czech citizen dead.
● Unlike Nagy, Dubeck was not executed but gradually downgraded. Dubeck was
replaced by Husak, a hardline communist.
● Brezhnev Doctrine
○ No communist country would be allowed ti pass reforms making to it more
democratic, nor would to leave the communist bloc and the Warsaw Pact.
○ Any attempts to pass liberal reforms would lead to an invasion from the
Warsaw Pact.
How similar are the Hungary Uprising and the Prague Spring?
Consider:
1. Amis of rebel
2. Attitude towards Communism/democracy/the USSR/the West
3. Why/How the Soviet Union intervened
4. Casualties/outcomes
Case study: The Berlin Wall
Refugee Problem
● Between 1949 to 1961, about 4 million East Germans fles to the West through
Berlin because they were dissatisfied with the economic and political conditions
at home.
● From Jan 1961, the number of refugees leaving EB increased rapidly (more than
200,00 a month)
→ Berlin became a gap in the Iron Curtain.
→ EG losing valuable people and skilled workers
→ Propaganda disaster
The solution
● On 13 August 1961, EG soldiers erected a barrier along the entire frontier
between the East and West Berlin. It was quickly replaced by a concrete wall.
● All crossing points were sealed.
● Soldiers had orders to shoot people trying to defect.
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Outcomes
Negative
Positive
Soviet
Union
Khrushchev was forced ti abandon plans to The Soviets had managed to
unite G under communism
stop the mass exodus if
Germans.
The wall showed that the Soviets had to
The wall sent a message that
lock people in E to stop them from leaving. communism would survive in
Berlin and any attempt to
reunite G would fail/
USA
The Soviet Union had closed the border
without consulting the USA.
Those people who wanted to escape from
Communism were no longer able to.
The wall showed that
Khrushchev had been forced to
accept Western control in West
Berlin.
West Berlin became an
emblem of freedom and
defiance against Communism
Both
Less tension, less likely to go to war
Same as mentioned
Case study 4: Solidarity in Poland 1980-1981
The Solidarity movement was a group of Polish workers (led by Lech Walesa) which
put pressure on the communist government through a series of strikes.
→ The government agreed to all 21 of Solidarity’s demands, including more pay, end to
censorship, some welfare benefits as police and party workers, broadcasting of Catholic
church services and election of factory managers.
Reasons of Solidarity’s success
1. The union was strongest in those industries that were most important to the
government.
2. Was not seen as an alternative to the Communist Party at an early stage.
a. More than 1m communists joined it.
3. The union was immensely popular. (peak at 9.4m members)
4. Support from the Catholic church
5. Gained support int eh West → the Soviet Union treated it cautiously.
Brezhnev ordered the Red Army to carry out training on the Polish border. The Red
Army General, Jaruzeski introduced martial law and put Walesa and 10,000 other
solidarity leaders in prison.
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Reasons for the crushing of Solidarity
1. Solidarity was acting as a political party.
a. Setting up a new government without the Communist party.
2. Solidarity was tumbling into chaos
a. There are many factions. Some felt they should push Communist harder
till it cracked. Strikes continued long after the Solidarity leadership ordered
to stop.
3. Poland was sinking into chaos.
a. Food shortages (Rationing introduced in April 1981)
b. Wages increased less by inflation.
c. Unemployment was rising.
The significance of Solidarity
● It highlighted the failure of Communism to provide good living standards and this
undermined the Communism’s claim to be a system which benefits ordinary
people.
● It highlighted inefficiency and corruption.
○ Inequality between Communist Party members and ordinary people.
● It showed that there were organisations which were capable of resisting a
Communist government.
● It showed that Communist governments could be threatened by people power.
Mikhail Gorbachev
Gorbachev became the leader of the Soviet Union in 1985.
● Soviet Union’s economy was weak – spending too much on the arms race.
● He is an idealist and believed life should be better under communism.
● He definitely did not intend to dismantle Communism in the USSR and the EE,
but he did want to reform it radically.
● Hardline communists thought his ideas were too simple and did not believe him.
Gorbachev’s reforms
● Perestroika (re-construction) allowed market forces to be introduced into the
Soviet economy.
○ For the first time in 60 years it was no longer illegal to buy and sell for
profits.
● Glasnost (openness): allowing people to have a better understanding of how
the country ran and a more open attitude to foreign relations.
● Red army began to shrink.
● He withdrew troops from Afghanistan
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● He talked about international trust and cooperation as the way forward for the
USSR rather than confrontation.
● Sinatra Doctrine: countries could conduct their own affairs as they wished and
do it in their own ways.
○ Countries can govern themselves without Soviet interference.
Reagan became the president of the USA in 1981, his policy towards USSR is getting
tough.
→ relationship improved → less treat to Gorbachev → less need of control of EE
→ SU lost the arms race because lack of fund
How far was Gorbechev personally responsible for the collapse of the USSR?
Far
● Gorbachev explicitly allowed
Eastern Europe to pursue its own
path : Glasnost (openness)
○ this led to revival of previous
feelings (Prague Spring
etc).
○ It encouraged reform in
Czechoslovakia 1989, and
East Germany 1989-90.
● Gorbachev allowed Solidarity in
Poland in 1990
○ this was a step in the
direction of disintegration
● He allowed people to practice their
religion and even met the Pope
○ this went against the firm
rule of Communism.
Reversed Brezhnev doctrine
in Afghanistan.
● He introduced perestroika
(restructuring)
○ this loosened the chains of
the economy and people
were allowed to make
money
● Alienated hardliners with his
policies
○ they eventually stabbed him
in the back with the coup of
1991.
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Not far
● Growth of Nationalism It was falling
apart anyway (explain Hungary
1956, Czechoslovakia 1968, Berlin
Wall 1961)
● Gorbachev just provided the spark
that lit the fire
○ his reforms acted as a
catalyst
○ such as Romania and
Bulgaria revolted in 1989 as
a result
● People were very unhappy
○ living standards were low
and too much was spent on
arms (25% of GNP by
1980s)
● There was a lack of jobs, American
farmers were 7 times more
productive.
● Raegan’s hardline policies pushed
the USSR to the brink; he won the
arms race and was on the
offensive
○ helped Afghanistan beat
USSR, called USSR ‘evil
empire
The collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe
● 1987 : Perestroika and Glasnost
● 1988 : Rising prices in Poland lead to strikes and talks with Solidarity
○ Gorbachev pledges to remove troops from E.Europe
● 1989 : Hungary promises elections and choice of parties
○ Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia declare sovereignty
○ Solidarity takes control and promises elections
○ Gorbachev visits E. Germany and urges it to take its own path
○ Czechoslovakian Velvet Revolution removes Communists from
power
○ Romania: Ceaucescu executed
● 1990 : Ukraine declares sovereignty
○ Germany unified; wall falls
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● 1991 : Croatia, Slovenia declare independence
○ Warsaw Pact ended
○ Soviet Coup attempt; Russia declares independence under Yeltsin in
Dec
○ Gorbachev resigns on 25 December 1991; the USSR was no more
People power
● Communist control was toppled because ordinary people were not prepared to
accept it any longer. They took control of events.
● It was not political leaders guiding the future of eastern Europe in 1989 but
ordinary people.
Reunification of Germany
● In Nov 1989, the Berlin Wall was dismantled
● With the down of the Berlin Wall, the WG Chancellor proposed a speedy
reunification of Germany. Germans on both sides embraced the idea
enthusiastically.
● Gorbachev accepted the reunification and even accepted that it will be a member
of NATO.
● On 3 Oct 1990, Germany became a united country.
Why did events in the Gulf matter, c.1970–2000?
Focus Point
● Why was Saddam Hussein able to
come to power in Iraq?
● What was the nature of Saddam
Hussein’s rule in Iraq?
● Why was there a revolution in Iran
in 1979?
● What were the causes and
consequences of the Iran–Iraq
War, 1980–88?
● Why did the First Gulf War take
place?
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Specified Content
● The rise to power of Saddam
Hussein in Iraq
● The rule of Saddam Hussein up to
2000, and the consequences of his
rule for different groups in Iraq
● The nature of the Shah’s rule in
Iran and the Iranian Revolution of
1979
● The causes and consequences of
the Iran–Iraq War, 1980–88;
Western involvement in the war
● The causes, course and
consequences of the Gulf War,
1990–91
Saddam’s rise to power and consolidation
● Use of force
○ Saddam’s regime was responsible for the death of at least 250,000 Iraqis,
and committed war crimes in Iran, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.
○ Ba’ath party purge in 1979: Muhyi Abdul-Hussein was one of the senior
Baathist leaders, who confessed his attempt to overthrow Saddam’s
control of Iraq. This ended up with most conspirators was executed and
survivors were asked to kill accomplices.
■ This shapes Saddam a ruthless and brutal ruler, no tolerate to any
form of dissent.
● Build infrastructure and launch social welfare reforms
○ Ba’ath led government nationalized the oil industry oil. Saddam use
immense oil revenue to improve infrastructure — healthcare, education,
electricity, etc. These really benefit ordinary people, especially in rural
area, as they were able to access high-quantity social services for free.
■ As a result of these reforms, Iraqis believe they living a country of
freedom that helps Saddam gain popularity among people and
burnish his reputation, establishing a staunch base for his
government.
■ However all these benefits only to people who stand on the right
side of Saddam’s regime.
● Propaganda
○ Saddam Hussein claimed himself to be a direct descendant of the
Prophet Muhammad and portrayed this in his propaganda.
○ Saddam’s portrait appeared on the sides of buses, office buildings,
hospital and Iraqis currency. (Almost everywhere in Iraq)
■ Saddam exploit Islam religion to enlarge his influence in Iraq and
other Arab countries as he was the god chosen leader. This creates
a personality cult.
■ He was able to spread his image nationally and continually to his
civilians and create a false persona.
■ When a referendum was held on his presidency, 99% of Iraqis vote
in support.
● Nepotism
○ Saddam put his family members into important positions in Iraq's society
and politics.
○ Eg: Ali Hassan Majid was his first cousin, he was Minister of local
government, Defence minister, Interior Minister and Head of Party
intelligence.
○ Familial safeguards succeeded in preserving Saddam's grip on power
■ Loyalty + tolerance
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■ Benefit to one means benefit to all, whereas harm to one means
harm to all.
● Saddam’s reactions to repression
○ Iraq’s population was made of three main groups — Shia Muslims, Sunni
Muslims and Kurds.
○ Saddam was a Sunni Muslim, however Shia Muslim is the majority of
Iraq’s population, accounting 65%. They want more inclusion in Iraqis
government and society.
■ After Islamic revolution in Iran, saddam becomes increasingly
suspicious and afraid of a similar revolution in Iraq to shake his
regime.
■ Therefore, in 1980-81, 200,000 Shiite were deported to Iran as
their ‘loyalty was not proven’.
○ Since the state of Iraq was created, the Kurds had enjoyed a certain
amount of self-rule, but many of their leaders wanted to achieve
separatism.
○ The Kurds come from 20% of Iraq’s population. Although they are
Muslims but not Arab and speak another language.
■ In 1974-75, Saddam attacked the Kurds on the purpose of
extending his control over Kurdish north. This triggered the
Kurds’s indignation and repression.
■ With Iranian help, the Kurds gained greater control of Kurdish
north, the opposition of Saddam’s aim. Saddam also saw this as a
betrayal.
■ Consequently, Ali Hassan, the ,cousin of Saddam was known as
the ‘Chemical Ali’ because of widely using chemical weapon and
bombs to destroy Kurdish areas. About 180,000 Kurds were killed
and at least 100,000 refugees fled to neighbouring countries.
Iranian revolution
Causes
● Dissatisfaction with Shah’s government and his handling of the economic
and social problems in Iran
○ Shah’s government led by the puppet king Faisal, declared a monopoly on
oil and Tobacco productions through the British-owned companies,
Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (they were the main sources of country’s
income).
○ The PM Mohammad Mossadeq was popular with Iranian people because
he nationalised Iran’s oil industry.
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■ A sign of Iranian independence from domination.
○ The Shah regarded him as a threat because he argued in favour of more
limited powers for the monarchy.
■ With the help of the CIA and MI6, the Shah overthrew Mossadeq in
a military coup.
● A widespread anti-Western attitude as a result of the Shah’s close
relationship with Britain and the USA
○ close ties with non-Muslim country’s banks and cinemas which showed
mostly foreign, sexual films and theses were felt to be unislamic.
■ Khomeini was afraid that these would influence the culture and
religion of Iran.
○ The influence of the USA became more apparent when the Shah began
importing large quantities of American foodstuffs and tired to introduce
American-style shopping malls.
■ Undercut the efforts of local farmers.
■ Damaged the interest of the bazaar merchants.
● The role and impact of Ayatollah Khomeini
○ The mullahs encouraged street demonstrations against western influence
○ In response, the Shah’s secret police arrested, exiled, imprisoned and
tortured thousands of Government critics, including the mullahs.
○ The outstanding leader, Ayatollah Khomeini had been forced into exile by
the Shahs
■ In 1964, he went to Turkey—Iraq—Paris. From here his writings
and speeches were smuggled into Iran.
■ Most of Kjomeini’s exiles were spent in Iraqi where they sent his
recorded cassette tapes of his political message across the border
into Iran.
○ Khomeini deliberately avoided any mention of his desire to establish an
Islamic government and instead concentrated on issues that would gain
maximum support among his audience.
Consequences
●
●
●
●
The creation of an Islamic Republic of Iran
Ended the westernization and modernization of Iran
Set up a traditional government and society based upon the Koran
Establishment of a parliament, the National Consultative Assembly (Majlis) and
approval of the first constitution
Iran-Iraq War, 1980-88: In 1980 Saddam decided to invade Iran.
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Cause
● The Shatt-Arab waterway
○ Iraq’s acess to the sea was very narrow while Iran had a lonf coastline and
several ports through which to export its oil.
○ Iraq wanted to gain complete control of the Shatt-Arab waterway to gain a
secure outlet to the sea.
● Khuzestan and Kurds
○ The south-western Iranian province of Khuzestan was oil rich with a
predominantly non-Persian population (Arabs) who had cultural
connection with Iraq.
■ Saddam claimed a historical right to control the province and
encouraged the Arabs to revolt against the Shah’s rule.
○ In retaliation, Iran began encouraging the Kurds in the north Iraq to take
up arms against Saddam’s regime and providing them with the trainig
bases ans military equipment.
● Opportunities provided by the Iranian revolution.
○ It’s economy was in chaos following the fall of the Shah’s regime.
○ The country was facing a western boycott of its trade because of the
capture of the US embassy.
○ The Iranian armed forces were demoralised.
● Khomeini’s oppositin to Saddam
○ Iraq was secular stat and most leaders were Sunni Muslims. (religious
reasons)
○ Khomeini call Iraqis Shittes to overthrow the Baath regime and establish
another Islamic country.
■ Saddam saw Khomeini’s influence as a potentially very serious
treat.
■ Saddam had evidence that Iran was involved in the assassination
of lwading members of the Baathist Party in Iraq.
● Western involvement
○ The main interests of the western power during the was was to preserve
the balance of power in the Middle East and to ensure the uninterrupted
flow of oil supplies from this region.
○ American policy: ensuring at least Iraq did not lose the war.
■ Fear of another Islamic revolutionary goverment in Baghdad
■ Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and other Gulf staes would then face the
Islamic treat.
○ Western countires supplied Iraq with miliatry equipments.
Consequences
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Iran
● Khomeini had to agree a ceasefire
because of Iraq’s military
superiority.
● It had not succeeded in exporting
its revolutionary Shiite brand of
Islam.
● Iran’s living standars pummeted.
Iraq
● Life expenctancy fell and infant
mortality increased.
● Iraq face debts of $80 billion.
● The economy was in tatters and
there was no post-war recovery.
○ The value of Iraq’s oil
exports declined because of
war demage.
● Unemployment
○ People work in oil industries
lost jobs.
● Officers felt cheated of victory over
Iran and some privately blamed
Saddam for the failure.
The first Gulf War
Resons for tension in the Gulf
● National Identity
○ Iraq is an Arab nation; Iran is not an Arab nation
○ Iraqis and Iranians care more about their country, their identity, and their
religion than money or oil causing issues between them and foreign
nations
● Israel
○ Jewish state created in 1948 and carved out of inhabited Arab land
○ Creation of state was opposed by all Arab states (source of tension)
● Individuals
○ Saddam Hussein, Ayatollah Khomeini are causes of tension due to their
actions which created conflicts
● Religion
○ Sunni (mainly Arab like Saddam) and Shia (mainly non-Arab like Ayatollah
Khomeini) Muslims
○ Disagreements between these two branches of Islam lead to conflicts
● Oil
○ All states in Persian Gulf produced oil (contains ⅔ of world’s known oil
reserves) — main cause of their wealth
○ Nations in West are dependent on them for oil imports since without it,
transportation systems and manufacturing industry would break down
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Cause of the invasion of Kuwait
● Historical claims
○ Until the end of the WW1, Kuwait had officially been part if the Turkish
Empires’s province of Basra.
■ The association between Kuwait and Basra led a number of Iraqi
rulers to insist that Kuwait was rightfully part of Iraq.
● Saddam’s domestic position
○ Iraq displayed many of characteristics of a defeated power
■ Inflation, Iraqi prisoners remind in Iranian hands, demobilized
troops joined unemployment.
○ Since July 1988, there had been at leat four assassination attempts on
Saddam’s life.
○ Saddam desperately need to secure his rule and Kuwait seemed the
answer to his problem.
■ He could pose as the liberator of a territory which many Iraqis
regarded as rightfully theirs, improve Iraq’s access to the Gulf, and
acquire a much position in the world’s oil markets.
● Financial and economic factors
○ Saudi Arabia and Kuwait refused Saddam’s ask to write off their $40 billion
loans of Iraq.
○ Saudi Arabia and Kuwait increased theri oil production so bring down the
international price of oil.
○ Saudi Arabia and Kuwait again refused Saddam’s ask to bring their oil
production into line with the quotas fixed by OPEC.
○ Saddam accused Kuwait was illegally extracting Iraqi oil ($2.4 billion)
● Establish regional leadership
○ Occupation of Kuwait could help Iraq to enlarge its infuence in the Abrab
world and dominate Saudi Arabia.
The First Gulf War (Operation Desert Storm) — January - March 1991
●
●
●
●
●
A war to liberate (free) Kuwait
Started with a five-week air assault on military targets along with airports,
bridges, factories and roads but later in February, ground attacks began
A coalition formed of 35 nations in the UNSC (eg. USA and Saudi Arabia)
fought against Iraq during the war (Iraqis were shown no support)
Iraqi forces attempting to wreck Kuwait by pouring oil into the gulf in hopes of
setting their oil fields on fire
After Iraqis were driven out of Kuwait, US forces continued to push further into
Iraq while calling for support from the Kurds and Shias in order to overthrow
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●
●
●
●
Saddam; however, they were given no support from the US nor did they have
enough arms
50,000 Shia Muslims were killed following the attempt to overthrow Saddam
Covered by the Media, forcing USA and Britain to act upon the situation
○ ‘No-fly zones’ established to prevent Saddam from gaining control over
the North – Kurds achieve a ‘safe haven’
Coalition forces stopped short of Baghdad
○ If USA were to push further in order to overthrow Saddam, America’s
Arab allies would not have supported them
○ UN restricted them to only liberating Kuwait
Some view the Gulf War as USA attempting to establish their military
presence in the Gulf as well as dominate the world’s oil resources
Gulf ceasfire
●
Peace terms were imposed in Iraq by the UN following the conclusion of the
Gulf War
○ Iraq had to recognise Kuwait’s sovereignty
○ Iraq had to pay reparations
○ Iraqi aircrafts could not enter ‘no-fly zones’ in the Kurdish north and
south
○ Iraq had to comply with weapon inspections by the UN to uncover and
destroy any and all weapons of mass destruction
■ Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) are biological, chemical or
nuclear weapons that could be used to kill as many people as
possible
■ Until all WMD were destroyed, UN imposed wide-ranging trade
sanctions (no one can trade with Iraq)
Consequences
● Saddam suffered a massive and humiliating military.
○ Dealing with revolts broke out in the south and north of Iraq.
○ America retained a military presence in Saudi Arabia, using it as a base to
enfore the ‘no-fly’ zones.
○ Loss of international truss.
● Coalition destroyed Iraq’s infrastructures: power station, oil refineries, roads.
● Shortage of food, medical supplies and clean drinking water + reduction in
welfare services.
● Sanctinons mwant that Iraq was unable to sell its oil abroad.
● UNSE Resolution 687 called Iraq to dismantle his non-conventional, biological,
chemical and nuclear weapons.
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