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Joonho Kim
CLASS 2604
6/13/2025
Momus Essay
Momus and the Absurdity of Greek Myth
Sometimes, writers choose to express valid criticisms about a subject through the voices
of characters that are portrayed as morally questionable–The Gods in Council, a short satire
written by Lucian, is one example. In The Gods in Council, Momus, the Greek god of free
speech and criticism, unjustly persuades Zeus to strip certain immortals of their divine status
based on their origin or ethnicity; however, his proposal also proves partially useful in ensuring
that humans stay loyal to the gods. Zeus appropriately silences Momus throughout the text,
asserting that half-gods like Heracles and foreign deities also deserve to join the ranks of the
Greek gods, but approves Momus’ bill nonetheless. The author Lucian utilizes Momus’
complaints regarding which divinities deserve to remain in Heaven and which do not to
demonstrate the illogicalities of the Greek pagan religion.
In the Greek mythological world, when judging whether Momus’ proposals are morally
right or wrong, one must look from a perspective that is both egalitarian and theocentric,
assuming that all deities have equal worth, but mankind holds significantly less importance. In
Euripides’ Bacchae, Dionysus drives all the Theban women mad so that the people of Thebes
will honor his rites: “This city must learn one way or another, whether it likes it or not, that it
can’t stay uninitiated and ignorant of my rites!” (Bacchae 23, transl. Theodorisis 2011).
According to Dionysus, humans are beings that must worship the gods; hence, as they are lesser
entities, a righteous action would prioritize the benefit of the immortals over the mortals. One
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may argue that this is not always true, as there are rare occasions in which men overpower and
coerce divine beings, such as when Odysseus threatens Circe with his sword to force her to
transform his shipmates back from swine to normal (Odyssey 10.342-343, 363-365, transl.
Lombardo 2000). However, heroes being punished for offending the gods are a recurring motif in
Greek myth; notable instances are in the Bacchae, wherein Pentheus is torn apart by the Maenads
for refusing to follow Dionysus’ rites, and in the Odyssey, wherein Zeus strikes Odysseus’ ship
and drowns the men for eating Helios’ cattle (Bacchae 1120, transl. Theodorisis 2011; Odyssey
12.426-430, transl. Lombardo 2000). The consensus among ancient Greek poets seems to be that
mortals cannot challenge powerful gods or their collective authority, and that the benefit of
humanity is an insignificant issue when considering the entire universe. Among the gods,
although a hierarchy exists, rulers can be overthrown by other divinities, as evidenced by how
Cronos was once the king of the immortals, but was replaced by Zeus (Theogony 465, 885 transl.
Lombardo 2016). Hence, all gods should be considered to have the same moral significance, as if
the authority figure devalues the others, they can band up to oust the one in power. The ethics of
Momus’ opinions should be determined based on whether they concur with the gods’ common
interest or not.
Examining Momus’ claims from the aforementioned viewpoint, one can conclude that
Momus’ idea of excluding individuals that were born half-divine and half-human and foreign
deities from the heavenly assembly does not act in the gods’ shared benefit. According to
Lucian’s interpretation of the immortal council, writing one’s name in a special “register” grants
one a “promotion to godhead” and a share of a limited supply of ambrosia and nectar, as the
enrollment of additional figures has led to a “deficiency in the supplies of ambrosia and nectar”
(The Gods in Council, transl. Internet Sacred 2025). The Oxford Classical Dictionary states that
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ambrosia and nectar in ancient Greek religion were substances that granted eternal life (Griffiths
2015). Hence, Lucian is stating that there is a document of names that elevates the entities listed
to godhood, regardless of the existence they previously enjoyed. Apis was a bull, and Heracles
was the demigod child between Zeus and a terrestrial woman; yet, both were granted immortality
(The Gods in Council, transl. Internet Sacred 2025). Momus rejects the legitimacy of all
heaven-dwellers who were not born from fully deified and Greek parents, condemning mortal
men who mated with divine women (Anchises, Tithonus, Endymion, and Iasion), foreign gods
(Mithras, Anubis, Apis), and animal-like divinities (Pan and the Satyrs) (The Gods in Council,
transl. Internet Sacred 2025). Such an argument suggests that pure biological ancestry from
Greek immortals should be the sole basis for assigning deific status, sowing division between the
minority who meet this criterion and the majority of the gods who do not. Furthermore, Momus’
statements would invalidate primordial beings such as Gaia, who was not born but simply
manifested from chaos, and goddesses like Athena and Aphrodite, who had unnatural births:
Athena was created from inside Zeus’ head, while Aphrodite emerged from Ouranos’ phallus
(Theogony ACM translation). Momus’ spurious insistence on a genetic and ethnic standard for
differentiating gods from other beings pits the divinities against each other, establishing him as a
force of evil.
Momus, however, also plays a helpful role in the dialogue of the convocation by
introducing restrictions on heavenly professions and philosophy, which are changes that would
be useful to the gods. First, by mandating each god to follow one profession only, the deities will
not have to worry about becoming overshadowed by another in their domain of expertise;
although Ouranos was supplanted by Zeus in ruling over the skies, he will be able to take on a
different position. This policy would also help to enforce the humans’ submission to each
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immortal, as one can entirely lose access to a specific blessing if they gain the disfavor of a god;
for example, if Apollo only chooses to practice prophesy, and the other divinities do not hold the
same profession (which has a high chance of happening, as the others will only be able to take on
a single role also), the consequences of disobeying Apollo would be far more severe, as
divination will become completely inaccessible. Second, barring philosophers from glorifying
abstract concepts such as Virtue, Fortune, or Destiny by prohibiting them “either to invent
meaningless names or to talk nonsense about matters of which they know nothing” will prevent
humans from worshipping nonexistent gods and have them rely on prophets to discern the nature
of the universe, thereby stopping the spread of false metaphysical information and increasing the
mortals’ loyalty to gods (The Gods in Council, transl. Internet Sacred 2025). One might express
concern that silencing philosophers and their ability to deduce the essence of the world could
lead more quack prophets to make money by deceiving the masses; however, as there are
well-known and reputable seers like the Oracle of Delphi and Tiresias in the Greek mythological
cosmos, one can easily avoid frauds by visiting trustworthy sources of divination instead.
Overall, Momus’ propositions concerning the gods’ practices and philosophers are beneficial to
the assembly in improving mankind’s obedience to it.
Zeus appropriately silences Momus regarding the matter of demigods and foreign gods,
arguing that, despite their half-mortal blood and appearance, they are strong and well-regarded
by humans enough to deserve divine status. When Momus questions Dionysus’ seat in the
council, Zeus precludes Momus’ objections regarding the half-gods Asclepius and Heracles, as
“Asclepius is a physician, and restores the sick”, while Heracles “is my own son, and purchased
his immortality with many toils” (The Gods in Council, transl. Internet Sacred 2025). The
Oxford Classical Dictionary informs that Asclepius was a “great healer who even raised men
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from the dead”, while Heracles was a man of immense strength who dealt with monsters such as
the Nemean lion and the Lernaean Hydra (Graf 2015; Schachter 2015). Both were as powerful as
the gods despite not being born among them. When Momus ridicules the Egyptian deities’
externalities, calling Anubis “the dog-faced gentleman in the linen suit”, Zeus says that Momus
should be more understanding of Egyptian culture, commenting on the animal forms of the
African divinities that “there is an occult significance in most of these things” (Internet Sacred).
Zeus’ interruptions raise a serious issue about Momus’ assumptions about divinity–considering
only ancestry and nationality as the basis for joining the ranks of the gods leaves out those from
mortal families and other nations who, despite their origin and unusual looks, are just as strong
and admired by worshippers as the Greek immortals.
Despite raising counterarguments against Momus, Zeus ultimately lets Momus continue
with his speech and pass his bill without a majority vote (Internet Sacred). If I was Zeus, I would
follow his decision to interrupt Momus’ objections only at certain moments, but also remove the
part of his resolution that calls for the evaluation of every deity’s right to participate in the
assembly. No matter whether Momus’ statements are valid or not, they have a right to be heard
in the meeting, since, otherwise, unaddressed problems may burgeon and cause more havoc in
the future; hence, Zeus was wise in allowing Momus to speak his thoughts, while preempting
certain arguments that he anticipated from him. Meanwhile, Zeus enacts Momus’ laws into
effect, which requires “all such as claim admission to the Assembly to appear and bring with
them sworn witnesses together with documentary proofs of their origin” to prove their
worthiness, even though such a measure is unnecessary (Internet Sacred). As the philosophers’
belief in the existence of insubstantial concepts led to names such as Fortune and Destiny being
written on the list, the members of the council probably gained admission because humans
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deemed them powerful enough to be regarded as gods. Hence, if I assumed Zeus’ position, I
would not silence Momus, but I would also refuse to conduct the examination of the divinities
except for the removal of nonexistent beings from the register.
Through the character of Momus, Lucian satirizes the bizarre logic by which figures
become gods in Greek mythology. Lucian was a Roman writer who lived in the second century
CE, and his writings were valued during the Renaissance in the 15th and 16th centuries for his
critique of superstition and pagan religion (Baumbach 2023). Although Momus’ desire to
exclude demigods and non-Greek deities can be considered as racist and xenophobic, his
argument highlights how there are no clear standards in Greek paganism that distinguish deities
from non-deities and differentiate one god from another. Dionysus is worshipped despite being
born from Zeus and a mortal, while his cousins are not (The Gods in Council, transl. Internet
Sacred 2025); meanwhile, divinities from other religions are mixed up with Greek immortals,
and each deity is associated with many overlapping professions such that it is hard to know
which god stands for which. Lucian uses Momus to sharply identify the oddities in Greek
mythology and criticize its lack of a coherent sense of order and identity among its gods.
Momus, the god of frank criticism, brazenly accuses Zeus’ son Dionysus, along with
several other gods and goddesses, of being illegitimate deities. He implies that divinity must be
based on one’s blood and Greekness alone, a flawed argument that would be deeply unpopular
among the rest of the gods. Zeus silences Momus regarding certain individuals that he favors in
the heavenly assembly, suggesting that demigods and foreign divinities can be worthy of
immortality also, given that they are powerful and admired by humans. Despite Momus’
prejudices. Lucian uses him to demonstrate the absence of logic in the way gods are chosen to be
represented and worshipped in Greek mythology.
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Works Cited
Anthology of Classical Myth : Primary Sources in Translation, edited by Stephen M. Trzaskoma,
et al., Hackett Publishing Company, Incorporated, 2016. ProQuest Ebook Central,
https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.proxy.library.cornell.edu/lib/cornell/detail.action?docI
D=4674220.
Baumbach, Manuel. "Lucian, of Samosata." Oxford Classical Dictionary. May 24, 2023. Oxford
University Press. Date of access 14 Jun. 2025,
<https://oxfordre-com.proxy.library.cornell.edu/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/97801993
81135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-3779>
Graf, Fritz. "Asclepius." Oxford Classical Dictionary. December 22, 2015. Oxford University
Press. Date of access 14 Jun. 2025,
<https://oxfordre-com.proxy.library.cornell.edu/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/97801993
81135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-853>
Griffiths, Alan H. "ambrosia." Oxford Classical Dictionary. December 22, 2015. Oxford
University Press. Date of access 14 Jun. 2025,
<https://oxfordre-com.proxy.library.cornell.edu/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/97801993
81135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-350>
Homer. Odyssey (Lombardo Translation), Hackett Publishing Company, Incorporated, 2000.
ProQuest Ebook Central,
https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.proxy.library.cornell.edu/lib/cornell/detail.action?docI
D=473606.
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Internet Sacred Text Archive. “Works of Lucian, Vol. IV: The Gods in Council | Sacred Texts
Archive.” Internet Sacred Text Archive, 2025,
www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl4/wl430.htm. Accessed 14 June 2025.
Schachter, A. "Heracles." Oxford Classical Dictionary. December 22, 2015. Oxford University
Press. Date of access 14 Jun. 2025,
<https://oxfordre-com.proxy.library.cornell.edu/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/97801993
81135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-3016>Export Citation
Theodorisis, George. “Bacchae Βάκχαι.” Bacchicstage, 25 Feb. 2011,
bacchicstage.wordpress.com/euripides/bacchae/.