IB Chemistry SL & HL Formula Booklet Table of Contents 1. Relevant Equations 2. Fundamental Constants 3. Metric Prefixes 4. Unit Conversions and Standard Conditions 5. Electromagnetic Spectrum 6. Names of the Elements 7. The Periodic Table 8. Melting Points and Boiling Points of the Elements at 101.325 kPa 9. First Ionization Energy, Electron Affinity, and Electronegativity of the Elements 10. Atomic and Ionic Radii of the Elements 11. Covalent Bond Lengths 12. Bond Enthalpies and Average Bond Enthalpies at 298.15 K 13. Thermodynamic Data (Selected Compounds) 14. Enthalpies of Combustion 15. Colour Wheel 16. Lattice Enthalpies (Experimental Values) at 298.15 K 2 3 3 3 3 4 5 5 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 17. Triangular Bonding Diagram (van Arkel–Ketelaar triangle) 13 18. Acid-base Indicators 14 19. Standard Reduction Potentials at 298.15 K 15 20. Infrared Data 16 21. 1H NMR Data 16-17 22. Mass Spectral Fragments Lost 17 23. Uncertainties 18 24. References 18 1 1. Relevant Equations Subtopic Description S1.4 Number of moles S1.5 Ideal Gas Equation Equation 𝑚 = 𝐶𝑥𝑉 𝑀 n= number of moles (mol), m= mass (g), M= molar mass (g mol -1), C= concentration (mol dm-3), V =volume (dm3) 𝑛= PV = nRT P= pressure (Pa), V=volume (m3 ), n= number of moles (mol), T= temperature (K) 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 S1.5 Combined Gas Law S1.3H Speed of light P= pressure (Pa), V=volume (m3 ), T= temperature (K) c= f λ c= speed of light (m s-1), λ = wavelength (m), f = frequency (s-1) E= h f S1.3H Energy of photon of light E= energy (J), h = Plank’s constant (J s), f = frequency (s-1) R2.1 Atom economy R1.1 Heat change R1.2H Standard enthalpy change of reaction % 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑦 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑥 100 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 Q= mc∆T Q= heat change (J), c= specific heat capacity (J g-1K-1), m = mass (g), ∆T = temperature change (K) ΔHΘ= Σ(ΔHfΘproducts) − Σ(ΔHfΘreactants) = Σ(ΔHcΘreactants) − Σ(ΔHcΘproducts) ΔHΘ= standard enthalpy change of reaction (kJ mol -1), ΔHfΘ= standard enthalpy change of formation (kJ mol-1), ΔHcΘ= standard enthalpy change of combustion (kJ mol -1) ∆GΘ= ∆HΘ −T ∆SΘ R1.4 Gibbs free energy change R2.3H Gibbs free energy change R2.3H Gibbs energy change R3.2H Gibbs free energy change ∆GΘ= standard Gibbs free energy change (kJ mol-1), ∆HΘ = standard enthalpy change (kJ mol-1), ∆SΘ = standard entropy change (J K-1 mol-1), T = temperature (K) ∆GΘ = -RT lnK ∆GΘ= standard Gibbs free energy change (kJ mol-1), R= gas constant (J K-1mol-1), T= temperature (K), K=equilibrium constant ∆G = ∆GΘ + RT lnQ ∆GΘ= standard Gibbs free energy change (kJ mol-1), R= gas constant (J K-1mol-1), T= temperature (K), Q= reaction quotient ∆GΘ = -nFEΘ ∆GΘ= standard Gibbs free energy change (J), n= number of moles of electrons transferred in the reaction (mol), F= Faraday’s constant (C mol -1), EΘ= standard cell potential (V) 𝑘 = 𝐴 𝑒 −𝐸𝑎/𝑅𝑇 R2.2H Arrhenius equation k= rate constant, A = Arrhenius constant or frequency factor or pre-exponential factor, Ea= activation energy (Jmol-1 ), R= gas constant (J K-1mol-1), T= temperature (K) −𝐸𝑎 lnk = 𝑅𝑇 + lnA R2.2H Linear form of Arrhenius equation R3.1 Definition of pH R3.1H R3.1 Definition of pOH Ionic product constant k= rate constant, A = Arrhenius constant or frequency factor or pre-exponential factor, Ea= activation energy (J mol-1 ), R= gas constant (J K-1mol-1), T= temperature (K) pH = −log10 [H3O+] pOH = −log10 [OH−] Kw = [H+] [OH−] or pH = −log10 [H+] 2. Fundamental Constants Symbol Quantity Approximate Value 𝑵𝑨 Avogadro’s constant 6.02 × 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1 R Gas constant 8.31 J K-1 mol −1 Vm 22.7 dm3 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1 Molar Volume of an ideal gas at STP c Speed of light 3.00 × 108 m s−1 cw Specific heat capacity of water 4.18 J g−1 𝐾 −1 = 4.18 kJ kg−1 𝐾 −1 h Planck’s constant 6.63 × 10−34 𝐽 𝑠 F Faraday’s constant 9.65 × 104 𝐶 mol −1 Kw Ionic product constant for water (at 298.15 K) 1.00× 10−14 mol2 dm-6 mp Proton rest mass 1.672622 × 10−27 kg mn Neutron rest mass 1.674927 × 10−27 kg me Electron rest mass 9.109384 × 10−31 kg e Elementary charge 1.602177× 10−19 𝐶 3. Metric Prefixes Symbol Prefix Value P peta- 1015 T tera- 1012 G giga- 109 M mega- 106 k kilo- 103 h hecto- 102 da deca- 101 d deci- 10−1 c centi- 10−2 m milli- 10−3 𝝁 micro- 10−6 n nano- 10−9 p pico- 10−12 f femto- 10−15 4. Unit Conversions and Standard Conditions 1 dm3 1 L = 1 × 10-3 m3 = 1 × 103 cm3 Temperature (K) Temperature (℃) + 273.15 STP conditions 273.15 K and 100 kPa SATP conditions 298.15 K and 100 kPa 5. Electromagnetic Spectrum 3 6. Names of the Elements Element Symbol Atomic Number Element Symbol Atomic Number Element Symbol Atomic Number Actinium Ac 89 Iodine I 53 Silicon Si 14 Aluminium Al 13 Iridium Ir 77 Silver Ag 47 Americium Am 95 Iron Fe 26 Sodium Na 11 Antimony Sb 51 Krypton Kr 36 Strontium Sr 38 Argon Ar 18 Lanthanum La 57 Sulfur S 16 Arsenic As 33 Lawrencium Lr 103 Tantalum Ta 73 Astatine At 85 Lead Pb 82 Technetium Tc 43 Barium Ba 56 Lithium Li 3 Tellurium Te 52 Berkelium Bk 97 Lutetium Lu 71 Terbium Tb 65 Beryllium Be 4 Magnesium Mg 12 Thallium Tl 81 Bismuth Bi 83 Manganese Mn 25 Thorium Th 90 Bohrium Bh 107 Meitnerium Mt 109 Thulium Tm 69 Boron B 5 Mendelevium Md 101 Tin Sn 50 Bromine Br 35 Mercury Hg 80 Titanium Ti 22 Cadmium Cd 48 Molybdenum Mo 42 Tungsten W 74 Caesium Cs 55 Neodymium Nd 60 Uranium U 92 Calcium Ca 20 Neon Ne 10 Vanadium V 23 Californium Cf 98 Neptunium Np 93 Xenon Xe 54 Carbon C 6 Nickel Ni 28 Ytterbium Yb 70 Cerium Ce 58 Niobium Nb 41 Yttrium Y 39 Chlorine Cl 17 Nitrogen N 7 Zinc Zn 30 Chromium Cr 24 Nobelium No 102 Zirconium Zr 40 Cobalt Co 27 Osmium Os 76 Copernicium Cn 112 Oxygen O 8 Copper Cu 29 Palladium Pd 46 Curium Cm 96 Phosphorus P 15 Darmstadtium Ds 110 Platinum Pt 78 Dubnium Db 105 Plutonium Pu 94 Dysprosium Dy 66 Polonium Po 84 Einsteinium Es 99 Potassium K 19 Erbium Er 68 Praseodymium Pr 59 Europium Eu 63 Promethium Pm 61 Fermium Fm 100 Protactinium Pa 91 Fluorine F 9 Radium Ra 88 Francium Fr 87 Radon Rn 86 Gadolinium Gd 64 Rhenium Re 75 Gallium Ga 31 Rhodium Rh 45 Germanium Ge 32 Roentgenium Rg 111 Gold Au 79 Rubidium Rb 37 Hafnium Hf 72 Ruthenium Ru 44 Hassium Hs 108 Rutherfordium Rf 104 Helium He 2 Samarium Sm 62 Holmium Ho 67 Scandium Sc 21 Hydrogen H 1 Seaborgium Sg 106 Indium In 49 Selenium Se 34 7. The Periodic Table 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1 1 2 Atomic number H He 1.01 2 3 4 5 6 7 18 4.00 Element 5 6 7 8 9 10 Relative atomic mass B C N O F Ne 9.01 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Na Mg Al SI P S Cl Ar 22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95 36 3 4 Li Be 6.94 11 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr 39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.38 69.72 72.63 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.90 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe 131.29 85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.96 (98) 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn 132.91 137.33 138.91 178.49 180.95 183.84 186.21 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.20 208.98 (209) (210) (222) 87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo (223) (226) (227) (267) (268) (269) (270) (269) (278) (281) (281) (285) (286) (289) (288) (293) (294) (294) 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu 140.12 140.91 144.24 (145) 150.36 151.96 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.05 174.97 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr 232.04 231.04 238.03 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262) 8. Melting Points and Boiling Points of the Elements (at 101.325 kPa) Melting point (̊̊̊̊℃ ̊̊̊̊ ) -259.2 Element H -252.9 He -268.9 Boiling point (̊̊̊̊℃ ̊̊̊̊ ) 180.5 1287 2077 3500 -210.0 -218.8 -219.7 Li Be B C N O F Ne 1342 2468 4000 4827 -195.8 -183.0 -188.1 -246.0 97.79 650.0 660.3 1414 44.15 115.2 -101.5 -189.3 Na Mg Al SI P S Cl Ar 882.9 1090 2519 3265 280.5 444.6 -34.04 -185.8 63.38 842.0 1541 1670 1910 1907 1246 1538 1495 1455 1085 419.5 29.77 938.2 816.8 220.8 -7.050 -157.4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr 758.8 1484 2836 3287 3407 2671 2061 2861 2927 2913 2560 907.0 2229 2833 613.0 684.8 58.78 -153.4 39.30 768.8 1522 1854 2477 2622 2157 2333 1963 1555 961.8 321.1 156.6 231.9 630.6 449.5 113.7 -111.8 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe 687.8 1377 3345 4406 4741 4639 4262 4147 3695 2963 2162 766.8 2027 2586 1587 987.8 184.4 -108.1 28.44 725.0 920.0 2233 3017 3414 3453 3033 2446 1768 1064 -38.83 303.8 327.5 271.4 253.8 301.8 -71.15 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn 670.8 1845 3464 4600 5455 5555 5900 5008 4428 3825 2836 356.6 1473 1749 1564 962.0 336.8 -61.85 27.00 699.8 1050 Fr Ra Ac 676.8 1140 3200 795 935 1024 1042 1072 826 1313 1360 1410 1472 1529 1545 824 1663 Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu 3433 3510 3074 (2730) 1791 1596 3273 3230 2567 2694 2900 1950 1194 3042 1750 1572 1135 637 640 1176 1340 986 900 (860) Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es No Lr 4788 (4000) 3818 (3900) 3230 (2067) 3110 (2623) 827 Fm Md -248.6 9. First Ionization Energy, Electron Affinity, and Electronegativity of the Elements Electron affinity (kJ mol-1 ) 2nd EA (kJ mol-1 ) First ionization energy (kJ mol-1 ) 1312 -73 2372 Element H 2.2 He Electronegativity 520 -60 900 801 -27 1086 -122 Li Be B C 1.0 1.6 2.0 2.6 496 -53 738 578 -42 787 -134 Na Mg Al SI 0.9 1.3 1.6 1.9 419 -48 590 -2 633 -18 659 -8 651 -51 653 -64 717 762 -15 760 -64 737 -112 745 -119 906 579 -41 762 -119 1314 1402 -141 (+753) N 3.0 1681 -328 2081 F Ne O 1012 4.0 3.4 1000 -72 -200 1251 -349 (+545) P 2.2 944 Cl S 2.6 -78 941 -195 1140 -325 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br 0.8 1.0 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.6 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.6 3.0 403 -47 549 -5 600 -30 640 -41 652 -88 684 -72 702 -53 710 -101 720 -110 804 -54 731 -126 868 558 -29 709 -107 831 869 -101 -190 1520 Ar 3.2 1351 Kr 1008 -295 1170 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.6 2.2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.2 1.9 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.7 2.6 376 -46 503 -14 538 -45 659 -1 728 -31 759 -79 756 -14 814 -106 865 -151 864 -205 890 -223 1007 589 -36 716 -35 703 -91 812 -183 -270 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.4 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2 533 -185 539 393 -47 509 -10 499 Rn -34 Fr Ra Ac 0.7 0.9 1.1 534 -64 528 Ce 1.1 609 -93 Pr Nd 1.1 568 Pm 545 1.1 598 547 Sm -83 593 Eu 1.2 605 581 Th Pa U Np Pu 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.3 1.3 566 Gd -112 573 Tb 1.2 576 578 Am <0 581 Dy 1.2 598 Cm 603 2 524 Yb 1.0 635 Fm -33 Lu 1.3 627 Es -99 Tm 1.2 619 Cf 597 Er 1.2 606 Bk 589 Ho 642 Md 473 No Lr 10. Atomic and Ionic Radii of the Elements 32 Atomic radius 37 H (10-12 m) He Element 130 99 84 75 71 64 60 Li Be Ionic radius B C N O F 76 (1+) 45 (2+) (10-12 m) 27 (3+) 16 (4+) 146 (3-) 140 (2-) 133 (1-) 160 140 124 114 109 104 100 Na Mg Al SI P S Cl 102 (1+) 72 (2+) 54 (3+) 40 (4+) 38 (5+) 184 (2-) 181 (1-) 200 174 159 120 120 Sc As 117 Ca Ge 118 K 100 (2+) 75 (3+) 58 (3+) Br 138 (1+) 53 (4+) Se 272 (4-) 46 (5+) 198 (2-) 196 (1-) 215 190 176 164 140 137 136 Rb Sr Y Zr Sb Te I 152 (1+) 118 (2+) 90 (3+) 72 (4+) 76 (3+) 221 (2-) 220 (1-) 238 206 194 164 158 Cs Ba La Hf Ta 167 (1+) 135 (2+) 103 (3+) 71 (4+) 64 (5+) 242 211 Fr Ra 184 Ce 148 144 130 129 124 118 Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co 86 (2+) 79 (2+) 62 (3+) 83 (2+) 61 (2+) 65 (2+) 61 (4+) 54 (5+) 44 (6+) 53 (4+) 55 (3+) 55 (3+) 146 138 136 134 130 Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd 65 (4+) 65 (4+) 68 (3+) 67 (3+) 86 (2+) 62 (4+) 60 (4+) 62 (4+) 150 141 136 132 W Re Os Ir 66 (4+) 63 (4+) 63 (4+) 60 (6+) 53 (7+) 190 188 Pr Nd 101 (3+) 99 (3+) 98 (3+) 87 (4+) 85 (4+) 190 184 183 180 180 173 168 97 Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk 94 (4+) 104 (3+) 89 (4+) 101 (3+) 100 (3+) 98 (3+) 97 (3+) 96 (3+) 99 (3+) 90 (4+) 73 (6+) 87 (4+) 86 (4+) 85 (4+) 156 Nb 72 (3+) 64 (5+) 117 122 120 123 Zn Ga 74 (2+) 62 (3+) 136 140 142 Ag Cd In 115 (1+) 95 (2+) 80 (3+) 130 130 132 144 145 150 Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi 68 (3+) 80 (2+) 137 (1+) 119 (1+) 150 (1+) 119 (2+) 103 (3+) 55 (6+) 63 (4+) 63 (4+) 85 (3+) 102 (2+) 89 (3+) 78 (4+) 76 (5+) 186 185 183 182 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu 97 (3+) 96 (3+) 117 (2+) 94 (3+) 92 (3+) 91 (3+) 90 (3+) 89 (3+) 88 (3+) 87 (3+) 86 (3+) 98 99 100 101 102 103 Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Ni 69 (2+) Cu 77 (1+) 73 (2+) 140 Sn 118 (2+) 69 (4+) 142 Po 97 (4+) Ar 116 Kr 136 Xe 146 Rn 76 (4+) 110 (2+) 101 At Ac 95 (3+) 62 Ne 148 201 1037 11. Covalent Bond Lengths Single bonds (10-12 m = pm) Br C Cl F H I N Br 228 194 214 176 141 247 214 C 194 154 177 138 108 214 147 Cl 214 177 199 163 128 232 F 176 138 163 142 92 H 141 108 128 92 I 247 214 232 N 214 147 O P S Si 220 227 216 143 184 182 185 197 170 203 199 202 257 136 142 154 158 156 74 160 101 97 142 134 148 257 160 267 197 136 101 146 136 143 170 142 97 136 148 P 220 184 203 154 142 S 227 182 199 158 134 Si 216 185 202 156 148 O 247 175 174 154 161 163 154 221 210 175 161 210 205 215 174 163 215 232 247 243 243 Multiple bonds (10-12 m = pm) Bond Length (10-12m) Bond Length (10-12m) Bond Length (10-12m) C=N 130 N=N 125 O=O 121 C=O 122 N=O 114 O=S 143 C=S 156 C=C 134 S=S 189 C≡O 113 C≡N 116 C≡C 120 N≡N 110 12. Bond Enthalpies and Average Bond Enthalpies at 298.15 K Single bonds (kJ mol-1) Br C Cl F H I Br 193 285 219 249 366 178 C 285 346 324 492 414 228 Cl 219 324 242 255 431 F 249 492 255 159 H 366 414 431 I 178 228 N O P S Si 201 264 218 330 286 358 264 289 307 211 192 206 322 271 400 567 280 278 191 490 327 597 567 436 298 391 463 322 364 323 211 280 298 151 201 184 234 286 192 278 391 466 O 201 358 206 191 463 201 P 264 264 322 490 322 184 S 218 289 271 327 364 Si 330 307 400 597 323 N 158 214 214 144 363 363 198 234 466 266 293 293 226 Multiple bonds (kJ mol-1) Bond Enthalpy (kJ mol-1) Bond Enthalpy (kJ mol-1) Bond Enthalpy (kJ mol-1) C=N 615 N=N 470 O=O 498 C=O 804 N=O 587 O=S 522 C=S 536 C=C 614 S=S 429 C≡O 1077 C≡N 890 C≡C 839 N≡N 945 13. Thermodynamic Data (Selected Compounds) Formula State ΔHf Θ (kJ mol-1) ΔGf Θ (kJ mol-1) SΘ(J K-1mol-1) Methane CH4 g -74 -50 +186 Ethane C2H6 g -84 -32 +230 Propane C3H8 g -105 -24 +270 Butane C4H10 g -126 -17 +310 Pentane C5H12 l -173 Hexane C6H14 l -199 Ethene C2H4 g +52 +68 +220 Propene C3H6 g +20 +62 +267 But-1-ene C4H8 g +0.1 +71 +306 Cis-but-2-ene C4H8 g -7 +66 +301 Trans-but-2-ene C4H8 g -11 +63 +297 Ethyne C2H2 g +228 +211 +201 Propyne C3H4 g +185 +194 +248 Buta-1,3-diene C4H6 g +110 +151 +279 Cyclohexane C6H12 l -156 +125 +173 -58.0 +235 Substance Benzene C6H6 l +49 Methylbenzene C6H5CH3 l +12 Ethylbenzene C6H5CH2CH3 l -12 Phenylethene C6H5CHCH2 l +104 Chloromethane CH3Cl g -82 Dichloromethane CH2Cl2 l -124 Trichloromethane CHCl3 l -134 -74 +202 Bromomethane CH3Br g -36 -26 +246 Iodomethane CH3I l -14 Chloroethane C2H5Cl g -137 -53 Bromoethane C2H5Br l -90 -26 +199 Chlorobenzene C6H5Cl l +11 Methanol CH3OH l -239 -167 +127 Ethanol C2H5OH l -278 -175 +161 Phenol C6H5OH s -165 Methanal HCHO g -109 -102 +219 Ethanal CH3CHO g -166 -133 +264 Propanone (CH3) 2CO l -248 Methanoic acid HCOOH l -425 -361 +129 Ethanoic acid CH3COOH l -484 -390 +160 Benzoic acid C6H5COOH s -385 Methylamine CH3NH2 g -23 +32 +243 Water H2O l -286 -237 +70 Steam H2O g -242 -229 +189 Carbon monoxide CO g -111 -137 +198 Carbon dioxide CO2 g -394 -394 +214 Hydrogen bromide HBr g -36 -53 +199 Hydrogen chloride HCl g -92 -95 +187 Hydrogen fluoride HF g -27 -275 +174 Hydrogen iodide HI g +26 +2 +207 +178 +163 +144 +200 +168 14. Enthalpies of Combustion (The molar enthalpy of combustion (ΔHc Θ ) values shown in the table below were collected at SATP conditions) Formula State ΔHc Θ (kJ mol-1) Hydrogen H2 g -286 Sulfur S s -297 Carbon (graphite) C s -394 Carbon monoxide CO g -283 Methane CH4 g -891 Ethane C2H6 g -1561 Propane C3H8 g -2219 Butane C4H10 g -2878 Pentane C5H12 l -3509 Hexane C6H14 l -4163 Octane C8H18 l -5470 Cyclohexane C6H12 l -3920 Ethene C2H4 g -1411 Buta-1,3-diene C4H6 g -2541 Ethyne C2H2 g -1301 Benzene C6H6 l -3268 Methylbenzene C6H5CH3 l -3910 Naphthalene C10H8 s -5156 Chloroethane C2H5Cl g -1413 Iodoethane C2H5I l -1463 Trichloromethane CHCl3 l -473 Methanol CH3OH l -726 Ethanol C2H5OH l -1367 Propan-1-ol C3H7OH l -2021 Butan-1-ol C4H9OH l -2676 Cyclohexanol C6H11OH s -3728 Phenol C6H5OH s -3053 Ethoxyethane (C2H5)2O l -2724 Methanal HCHO g -571 Ethanal CH3CHO g -1167 Benzaldehyde C6H5CHO l -3525 Propanone (CH3)2CO l -1790 Pentan-3-one (C2H5)2CO l -3100 Phenylethanone CH3COC6H5 l -4149 Methanoic acid HCOOH l -255 Ethanoic acid CH3COOH l -874 Benzoic acid C6H5COOH s -3228 Ethanedioic acid (COOH)2 s -243 Ethyl ethanoate CH3COOC2H5 l -2238 Ethanamide CH3CONH2 s -1186 Methylamine CH3NH2 g -1086 Phenylamine C6H5NH2 l -3393 Nitrobenzene C6H5NO2 l -3088 Urea CO(NH2)2 s -633 Glucose C6H12O6 s -2803 Sucrose C12H22O11 s -5640 Substance 15. Colour Wheel 16. Lattice Enthalpies at 298.15 K (experimental values) The provided lattice enthalpy values (ΔHΘlattice ) correspond to the endothermic process MaXb (s) → aMb+ (g) + bXa- (g), which involves the separation of gaseous ions of a crystal to an infinite distance from each other. Experimental Values (Adequate Born-Haber cycle was used to obtain the values in the tables below) ΔHΘlattice(kJ mol-1) Alkali metal halides F Cl Br I Li 1049 864 820 764 Na 930 790 754 705 K 829 720 691 650 Rb 795 695 668 632 Cs 759 670 647 613 Other substances ΔHΘlattice(kJ mol-1) Other substances ΔHΘlattice(kJ mol-1) CaF2 2651 SrO 3223 BeCl2 3033 BaO 3054 MgCl2 2540 CuCl2 2824 CaCl2 2271 AgF 974 SrCl2 2170 AgCl 918 BaCl2 2069 AgBr 905 MgO 3791 AgI 892 CaO 3401 17. Triangular Bonding Diagram (van Arkel–Ketelaar triangle) 18. Acid-base Indicators Colour change Indicator pKa pH range Acid Alkali Methyl orange 3.7 3.1-4.4 Red Yellow Bromophenol blue 4.2 3.0-4.6 Yellow Blue Bromocresol green 4.7 3.8-5.4 Yellow Blue Methyl red 5.1 4.4-6.2 Red Yellow Bromothymol blue 7.0 6.0-7.6 Yellow Blue Phenol red 7.9 6.8-8.4 Yellow Red Phenolphthalein 9.6 8.3-10.0 Colourless Pink 19. Standard Reduction Potentials at 298.15 K Oxidized species ⇌ Reduced species Eѳ(V) Li+ (aq) + e- ⇌ Li(s) -3.04 K+ (aq) + e- ⇌ K(s) -2.93 Ca2+(aq) + 2e- ⇌ Ca(s) -2.87 Na+ (aq) + e- ⇌ Na(s) -2.71 Mg2+ + 2e- ⇌ Mg(s) -2.37 Al3+(aq) + 3e- ⇌ Al(s) -1.66 Mn2+(aq) + 2e- ⇌ Mn(s) -1.18 H2O(l) + e- ⇌ ½ H2 (g) + OH-(aq) -0.83 Zn2+ (aq) + 2e- ⇌ Zn(s) -0.76 Fe2+ (aq) + 2e- ⇌ Fe(s) -0.45 Ni2+ (aq) + 2e- ⇌ Ni(s) -0.26 Sn2+ (aq) + 2e- ⇌ Sn(s) -0.14 Pb2+ (aq) + 2e- ⇌ Pb(s) -0.13 H+ (aq) + e- ⇌ ½ H2 (g) 0.00 Cu2+ (aq) + e- ⇌ Cu+ (aq) +0.15 SO42- (aq) + 4H+ (aq) + 2e- ⇌ H2SO3(aq) + H2O(l) +0.17 Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- ⇌ Cu(s) +0.34 ½ O2 (g) + H2O(l) + 2e- ⇌ 2OH-(aq) +0.40 Cu+ (aq) + e- ⇌ Cu(s) +0.52 ½ I2 (s) + e- ⇌ I-(aq) +0.54 Fe3+(aq) + e- ⇌ Fe2+(aq) +0.77 Ag+ (aq) + e-⇌ Ag(s) +0.80 ½ Br2 (l) + e- ⇌ Br- (aq) +1.09 ½ O2 (g) + 2H+(aq) + 2e- ⇌ H2O(l) +1.23 Cr2O72- (aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6e- ⇌ 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l) +1.36 ½ Cl2 (g) + e- ⇌ Cl- (aq) +1.36 MnO4- (aq) + 8H+ (aq) + 5e- ⇌ Mn2+ + 4H2O(l) +1.51 ½ F2 (g) + e- ⇌ F-(aq) +2.87 20. Infrared Data Distinctive intervals for infrared absorption arising from stretching vibrations in organic compounds. Bond Organic molecules Wavenumber (cm-1) Intensity C–I Iodoalkanes 490 – 620 Strong C – Br Bromoalkanes 500 – 600 Strong C – Cl Chloroalkanes 600 – 800 Strong C–F Fluoroalkanes 1000 – 1400 Strong C–O Alcohols, esters, ethers 1050 – 1410 Strong C=C Alkenes 1620 – 1680 Medium-weak; multiple bands C=O Aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters 1700 – 1750 Strong C≡C Alkynes 2100 – 2260 Variable O–H Carboxylic acids (with hydrogen bonding) 2500 – 3000 Strong, very broad C–H Alkanes, alkenes, arenes 2850 – 3090 Strong O–H Alcohols and phenols (with hydrogen bonding) 3200 – 3600 Strong, broad N–H Primary amines 3300 – 3500 Medium, two bands 21. 1H NMR Data Common proton chemical shift values (δ ) are referenced to tetramethylsilane (TMS) = 0. An alkyl group is represented by R, and the elements F, Cl, Br, or I are represented by Hal. Different solvents and conditions may cause variations in these values. Type of proton Chemical shift (ppm) 0.9 – 1.0 1.3 – 1.4 1.5 2.0 – 2.5 2.2 – 2.7 2.5 – 3.5 1.8 – 3.1 3.5 – 4.4 Type of proton Chemical shift (ppm) 3.3 – 3.7 3.7 – 4.8 9.0 – 13.0 1.0 – 6.0 4.5 – 6.0 4.0 – 12.0 6.9 – 9.0 9.4 – 10.0 22. Mass Spectral Fragments Lost Mass Lost Neutral Fragment, Possibly Lost 15 •CH3 17 •OH 18 H2O 28 CH2 = CH2 C=O 29 •CH2CH3 •CHO 31 •OCH3 45 •COOH 23. Uncertainties If: y = a ± 𝑏 If: y = 𝑎𝑏 𝑐 If: y = 𝑎𝑛 Then: Δy = Δa + Δb Then: Δ𝑦 𝑦 Then: = Δ𝑎 Δ𝑦 𝑦 𝑎 + =n Δ𝑏 𝑏 + Δ𝑐 𝑐 Δ𝑎 𝑎 24. References Data in sections 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21 and 22 were taken fully or in part from: Blackman, A., Gahan, L. R., Aylward, G. H., & Findlay, T. J. V. (2014). Aylward and Findlay’s SI Chemical Data. (7th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. National Institute of Standards and Technology. (2021). NIST Chemistry WebBook SRD 69, NIST Standard Reference Database. U.S. Department of Commerce. http://webbook.nist.gov Rumble, J. R. (Ed.). (2019). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. (100th ed.). CRC Press. Data in section 17 are reproduced with permission from the author: Leach, M. R. (2021). The Chemogenesis Web Book: Timeline of structural theory. http://www.metasynthesis.com/webbook/30_timeline/timeline.html
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