EFFECTIVE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATIONS
Modern day organisations are more dependent on communication to achieve success than ever before.
Rapid development and greater complexity of communication technologies, and the growing importance and
popularity of social media, means that organisations can no longer rely on traditional methods alone to engage
in effective business communication.
Social media and new communication forms, however, come with their own challenges and pitfalls.
Organisations need to carefully and strategically consider the use of these new media as part of their effective
communication plan.
Effective business communication in organisations, 4th edition, builds on traditional communication forms
with up-to-date theory. It discusses new communication trends and the changing nature of communication
in businesses.
This edition illustrates the effective use of various new media sources and their application in the workplace,
the challenges of using these media and the appropriate ways in which they can be incorporated into effective
business communication practices within the organisation.
Effective business communication in organisations, 4th edition, provides widespread principles for communicating
in the organisational context. The book has an extended online database of support material containing questions,
case studies and activities. This edition therefore provides students, lecturers and business communicators with
a comprehensive and practical reference guide to communication in the workplace.
About the editors
Michael Fielding was the Founding Director of the Professional Communication Unit at the University of
Cape Town. He has also worked as a consultant in business communication for the past thirty years. He
has a master’s degree in Education from the University of Cape Town and another master’s degree from
Leeds.
www.juta.co.za
Franzél du Plooy-Cilliers
Franzél du Plooy-Cilliers is the Head of the Faculty of Applied Humanities at the Independent Institute of
Education (the IIE). She has worked as a full-time and part-time lecturer for both public and private higher
education providers. She holds a doctorate in Interpersonal Communication and a master’s degree in
Organisational Communication. Du Plooy-Cilliers has published numerous books and articles in her academic
fields and has presented papers at national and international conferences. She is a referee for several
accredited journals and is a programme evaluator for the Council on Higher Education (CHE).
EFFECTIVE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATIONS Michael Fielding
4th edition
Preparing messages that communicate
Preparing messages that communicate
4th edition
EFFECTIVE BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION
IN ORGANISATIONS
Preparing messages that communicate
4th edition
Michael Fielding
Franzél du Plooy-Cilliers
EFFECTIVE BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION
IN ORGANISATIONS
Preparing messages that communicate
4th edition
Michael Fielding
Franzél du Plooy-Cilliers
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Effective business communication in organisations: Preparing the messages that communicate 4e
Previously published as Effective communication in organisations
First published 2014
Print fourth edition 2014
© Juta and Company Ltd, 2014
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ISBN: 978 0 70219 782 6 (Parent)
ISBN: 978 1 48510 417 9 (WebPDF)
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CONTENTS
About the authors...................................................................................................... viii
Preface........................................................................................................................... xi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS COMMUNICATION IN
ORGANISATIONS............................................................................................. 1
Introduction.................................................................................................................. 1
Objectives...................................................................................................................... 2
Why is communication essential for business success?.............................................. 2
Reading skills................................................................................................................. 2
The subject of the book................................................................................................ 5
CHAPTER 2: THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS ................................................ 8
Introduction.................................................................................................................. 8
Objectives...................................................................................................................... 9
Defining communication........................................................................................... 10
Communication models............................................................................................ 12
Conclusion.................................................................................................................. 25
CHAPTER 3: INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION.......................................... 26
Introduction................................................................................................................ 26
Objectives.................................................................................................................... 28
The importance of effective interpersonal communication in organisations......... 29
Intrapersonal communication and perception......................................................... 29
Interpersonal communication................................................................................... 33
Active listening............................................................................................................ 38
Non-verbal communication in the workplace.......................................................... 42
Conclusion.................................................................................................................. 57
CHAPTER 4: SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION.............................................. 58
Introduction................................................................................................................ 58
Objectives.................................................................................................................... 59
Nature and characteristics of a small group.............................................................. 60
Reasons for the formation of a small group.............................................................. 60
Stages of group development..................................................................................... 61
Group structures and group dynamics...................................................................... 63
Types of groups........................................................................................................... 65
Leadership in groups................................................................................................... 68
Conflict in groups....................................................................................................... 75
Conclusion.................................................................................................................. 78
CHAPTER 5: COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATIONS..................................... 79
Introduction................................................................................................................ 79
Objectives.................................................................................................................... 79
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What is an organisation?............................................................................................ 80
Organisational structure............................................................................................. 82
Communication in an organisation.......................................................................... 87
Conclusion................................................................................................................ 102
CHAPTER 6: INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION........................................ 103
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 103
Objectives.................................................................................................................. 104
Important definitions in intercultural communication.......................................... 104
Culture and climate in organisations.......................................................................107
Intercultural communication....................................................................................110
Understanding intercultural communication..........................................................113
How can organisations improve intercultural communication?............................114
Intercultural sensitivity..............................................................................................117
Conclusion ................................................................................................................118
CHAPTER 7: THE INTERVIEW.......................................................................... 119
Introduction...............................................................................................................119
Objectives.................................................................................................................. 120
The special nature of interviews............................................................................... 120
Types of interviews in an organisation.................................................................... 121
The role of questions in interviews.......................................................................... 127
Interview preparation............................................................................................... 128
Phases of a job interview.......................................................................................... 129
The job application................................................................................................... 130
The information-seeking interview.......................................................................... 135
The performance-appraisal interview...................................................................... 136
The exit interview...................................................................................................... 136
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 137
CHAPTER 8: FORMAL MEETINGS.................................................................... 138
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 138
Objectives.................................................................................................................. 139
Differences between formal and small policy-making meetings........................... 139
Aspects of formal meetings....................................................................................... 140
Guidelines for the conduct of meetings.................................................................. 148
Conclusion................................................................................................................ 150
CHAPTER 9: GRAMMAR, STYLE AND TONE IN THE ORGANISATIONAL
CONTEXT..................................................................................................... 151
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 151
Objectives.................................................................................................................. 151
Parts of speech – a quick revision............................................................................ 152
Words and meanings................................................................................................ 154
Functions of words.................................................................................................... 156
Choosing vocabulary for professional messages..................................................... 159
Style, tone and jargon............................................................................................... 162
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Contents
Sentence structure and punctuation........................................................................ 170
Types of sentences..................................................................................................... 177
Rules for punctuation............................................................................................... 178
Writing clearly and concisely.................................................................................... 181
Conclusion................................................................................................................ 184
CHAPTER 10: WRITING SUMMARIES AND ESSAYS......................................... 185
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 185
Objectives.................................................................................................................. 185
What is a summary?.................................................................................................. 186
Essays and essay writing............................................................................................ 194
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 200
CHAPTER 11: HOW TO APPROACH A CASE STUDY........................................ 201
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 201
Objectives.................................................................................................................. 201
What is a case study?................................................................................................. 202
Example of a case...................................................................................................... 204
Conclusion................................................................................................................ 208
CHAPTER 12: REFERENCING........................................................................... 209
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 209
Objectives...................................................................................................................210
The need to reference.................................................................................................210
Avoid plagiarism........................................................................................................ 211
Using and referencing direct quotes........................................................................ 212
Paraphrasing.............................................................................................................. 214
What information to record..................................................................................... 217
Using the numbered system..................................................................................... 218
Referencing systems.................................................................................................. 219
Alphabetising references........................................................................................... 225
Conclusion................................................................................................................ 226
CHAPTER 13: THE ELEMENTS OF READABILITY............................................ 228
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 228
Objectives.................................................................................................................. 228
Reader and writer needs............................................................................................ 229
What can writers do to cater for readers’ needs?..................................................... 229
Readability indices.................................................................................................... 233
Calculating the Gunning Fog Index......................................................................... 236
Practical suggestions for writing............................................................................... 237
Conclusion................................................................................................................ 238
CHAPTER 14: PLANNING, ORGANISING AND CONSTRUCTING
MESSAGES FOR ORGANISATIONS.............................................................. 239
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 239
Objectives.................................................................................................................. 239
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Effective business communication in organisations
Planning and organising messages.......................................................................... 240
Constructing business letters for organisations...................................................... 244
Formats for letters..................................................................................................... 247
Memoranda............................................................................................................... 266
The electronic office.................................................................................................. 268
Faxing......................................................................................................................... 272
Electronic mail (email)............................................................................................. 273
Creating effective emails........................................................................................... 279
Conclusion................................................................................................................ 284
CHAPTER 15: CORPORATE IMAGE AND CORPORATE IDENTITY.................. 285
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 285
Objectives.................................................................................................................. 286
What is identity?....................................................................................................... 286
What is corporate identity?....................................................................................... 287
What is corporate image?......................................................................................... 289
Why are corporate identity and corporate image important for business
communication?.................................................................................................. 293
Conclusion................................................................................................................ 294
CHAPTER 16: GOOD CUSTOMER RELATIONS AND TELEPHONE
ETIQUETTE.................................................................................................. 295
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 295
Objectives.................................................................................................................. 296
Customer relations.................................................................................................... 296
Telephone etiquette in business............................................................................... 298
Conclusion................................................................................................................ 304
CHAPTER 17: MASS COMMUNICATION IN THE ORGANISATIONAL
CONTEXT..................................................................................................... 305
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 305
Objectives.................................................................................................................. 305
What is mass communication?................................................................................ 306
Functions of the mass media.................................................................................... 307
Traditional mass media............................................................................................ 308
Public relations..........................................................................................................310
Advertising................................................................................................................. 315
New media................................................................................................................ 320
Conclusion................................................................................................................ 326
CHAPTER 18: BUSINESS PROPOSALS, BUSINESS PLANS AND ACADEMIC
PROPOSALS................................................................................................. 327
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 327
Objectives.................................................................................................................. 328
The business plan...................................................................................................... 328
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Contents
Proposals................................................................................................................... 331
Writing an academic proposal.................................................................................. 336
Checklists for proposals............................................................................................ 340
Conclusion................................................................................................................ 341
CHAPTER 19: REPORTS.................................................................................... 342
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 342
Objectives.................................................................................................................. 342
Purposes of business reports.................................................................................... 342
Types of business reports.......................................................................................... 343
Characteristics of business reports........................................................................... 343
The audience for reports........................................................................................... 344
Traditional elements of reports................................................................................ 344
Letter or memorandum of transmittal..................................................................... 359
Conclusion................................................................................................................ 362
CHAPTER 20: INSTRUCTIONAL GRAPHICS.................................................... 363
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 363
Objectives.................................................................................................................. 363
What are instructional graphics?.............................................................................. 364
The purpose and function of instructional graphics............................................... 364
Types of instructional graphics................................................................................. 365
Integration of graphics into a written message....................................................... 381
Designing graphics.................................................................................................... 382
Bias in instructional graphics................................................................................... 383
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 383
CHAPTER 21: ORAL MESSAGES........................................................................ 384
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 384
Objectives.................................................................................................................. 384
Formats for a presentation and an oral report........................................................ 385
Preparing a presentation or oral report................................................................... 388
Preparing a persuasive presentation......................................................................... 389
The speaker’s credibility............................................................................................ 392
Using audio-visual aids............................................................................................ 393
Audience response and questions............................................................................ 398
Conclusion................................................................................................................ 400
BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................ 401
INDEX............................................................................................................... 405
vii
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About the authors
Dr. Franzél du Plooy-Cilliers: Franzél gained her BA Communication degree
at the Rand Afrikaans University (currently the University of Johannesburg).
She not only graduated as top student in Communication Studies, but also as
top achiever in Industrial Psychology, winner of the McCann-Erickson award
for the best advertising project and the Audio-visual Production Management
project and received several academic merit bursaries from both the university
and the National Research Foundation. Continuing her studies, she received
her Honours degree in Advertising, a Masters degree in Organisational
Communication and a Doctorate in Interpersonal Communication. During
this time she became a full-time lecturer in the university’s Communication
department and received a Lecturer of the Year award. She then joined
Monash University as Head of Section of the Communication and Media
Studies section and received an award for the best female academic, a dean’s
commendation for teaching excellence and was invited to present in the
Vice-Chancellor’s Showcase for Teaching Excellence in Melbourne, Australia.
Franzél has published several articles in accredited academic journals,
presented research articles at national and international conferences and has
co-authored several books. She has been a referee for accredited journals, is
an external moderator and examiner for public and private higher education
providers, and she also supervises numerous postgraduate students. Franzél
currently holds the position of Head of Faculty of Applied Humanities at the
Independent Institute of Education (IIE).
Marla Koonin: Marla began her career working in both the Journalism
and Public Relations industries. For the last 10 years she has worked as an
academic in both public and private higher education institutions. She
has managed, lectured, written and developed various qualifications and
material in the fields of communication, journalism, public relations and
event management. Marla is a referee for academic journals, is an external
moderator and examiner for public and private higher education institutions,
acts as a programme evaluator for the Council of Higher Education (CHE),
and has published articles for mainstream media, public relations projects,
academic journals and online platforms. She is also the managing editor of The
Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning. Marla is a registered Chartered
Public Relations Practitioner (CPRP) and holds a BA Communication degree,
an Honours majoring in Journalism and Communication and a Masters
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About the authors
degree in Journalism, receiving both her Honours and Masters cum laude. She
also won the Beeld prize for the top Journalism student at the Rand Afrikaans
University (currently the University of Johannesburg) both at undergraduate
and postgraduate levels, earned membership of the Golden Key Honours
Society and received the Dean’s award for her Masters. She is currently
busy with her Doctorate in Organisational Communication through the
University of South Africa (UNISA). Marla holds the position of Senior Head
of Programme for the Faculty of Applied Humanities at the IIE.
Gerald Pascoe: Majoring in Communication and Media Studies and
Psychology, Gerald graduated top of his class at Monash University. His
academic accomplishments earned him membership of the Golden Key
Honours Society. After gaining his Honours degree in Communication and
Media Studies, also at Monash University, Gerald joined a public relations and
events management company, where he took on a range of responsibilities
including managing events, public relations, writing press releases and
magazine publishing for both local and international clients. After gaining
invaluable and extensive industry experience, Gerald decided to pursue an
academic career and further his studies. He then joined the Communication
and Media Studies department at Monash University where he lectured and
tutored Communication and Media students. He has recently submitted his
Masters in Communication Science at UNISA. Gerald currently holds the
position of a Head of Programme at the IIE overseeing programmes within
the Marketing, Communication and Branding fields.
Cheryl Howes: After completing a BA Honours degree and Higher Education
Diploma at the University of Pretoria, Cheryl began teaching English and
Life Skills in England and then South Africa. Cheryl lectured for six years on
a variety of Communication, Journalism and English Programmes for UNISA
and the IIE. Here she developed her understanding of the challenges associated
with curricula and their relationship to the working world. Subsequently,
development for various SAQA unit standard-based courses at management,
ABET and FET-levels, and further development for the IIE on Journalism
and Short Learning Programmes, provided her with an appreciation of the
opportunities and challenges in these environments. In addition to this,
Cheryl has worked as an editor and copywriter on various Educational and
Corporate Best Practice documents, academic articles, dissertations, websites,
promotional material and other copy. Cheryl currently holds a Head of
Programme position at the IIE and is studying towards an undergraduate
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degree in Environmental Sciences. She also holds a diploma in Human
Resources Management and Training from the IIE. In order to combine her
passion for teaching and for the environment, Cheryl has embarked on her
Masters degree in Education, which will be followed by a Masters degree in
Environmental Education.
Erna Kruger: Erna started her career in private education as a Graduate
Placement Services Officer at College Campus, specialising in the recruitment
and placement of graduates in industry. Her hands-on approach and interest
in the role of quality education in creating employable graduates earned
her an academic position as Head of Department in the Business faculty of
College Campus. She was then promoted to Principal (College Campus)
where she received an HEQC commendation for quality management of the
campus. To develop and enhance the scope of her management experience,
she joined the ADCORP group where she consulted clients such as ABSA
and Nedbank. She then went on to start her own consultancy specialising
in the development of private educational institutions. She has written and
developed various qualifications, training material, policy and procedural
documentation in the fields of Business, Human Resource Management,
Organisational Development and Organisational Psychology, as well as
advising and consulting various colleges in the fields of Organisational
Development and Human Capital Development. Erna holds a BA
Psychology degree and an Honours degree in the field of Psychology and
Industrial Psychology (University of Potchefstroom). She also completed her
postgraduate certificate in higher education (PGCHE) at the University of
Pretoria. Erna currently holds the position of Head of Programme for the
Faculty of Business at the IIE.
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Preface
This exciting new fourth edition of Effective Business Communication in
Organisations builds on twenty years of use of Effective Communication in
Organisations by many thousands of students.
The focus on business communication, rather than on communication
alone, gives the book a far sharper focus on what students of business
communication need to know and do, as they prepare for the world of work.
The contributions by a team of dynamic experts have made this an outstanding
textbook in the field of business communication. I would like to thank the
authors, and especially the editor, Dr Franzél du Plooy-Cilliers, for her creative
work to ensure that this is a well-focused book with the correct advice for
students. Marla Koonin, Gerald Pascoe, Cheryl Howes and Erna Kruger have
also made valuable contributions to this fourth edition.
Although English is a key business language, many students who use this
book are second-language speakers. Keeping this in mind, Effective Business
Communication in Organisations 4th edition has been written in a clear, highly
readable style. In addition, by means of a range of examples, students
are shown how to create well-planned, readable messages in the latest
internationally recognised business formats.
With its combination of theory and practice, this book will help students to
bridge the gap between the educational and professional environments in
which they live. While the fourth edition of Effective Business Communication
in Organisations maintains the essential core that has made this book popular
over the past twenty years, it also embraces the challenges that effective
communicators face in this technological and rapidly changing business
environment.
As such, this edition pays special attention to intercultural and multicultural
communication, corporate identity and image, the role and function of
instructional graphics in communication and the effective use of the correct
language in all communication processes.
A new feature that has been introduced into this fourth edition is the
interactive support material that is available online, instead of in a static
format at the back of the book, as in previous editions. The combination of
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multiple-choice questions, theory-based questions, activities and case studies
based on real-life examples, has been designed to help students apply the
theory studied in this book to situations they are very likely to encounter in
their working lives.
The student-support material focuses on the student’s ability to plan and
create messages and to help students to revise and implement essential
knowledge they will need to become effective communicators. The use of
various media and technology stresses interactive learning, rather than simply
learning theory by rote.
This dynamic textbook with its up-to-date content and format will prepare
students for successful careers in any and all business environments on the
world stage.
Michael Fielding
Consulting editor
November 2013
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CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATIONS
Introduction
Developing good communication skills is the key to personal and business
success. Organisations can only function effectively if people are able to
share their knowledge and ideas, which means that organisations can only
reach their goals through effective communication. Possessing effective
communication skills is therefore an essential aspect of being successful in a
work context.
As human beings we spend the majority of our lives within and as part of
an organisation. Effective communication is vital for an organisation to survive
because everything that happens within an organisation involves some form
of communication. From the informal exchange between colleagues in the
canteen right up to the interaction with customers and major advertising and
public relations campaigns, we will always be engaged in some form of business
communication. It is this communication that enables an organisation to
coordinate its activities and reach its business goals.
Whether we are average, good or brilliant communicators, we all have a need
to communicate. And we have this need because we all instinctively know that
communication is the binding force that holds together every relationship we
have. Our relationship with our family, friends, colleagues, partner, lecturers
or anybody else can only function because we are able to communicate with
these people. In the same way that our personal relationships are formed
and maintained through communication, so businesses are also formed and
maintained through communication. Communication consequently forms
the foundation of all business.
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Therefore, ultimately, the organisation that understands the importance of
communication in building and maintaining a healthy business, will be the
organisation that flourishes and that will survive in difficult times. It will also
be rewarded with happy and loyal personnel because effective communication
is key to good relationships and satisfied employees.
The purpose of this book is to provide you with the skills and insight that
will enable you to implement effective business communication principles
and practices within an organisational context. It also aims to give you a
better understanding of the field of business communication. This chapter
will outline the major themes presented in this book.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• understand the focus of the book
• read a range of texts with comprehension
• explain various academic reading skills.
Why is communication essential for business success?
Communication forms the foundation of any field or professional career that
you may enter. If you are unable to communicate effectively, you will not get
ahead. The ability to clearly and concisely communicate, to give instructions,
explain a concept, deal with a difficult client, conduct meetings, resolve
conflict and so on are absolutely essential if you want to succeed in business
and the workplace.
Reading skills
In order to master the objectives set out in this book, as well as engage in
effective business communication, you will need to practise various types of
reading, depending on which aspects of academic or business communication
you are engaged in.
To deepen your knowledge on a particular subject, you often have to read
texts that other people have written. This is especially true in an academic or
business environment. In order to become an effective communicator, you
need to be familiar with the different types of reading that you might need in
your career and studies. As a guideline we will discuss the four main types of
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Chapter 1: Introduction to business communication in organisations
reading that are most useful in academic and business contexts:
• critical reading
• study reading
• skimming
• scanning.
These four types of reading all have a specific purpose. Before you start reading
a particular text, it is important to know why you would want or need to read
it. This will help you choose the best method for reading the text. It is also
very important to practise these types of reading skills as often as possible so
that you become good at them.
The four different types of reading are outlined in the tables that follow.
Table 1.1 Critical reading
Purpose
Thorough reading to enhance understanding
Examine the text in depth
Technique
Read through the text carefully.
Highlight key words or important passages.
Make comments and notes of insights you get.
Draw conclusions from the contents of the text.
Analyse the text by asking questions such as:
• Who is the author?
• Who is the audience?
• What is the context in which the text was written?
• What are the implied values and attitudes that inform the text?
• What is the main focus of the text?
• What type of language is used? Is it objective or subjective? Are
emotive words used?
The more questions you ask the more comprehensive your analysis
will be.
Situation
Critical reading should be used to develop your understanding of a
text, so it can be used for:
• research
• studying
• agreeing or disagreeing with an argument.
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Table 1.2 Study reading
Purpose
Learn
Understand
Remember
Technique
This is similar to a critical reading approach where you read through
the text carefully and in detail. Cleary (2003:65) highlights some
useful strategies for what she calls ‘interactive reading’. These are:
• Look for the topic sentence of each paragraph.
• Ask yourself what the main idea of each paragraph is. You may find
the main idea in the introduction, middle or final sentence. The
same is true for longer passages.
• Make notes while you read and try to find the links between the
different parts. Ask yourself what kind of relationship the different
parts have with one another.
• Linking words or connectors are important because they can assist
you in finding the main ideas and how they are being developed
as well as point out contrasting arguments. Examples of linking
words are: ‘conversely’, ‘however’, ‘in the first place’, ‘to conclude’,
etc. Alert readers know how to use linking words to help them
understand a passage.
• Make sure that you always ask questions while you read. If you come
across a difficult concept, ask yourself what it means and try to find
the answers to your questions as you progress through the material.
After you have read everything and you still do not have the answer to
your questions, consult other sources such as the Internet.
Can be used for:
Situation
• studying
• revision.
Table 1.3 Skimming
Purpose
Find information quickly
Revise work
Technique
Go through the work quickly.
Read any headings or bold/italicised words.
Read through the first and last paragraphs in the text as these will
briefly give the main points of a text.
Read the first sentence of every paragraph as this will generally supply
the main point of that paragraph.
Read any abstracts or summaries if provided, especially for longer texts.
Situation
Can be used to:
• find out if texts are relevant
• determine whether it will be worth your while to read the material
• get a basic idea of the content
• revise work that you have already mastered
• find the main ideas in a text.
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Chapter 1: Introduction to business communication in organisations
Table 1.4 Scanning
Purpose
Find particular information in a text, such as a word, quote or number
Technique
The best method of scanning is to keep an image of the item you are
looking for in your mind and then run your eyes quickly over the page
until you find the item.
Alternatively, you can use your finger or a pencil to run down the page;
this will also force your eyes to move quickly over the writing.
Situation
This is useful when you want to find a specific number, quote or
word quickly or if you want to see if a paragraph in a text has the
information you are looking for.
The subject of the book
As mentioned before, the purpose of this introductory chapter is to place
the importance of communication in organisations in context for you.
Contemporary organisations are faced with many challenges, including:
pressure groups, such as unions and activists; the social media and its impact
on business communications; technology; environmental issues; and the
global economy. Challenges such as these highlight how crucial effective
communication is in the world of business today.
Each chapter in this book touches on both the application and the theory
that can be used by management and staff to improve communication in the
organisation. The following areas will also be discussed in greater detail in
each chapter.
The starting point will be the process of communication with emphasis on
all the components of this process. Understanding these different components
forms the foundation of our studies.
Because intra- and interpersonal communication is the basis of all
communication, we will look first at mastering these skills before we pay
attention to other forms of communication.
We will then move on to study small group communication. In the work
context, people often work together in teams and these small groups make up
the fabric of an organisation. Understanding small group dynamics can help
you to perform more optimally.
After this, we look at communication within the broader context of an
organisation, taking a more holistic view of communication. We will focus
on some of the theories that have been formulated around the functioning
of organisations, as well as the characteristics of motivation and how
communication can keep employees motivated and enthusiastic.
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Understanding why cultures differ, what makes a culture unique and why it
is important to be sensitive to cultural differences within the South African
context are important aspects that will be covered next. South Africa itself is a
multicultural nation and as a result South African organisations are characterised
by diversity. Globalisation and international business are also a reality and a
thorough understanding of intercultural communication is therefore essential
to survive in today’s complex multicultural business environment.
We will look at the importance of conducting effective interviews within
the workplace and focus on how to conduct effective meetings.
Then we will cover written communication. The quality of a company’s
written communication has a significant impact on how that company
is perceived by the public and other stakeholders. Sloppy, badly written
communication always creates a poor impression. It is therefore essential to
pay attention to grammar, spelling and syntax and to understand the style
and tone of writing within an organisational context.
We go on to essay writing and the importance of appropriate referencing,
since these skills are needed for successful academic endeavours. We also
explore the elements of readability.
The section on case studies not only helps with answering exam questions
based on case studies, but also with analysing case studies in specific
industry contexts.
The next area on which we focus is the identity of the organisation. Every
message that leaves an organisation reflects negatively or positively on the
organisation. The perception of these messages usually becomes linked to
the organisation’s identity and in this way the image of the organisation is
created. We will discuss these important concepts and how they contribute
to the reputation of an organisation and can affect the success or failure
of a company.
The image of a company is also often enhanced or maintained through
proper customer relations. Without customers or clients, no organisation can
exist and it is essential to maintain good relationships in today’s competitive
economy. Employees therefore need to learn professional telephone and
email etiquette and how to engage with customers in a helpful, supportive
and friendly way. The way in which customers are treated will have an
enormous impact on how they feel about the organisation and will determine
whether they will continue to support that organisation. Customer service
consequently is essential to effective business communication.
Another important form of business communication is mass
communication, such as traditional and new media. Mass communication
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Chapter 1: Introduction to business communication in organisations
refers to communicating through press releases, advertisements, newspaper
and magazine articles and events. However, new media is playing an
increasingly significant role in modern organisations. For example, social
media such as Facebook, Twitter and LinkedIn are progressively used by
organisations as business communication tools.
Arguably one of the most important components of the communication
process is the message. Encoding effective messages is therefore a vital
function of business communication. You therefore need to know how to
plan and organise a message for a particular stakeholder or audience. You
also need to know what the best medium will be to reach them and also how
to construct an effective message for that specific context or medium.
A more strategic form of writing is writing business proposals, business
plans and business reports. A good strategy is an important part of any
organisation’s success and these documents contribute to that success.
In the final chapters, we focus on oral and graphic communication.
Companies frequently make use of presentations and the communication
skills of the presenter can often make or break a deal. Since most people are
drawn to material that is visually pleasing, the final chapter focuses on graphics
and images and how they can be used to enhance business communication.
Communication is such a complex and multifaceted concept that it is not
possible to cover all of its facets in great depth in one book! However, we
hope that you find the material in this book informative and useful and that
it will assist you in becoming a successful communicator and a prosperous
employee, manager or business owner.
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CHAPTER
2
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Introduction
Communication is the lifeblood of organisations because, without it, no
organisation can exist or survive. Nearly everything a company does involves
some form of communication and so businesses are involved in a wide range
of communication activities. Communication is one of the key elements that
determine the success or failure of a company because it enables its members
to coordinate their activities and reach the organisation’s business goals.
People can only coordinate their actions if they follow a set of negotiated
rules. In time people will follow the rules without thinking. When people
deviate from the rules or what is seen as socially acceptable behaviour, it often
leads to conflict. If people are unable to communicate successfully to resolve
these types of problems, it will lead to more conflict and misunderstandings.
As a result, communication and any barriers to effective communication
deserve the attention of, and need to be understood and managed by,
all organisations.
If you want to better understand communication and the crucial role
it plays in the functioning of organisations, a good place to start is with a
definition of communication.
Communication can be defined as a transaction, a process of exchange or
simply giving and taking. So we can define communication as transactional
in nature. When we then say that communication is a transactional process, it
means that people work together to create meaning and to share this meaning.
They do this by exchanging symbols. The symbols that people use, in order to
exchange meaning take many forms. They may be words, non-verbal symbols
or even graphic representations. The problem with symbols is that people
often assign different meanings to the same symbols, which complicates
the communication process since communication is ultimately about the
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sharing of meaning. When people do not assign the same meaning to the
same symbol, misunderstandings are often the result.
In this chapter, we will look at two communication models: a linear and
a convergence model of communication. These models will assist you in
understanding the complex process of communication. The linear model will
help you to identify and understand the major components or elements of
the communication process. The convergence model on the other hand will
provide you with the necessary insight to appreciate how important it is to
work together to reach an understanding. You will see that feedback is needed
to create a sharing of meaning and so, in this chapter, the differences between
one- and two-way communication will also be discussed.
Another aspect of communication that you will need to understand is that
communication in organisations occurs in dyads (or one-to-one groups),
small groups (between three and 12 people) and large groups (usually more
than 10 people). All of these vary in the demands they place on people,
especially in terms of communication. Moreover, communication within
the organisation flows in upward, downward and horizontal channels, each
with a different function and set of challenges. To complicate matters even
further, organisations also have to communicate with customers, suppliers,
government, the media and the general public. Organisations consequently
have to manage both internal and external communication. In this chapter,
then, you will be introduced to some of the basic principles of communication
and how they apply to an organisational setting.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• define communication
• describe the different aspects that make up communication
• explain what is meant by the ‘creation and sharing of meaning’
• describe the differences between a linear and a convergence model
of communication
• describe the components of the communication process
• describe major barriers to communication in organisations
• describe the differences between one-way and two-way communication
• describe the major contexts of communication in organisations
• explain what is meant by ‘downward’, ‘horizontal’ and ‘upward’ channels
of communication.
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Defining communication
Communication is very complex. Indeed, communication experts have
difficulty agreeing on a single definition that covers all of the components of
communication in a satisfactory manner. For the purposes of this book we
will define communication as follows:
Definition
Communication is a functional, dynamic and transactional process where participants strive to
create and share meaning through the exchange of symbols.
This definition stresses seven major points, namely that communication:
1. is functional
2. is dynamic
3. is a transaction
4. involves participants
5. involves the creation and sharing of meaning
6. involves the exchange of symbols
7. is a process.
Communication is functional
When we say that communication is functional, we simply mean that it
serves several functions. Some of these functions in organisations are to
motivate and unify employees, to coordinate their activities, to ensure that
the organisation’s objectives are reached and to ensure that the organisation
delivers high-quality products and services. We further use communication to
gather information because information allows us to reduce uncertainty and
because accurate and thorough information plays an important part in good
decision-making. It is also used to generate new ideas and to help staff adapt
to change. But communication can also be used to control employees and
manipulate customers or clients through persuasion.
Communication is dynamic
When we say communication is dynamic, it means that communication is
always in a state of flux or change. That is, there are so many variables that
influence communication that it changes all the time. Think for example how
your mood can change the way in which you communicate. A person’s mood
is only one of many factors that influence communication behaviour.
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Chapter 2: The communication process
Communication is a transaction
A transaction involves two or more people exchanging something. When
you buy something you are involved in a transaction because you exchange
money for the product you want. Communication is transactional because
we exchange symbols and messages in order to create meaning.
Communication involves participants
Communication can only be effective when people work together to create
and share meaning. The sharing of meaning is only possible through paying
attention to the speaker, providing each other with feedback and having a
genuine desire to understand the other person. For this reason good listening
and response skills are necessary for effective communication to take place.
Communication involves the creation and sharing of meaning
The key to effective communication is ensuring that others understand
what you are saying. Words do not have meaning in themselves. People give
meaning to words. The same words may therefore have different meanings for
different people. For example people have different ideas about what ‘quality
work’ means. As a result, what one person sees as quality work may not be
what the next person sees and this lack of a shared meaning can often lead
to conflict and misunderstandings. Effective communication consequently
demands that people work together to ensure that the meaning created
is the same for all. A sharing of meaning is necessary for communication
to be effective.
Communication involves the exchange of symbols
Symbols enable people to create meanings. Symbols
take many forms but they usually represent specific
ideas. Most of us think of symbols as pictures that
represent a certain abstract concept or idea. For
example a circle with a line through a cigarette means
‘No smoking’. However words are also symbols.
They are verbal symbols and include both spoken
and written words. Some symbols are non‑verbal
symbols, such as gestures, facial expressions, the way The ‘No smoking’ sign is a
familiar symbol
in which people use space and time to communicate
certain messages and the use of the tone of their
voice. Another type of symbol is a graph where communication takes the
form of a table, pie chart, line graph, bar graph or diagram.
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When and why students check their watches
When you’re bored
When your friends are checking theirs
When someone’s yelling at you
To look busy when you’re alone
When you’re tired
In class /during a lecture
To check the time
To double check the time because you
weren’t looking when you first checked
Figure 2.1 An example of a symbol is a graph in the form of a pie chart
Communication is a process
aw 2.1.5-humorous graph
Initially communication was understood as a linear process where a message
was sent from a sender to a receiver. In a linear approach to communication,
the importance of feedback is overlooked. However feedback is vital for
communication to be effective and to share meaning. Communication
should therefore be understood as a process that is circular, where the
participants act as both sender and receiver at the same time. When we define
communication as a process, we subsequently refer to participants as opposed
to a sender and receiver. This now brings us to some of the different models
of communication.
Communication models
In the definition of communication, communication was described as a
transaction, which implies that people have to work together through the
exchange of messages to create a sharing of meaning. But one person does not
hand over meaning to another as though it were a present to be unwrapped.
Instead, communication is an unending and ever-changing process, in which
meaning is negotiated between participants. This complex process is hard
to analyse. Communication researchers have subsequently devised models
to help them analyse and understand some of the major elements in the
communication process. Two models of communication are discussed in this
chapter: linear and convergence.
Please keep in mind, however, that models simplify what is a very complex
process. Models cannot show all the complexities of a real situation. They
are nevertheless helpful in the study of communication. Think of models as
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Chapter 2: The communication process
maps. A map tells you where you can find what and where to go but it does
not look anything like the places or roads it represents. However, it is still
very useful in helping you to get to an unknown destination. These models
serve a similar purpose. They oversimplify the communication process and
the components involved in this process, yet they help us to unpack and
understand the process better.
The linear model of communication helps us to analyse the major
components in the communication process. The convergence model on the
other hand, stresses that communication is a transaction in which meaning
is created and negotiated by both sender and receiver working together. This
model also stresses the idea of the meeting of minds, meaning that people
need to share the same meanings of words, concepts and ideas if they are to
communicate successfully.
The linear model of communication
The core word in linear is line. Thus, the linear model of communication
represents communication as something that moves in a straight line, as
can be seen in Figure 2.2 below. A major limitation of this model is that it
discounts the complexity of communication by assuming that it always has
a clear beginning and end, like an episode on television. As your knowledge
of communication deepens, you will begin to understand that this is rarely
the case and that communication is in fact a highly complex process (circular
as opposed to linear), which is influenced by many variables. Another major
limitation of this model is that it disregards the importance of feedback from
the receiver. Nonetheless what is useful about this model is that it unpacks the
components of the communication process for us, which makes it easier to
identify and understand all the elements that play a role in communication.
WHO
SAYS
SAYS
WHAT
IN WHICH
CHANNEL
TO
WHOM
WITH WHAT
EFFECT?
COMMUNICATOR
MESSAGE
MEDIUM
RECEIVER
EFFECT
Figure 2.2 The linear model of communication with its different components
The convergence model
aw the
2.2 (old
2.1) - linear
modelstresses the various components of communication,
Whereas
linear
model
the convergence model of communication stresses the transactional and
continuing nature of communication. In this model, the sender and
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receiver are shown to be constantly exchanging messages until they reach
an understanding or sharing of meaning. This model therefore includes
feedback as an important component of the communication process. It
also acknowledges that the distinction between sender and receiver is not as
clear‑cut as the linear model makes it out to be. In fact, in most communication
situations we act simultaneously as both sender and receiver because we are
always encoding and decoding messages at the same time. This makes us
participants in the communication process. As we send messages back and
forth, we are constantly changing roles. And as we continue the transactions
(sending and receiving messages), we eventually arrive at an understanding.
Unfortunately, despite the best efforts, communication is hardly ever perfect.
This is shown in the model by the partially overlapping shapes.
Encode
RECEIVER
Decode
Encode
SENDER
Decode
Sender
Receiver
Encode
SENDER
Decode
Understanding
Encode
RECEIVER
Decode
Figure 2.3 A convergence model of communication
Based on these two models, we can identify the following nine elements or
components of the communication process:
1. participant as sender
2. participant as receiver
3. message
4. medium
5. channel
6. feedback
7. noise
8. context
9. result.
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RESULT
MESSAGE
Participant
as sender
• medium
• channel
• feedback
• noise
• context
• result
Participant
as receiver
Figure 2.4 The nine components of the communication process
Figure 2.4 above illustrates the nine components, with the sender initiating
a message. The sender has to decide on the purpose of the message, for
example to inform, persuade or instruct. The message then has to be encoded
in a form that the receiver can understand. It then has to be sent in a specific
format via a channel to the receiver, who will encode the message and send
feedback to the sender.
Participant as sender
The sender is usually the initiator of the communication and is responsible
for encoding the message. The core word in encode is code. Thus, when we
encode a message, we are making use of a code to communicate a message.
Language is a system of codes made up of signs and symbols that can be used
to construct a message. We use this coding system to transform our ideas
and thoughts into a message that can be understood by others. However,
even though people understand certain messages, they do not always believe
them and the credibility of the sender is therefore essential, especially
within the workplace. A sender will usually be regarded as credible if he or
she is knowledgeable, behaves and communicates in ethical ways and has
high status. Importantly, a sender’s credibility will also be influenced by the
context. For example the financial manager could be regarded as a highly
credible source when it comes to financial matters, but may not be seen as a
credible source when it comes to human resource management.
Participant as receiver
The receiver decodes the message according to his or her knowledge of the
subject, ability to use and interpret language, past experience, background
and needs. It is important to understand what is meant by encoding and
decoding. As mentioned before, encoding is when the sender makes use of
codes (such as language) and puts them together in a meaningful way to
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convey an idea or message. When the receiver receives this coded message, he
or she then needs to unravel the codes in order to make sense of the message.
This process is known as decoding. Decoding secret messages has been used
by the military throughout the ages and it is often the topic of novels, for
example Dan Brown’s The Da Vinci Code. As children many of us developed
our own secret codes to communicate messages to friends that others, usually
a teacher, would not be able to figure out if they did not know the meaning of
the codes. The receiver will interpret the coded messages and will then decide
how to react to the message. The receiver then changes roles and encodes his
or her own message to send back as feedback to the sender who now becomes
the receiver again.
Message
Communication is not a random affair. Most of our communication is
conscious, purposeful, intentional and likely to be directed at a specific
receiver with a specific purpose in mind. As mentioned before, we use codes
to encode or construct our messages. The sender has a range of codes to
choose from to get his or her message across, for example words, non-verbal
codes, graphics and various other symbols. However in a business context
particular attention needs to be paid to the encoding of messages, because
the right message has to be communicated in the right way, to the right
people, at the right time! Poorly encoded messages will lead to confusion and
misunderstanding, which could ultimately result in resentment and conflict.
Moreover communication managers must also ensure that employees are not
overloaded with too many messages at the same time. People stop paying
attention to important messages if they feel overwhelmed by the large number
of messages being sent to them.
Figure 2.5 Pie charts are used to communicate certain messages
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Chapter 2: The communication process
Finally, we organise messages into an appropriate format, for example a
speech, talk, presentation, written report, email or SMS. Please keep in
mind however that not all messages can or will be organised into a specific
format. For instance, non-verbal messages do not have a format and a lot of
our communication is made spontaneously without a specific format being
considered. However in the workplace much of the communication has to
take on a specific format.
Medium
A range of media may be used to send messages. In the past humans
used smoke signals and drum beats to communicate over long distances.
Nowadays, the sender can, for example, send a written message in an email
via a computer or in a text message via a cellphone. As a sender you can use
sound waves as a medium to speak to another person or you can use light
waves as a medium to communicate non-verbally. A lighthouse for example
uses light waves as a medium to communicate messages to ships at sea.
Channel
Communication usually flows within a channel, in the same way that water
flows through a waterway or a water canal. The most common channels
found within an organisation are upward, downward and horizontal
(sideways or lateral) and they are linked to the structure of the organisation.
An organisation’s structure is typically represented by a diagram known as
an organogram or organisational chart.
Argyris (2011) explains that an organogram is like an X-ray of a person’s
skeleton – it shows you the skeleton of the organisation and how the different
parts are connected to one another (see Figure 2.6 on the next page). The lines
in the organogram are lines of authority and tell us who is reporting to whom.
These lines are commonly known as communication channels. The more
open the communication channels are and the more freely communication
can flow in all directions, the more effective the communication and, by
implication, the organisation, tend to be. However there is also a point where
too much communication can become counter-productive, such as when
people get overloaded with information or when employees end up spending
too much time in meetings debating issues and not actually getting any work
done or plans implemented. Finding a perfect balance is actually very difficult
to achieve. You will learn more about channels in organisations in Chapter 5.
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HR Consultant
Figure 2.6 An organogram is similar to an X-ray of a skeleton
Feedback
In this chapter we have stressed the need for two-way communication as
opposed to one-way communication. Two-way communication stresses the
importance of feedback and constant interaction during communication
because, as mentioned previously, the negotiation of meaning is essential.
People involved in interpersonal and small group communication are in the
best position to give and receive feedback. One-way communication on the
other hand, is often characterised by lack of feedback, difficulty in obtaining
feedback or delayed feedback. This is why advertisers spend a great deal of
money on market research to establish their audience’s needs and reactions.
Feedback is difficult to obtain in public communication, particularly with
large audiences.
Others
F e e d b a ck
Result
Sender
MESSAGE
Receiver
Figure 2.7 The nature of feedback includes two-way communication and constant interaction
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In large organisations, obtaining feedback is difficult unless a point is made
to receive feedback. Managers need to be careful about simply issuing orders
as these could be interpreted as one-way communication. Companies
in southern Africa are under constant pressure to survive in a volatile
environment characterised by strikes, boycotts, threats and violence. Workers
are no longer prepared to accept orders blindly and they demand a say in the
running of companies. For this reason companies need to move away from
a top-down approach and they need to pay attention to the ideas, wants and
needs of their employees. Communication therefore has to become two-way,
rather than one-way communication.
Senders and receivers should always make sure that they receive feedback
from each other. In order to be an effective communicator, you must be
prepared to receive feedback even if it is negative. The main importance
of feedback is that it tells the sender how the receiver has interpreted the
message. If the message has been interpreted incorrectly, the sender will have
an opportunity to fix the misunderstanding, but if you, as the sender, do not
pay close attention to feedback, you may not even realise that your message
is ineffective.
In face-to-face communication, feedback will be direct. Both sender and
receiver will be giving constant feedback to each other as they exchange
messages, especially in the form of non-verbal cues. However if the sender is
delivering, for example, a PowerPoint®-based presentation to a client, he or
she needs to be sensitive to the client’s reactions and questions, as these are
ways of receiving feedback.
Feedback on written communication is not often as direct. If the writer is
fortunate, he or she might receive immediate feedback. However feedback
is more likely to come from the results of the message. He or she may also
receive what is called indirect feedback, which is feedback from other people.
A good communicator should always be sensitive to feedback and should
constantly adjust his or her message as a result of the feedback.
Noise
Noise is classified as one of the nine elements or components of the
communication process because it is a barrier to effective communication.
While it is a barrier to effective communication, it also interferes with
the sharing of meaning. Noise can be divided into three basic categories,
namely external (or physical noise), internal (or psychological) noise and
semantic noise.
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There are various forms of external noise. During a presentation, for example,
the noise created by machines nearby might drown out certain parts of the
message. The audience itself might be so noisy that the presentation cannot
be heard properly. However noise does not always have to take on the form
of sound. If the lighting or the air-conditioning is faulty, it will also interfere
with people’s ability to concentrate on the message and this would then also
be classified as a form of physical noise. In the case of a written message,
the reproduction of a faxed or scanned document could be so poor that the
message cannot be read. All these are examples of physical barriers to effective
communication, known as external noise.
Internal noise is a barrier that people themselves create. It is often the
result of our own prejudices, attitudes, values and beliefs. The receiver
might not like the message being sent because it carries information that
he or she disagrees with. He or she will then become defensive and not pay
attention to the message. This is an example of a psychological barrier. The
sender and receiver may come from different cultural backgrounds that may
cause a psychological barrier to effective communication because each one
does not understand the other’s values. For example, as a sign of respect
most people from Western cultures make strong eye contact, while most
people from African backgrounds will avoid strong eye contact. If people
are not aware of these differences, they will interpret the eye behaviour of
the other incorrectly.
Finally, semantic noise occurs when the words a sender uses are not
understood by the receiver, even though they speak the same language.
There are many examples of semantic noise. Semantic noise can occur when
people give different meanings to the same word. For example, ‘weed’ can
be understood as a slang word for marijuana or it can be understood as an
undesirable garden plant. People often experience semantic noise when
the speaker uses jargon. Jargon is language or vocabulary that is used by a
specific profession or select group and is too technical for anyone outside
that profession or group to understand. Semantic noise is also commonly
experienced when reading or listening to an academic discourse or debate.
A sentence such as ‘Smokers are likely to experience cognitive dissonance
and therefore attempt to vindicate their insalubrious practices’ is not likely
to be understood by the average person. We therefore need to be mindful of
any semantic noise that could carry into our conversations because it tends
to alienate the listener. Remember, the ultimate aim of communication is
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always the sharing of meaning, which is not promoted by using vocabulary
that your listener may not understand.
Although noise is one of the biggest barriers to effective communication,
there are several others. We have included some of these barriers in the
textbox below and given further detail on the most important ones. You are
encouraged to add your own from your own experience.
Major barriers to effective communication
◗
◗
◗
◗
◗
◗
◗
◗
◗
◗
◗
◗
◗
Poor structure of message; message distortion; mixed messages; poor encoding or decoding
of message
Failure to analyse and consider receivers’ needs
Insensitive behaviour or poor choice of language
Language that is too technical
Different cultural backgrounds
wrong emphasis of information
Information overload or underload
Poor listening and lack of attention to feedback
Poor feedback, where information is filtered and/or omitted
Using the wrong media or channels of communication
Poor planning of information
Irritating mannerisms of the sender
An unsupportive or defensive climate
Cultural and work background
We all come from different backgrounds, but what most people do not
realise is how much our background influences the way we view the world
and interpret situations and therefore our communication. Our background
forms what is known as our frame of reference, which influences us in various
ways. For example, we all come from a certain cultural background where
we make use of a specific language. People who have been working for a
few years will also have a work background. A work background provides
you with certain experiences that will shape your ideas about how things
ought to be done. Different experiences can sometimes lead to different ideas
about how things ought to be done and this can lead to conflict or resistance
to change. Because senders and receivers might not have the same culture,
language or work background, communication between them can become
difficult unless they are open-minded and sensitive to each other’s needs.
The attitudes of senders and receivers are crucial here. When people have
problematic attitudes, effective communication will not take place.
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Perceptions
Perceptions refer to the way in which we see and interpret the world around us
and give meaning to the things that happen to us. However, our perceptions
are influenced by many factors, such as past experiences, education, language,
culture and so on. People with diverse backgrounds and experiences can
consequently have different perceptions about the same thing. Both sender
and receiver will therefore see the world, the workplace and specific tasks
differently and this can create a major communication barrier. In the
workplace we need to be sensitive to the perceptions of others to ensure that
effective communication takes place.
There are two important things you need to understand about perception.
The first is that our perception is subjective and the second is that our
perceptions can be wrong. Read the three common phrases below. What did
you (or rather didn’t you) notice about these three phrases? What does that
teach you about your perceptions?
Read
between the
the lines
I can eat a
a horse
Speak of the
the devil
Also, use the Internet to search for and then read the Indian folk story about
the five blind men describing an elephant. What does this story teach us
about perceptions? In order to make sure that communication is effective,
we need to learn to withhold judgement until we are sure that we know all
the facts and that we are interpreting a message or situation in the same way.
Moreover it is important to ask questions if you suspect that you and one of
your co-workers are perceiving things differently.
Needs and goals
Senders and receivers have different needs and goals. If they understand
this, they will become more sensitive towards one another. For example,
one person may have a strong need to deliver the best quality work possible,
whereas another may have a need to get the job done as quickly as possible.
Therefore their goals will differ and communication might be difficult.
Pressures
Both sender and receiver could be working under different pressures. One
person might for example be a member of a union and be put under pressure
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by fellow union members to go on an illegal strike over salary increase disputes.
However, if it is an illegal strike, he or she will not earn any money for the days
he or she is on strike, which means it will be a huge financial sacrifice. Another
person may be worried about the company’s finances and therefore desperate
to get the job done so that the company does not close down and everybody
lose their jobs. These pressures will make communication challenging.
VVVVVVVVV
message
Receiver
VVV
Sender
VVVVVVVVVV
VVV
V
Result
Figure 2.8 How barriers stop effective communication from taking place
Context in organisations
Communication always takes place within a particular context and the
context influences the way in which we communicate. For example, your
communication style will change depending on whether you are having a
formal meeting with a client in the boardroom or having an informal discussion
with a colleague in the canteen. In an organisation, the word ‘context’ is also
used to refer to the size of the group in which the communication is taking
place. Within an organisation, communication is likely to take place in dyads,
small groups and large groups.
Dyadic context
The word di means two, so a dyad refers to two people communicating with
each other. In organisations a great deal of the communication takes place in
a dyadic context, that is, between two people.
Small group context
A small group typically consists of between three to 12 people. Small group
communication has become very popular in organisations because most
people working in organisations form part of a team. These groups may be
involved in a range of activities from simply chatting to devising policies
for a company. Most small group communication tends to take on the form
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of meetings. However although meetings are necessary, not all meetings are
productive and they can actually waste a lot of time if they are not conducted
in an efficient and effective way. Nonetheless small groups are a great source
of solving problems because different individuals have different ideas and
skills and therefore bring a variety of strengths to the table; something that
is essential for effective problem-solving. In the best groups, every member
is encouraged to communicate to his or her full potential and a positive
atmosphere or climate is established so that people work well together.
What is important to note, though, is that the size of the group significantly
influences the quality of communication within that group. The bigger the
group, the less rewarding communication becomes and the longer it takes to
reach a decision. However, one way in which to ensure a group uses its time
wisely is to make use of an agenda for meetings.
Large group context
Large groups in an organisation are another communication context. This
is when a large number of employees meet, for example for a general staff
meeting, departmental briefing or for a general discussion. The whole
company might also gather for a special function, such as a year-end function.
Since there are so many people in a large group, communication is not
very rewarding.
Public context
The external environment of an organisation is the public context. It consists
of, for example, customers, suppliers, the general public, government
departments and so on. Companies often undertake advertising or public
relations campaigns to communicate in a public context.
The result
In Figure 2.9 on the next page, the result is shown as two shapes that partially
overlap. The reason why they overlap only partially is because a perfect match
between the message sent and the message received is hardly ever possible. The
perfect sharing of meaning is extremely difficult to achieve. In other words, the
message sent is most likely not going to be identical to the message received. If
the shapes did not touch at all, this would show that no communication took
place, even though a message had been sent. This could happen, for example,
when two people do not speak the same language and therefore do not
understand each other. Therefore because they do not share a coding system
(language), they cannot decode each other’s messages in a meaningful way.
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Chapter 2: The communication process
Result
NEEDS
GOALS
perception
Sender
cultural
and work
background
pressures
message
NEEDS
GOALS
Receiver
perception
cultural
and work
background
Figure 2.9 Perfect congruence is seldom achieved from the original message
Conclusion
The models of communication and the brief descriptions of the levels of
communication presented in this chapter stress the following:
• Communication is a transaction in which people strive to create and share
meaning through the exchange of messages. People therefore have to work
together to create meaning.
• Meanings are created by people.
• Misunderstandings are very common because of people’s differences.
• Communication takes place in different contexts.
• People need to be aware of the barriers to effective communication.
There is no opposite to communication in organisations. We cannot not
communicate. If there was no communication in an organisation, the
organisation would cease to exist. For this reason it is crucially important
to pay attention to communication and to ensure that it is as effective and
efficient as possible.
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CHAPTER
3
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Introduction
The emphasis of this chapter is on person-to-person (or interpersonal)
communication in the organisation. Interpersonal communication skills are
one of the most important aspects of all communication and your credibility
as a communication expert will depend heavily on your interpersonal skills.
However effective communication in the workplace is not the responsibility
of only a few communication experts. Everybody in the organisation has
a responsibility to ensure that communication is as effective as possible
because without effective communication the organisation and the people
working for the organisation will never be able to achieve their full potential.
All interpersonal communication is informed by intrapersonal
communication. Intrapersonal communication refers to the conversations we
have with ourselves and in this way it is also related to our self-image. Because
communication is a process, as explained in Chapter 2, a positive self-image
significantly influences the effectiveness of interpersonal communication.
Therefore before we can understand communication with others, we first
have to understand communication within ourselves and how these internal
dialogues influence the way in which we interact with others.
Intrapersonal communication is also informed by our perceptions. We
perceive or make sense of reality through our senses. Unfortunately our
senses sometimes deceive us and our perception of reality is not always
accurate. Moreover, not everybody perceives reality in the same way because
our needs, expectations and experiences are vastly different. Because of this,
we take notice of different things and we interpret the world around us and
the messages we receive in different ways. This in itself is not a problem,
but different interpretations become problematic when we use our own
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frame of reference to judge others. In the workplace it becomes particularly
problematic if it prevents people from cooperating and achieving mutual
goals. Organisations therefore need to find active ways of improving
employees’ perceptual skills. One way in which we can gain a better
understanding of others is through self-disclosure. The Johari Window is a
useful theory to explain the process and implications of self-disclosure and
will be discussed in detail in this chapter.
Arguably one of the most important interpersonal communication skills
is effective listening. It is important to distinguish between hearing, which is
a passive process, and active listening in which the listener is deeply involved
with the speaker’s message. Being an active listener means that we pay close
attention to what people are saying, ask prompting questions to show that we
are listening and provide appropriate feedback, which is a further indication
that we are listening. One of the most important reasons for listening to
others is that people tend to feel respected and appreciated when we listen
to them. Conversely, poor listening disrupts the flow of conversation, results
in poor understanding and is an obstacle in the process of sharing meaning.
Unfortunately active listening is one of the most difficult communication
skills to master and most of us are poor listeners. We need to motivate
ourselves to listen because most of us have a tendency to prefer speaking to
listening. Therefore instead of paying attention to what others are saying,
we are thinking of what we want to say next and how we can interrupt the
conversation so that we get a chance to speak. Good listeners also analyse their
own biases and check that they are sharing meaning with other participants
in the communication process.
Good interpersonal communication depends not only on active listening
but also on people’s ability to interpret and control their own non-verbal
communication. It is very important to be aware of our non-verbal signals
because most people rely on non-verbal communication to form first
impressions or to judge people. Non-verbal signals that help people to form
impressions and opinions of others include facial expressions, eye contact,
tone of voice, accent, gestures, body posture, dress and many more. Once
formed, first impressions are very difficult to change, so we should always try
to make a good first impression.
Non-verbal communication is an integral part of the communication
process and is often more reliable than verbal communication. When verbal
and non-verbal messages contradict each other, people are far more likely
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to believe the non-verbal cues than the verbal ones. What is problematic,
however, is that non-verbal communication is difficult to interpret because
it is likely to be ambiguous. It is therefore always essential to consider the
context in which the non-verbal communication takes place and to depend
on a cluster of non-verbal signals to interpret the meaning of a message,
rather than on one, singular signal in isolation.
There are many more interpersonal communication skills that could be
mastered and learning and improving communication skills should actually
be a lifelong process. In this chapter we will briefly cover only a few of these
skills. The aim of the section on non-verbal communication is to make you
aware of the range of non-verbal signals that exist and how these signals work
in interactions.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• explain the process of interpersonal communication
• describe three implications for communication brought about by our
interpersonal communication
• explain how organisations can improve the perceptions of staff
• explain the value of the Johari Window in understanding ourselves as well
as others
• explain some of the roles and rules that apply to dyads
• explain the terms ‘levelling’ and ‘assertiveness’ as they are used in
interpersonal communication
• describe the difference between ‘hearing’ and ‘listening’
• describe what is meant by ‘active listening’
• describe the techniques that can be used to become an effective active listener
• list some of the barriers to effective listening
• discuss some of the poor listening habits
• describe the characteristics of effective listening in organisations
• explain ways in which a listener can ensure that he or she is listened to
• provide reasons why you should be sensitive to non-verbal cues
• compare and contrast non-verbal and verbal communication
• describe the different types of non-verbal communication and demonstrate
an understanding of their significance in the communication process
• differentiate between non-verbal communication deal makers and breakers
• explain how non-verbal communication can be used to detect deception.
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The importance of effective interpersonal communication
in organisations
In this book we have taken the view that successful communication is a
transaction where participants in the communication process exchange
messages in order to create shared meaning. Organisations often spend lots of
money on developing some of the most sophisticated technological systems
and networks to facilitate certain work processes, but what they do not always
realise is that, without individuals working well together, these systems will
fail. It is therefore of the utmost importance that organisations make sure
that the interpersonal communication within the organisation is as effective
as possible. Since interpersonal communication is a comprehensive field,
we will only touch on some of the most significant interpersonal skills in
this chapter. However, before we can discuss interpersonal communication
skills, you first need to grasp the importance of intrapersonal communication
within the interpersonal communication process.
Intrapersonal communication and perception
The prefix intra– means within. If, for example, medication is administered
intravenously, it is administered directly into the veins. Intrapersonal
communication then is communication that takes place ‘within’ an
individual, which is more commonly known as self-talk. In other words,
intrapersonal communication refers to the ways in which we communicate
with ourselves. Intrapersonal communication plays a significant role in the
view we form of ourselves or our self-image. But our self-image is not only
influenced by our own internal conversations, it is also influenced by the way
other people behave towards us and the kind of feedback they give to us. For
example, if your boss tells you that you always do everything wrong, it will
affect your self-image because it will make you start doubting yourself and
your abilities. Past experiences also influence your self-image and so does
comparing yourself to others.
Our self-image can determine our willingness or unwillingness to interact
with others and this can lead us to create what is called a self-fulfilling prophecy.
For example, you may think that you are not charismatic, that most people
dislike you and therefore you will never be good at sales. Because of these
beliefs, and often without actually realising it, you may act in a reserved and
aloof manner when you are with other people because you expect them to
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dislike you. Because of the negative non-verbal messages you are sending,
they might then form a poor impression of you and not want to do business
with you. This will then confirm your belief that you are not good at sales and
your self-fulfilling prophecy will have come true.
A positive self-image is important if you want to become an effective
communicator because, as mentioned before, you will be more willing and
able to engage with other individuals and to form positive perceptions about
them. However some scholars, such as Lane (2010) and Baumeister (2005),
are of the opinion that the overemphasis on the self in modern society is
problematic because it lacks accountability. Therefore although a positive selfimage, self-approval, self-acceptance, self-realisation, self-expression, etc, are
important, self-discipline, self-control and self-denial are equally important
to truly benefit ourselves and society. In some instances, we need to constrain
ourselves to benefit others.
The process of intrapersonal communication
We perceive our world through our senses. Our brains become aware of
internal and external stimuli through our nerves and our sense of sight,
sound, smell, taste and touch. The brain, however, cannot cope with all the
stimuli that it receives, so a process of selection or selective perception occurs. Sit
still for a minute and tune in to all the sensory input that you are receiving
at this very moment. Become aware of how your clothes or jewellery feel
against your skin, feel the pressure of your shoes on your feet or the feeling of
the carpet or floor underneath your feet if you are barefoot. Smell the smells
that are in the air and listen to the noises in your environment, such as cars
passing, children playing, dogs barking or the sound of your own breathing.
What do you sense? What do you taste? Can you focus on all these sensations
at the same time? Since it is so difficult to pay attention to all of the stimuli
we receive at any one time, we select what we wish to pay attention to and
ignore all other stimuli. When it comes to perceiving people, matters become
even more complicated. When we encounter people, we no longer perceive
only simple stimuli, we also make assumptions about what the person is like
and we give meaning to his or her actions.
Yet we should constantly keep in mind that people do not perceive the
world similarly because our brains do not perceive and interpret stimuli in
the same way. We cannot assume that people will see any situation in the
same way as we do. It is important to know and understand that the way in
which we see the world and interpret events around us is our own unique way
of perceiving stimuli and making sense of reality and that it will differ from
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the perceptions of others. Our perception does not simply register ‘reality’. We
select what we pay attention to according to our:
• personality
• past experiences
• emotions
• needs
• interests
• attitudes and beliefs
• hopes and fears
• culture
• knowledge.
More importantly we tend to distrust or reject messages that contradict our
view of the world. Through the process of socialisation, we have been taught
certain ideas about the world and how things function or ought to function.
Some of these ideas take on the form of attitudes, values and beliefs, which
influence our own behaviour and also influence how we judge and interpret
the behaviour of others. This is known as our frame of reference, which
provides us with a standard against which we can compare others’ actions
and ideas. Unfortunately we tend to judge people whose frame of reference
is different to ours as wrong, uninformed, uncivilised or inferior, instead of
acknowledging that ‘different’ does not necessarily equate to ‘wrong’. We also
like to put ourselves in situations that make us feel comfortable and that will
reinforce our values, attitudes, beliefs, behaviour and opinions and we reject
those that contradict them.
Implications of intrapersonal communication and perceptions
• Understand that your colleagues have frames of reference that differ from
your own and these affect the way they interpret the world and messages.
Know and understand that you will not always agree on everything because
your interpretations of situations and ‘facts’ may differ from theirs.
• Everybody has a set of values, attitudes, beliefs, opinions and prejudices
which vary widely from person to person. These have a significant influence
on the way people communicate.
• Avoid being dogmatic. The word dogmatic comes from the word dogma,
which is a doctrine or set of beliefs that have been laid down by an authority
as true and right. Dogmatic people have closed minds and believe that
only they are good and right and that people who hold different views and
opinions are bad and wrong. They therefore tend to be judgemental and
may refuse to accept new ideas and opinions.
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• Be aware of the fact that your self-image and self-esteem will have an
impact on your communication and will influence the way in which you
interpret the messages of others.
Problems with perception in organisations
Because perceptions are not always formed on logical grounds, they can be
highly inaccurate, causing us to make false judgements. The following are
some barriers that we need to keep in mind and try to avoid when it comes
to perceptions:
• Avoid stereotyping. Through stereotyping we are over-generalising and
over-simplifying human behaviour. All individuals are unique. Treat
them as such. We tend to stereotype or make general judgements about
groups of people such as managers or union members. When we deal with
an individual from these groups we apply our group-judgement to that
person. Realise that this judgement is likely to be wrong.
• Make sure that you pay attention to important information, even when
it goes against your own opinion. Guard against giving too much weight
to information that is obvious or superficial. Focus and listen carefully to
make sure you are not missing some important information. Also realise
that we tend not to question people we like and respect and that we give
greater weight to their opinions.
• Be aware of your own attitudes, beliefs, values, opinions and expectations
and how they affect the way in which you interpret and judge messages.
• People have a tendency to give more weight to negative information than
to positive information. Do not allow negative information to have a
disproportionate effect on your decision-making or your interpretation
of a situation.
• Guard against the halo and horn effect. The halo effect occurs when we believe
that, because a person possesses
some positive characteristics that we
like, he or she also possesses other
positive characteristics which he or
she may not actually possess. For
example, Jane is a warm, friendly and
kind person and because you like
her you also assume she is honest,
intelligent and articulate. Because
of this, you may fail to see signs The horn and halo effect
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of deceit or incompetence in Jane. Similarly, you may judge punctuality
as a favourable trait and so decide that someone who is punctual is also
productive and conscientious. Conversely, the horn effect occurs when
you refuse to acknowledge that someone you dislike could possess some
positive characteristics. For example, because you perceive John as arrogant
and insensitive, you also believe he is untrustworthy and incompetent.
• Be aware of the fact that we sometimes project our feelings onto other
people. Our present emotional state affects how we perceive others. For
example, we may feel angry and so perceive others as aggressive, whereas
they may not be aggressive at all.
What can organisations do to improve employees’ perceptual skills?
To improve the perceptual skills of their employees organisations can:
• provide staff with training to make them aware of perceptions and the role
they play in communication
• assist staff in understanding their perceptual biases
• encourage staff to talk about how and why their interpretations of a
situation differ
• make sure that all staff understand that people working in other roles,
functions and departments have needs and perceptions different from
their own
• value diversity and increase cultural sensitivity
• encourage flexibility.
Interpersonal communication
In organisations, effective interpersonal communication is vital and is closely
linked to employees’ well-being and satisfaction within the organisation.
Many people change their jobs because of poor interpersonal communication
and a high staff turnover is very costly for companies. Management and staff
therefore need to understand what is involved in effective person-to-person
communication.
A great deal of interpersonal communication in organisations takes place
in dyads. As mentioned before, a dyad refers to two people communicating. In
order to work together effectively, both participants in the dyad must take equal
responsibility for the effectiveness of the transaction. Each has to ensure that he
or she constructs or encodes messages in a clear way and pays careful attention
to feedback through effective active listening and by considering non-verbal
cues. The two participants therefore have to construct meaning together.
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As mentioned earlier, interpersonal communication is a very complex process
that is influenced by many variables. One of the variables that influences
interpersonal communication is the roles we take on and the rules to which
we abide. In each interpersonal relationship, we take on a particular role and
communicate according to a set of rules. For example, if you are talking to
your direct supervisor, your supervisor will take on the role of manager and
you will take on the role of employee. You are also likely to adapt the way you
communicate with your manager, which will differ from the way you would
communicate with a fellow colleague on the same level as you. Companies
also have unique sets of rules that govern the behaviour of their employees.
These rules are not always explicit and people who join the company have
to learn both the formal written rules of the company, which often take on
the form of policies, as well as the unwritten rules, which regulate people’s
interpersonal communication and interactions.
Roles and rules in dyads
All of us take on different roles depending on the context in which we find
ourselves. For example, you may take on the role of student, son or daughter,
friend, employee, brother or sister. In the workplace you will also take on
different roles. These roles will affect the ways in which you relate to others.
People’s roles go hand-in-hand with a set of expectations about how someone
in a particular role ought to behave. For example, if you discuss a personal
problem with the Human Resource manager, you do not expect him or her to
share the information with other people in the company. Therefore people’s
roles and the set of expectations that go with these roles help us to predict
and interpret their behaviour and to negotiate meaning with them.
Roles are often linked to the other person’s or our own:
• professional status and qualifications
• age
• gender
• level of seniority or authority
• level of power
• level of experience or expertise
• job position.
Once you have clarity about your own and the other person’s role and how
these roles relate to one another, you will develop and engage in patterns of
behaviour that are appropriate to these roles and the expectations that go
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with these roles. Moreover, as we build our working relationships with our
colleagues, we negotiate a set of rules that will be used to govern behaviour.
These rules then become prescriptive in terms of acceptable and unacceptable
behaviour or conduct. Although these rules are rarely written down they are
understood by all. Some examples of these rules include:
• not interrupting fellow colleagues before they have finished their thoughts
• not arriving late for meetings
• not using offensive and inappropriate language
• respecting everyone’s cultural and religious beliefs
• not lying about mistakes.
People in organisations should take special care to be sensitive about their
roles and the rules for interpersonal communication.
Interpersonal skills in dyads
Effective interpersonal communication demands certain skills. This section
briefly covers the following skills:
• knowing the difference between assertion and aggression
• knowing how to clearly express your feelings, perceptions or interpretations
of another person’s actions
• knowing how to clearly state the facts, intentions and motives of
your actions.
Assertiveness vs. aggression
Assertiveness is a proactive form of communication in which you express
your thoughts, feelings and perceptions in such a way that you get your point
across with confidence, but without offending others or disrespecting their
rights. If you make a statement at the expense of another person or blame
and judge others, you are not being assertive. By being assertive you show that
you are confident and have good self-esteem, and also that you respect others
and are willing to listen to their point of view. Assertive people are usually
respected and other people are less likely to take advantage of them. In the
workplace, assertiveness will assist you in achieving your goals without the
risk of hurting or alienating other people.
Unfortunately, some people mistake assertiveness for aggression. Aggressive
people have a tendency to want to dominate others, which could lead to a
great deal of tension and a breakdown in communication. Aggressive people
tend to be arrogant, overbearing, insensitive, inflexible, insulting, dogmatic,
opinionated and intolerant. They get over-emotional and blame or judge
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others. People easily lose respect for them and in some instances will even
refuse to cooperate with them, undermining them whenever they can.
Clear statements of perceptions and feelings
Effective interpersonal communication also demands clear statements of
how you:
• perceive a situation and whether other participants perceive it in the same
way or not
• interpret and understand a perceived situation
• feel about the situation, yourself and the other participant.
In order to share meaning, it is very important that people in a dyad check the
accuracy of their perceptions and share how they feel about the facts of the
situation. All people have a need to feel understood, which is only possible
through active listening. In order to be an effective communicator, you also
need to monitor the strength of people’s feelings in a particular situation and
to acknowledge those feelings.
Clear statements of fact, intentions and motives behind actions
Basic to all interpersonal communication is the ability to state facts or
problems clearly. However, being able to state the facts is not enough. You
also have to be able to say what your motives are for stating those facts and
what you intend to do about those facts or problems. If you have taken a
particular action, are doing something or plan to do something, you need to
tell other people about it. Tell others what to expect of you. Stress that you are
aware of what you are doing, why you are doing it and the effect your actions
will have on others.
The Johari Window
The Johari Window was designed by Joseph Luft and Harrington Ingham,
hence the name Johari. The theory was developed to explain different aspects
of the self and the influence of self-disclosure on the different parts of the
self. The Johari Window is divided into four quadrants, each representing
a part of the self. These are the open, blind, unknown and hidden self. We
will briefly discuss each quadrant, but the most important thing that you
need to understand about the Johari Window is that no relationship can
grow and develop if the people in the relationship are not willing to share
what they think and feel with each other. This is true for both professional
and personal relationships.
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Known to self
Not known to self
Known to others
Open
Blind
Not known to others
Chapter 3: Interpersonal communication
Hidden
Unknown
Figure 3.1 The Johari Window and its four quadrants
The open self represents everything we know about ourselves and that we are
willing to openly share with others. The more we share with others about our
hopes, fears and expectations, the easier it will be for them to communicate
with us. Moreover, as already mentioned, it is only through sharing our
thoughts and feelings with others that our relationships with them can grow
and develop.
The blind self represents everything other people know about us, but that
we are not aware of. These may, for example, be mannerisms that others find
irritating. The only way in which the blind self can be known is if others share
this information with us so that we can become aware of it.
The hidden self represents things we know about ourselves that we are not
willing to share with other people. All of us are aware of certain things about
ourselves that we choose not to reveal to others. These could for example be
hopes and fears that we do not wish to reveal to others.
The unknown self represents things that neither we nor others know about us.
Varying sizes of the quadrants
In the drawing of the Johari Window, the four aspects of the self are shown as
equal in size. However they will vary in size according to the type of interpersonal
communication that we are involved in. For example, when we communicate
with a stranger, our open area will be small and the hidden area large. As we get
to know one another better and information flows from the hidden and blind
quadrants to the open quadrant, these areas will change in size.
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Levelling and feedback
If we wish to reduce our hidden area, then we can deliberately tell people
about our hopes, fears and specific knowledge that we have kept hidden. This
is called levelling with others. We choose to level with others, or not, according
to the value that we place on the communication and the relationship.
If we demonstrate to others that we are open and willing to receive
feedback, then we will be able to reduce our blind area. We will then learn
from what others tell us about ourselves and so improve our communication.
Open-receptive communication
In our one-to-one communication we should strive to have the open area
as large as possible. The hidden area should be as small as possible and we
should strive to reduce our blind area as much as we can.
Active listening
Effective active listening is vital in interpersonal communication. We spend
a great deal of our time listening, but unfortunately most people are poor
listeners and poor listening skills lead to most misunderstandings.
Figure 3.2 below suggests that we are likely to spend far more time listening
than any other activity, such as speaking, reading and writing.
Speaking
27%
Listening
Listening 44%
Speaking 27%
44%
Reading
Writing
18%
Reading 18%
Writing
11%
11%
Figure 3.2 The percentage of time we spend listening, speaking, reading and writing
Fig. 3.2- pie chart
We therefore need to understand:
• what prevents us from listening effectively
• what techniques can be used to improve our listening.
In the next section, the following aspects of listening will be covered:
• the differences between hearing and active listening
• the barriers to effective listening
• techniques for effective listening.
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The words ‘hearing’ and ‘listening’ are often used interchangeably as though
they are synonyms with the same meaning. This is definitely not the case and
in this section we will distinguish between the two. Hearing is a passive process
in which we receive and interpret sound waves. For example if someone
speaks to you in a foreign language, you will hear that person speaking but
you will not be able to attach meaning to his or her words. Active listening on
the other hand is a process where we are deeply engaged with the speaker and
pay close attention not only to the facts and opinions expressed but also the
speaker’s feelings. We remain alert and offer helpful feedback. This feedback
takes the form of:
• summaries and paraphrases of what is being said
• statements about what you think the speaker feels
• questions to clarify what is being said
• non-verbal signs that you are listening, such as nodding your head.
Barriers to effective listening
Since most of us have poor listening skills, we should all analyse our bad
listening habits and eliminate them as far as possible. In order to be an
effective communicator it is essential to have good listening skills.
The following are barriers that prevent us from listening effectively:
• internal, external and semantic noise
• a compulsion to speak rather than to listen
• stereotypes that make us prejudiced and prevent us from listening
empathically
• the perceived credibility of the speaker
• selective perception
• cultural differences
• insensitive use of language
• manipulative behaviour
• emotions.
In addition to the above, the following poor listening habits can be detrimental
to interaction:
• jumping to conclusions based on your own points of view before the
speaker has finished his or her thoughts
• pseudo-listening where you pretend that you are paying attention while
your mind is actually wandering
• trying to listen to all the facts, rather than concentrating on the key issues
• ignoring the speaker’s attitudes and feelings
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•
•
•
•
losing interest in the topic
not listening to people who you feel are inferior in status or knowledge
mentally criticising the speaker’s delivery, accent and appearance
being easily distracted by the surroundings.
Techniques for active listening
Active listening involves two types of listening behaviour, namely listening
behaviour that:
1. confirms the accuracy of the message
2. affirms and supports the speaker.
The following diagram illustrates the above behaviours.
Listening
behaviours
that confirm
the message
(accurate
listening)
General
listening
competence
Listening
behaviours
that affirm
the speaker
(supportive
listening)
Figure 3.3 Accurate and supportive listening
The overlapping circles show that your listening must be appropriate and
effective. Appropriate listening means that you have understood the content
of the message. In addition, you have not broken the rules and norms of
conversation and you have satisfied the needs and intentions of the other
participant. Effective listening is essential within an organisational context
and it can contribute to your professional success.
The following five characteristics are very important in organisational listening:
1. being able to listen carefully in order to follow directions, instructions
and suggestions
2. good eye contact
3. showing attentiveness at all times
4. being able to paraphrase what the speaker said, therefore being able to
repeat the speaker’s words, using your own words
5. listening for the whole message, including the facts, as well as the feelings
of the speaker.
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The following specific techniques should help you to become an active listener:
• Know exactly why you are listening. You might, for example, be listening to:
• get the main ideas
• draw proper inferences from the material
• understand difficult information
• evaluate and apply new information
• check whether the speaker is making a logical point
• analyse the persuasive techniques used by the speaker
• decide how the speaker feels about his or her ideas
• follow directions or instructions.
• Motivate yourself to listen actively, keeping the benefits of good listening
in mind.
• Regard listening as a physical and mental process.
• Show that you are listening by leaning forward, making good eye contact
and giving other verbal and non-verbal feedback.
• Listen until you have heard the full message. Then you can respond. Stop
yourself from jumping to conclusions before the speaker has finished his
or her thoughts.
• Be aware of your own prejudice and make sure it does not distort your
interpretation of the message.
• Take time to listen to others. If you are busy and do not have time to listen
to someone actively, inform them that you do not have time to listen to
them now but that you would like to make an appointment with them for
a time when you are able to listen to them.
• Strive to make the other person comfortable when speaking or listening.
• Strive to be an empathic listener by putting your own prejudices on hold
and attempting to see things from the speaker’s point of view.
• Check the meanings of words with the speaker to ensure that you share
the same meanings.
• Do not allow your mind to jump ahead of the speaker’s thoughts, rather
observe his or her non-verbal behaviour to ensure you understand his or
her true thoughts and feelings.
• Pay close attention to the speaker’s feelings and respect these feelings.
• Ask questions if you feel unsure or need to clarify points.
• Ask yourself whether the speaker’s opinions are sound and make sure you
know the difference between facts and inferences.
• Reflect the message back to the speaker to check that you have listened
accurately and that you have understood the speaker correctly.
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• Provide clear and unambiguous feedback.
• Strive to remember significant details.
What can speakers do to ensure that they are listened to?
Remember that in two-way communication both participants need to play an
active role in the creation and sharing of meaning. As a speaker, you can do
some of the following to help the listener:
• Prepare the listener for your message by telling him or her what you want
to discuss.
• Time the message properly. Make sure the listener has time to listen to
you and ensure that you do not overload the listener with too much
information at once.
• People remember the things they hear first and last better than the rest of
the message (known as the ‘primacy and recency effect’). Therefore, use
the beginning and the end of a message effectively because they have the
greatest impact.
• Make the plan of your message clear and give structure to your message,
otherwise you will confuse people.
• Always provide people with the facts. Try not to be vague. Your listener
should not be left to guess what your message is.
• Do not move through the message too quickly or too slowly.
• Attract and maintain the listener’s attention by keeping the conversation
interesting.
Non-verbal communication in the workplace
In this final section of the chapter, we will look at the importance of nonverbal communication in the workplace. A substantial portion of our
communication is non-verbal and we unconsciously respond to thousands
of subtle non-verbal cues and behaviour on a daily basis. From our facial
expressions to the jewellery we wear, non-verbal details reveal who we are
and impact on how we relate to other people and them to us. In the business
environment, effective non-verbal communication can mean the difference
between success and failure so it is important to learn how to use it to your
advantage. For example, you are honest, intelligent, diligent and creative, but
you always seem to get overlooked for promotion. A possible reason is that
you may be sending out negative non-verbal messages without realising it.
You may for example often yawn and fidget during meetings or perhaps you
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check your cellphone and watch all the time and occasionally stare out of
the window when your boss is taking too long to make a point. Your boss
is likely to interpret such behaviour in a negative way and will consequently
form negative perceptions about you and therefore be reluctant to promote
you. Conversely, people who listen actively in meetings and who are positive
and enthusiastic appear charismatic. This creates a good impression and they
will be more likely to get promoted.
The need to be sensitive to non-verbal cues
There are five major reasons why we need to be sensitive to both our own as
well as other people’s non-verbal cues:
1. In new situations, we often rely on first impressions to make up our
minds about strangers. In this process, we notice obvious things, such
as the person’s age, hairstyle, clothing, tattoos, accent and other things.
From these superficial cues we make all kinds of judgements, often
inaccurate. For example, we might judge a stranger with spectacles as
very intelligent, but we could be completely wrong.
2. When we meet strangers we judge them in terms of our own beliefs about
appearance and non-verbal behaviour. Even though these beliefs may be
inaccurate, we use them to fill in the gaps in our knowledge about them.
3. First impressions are often based on non-verbal communication and once
formed these impressions are hard to change.
4. We make up our minds about people from their facial expressions, eye
contact, posture, voice, gestures, hairstyle, use of time and space and what
they wear.
5. We often use non-verbal stereotypes in judging people. We might for
example decide that all short men are aggressive and all overweight
people are friendly. When we meet a short man, we assume that he will
be aggressive and when we meet an overweight person, we assume he or
she will be friendly. We then start communicating with that stereotype in
mind and cause unnecessary misunderstandings.
Three major differences between non-verbal and verbal communication
Non-verbal communication differs to verbal communication in three
major ways:
1. In face-to-face communication, participants take turns to speak or to
make use of verbal communication, but non-verbal communication is a
continuous process that never ends even if we say nothing.
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When verbal and non-verbal communication contradict each other,
most people are more likely to believe the non-verbal communication.
Although it is relatively easy to manipulate others through words, it is
more difficult to control our non-verbal messages and these often give us
away, especially in terms of deception.
3. Non-verbal communication is more effective than verbal communication
in showing emotions and attitudes.
2.
Problems with the interpretation of non-verbal communication
There are three major problems with the interpretation of non-verbal
communication:
1. Similar to verbal communication, non-verbal communication can be
highly ambiguous and it is not always clear what it means.
2. The meaning of any non-verbal message needs to be established within
the total context rather than from an isolated behaviour on its own.
3. We communicate non-verbal information by using groups of behaviours.
We have to interpret non-verbal signs in clusters rather than individually.
For example, disapproval may be indicated by a combination of non-verbal
signals, such as a frown, crossed arms and an unblinking gaze. Whereas
someone with folded arms may not be disapproving, but may simply be
cold or feel more comfortable with folded arms.
The range of non-verbal communication
Each day people reveal their moods, attitudes and feelings through body
language. However, non-verbal communication entails far more than body
language. There is a whole range of non-verbal communication that needs to
be considered and in this section we will briefly look at some of them.
The following types are described:
• silence
• paralanguage
• kinesics (or body language)
• facial expressions and eye behaviour
• haptics (or touching)
• proxemics (or distance and territoriality)
• clothing, hairstyle and accessories such as jewellery and tattoos
• artefacts or objects and the environment within which people work
• chronemics (or the use of time).
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Silence
Silence during interpersonal communication is important. When silence is
well used it helps people to engage in genuine two-way communication.
Silence encourages effective turn-taking and can be an indication that
someone is listening.
Silence in the form of pauses is also important in public speaking. It
allows the audience time to absorb what people are saying particularly if the
information is foreign. Effective public speakers also use silence to get the
audience’s attention before they make an important point. Unfortunately
people, especially those from Western cultures, often misinterpret silence.
So when someone is silent it is important to stop yourself from jumping to
conclusions. Instead ask the person who is silent why he or she is being silent
before communicating with them on the basis of an incorrect judgement.
Silence has a range of meanings. It could indicate:
• contemplation
• fear
• shyness or reservation
• concentration
• boredom or disinterest in the topic being discussed
• anger or disapproval
• embarrassment
• lack of understanding
• respect.
People often mistake shyness for rudeness, fear or boredom. A shy person or a
person attempting to show respect through silence might also be misjudged as
angry. All these mistakes could lead to serious breakdowns in communication.
A good rule in communication is that participants should take equal turns
when speaking and listening. If you find that you are doing all the talking
and the other participant is particularly quiet, do not talk more to hide your
discomfort; rather make an effort to find out why the other person is silent. In
this way, you can communicate with each other with understanding.
Paralanguage
Paralanguage refers to voice qualities. A common mistake that people make
is to equate paralanguage with verbal communication. Paralanguage refers
to vocal (not verbal) communication. Vocal communication is separate from
actual language (verbal communication). Paralanguage does not refer to
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what is being said, but how it is being said. It therefore describes the ways
in which we speak, rather than what we say. The tone of your voice and the
emphasis you place on certain words can change the meaning of a sentence.
For example, if you say the sentence ‘Go home now’ and place emphasis on
different words, the meaning changes. If you emphasise ‘home’, it means go
home as opposed to anywhere else. But if you emphasise ‘now’ it means leave
immediately and not a minute later. Answer the following questions aloud
with ‘Yes’ as if they were real questions asked by a friend. Listen to how your
tone of voice changes.
• May I borrow a pen from you?
• May I borrow your cellphone to make a call?
• May I borrow your car to go to the shops?
• May I move in with you for a few months?
The way in which you say ‘Yes’ if someone asks if they may borrow your pen
will probably differ from the way you say ‘Yes’ when someone asks if they
may borrow your car. We often use our tone of voice to convey approval
or enthusiasm. Conversely, we can also use our tone of voice to convey
disapproval.
Paralanguage, then, covers the following aspects of our voice:
• the intonations or the rise and fall of our voice
• the rate of speech or how fast or slowly we talk
• how loudly or softly we talk
• how resonant our voice is
• how harsh our voice is
• the level of tension in our voice.
Paralanguage also includes aspects such as clearing our throat, coughing and
even laughing or crying. As we listen to paralanguage we form ideas about
another person’s:
• age
• emotions
• feelings about themselves and the topic under discussion
• attitudes towards us
• level of intelligence
• level of sophistication.
These judgements could be quite wrong, but people nonetheless use vocal
cues to form opinions of others. We should therefore take great care to
cultivate lively voices that help listeners to accurately judge how we feel
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about ourselves and the topic under discussion. It is particularly important to
guard against a monotone voice and speaking too slowly, because not only
will people think you are not intelligent, they will also get bored and stop
listening to you. It is equally important for us to strive to understand other
people’s paralanguage.
Kinesics (body language)
This term describes our body movements as we interact with others. In
particular, the study of kinesics covers:
• our body posture
• the way we walk
• how we stand in relation to others
• our arm movements and hand gestures
• the ways in which we sit.
All these body movements and positions affect the ways in which we
communicate. They also affect how people interpret our messages and how
their perceptions of us are formed. You might for example walk slowly into
a meeting room with slumped shoulders and your head and eyes down,
looking at the ground. People could then possibly assume that you are either
depressed or lazy or that you are not excited and enthusiastic about working
with them. On the other hand, if you walk boldly into a room and look and
smile at people, they are more likely to form positive perceptions of you and
communicate positively with you. (See Figure 3.4 below.)
Figure 3.4 Body language when walking into a room
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One of the main purposes of reading other people’s non-verbal
communication is to determine whether someone feels comfortable. If they
are not comfortable, we should try to make them feel comfortable, because
the more comfortable someone feels, the easier the communication will flow.
You must therefore be on the lookout for non-verbal signs of discomfort.
Keep in mind that initially most people are guarded and uncomfortable
when they meet a stranger for the first time. It is in our nature not to trust
strangers. However, you can get them to relax through your own non-verbal
communication. A warm smile, friendly tone of voice, relaxed body posture
and appropriate eye contact will make most people relax. You can also
encourage open body language by displaying it yourself, since people tend to
reciprocate or echo each other’s body language. This is called an echo posture.
It helps to create harmony between two people. (See Figure 3.5.)
Figure 3.5 The echo posture
Body language that indicates comfort includes:
• leaning forward
• relaxed limbs
• relaxed body posture and a body turned towards the other participant
• appropriate eye contact
• genuine smiles.
When you stand to deliver a speech, it is very important that you do not:
• fold your arms
• turn your back on the audience
• cross your arms and legs.
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All these could be taken as signs that you are setting up barriers, or that you
are uneasy or defensive about what you are saying.
Our hand movements during conversation are very important for regulating
turn-taking. Effective hand movements with open palms also help us to keep
the attention of our audience and it makes us seem genuine and trustworthy.
Uncrossed arms in an open body position can make you appear more sincere.
When we sit, we can look tense, bored or relaxed. Our posture when we
sit during a conversation shows people how we feel about them and the
conversation. Sitting upright, leaning forward slightly and making appropriate
eye contact will indicate that you are interested in them and the conversation.
However if you are slumping in your chair, leaning away, fidgeting and not
making appropriate eye contact, people will think that you are not interested
and would prefer to withdraw from the conversation.
We tend to be more relaxed in the company of an equal or someone with
lower status. Conversely, we take on a more tense body posture when we
communicate with people of higher status, such as our boss or the CEO of
the company. All these postures will affect the way in which we communicate
with others.
Facial expressions and eye behaviour
Facial expressions are responsible for a large proportion of non-verbal
communication. While non-verbal communication can vary dramatically
between cultures, some facial expressions, such as for happiness, sadness,
anger and fear, are universal. However, we use our faces to express a variety
of other feelings and emotions, including interest, anger, frustration, hatred,
distrust and many others. We also constantly judge other people by their facial
expressions. We look at their hair, eyes, foreheads, mouths, chins and even
the state of their skin and draw certain conclusions from this information.
Of all the non-verbal communication behaviours, people are most likely
to exert control over their facial expression. Because our faces are so visible
and it is so easy to read emotions in a person’s face, we have learned to display
only those facial expressions that are socially acceptable. You therefore need
to observe people’s faces very carefully, particularly their eyes, to gain a
true idea of their feelings. People who are excellent at reading non-verbal
communication, such as mentalists, look out for micro-expressions, which
are more difficult to control but are also very difficult to observe by someone
who is not an expert in non-verbal communication.
Eye behaviour, and appropriate eye contact in particular, are significant when
we work with other people. In fact, the eyes are so important as a communication
tool, that small babies get distressed when their mothers’ eyes are concealed
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and show no distress when they can see their mother’s eyes, even if the rest
of her face is covered. It is important to realise, though, is that eye behaviour
differs dramatically from culture to culture and you have to be very careful
not to misinterpret the eye behaviour of people from cultures other than your
own. Most Westerners for example tend to make strong eye contact and they
are distrustful of people who make weak eye contact. Weak eye contact in most
Western cultures is interpreted as a sign of a lack of confidence or avoidance
behaviour. However the opposite is true for most African cultures where strong
eye contact is regarded as a sign of disrespect.
Eye behaviour is also related to personality. Extroverts are more likely
to make stronger eye contact than introverts. Moreover people show by the
amount of eye contact they make whether they are dominant or submissive.
Nonetheless, we use eye contact to open communication channels and to
regulate conversations. Effective eye contact signals that the communication
channels are open. When you make appropriate eye contact in the workplace,
people will think that you are interested in your work and can be trusted to
follow instructions. If you do not, you will be judged as being immature,
disrespectful and not interested in your work.
Looking, staring and blinking can also be important non-verbal behaviours.
When people encounter people or things that they like, they tend to look
at them more often and for longer periods of time, their rate of blinking
increases and their pupils dilate. However people also start to blink faster
when they are nervous or lying.
During presentations speakers should also maintain good eye contact with
their audience, even if it is a large one. They should try to look at individuals
in the audience, rather than sweeping their eyes over the entire audience.
Haptics (touch)
Touch plays a very important role in our lives and is connected to our
health and well-being. It is particularly important during infancy and early
childhood development where a deprivation of touch during these phases
of development can impede normal development dramatically. Touch is the
first of our senses to develop and as human beings we are highly dependent
on touch. Touch usually indicates positive feelings because most people are
unlikely to touch someone they dislike. In the workplace, however, people
need to guard against inappropriate touching behaviour as it could be
interpreted as harassment. The exceptions would be for example shaking
hands or if your profession requires it as in the case of the medical or sporting
professions. Again, what is considered appropriate and inappropriate forms
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of touching vary greatly from culture to culture and people need to be aware
of this. In some cultures touching is a taboo, especially cross-gender touching,
even in the form of a handshake. In other cultures, touching is highly valued
and is often used to get someone’s attention or to interrupt.
Figure 3.6 Avoid inappropriate touching behaviour in the workplace
Proxemics and territoriality
Proxemics
We all carry an invisible ‘space bubble’ or comfort zone around us, which
is commonly referred to as a person’s ‘personal space’. If people invade this
zone, we feel very uncomfortable.
The amount of personal space a person needs is influenced by:
• cultural and social norms: in some cultures people have a very small
interpersonal space while in others it is relatively big
• situational factors: sometimes people are forced to reduce their personal
space, such as when they have to share a lift with other people
• personal characteristics: introverts, shy and reserved people are likely to have
a bigger interpersonal space
• level of familiarity: the better we know someone, the more comfortable we
are to have them in our interpersonal space
• status: the higher a person’s status, the more space other people will allow
him or her.
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The study of proxemics involves people’s use of space and how they react
to the space around them. It also covers people’s territoriality or desire to
‘possess’ their own space. Most Westerners have a big interpersonal space
and therefore like to keep a distance of at least one-and-a-half metres when
interacting with strangers. They also use this distance when they conduct
business at an interpersonal level. People from African cultures are more
likely to have a smaller personal space and could feel uncomfortable with or
even offended by such a big space. These opposite desires could cause tension
and adjustments would then have to be made on both sides.
When people have no choice but to invade each other’s personal space, as
in a lift or train, they cope with this tension by silence, eyes turned away and
a rigid seating or standing position that avoids contact if possible. They will
also rearrange themselves so that everyone can have more space each time
someone gets out of the lift or train.
People in organisations therefore need to be aware of each other’s spatial
needs and respect them in interpersonal communication. (See Figure 3.7 below.)
Figure 3.7 Be aware of and respect each other’s spatial needs
Territoriality
Similar to animals, human beings are territorial and our territories are very
important to us. If you listen carefully you will hear people claiming certain
territories, such as ‘my office’, ‘my desk’, ‘my chair’, or ‘my parking space’. We
‘mark’ our territories through ‘markers’, such as personal items, including
mugs, pot plants, photos, ornaments, books and other personal objects to
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indicate to others that a specific territory is ours. Within an organisational
context, senior managers are usually given bigger offices and larger desks,
while junior staff are expected to share offices with other junior staff and
usually have a small desk or workstation. In some organisations, space
becomes associated with status and this can actually become a barrier to
good communication because it can be used as a means of dominating and
controlling people. Senior staff may also cause tension if they ‘invade’ junior
staffs’ space because the junior staff can interpret this behaviour as the senior
manager ‘checking up on them’.
Seating
Seating arrangements affect the ways in which people communicate. A round
table at a staff seminar would be more effective because it encourages eye
contact and equality. However, boardroom tables are often rectangular and
the boss or person chairing the meeting usually sits at the head of the table.
Rectangular tables create a defensive and unequal relationship between people,
which makes people very aware of superior–subordinate relationships. Figure
3.8 below illustrates what could happen.
C
A
D
E
B
Figure 3.8 Table seating arrangement
People who sit at A or B are given the status of leaders. People seated at D are
3.8 However, people seated at C and
likely to be very involved withFigure
the meeting.
Table
seating
arrangement
E run the risk of being
ignored,
particularly
by those at the opposite ends of
the table. People at C and E need to ensure that they are given a chance to
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participate. In addition, people at the ends of the table need to ensure that
they pay attention to the people on their immediate left and right.
A desk between people can also be a serious communication barrier.
However if two people have no choice but to work together at a desk, they
should consider talking across the corner of the desk. This will reduce the
distance between them and the corner of the desk is less of a barrier than the
entire surface of the desk with the two participants facing each other directly.
If they are working on a task where they need desk space, they should consider
working side-by-side or across the width of the desk.
Clothing and accessories
People use clothing and accessories such as ties, belts and jewellery to
manage their identities and to draw attention to themselves. However,
clothing and accessories are important for other reasons. They are very
much part of communication in organisations. How we dress at work is an
important part of the impression that we make on other people. People build
up impressions of what we think about ourselves, our status, our interests
and our personalities through the clothes we wear. What we wear can also
influence our success at work and how seriously other people take us. People
in organisations should therefore take great care over what they wear and
should avoid inappropriate forms of dress. Keep in mind though that what
will be considered an appropriate form of dress in one company may not
be considered appropriate in another. For example, people working for an
advertising agency will dress very differently from people working for an
auditing firm.
Objects and the environment
Objects in an office space, such as office furniture, artwork, carpets, bookshelves
and plants, affect us positively or negatively and help to provide a positive
or negative working environment. Most people like to work in an attractive
and clean environment and the environment actually influences how people
react to certain things and can even influence their emotions and feelings. For
example, people who work in an attractive environment with good furniture,
art and nice-looking curtains and carpets often report feelings of pleasure and
enjoyment, whereas people who work in unattractive environments often
report feelings of irritability and hostility. Organisations should therefore
pay a great deal of attention to the working environment because it affects
employees’ feelings and reactions and the ways in which they work.
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Figure 3.9 A tilted head and relaxed posture indicate active listening behaviour
Chronemics (time)
Chronemics refers to the way in which we perceive time, structure our time
and react to time. Time perceptions can be expressed through punctuality,
willingness to wait, speed of speech and even the amount of time people are
willing to listen to or spend with someone. People from diverse cultures view
time differently. In Western culture there is a tendency in the business world
to view time as a commodity. A common catch-phrase is ‘time is money’
and therefore starting a meeting on time is expected and valued. However,
in some Eastern cultures it is considered impolite to initiate business
negotiations immediately. Other cultures view time as circular or renewable
and therefore business would be conducted in a different way.
People in organisations should be sensitive to different views about time
and should be prepared to discuss these views. In the end, organisations will
have to decide on their time values because different views of time could be
impossible to accommodate and result in tension or conflict. However even
when organisations decide to adopt their own time policy, they could still
run into difficulties when conducting international business or when they are
competing with others who have different time values.
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Non-verbal deal breakers and makers in an organisational context
Non-verbal deal breakers
◗
Body odour, bad breath, messy or inappropriate dress and overwhelming perfume or aftershave
◗
Poor body posture and slumping in your chair
◗
Checking and/or sending emails or SMSs on your phone while another person is talking
◗
Poor or no eye contact, looking around or staring out of the window
◗
Rubbing your hands together, cracking your knuckles or playing with your pen, keys or some
other object
◗
Speaking too fast, too slowly or taking on a condescending tone
◗
Watching the clock or checking your watch all the time
◗
Crossing your arms and legs and frowning.
Non-verbal deal makers
No body odours and appropriate, professional dress
◗
Standing tall with your shoulders back and sitting upright
◗
Appropriate eye contact and a friendly, genuine smile
◗
Appropriate rate of speech and suitable respectful tone
◗
Lean towards the person you are speaking to
◗
Show that you are listening actively by making appropriate eye contact, nodding your head
and using other positive, non-verbal gestures.
◗
Detecting deception
Non-verbal communication is useful in helping to determine whether people
are being deceptive. People do not always have negative intentions when they
lie. They mostly lie to protect themselves or to save face and therefore they
manage their image and the way they would like people to see them. Most
people lie within the first ten minutes of a conversation with strangers, often
without even realising it. Even animals deceive and in children it is seen as a
sign of healthy cognitive development. On the positive side deception helps
us to avoid conflict, but on the negative side it can be used to manipulate,
mislead and control others.
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Chapter 3: Interpersonal communication
Contrary to popular belief, deception is incredibly difficult to detect, especially
when the lie has been rehearsed. All of us have what is known as a ‘truth bias’,
meaning that we do not expect other people to deceive us and, because we
don’t expect them to deceive us, we are not likely to notice when they do.
However the body is a terrible liar and if you are perceptive enough you will
be able to tell if someone is lying by closely observing his or her non-verbal
communication. We call this ‘non-verbal leakage’. Please note, however, that
it is extremely important to consider the context and to look out for a cluster
of behaviours. One of these behaviours in isolation is unlikely to be a sign of
deception.
Non-verbal signs of deception may include:
• stiff upper body
• too much eye contact and increased blinking
• too much detail in stories
• a lot of hesitation in their speech and use of fillers such as ‘ummm…’ to
allow them time to think
• fake smiles
• often answering a question with a question
• increased pitch of voice
• bodies turned away from you
• rubbing their necks or noses
• ‘hiding’ their mouths behind their hands.
Conclusion
Are you projecting the image you desire through your interpersonal
communication behaviour? Your success in the workplace can be greatly
influenced by the effectiveness of your interpersonal communication skills.
Effective interpersonal communication skills will also help you to reach
your personal goals. The most important of these skills is to be an active
listener. There is no better way of communicating to others that you respect
them than by really listening to them. Another very important interpersonal
communication skill is the ability to read the non-verbal communication of
other people. However, be cautious in your interpretation of these behaviours
and always consider the context.
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CHAPTER
4
SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION
Introduction
Organisations mostly consist of teams and employees are frequently required
to work together in groups. These groups can vary in size, from small task
teams to large departments. No matter how big or small a group in an
organisation is, each group has a specific task to perform or goal to achieve and
it is important that the members of the team can coordinate their actions and
work together. This can only be achieved through effective communication.
Communication should therefore be used to get individuals to function well
in groups. At their best, groups benefit an organisation because they allow
people to work together to achieve the organisation’s goals. It is therefore
important for us to understand the dynamics of groups better.
Small group communication is a reality in every organisation and the
better you can communicate in a small group, the better your chances are of
achieving career success. Small groups in an organisation, often referred to as
teams, differ from a regular group of people in the sense that the members
of a small group are interdependent, share a common goal (or purpose) and
can influence each other. There are several reasons why groups form and why
people have a need to be part of a small group. One of the most important
reasons is that small groups are often more capable of reaching organisational
goals than individuals are on their own and it is therefore not uncommon for
groups in an organisation to be working on a collective task.
When a new group is formed it always goes through certain stages, namely
forming, storming, norming and performing. A fifth stage can be added
to this, namely adjourning. However, since groups can be relatively stable,
adjourning is only relevant in situations where a group has been formed only
to perform a specific task or where the organisation goes through a process
of restructuring.
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Similar to the organisation, groups also have structures and there are always
certain group dynamics at work that influence the behaviour and performance
of group members. For example, over time, groups negotiate and establish
certain norms (or rules) that regulate group behaviour. When certain group
members then do not conform to these norms, it can lead to conflict and these
non-conforming members can sometimes even get sanctioned or punished
for violating the group norms. The downside of too much conformation,
however, is a phenomenon called groupthink, which can be a major obstacle
for innovation, progress and growth.
In organisations there are formal and informal groups and these can
take on many forms and perform lots of different functions, such as policymaking or decision-making. Leadership plays a vital role in the functioning
and performance of a group, especially within formal groups. There are
basically four different leadership styles, namely autocratic, bureaucratic,
democratic and laissez-faire. It is important to note that a leadership style that
works in one group may not work in another. The effectiveness of the type of
leadership style is therefore dependent on the situation and context. However,
transformational leaders are excellent communicators. They have the ability to
bring about positive change and get people to work together and support each
other to reach a common goal. Yet the ability to get people to work together
and support each other does not mean that there will never be any conflict
in groups. Conflict is inevitable because people will never always agree on
everything. In fact, as mentioned before, people thinking in the same way
could be an obstacle for growth and development. Conflict per se is therefore
not negative, as long as it is dealt with in a constructive, as opposed to a
destructive, way. Let us now explore some of these concepts in greater depth.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• describe the nature and characteristics of a small group
• explain why people want to join or form a group
• describe the stages of group development
• describe group structures and group dynamics that influence group members
• explain the different types of groups found in organisations
• describe the four different styles of leadership
• summarise the four broad perspectives of leadership
• describe different types of conflict.
• describe different approaches to conflict
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Nature and characteristics of a small group
A small group can be defined as three or more people who have gathered
together with a common goal in mind. These people may be together for a
single meeting or may meet on a regular basis over an extended period. Such
a group may or may not have an appointed leader and the members can get
together for all kinds of reasons. It is important to note, however, that a small
group differs from a ‘group of people’, such as a group of people in a cinema.
Some of the characteristics of a small group that distinguish it from a group
of people are that the individuals in the small group:
• share a common goal
• interact together, sometimes over an extended period
• develop a set of values and norms within the group
• are prepared to take risks in the group
• develop behaviour in the group that would not be seen outside the group
• are aware of the members being and forming a group.
The definition above stresses that a small group usually has a purpose and
that its group members know and interact with each other to reach a decision
or a common goal. If, for example, everyone in the company comes together
for an Annual General Meeting that is run according to a set of procedural
rules, this would not be considered a small group.
Styles of communication will also vary a great deal according to the size of
the group. In a small group of five, for example, there will be a great deal more
interaction than in a large meeting where 20 or more people are in attendance.
Members’ satisfaction with communication also decreases significantly as the
size of the group increases. In other words, the smaller the group, the more
satisfied people are with both the quality and quantity of communication.
In organisations, small groups, such as departments, often come together in
meetings in order to make decisions and plan for the future. Meetings will be
discussed in more detail in Chapter 8.
Reasons for the formation of a small group
People have various reasons for joining or forming a group. According to
Kruger, Smit and Le Roux (1996:205–206), the most important reasons are:
• Security: people will join a group in order to acquire greater security,
especially when they feel threatened.
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Chapter 4: Small group communication
• Status: people will sometimes join a group in order to attain the status that
being part of that group can provide them.
• Self-image: to belong to a group makes people feel important, which in
turn improves their self-image.
• Affiliation needs: the most important reason for people joining groups is
because of their need to be affiliated to other people or to be in social
contact with other people.
• Power: people receive some form of influence and authority over others by
joining certain groups. Groups also have more power than an individual.
• Collective goals: certain goals can only be achieved by a group of people
because individuals will not be able to complete the task on their own.
Stages of group development
Tuckman (2011) developed a five-stage model of group development, which
consists of the forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning
stages of group development.
As the name of the stage implies, the group is formed during the forming
stage. We also refer to this stage as the orientation stage. Members are
selected to be part of the group. During this stage they get acquainted with
each other and set ground rules or norms for the group. Because members
are not familiar with one another at the onset of the group formation, the
group members are not at ease with each other and there is usually a certain
amount of anxiety. Members do not yet understand their roles in the group
or what the task entails and they do not know what to expect from their
fellow group members. In this stage, communication is not very spontaneous
and rather formal. As the group members become more familiar with each
other, their individual roles and the task at hand, some of the tension starts
to disappear and communication becomes more spontaneous and less
guarded and restricted.
Groups will then move into the storming stage (the conflict stage). As
members become less guarded in their communication, they will also
become more outspoken and less polite and reserved, which in turn may
result in tension and conflict as each individual tries to influence the process.
Members often resist control from leaders in the group and openly show
hostility towards one another. As members work out their differences, the
conflict is replaced by cooperation and cohesiveness and the group moves
into the next stage, the norming stage (the cohesion stage).
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TUCKMAN’S STAGES OF 1.
GROUP
DEVELOPMENT
FORMING
5. ADJOURNING
BETTER TOGETHER
TUCKMAN’S STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT
TOGETHER
Effective businessBETTER
communication
in organisations
5. ADJOURNING
1. FORMING
2. STORMING
TUCKMAN’S STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT
BETTER TOGETHER
1. FORMING
5. ADJOURNING
1. FORMING
5. ADJOURNING
2. STORMING
2. STORMING
STAGE
3. NORMING
1. FORMING STAGE
2. STORMING
aw 2
3. NORMING
2. STORMING
3. NORMING
3. NORMING STAGE
aw 2
4. PERFORMING
4. PERFORMING STAGE
STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT
BETTER TOGETHER
aw 2.4 - Tuckman’s stages of Group Development
3. NORMING
???????
???????
4. PERFORMING
???????
5. ADJOURNING
1. FORMING
5. ADJOURNING STAGE
aw 2.4 - Tuckman’s stages of Group Development
?????????
4. PERFORMING
Figure 4.1 Tuckman’s five-stage model of group development
aw 2.4 - Tuckman’s stages of Group Development
During the norming
stage members determine how they will do things
4. PERFORMING
and they set norms. The group members decide what acceptable and
aw 2.4 - ?????????
unacceptable
forms
conduct
and communication are. These norms then
aw 2.4 - Tuckman’
s stagesof
of Group
Development
regulate behaviour and reduce conflict. The members start to work together,
forming close relationships with one another. A sense of camaraderie or
mutual trust and friendship exists in the group, with a high involvement in
the task.
Because of the high involvement in accomplishing group goals and
completing the task, the group starts to perform. This stage is called the
performing stage (the task-performance stage) where the group works together
to get the job done.
When the group has completed the task or reached its collective goal,
the group sometimes dissolves. During the adjourning stage (the dissolution
stage) the group breaks up, either due to the nature of the task or because
the members were unable to resolve conflict and establish norms that could
2. STORMING
3. NORMING
4. PERFORMING
man’s stages of Group Development
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Chapter 4: Small group communication
assist them in cooperating with each other. Failure to complete a task can
also result in a group being dismantled. Please note that not all groups are
adjourned. Some groups in organisations hardly ever adjourn because the
task(s) they need to perform is an on-going one. The group members may
change over time as people resign or retire, but the team essentially keeps on
working together to perform the same function.
Group structures and group dynamics
Group structure and group dynamics influence the group members in terms
of their behaviour and performance. The following group characteristics and
group structures in particular influence behaviour and performance of groups
and their members (Kruger et al, 1996:209–211).
Communication patterns
Communication is part of interaction and, in any group, specific
communication patterns are formed over time. Some group members, either
because of their position or certain personality traits, will become more
central than others. What is most important is that the more effective the
communication among group members, the more successful the group
will be. Also keep in mind that the bigger the group gets, the less satisfying
communication will be for all the members.
Decision-making patterns
In any group certain patterns develop according to which decisions are made.
Making decisions in a group is more complicated than individual decision
making. Groups often make more extreme decisions because the responsibility
for the outcome of the decision is shifted to several people as opposed to
one individual. Group decisions tend to be better than individual decisions.
However, if a group becomes too cohesive it could lead to a phenomenon
called groupthink. Groupthink occurs when a group is so concerned with
maintaining harmony in the group that they fail to consider all the options
and to evaluate the effectiveness of their decisions. Groupthink then becomes
an obstacle in the growth and development of the group and the group is likely
to struggle with providing creative and innovative ideas to solve problems.
Authority distribution
Authority of individuals in the group to influence decisions varies and
therefore specific authority patterns will develop. Whether or not a person
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has authority over others is influenced by many factors. A person could have
authority because of his or her position, such as a line manager. But some
people have authority because of their personality, attitude or knowledge.
When a person has authority, others will obey that person and he or she will
have more power in the decision-making process.
Role differentiation
Members in the group will each perform different functions in order to
achieve the group’s goals. This leads to role differentiation. Group members
can have one or multiple roles. Leadership roles help the group to accomplish
tasks while other roles, such as maintenance and support roles, help to keep
the group together. Members can also have other roles, such as initiator,
information seeker, energiser, coordinator, gatekeeper and many others.
Leadership
The first role that usually develops in a group is that of leadership. This is
because the decision-making process is such an important aspect in working
towards achieving goals and the main function of the leader is to assist the
group in reaching its goals.
Group cohesion
One of the characteristics of a small group is that the members must be aware
that they are a group. The extent to which the members are attracted to the group
is known as group cohesion. Building cohesion and trust in a group is very
important, especially in diverse groups. Cohesion is established, maintained
and even enhanced through communication. Cohesiveness increases as the
group stabilises because of established norms and roles. The more successful
groups are, the higher their cohesiveness tends to be. Again, too much cohesion
can lead to groupthink, which can stand in the way of progress.
Conforming to group norms
The norms that regulate the behaviour in the group lead to further group
unity and cohesion. Simply put, group norms refer to the do’s and don’ts of
group behaviour. The extent to which members conform to the group norms
can vary. The more people identify with the group, the more likely they will
be to conform to the group norms. Those who conform to the group norms
are usually liked and respected by the other group members. Those who do
not, may frequently find themselves in conflict situations and can even get
sanctioned or punished for violating the group’s rules.
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Conflict management
Different individual needs and personalities within the group make conflict
inevitable. The most important function or skill in a group is to manage
conflict. If conflict is not managed in a constructive way in the group, the
results can be disastrous. Yet conflict is needed for a group to develop and
grow and it should not be viewed in a negative light unless it becomes
personal and destructive.
Motivation and productivity
In a work situation it is also important that the group and the group goal
positively influence the motivation and productivity of each individual in
the group. People are motivated by different things and it is important to
understand what motivates the different group members.
Types of groups
In organisations there are two broad categories of groups, namely informal
and formal groups, under which seven types of sub-groups may be found:
1. Informal groups
• social groups where people engage in small talk
• tension-releasing groups.
2. Formal groups
• task/project groups
• training/learning groups
• policy-making groups
• problem-solving groups
• decision-making groups.
A wide variety of communication styles will be found in these groups. Some
groups for example will have a leader in charge. In other groups all members
may have equal power and they will use communication to reach consensus.
Another group, such as a learning group, may need guidance from an instructor
or facilitator. Managers and staff need to be aware of these variations in groups
so that they are flexible in their communication.
Informal groups
Social groups
People often befriend each other in the workplace and they then form social
or casual groups. People simply get together for an informal chat and engage in
small talk. They gather informally, for example, in a tea room or staff canteen.
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Informal lines of communication always develop in organisations. These then
form part of the so-called grapevine. Informal groups are very important in
a company. The informal contact helps people get to know each other better
and to form stronger bonds. It also helps to develop trust. These relationships
help group members to form better working groups in the future. These
groups also help to draw in people who might otherwise become outsiders
and these relationships contribute significantly to the well-being of staff.
Tension-releasing groups
These groups are also informal. They gather together from time-to-time
because of some event in the company that has caused tension. These groups
are important because they help people to voice their frustrations and
consequently help to relieve tension. In this way they serve as an outlet for
tensions that could cause great problems if allowed to continue. They are
also important because people learn to understand each other better and
to interact more efficiently. Tension-releasing groups work well in a company
which, for example, has had to retrench staff or which has staff from diverse
cultures or generational gaps. In this case, informal meetings with the Human
Resources manager can help staff to voice their frustrations and find solutions.
Tension-releasing groups are also crucial for people who work in crisis
management, such as police officers or those counselling victims of abuse, as
it helps them to let off steam and feel they are not alone.
Formal groups
Formal groups are formed as part of the formal organisation with the aim of
performing certain tasks in order to reach organisational goals.
Task or project groups
A task or project group is usually a temporary group that has a specific goal to
achieve or a task or project to complete. They will usually form part of a bigger
organisation and members usually have other tasks within the organisation.
They tend to have a leader or project manager to guide and coordinate group
members to complete the specific task or project (Kruger et al, 1996:207).
Training or learning groups
The most common ways that people learn and develop at work is through
formal face-to-face training. Depending on the needs of individual employees
and that of the organisation, specific employees will be selected to join a
specific training or learning group. They will usually have an appointed instructor
or facilitator who guides the training and development of the group.
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Training groups are very important in organisations because employees
increase their knowledge, gain new skills and learn to:
• evaluate ideas
• define problems
• work together and stimulate new ways of thinking
• deal with new information.
Policy-making groups
These are formal groups that work together to decide on organisational policy,
create rules for the organisation and plan for the future.
They will normally have an appointed leader and are likely to follow a set
agenda. Members of such groups have to communicate responsibly. They have
to be sensitive to each other’s views and have to be highly skilled at evaluating
information. Such groups need to cultivate a supportive climate if they are to
work well together and to work in the best interests of the organisation.
Problem-solving groups
These groups are set up to solve problems. They will normally have a leader
who needs to direct the thinking of the group members to approach a
problem from different angles in order to analyse the problem effectively
and find creative solutions that demonstrate adequate consideration of the
practicality and social consequences of the solution (Bagraim, Cunningham,
Pieterse-Landman, Potgieter and Viedge, 2011:71–72).
Decision-making groups
In order to make complex decisions in organisations, it is better to select
a group of experts to contribute and affect the decision outcomes. Making
decisions in groups can be very challenging and therefore requires a strong
leader to guide the decision-making process of the selected group. These
groups could be working under great pressure. Decisions made by certain
groups may also not always be popular. Decision-making groups tend to focus
strongly on the task and will have long and serious discussions. They will have
to make sure that they have the most relevant and up-to-date information for
making the decisions and they have to consider the pros and cons of each
decision carefully. A decision-making group may, for example, in times of
recession have to decide on whom to make redundant in the organisation in
order to ensure the overall survival of the organisation.
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Leadership in groups
Leadership plays an important role in group settings, especially in relation to
formal groups.
Some groups may function without a leader. But even if a formal leader is
not appointed or selected a leader may emerge. This type of leader is called an
emergent leader. The group confers leadership status on this person based on for
example the person’s charisma, confidence and knowledge. Someone who is
a leader in one situation may not however be the leader in the next, especially
not if the new situation demands a special set of skills. In organisations, there
are often appointed leaders who are known as designated leaders. Regardless
of whether the leader emerged or was appointed, each leader will adopt a
different leadership style or use a different approach to lead the group. These
leadership styles and approaches have implications for the effectiveness of
communication within the group. It is therefore important to understand
leadership styles and the four broad perspectives to leadership.
Styles of leadership
Leaders do not act in the same way. They have a range of different styles, all of
which will affect the ways in which they communicate and how the rest of the
team will function. The major styles of leadership may be described as follows:
• autocratic
• bureaucratic
• democratic
• laissez-faire (from the French, meaning ‘allow to do’, or in other words, not
interfering).
The autocratic leader tends to give orders without considering the opinions
of the other group members. Such leaders tend to be task-oriented and
have strong views on how the task should be accomplished and completed.
Conflict may arise in such groups if the members do not respect the leader.
In general autocratic leaders are not well liked because they disregard the
knowledge and opinions of others. However, in a crisis-situation, this type of
leadership style works very well.
The bureaucratic leader leads according to the rule-book and everything
is done by the rule. This approach is successful for most routine tasks, but
if the task becomes complex it can stifle or suppress innovative ideas and
solutions. This style might be adopted by an incompetent leader or someone
who lacks confidence.
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Democratic leaders aim to guide and govern group members as opposed to
telling everyone what to do. They encourage full participation by all group
members and respect the ideas and opinions of others. They expect group
members to work together to reach decisions. Such groups are effective at
solving complex problems because they are creative. However in a crisis
situation they might not be that efficient because of the time needed for all
opinions to be heard and evaluated.
Laissez-faire leaders do not direct groups. They are generally indifferent and
allow group members to do as they please. They do not take a stand on issues
and do not follow up on decisions taken or on actions to be taken. Such leaders
do not influence their followers and consequently followers often argue about
their responsibilities. This style of leadership is generally not acceptable. The
only time that it might be successful is when the group members are highly
motivated and able to get on with the job without being directed.
Theories of leadership
Researchers and academics have been researching leadership for many years
in order to try and explain what makes a good leader. Over time, four broad
perspectives of leadership theories have emerged, including trait, behavioural,
situational and more contemporary perspectives. In this section, these four
broad leadership perspectives are summarised.
The trait leadership perspective
Early researchers in the field of communication theory tried to list a set of
traits that they thought were important in leaders. It was believed that a
leader had superior traits and characteristics that distinguished him or her
from other people. The trait perspective on leadership focuses on personal
qualities and characteristics of leadership, such as self-confidence, energy,
intelligence, drive and emotional intelligence.
The trait theory was not very helpful since having a number of so-called
leadership traits does not guarantee that someone will be a good leader.
Studies in leadership needed to approach the problem differently.
The behavioural leadership perspective
From the behavioural perspective, researchers wondered whether there
was something unique in the way leaders behave, which then implicates
that a person could be trained to be a leader. Thousands of dimensions of
leadership behaviour were identified but studies narrowed this down to only
two, namely initiating structure and consideration.
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Initiating structure is the ability of a leader to structure the group in such a way
that the role each individual plays assists the group in attaining its collective
goal. Such a leader provides guidance, organises work in an effective way,
manages relationships and sets specific goals and deadlines. A leader high
in initiating structure is someone who assigns specific tasks to specific group
members, sets definite standards of performance, expects group members to
maintain these standards and makes sure that deadlines are met (Robbins &
Judge, 2011:414).
Consideration is the ability of the leader to build trusting work relationships
where employees’ ideas and opinions are respected and sought and where
the leader considers the feelings of others. A highly considerate leader is
supportive and approachable, treats employees with respect and expresses
appreciation (Robbins & Judge, 2011:414).
The leadership grid
One of the most widely known and used behavioural leadership style models
is Blake and Mouton’s leadership grid (as illustrated in Figure 4.2 below).
Their leadership grid provides a basis to compare different leadership styles
in terms of two dimensions:
1. concern for production results
2. concern for people.
(Le Roux et al, 1999:127–129)
HIGH
9
Leadership grid
1;9
9;9
8
Concern for people
7
Country club leader
Team leader
6
Middle-of-the-road leader
5;5
5
4
3
2
1
Impoverished leader
Authoritarian leader
1;1
9;1
LOW
1
LOW
2
3
4
5
6
7
Concern for production results
8
9
HIGH
Figure 4.2 The leadership grid of Blake and Mouton
4.2-Blake
& Moutonto which the leader emphasises
Concern for production results is awthe
extent
Leadership Grid
production, profit, deadlines, task completion and results. This is represented
on the horizontal axis of the grid.
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Concern for people is the extent to which the leader emphasises the needs and
expectations of employees, and fosters and develops employee satisfaction.
This is represented on the vertical axis of the grid.
The leadership grid consists of five leadership styles:
1. impoverished leader
2. task master or authoritarian leader
3. country club leader
4. middle-of-the-road leader
5. team leader.
The impoverished leader (1;1) has a laissez-faire approach to managing the team.
This person shows little concern for production and little concern for people
(both at scale point 1). The 1;1 leader does the absolute minimum required
in both the job and interpersonal relationships to stay on as a member of
the company. The impoverished leader avoids commitment to decisions.
This style is often associated with managers who are close to retirement or
managers who have emotionally withdrawn from the company. There is little
communication with group members and no direction is provided.
The task master or authoritarian (9;1) shows maximum concern for
production (scale point 9) and minimum concern for people (scale point 1).
Production is achieved by means of formal authority and subordinates are
controlled by enforcing submissiveness. Decisions are made unilaterally and
communication is mainly one-way.
The country club leader (1;9) is a democratic leader who will show minimum
concern for production (scale point 1) and maximum concern for people (scale
point 9). Cultivating and maintaining sound interpersonal relationships with
colleagues and subordinates will therefore be most important to such a leader.
This leader maintains that the job will be done automatically if interpersonal
relationships are sound. Communication is aimed at maintaining a pleasant
working atmosphere and conflict is avoided at all costs.
The middle-of-the-road leader (5;5) tries to maintain a balance between
production and interpersonal relationships. Blake and Mouton (1978:12)
describe this style as the ‘go-along-to-get-along’ style which is adopted in
conformity to the status quo. Such leaders try half-heartedly to integrate the
needs of employees with organisational goals.
The team leader (9;9) integrates concern for production and concern for
people at a high level (both at scale point 9). This style emphasises teamwork,
is goal-orientated and strives for excellent results through participative
management, involvement with people and conflict management. According
to this leadership model, the 9;9 rating provides the ideal that leaders should
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strive for. However it should be kept in mind that leadership behaviour is
complex. Therefore some critics do not agree that the 9;9 leadership style is
always appropriate and suggest that the situation will determine the most
appropriate style adopted by the leader.
The situational leadership perspective
Success in leadership is more complex than merely identifying and isolating
a few traits or behaviours. It became clear in the second half of the twentieth
century that situational variables should also be considered because what
works in Situation A will not necessarily work in Situation B. This section
explores one approach to isolating situational variables: Hersey and
Blanchard’s situational theory (Hersey and Blanchard, 1998:96 cited by
Cronje et al, 2006:173–190).
Hersey and Blanchard’s situational theory suggests that the leadership
style (S1, S2, S3 or S4) adopted by the leader should match the maturity
(or readiness) level (M1, M2, M3 or M4) of the subordinate (as illustrated
in Figure 4.3 below). The maturity of the subordinate can be determined in
relation to a task and it includes psychological maturity and job maturity. It
is suggested that the more mature the subordinate, the less task-orientated
and more relationship-orientated the leadership should be. Depending on
the maturity level, the leadership can range from delegating to participating
to selling ideas and to telling subordinates what to do.
CIPA
T I NG
PART
I
S2
S1
Task behaviour
(LOW)
High
M4
Moderate
M3
(HIGH)
Low
M2
M1
Immature
EGA
TING
Low
relationship High task
and
and low
low task relationship
ING
EL
TELL
Relationship behaviour
S3
High task
and high
relationship
S4
D
Mature
I NG
High
relationship
and
low task
LL
SE
(HIGH)
Style of leader
Maturity of subordinate(s)
Figure 4.3 Hersey and Blanchard’s situational theory
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Task behaviour refers to the degree to which leaders are likely to organise and
dictate the tasks of group members by indicating who should do what, when,
where and how. Task behaviour is also characterised by a leader instituting
well-defined organisational patterns, channels of communication and
procedures for the execution of tasks.
Relationship behaviour refers to the degree to which leaders are likely
to maintain interpersonal relationships between themselves and group
members by providing open channels of communication, socio-emotional
support, psychological stroking and facilitating subordinate’s behaviour.
The maturity levels of employees can be organised into four categories.
Before the leader decides which leadership style to adopt, he or she must first
determine the maturity level of the employees which he or she needs to manage:
1. M1 (low maturity) refers to subordinates who are unsure about how to
execute a task and do not have the necessary ability to do it. It can also
refer to employees who are unwilling to perform the task.
2. M2 (low to average maturity) refers to subordinates who do not have the
ability to execute a task, although they are willing and confident enough
to do it.
3. M3 (average to high maturity) refers to subordinates who have the ability
to execute a task, but are unwilling or unsure how to do it.
4. M4 (high maturity) refers to subordinates who have the ability and
confidence to execute the task and are willing to do it.
The leadership styles the leader can adopt to match the maturity or
readiness level of the subordinate is derived from the combination of task
and relationship behaviour. Based on the maturity levels of the employees,
leadership styles can also be placed into four categories:
1. S1 (telling) involves high task behaviour combined with low relationship
behaviour. This type of leader explains by means of task behaviour to
his or her subordinates what to do and how, where and when to do it.
Such a leader describes the tasks thoroughly, without explaining to them
why a task should be done or why certain procedures are to be followed.
Communication is mainly one-way.
2. S2 (selling) involves high task behaviour with high relationship behaviour.
The leader provides guidance to subordinates and tries to persuade his or
her subordinates to accept decisions.
3. S3 (participating) is characterised by high relationship behaviour with
low task behaviour, meaning that the leader and the subordinates take
decisions together by means of two-way communication. Subordinates
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can participate in decision-making because they have the required abilities
and are encouraged to participate by means of high relationship behaviour.
4. S4 (delegating) is characterised by low relationship behaviour with low
task behaviour, implying that the leader allows subordinates to take
completely independent decisions by delegating authority to them.
Therefore supervision is of a general nature, which means that the
subordinates’ work is not checked continuously as they are fully capable
of executing their tasks, have the necessary confidence to make their own
decisions and are willing to do so.
Contemporary leadership perspectives: Transformation leadership
Transformational leadership can be described as a leadership style that
creates positive change in the followers. A transformational leader focuses
on transforming others to help each other, to look out for each other, be
encouraging, harmonious and look out for the company as a whole.
In this instance the leaders are focused on the processes of work and are
interested in securing their follower’s involvement and commitment to the
business. They are the kind of leaders who will take responsibility for the
overall vision of the company and for getting the followers to buy into that
vision. They also have the ability to make their followers feel significant, even
in a really large company (Bates et al, 2006:343).
Transformational leaders secure their followers’ support by focusing
on creating a shared vision for the business. Bates et al, (2006:207) state
that a shared vision is a clear idea of where the business is heading and is
understood, accepted and supported by all. It is important to take note of the
fact that the vision helps to bind the members of a company together and
feeds directly into the organisational culture.
Transformational leaders:
• are extremely good at communicating the vision to their followers in a
way that is motivating
• are capable of generating enthusiasm and momentum among their
followers to achieve the desired organisational goals
• share some of the characteristics of charismatic leaders in that their
personal power and energy are directed at getting commitment from
their followers
• ‘walk the walk’ instead of only ‘talking the talk’
• are approachable, reasonable, non-discriminatory and trustworthy
• invite criticism and feedback.
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Conflict in groups
Differences in leadership styles, power, diverse values, attitudes, needs and
different opinions or ideas inevitably lead to disagreement, opposition or
animosity between members in a group. For example, people may have strong
views on how a project should be managed and these views will not always
be the same. It is important to know, however, that conflict is not necessarily
negative and could actually be advantageous. What makes conflict negative
is the way in which it is dealt with. Conflict in an organisation or group can
therefore be functional or dysfunctional, depending on how it is handled.
Functional conflict includes open discussions in order to better understand
the differences in opinion, which will lead to more innovative solutions and
greater commitment from all group members. The conflict’s focus is on an
objective or a task and group members are motivated in reaching a common
goal although they may disagree on the method of attaining the common
goal. Group members will typically sit down and calmly discuss and refine
ideas without insulting each other or becoming personal or aggressive.
Dysfunctional conflict usually focuses more on emotions than on the
objective or task. The conflict’s focus is on each other and is therefore also
referred to as interpersonal conflict. This type of conflict is destructive and
has a negative effect on the group. ‘It is disruptive because it hinders progress,
creates indecisiveness, reduces cohesiveness and disengages people’ (Bagraim
et al, 2011:10).
It is therefore important for leaders of a group and group members to
understand the types of conflict and how to manage these conflict situations
effectively as each type of conflict has implications for the way in which it
should be resolved.
Types of conflict
People in organisations need to recognise that there are different types of
conflict. According to Bagraim et al (2011:289) the types of conflict that can
occur in an organisation include, among others:
• intrapersonal conflict
• interpersonal conflict
• team conflict
• intergroup conflict.
Intrapersonal conflict is conflict within an individual and can occur when
one of the team members is having a hard time in dealing with a personal
problem or when he or she is concerned about something. When people worry
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about personal problems it can lead to an inability to perform optimally.
Intrapersonal conflict usually requires a person to make a difficult choice or
decision. Agonising over the right choice can be extremely distracting and
sometimes the problem can be so distracting that the team member will not
be able to perform at all. This is very problematic because if one member of
the team is not functioning at an optimal level, it places an extra burden on
the other team members, which can result in stress and negativity.
Interpersonal conflict occurs between two individuals. Whether interpersonal
conflict has a positive or negative outcome will depend on the conflict
management style of the individuals involved in the conflict situation. This
conflict is frequently caused by differences in attitude and experience in a
company. Individuals may also be competing for scarce resources. Sometimes
they have to work with other people whom they do not like or who try to
dominate them.
Interpersonal conflict can be destructive if people move from idea
opposition to person opposition. Idea opposition, which is constructive, is
when people argue about a particular issue but they focus their attention
on the problem at hand and refine their ideas until they come up with a
suitable solution. Person opposition, on the other hand, is destructive and is
when people start to insult each other and become personal.
Interpersonal conflict in the workplace can usually be categorised under:
• value conflict
• ego conflict
• content conflict.
•
•
Value conflict can be destructive because people regard their values as
fundamental to their existence and, when others do not share those
values it can lead to conflict. Values are basic beliefs that people are
very reluctant to change. In this type of conflict people must recognise
the conflict for what it is and they may have to accept that it cannot be
resolved easily and that they will need to agree to disagree. They will
also need to work to find other areas of agreement.
Ego conflict occurs because people have a tendency to link their self-worth
to certain views and ideas and, when others then differ from them, their
self-esteem is threatened. The more someone sees themselves as highly
qualified, experienced or as an expert in their field, the more likely he
or she is to get ego-involved when others disagree with him or her. This
type of conflict becomes highly problematic when winning becomes
more important to someone than doing what is right.
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•
Content conflict describes a conflict over what people view as facts or
opinions. This type of conflict can be more easily resolved, provided
the conflict is not turned into person opposition. The best way to solve
this type of conflict is to determine what the facts are and, if this is not
possible, to leave it and move on.
Team conflict occurs when members of a team disagree about how to achieve
team goals or objectives. This type of conflict is aggravated by poor listening
skills and personality clashes. The team leader plays an important role in
resolving this type of conflict. Unfortunately the team leader is sometimes
directly involved in the conflict situation. In situations like these it is best to
get in the services of an arbitrator or facilitator.
Intergroup conflict occurs when two groups or two teams are in conflict
with each other. As organisations become larger and more complex, conflict
caused by people’s different roles and functions cannot be avoided. People
become cut off from others and find it difficult to see things from others’
point of view.
Approaches to managing conflict
People may approach the management of conflict in two different ways:
1. avoiding the conflict
2. confronting the conflict.
Avoiding conflict
People tend to avoid conflict because they feel that they cannot handle it in a
constructive way. They smooth over the differences and hope that the conflict
will go away. Some people may also try to postpone resolution of the conflict
until their anger has disappeared. This approach may help in a small way but
it does not allow people to settle the most important issues. The only time
conflict should be avoided is when people need time to cool off but even
then the conflict should be addressed once all parties have calmed down and
are ready to have a calm, rational discussion.
Confronting conflict
If people decide to confront the problem there are three major approaches
they could take. They could:
1. try to win, without considering the other side (win-lose)
2. attempt a compromise solution (lose-lose)
3. approach the conflict with the view that both sides can win (win-win).
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The win-lose approach is based on power. One side or person uses authority to
defeat the other side. This approach is only short term and can cause a great
deal of anger.
The lose-lose approach is sometimes called a compromise approach.
Each side makes some concessions but nobody is completely satisfied.
This approach is useful in the short term but can lead to a great deal of
dissatisfaction in the long run.
The win-win approach stresses that all parties can win if the conflict is
handled carefully. The ideal approach here is for all parties to work towards a
common goal that will satisfy everybody rather than proving who is right or
wrong. An atmosphere of trust is then created.
Implications for communication
Those involved in conflict need to:
• analyse the type of conflict
• try to create an atmosphere (or climate) of trust
• strive towards a win-win approach to solve the conflict
• encourage effective listening
• acknowledge the values and interests of others
• encourage a clear statement of the problems
• strive to use language that is neutral rather than judgemental or scornful
• show verbally and non-verbally that they are concerned about others.
Conclusion
A small group has certain characteristics that differentiate it from other
groups. People usually join a specific group because of a particular reason and
all groups will go through various stages as the group develops. The group
structure and the type of group will have an influence on the communication
between members and could require a leader to emerge or to be appointed in
order to manage or facilitate the communication and task to be accomplished.
Leaders will have different leadership styles and approach the leading of the
group differently. Group members will also have different ideas about how to
complete certain tasks or how to achieve certain goals. This could sometimes
lead to conflict, which, if not managed correctly, could be destructive and
have a negative effect on the group.
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CHAPTER
5
COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATIONS
Introduction
Effective communication is central to all organisations. It is the way in
which managers and other members of staff communicate to influence and
instruct one another in order to achieve the organisation’s goals. Yet in order
to understand the role of communication in organisations, one must first
understand what is meant by an organisation.
One of the characteristics of organisations is that they have certain structures.
The flow of its communication is highly dependent on the organisational
design and structure and is often referred to as lines of communication.
Organisations as social systems require the effective coordination of individual
efforts into collective performance and therefore most organisations adopt
certain communication systems and policies to ensure this coordination.
Successful organisations create an environment where individuals enjoy
the freedom to express their creativity, contribute to decision-making and use
their talents to the benefit of the organisation. Harnessing these contributions
requires systems that promote information sharing and collective learning.
Effective interpersonal communication forms the foundation to these
systems. Because an organisation’s existence and success is so dependent on
effective communication, it is essential to be aware of and eliminate barriers
to effective communication as much as possible.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• explain what an organisation is
• describe and illustrate different types of organisational structures
• describe the different types of channels that can be used in organisational
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• describe different communication networks and roles within these
networks in organisations
• list and describe different types of communication in an organisation
• discuss barriers to effective communication in an organisation.
What is an organisation?
An organisation is a structured working environment where work-related
activities are performed, organised and managed by groups of people in
order to reach certain organisational goals. These goals cannot be reached by
individuals working on their own, so the efforts of all these individuals need
to be coordinated.
Organisations have six major characteristics. In an organisation:
1. people do different jobs and have different responsibilities.
2. power and authority is held by one or more individuals.
3. each position may be filled by a number of different people.
4. different departments depend on each other.
5. different departments work together to coordinate their activities.
6. different departments work together on a regular basis.
Studies of organisations in the early 1900s emphasised a rigid structure
and order and precise, scientific reasoning. They paid little attention to
communication in organisations. Workers were considered to be little more
than cogs in a machine. Researchers assumed that a rigid and formal chain of
command would be enough to get the job done. These approaches were not
very effective and, as a result, later theorists began to stress the importance of
human factors in organisations. These theorists suggested that the existence of
formal lines of communication within a formal structure was not enough to
guarantee that a job would be done. Instead, emphasis was placed on the fact
that people were not machines and that the needs, interests and viewpoints
of employees were important in the functioning of an organisation. These
theorists stressed participative styles of management that strived to generate
an atmosphere of trust and confidence. If this type of atmosphere was
generated, motivation was likely to be high.
Today it is understood and acknowledged that no organisation can
function without effective communication. As mentioned before, the
organisational design and structure shapes the behaviour and communication
in the organisation. Therefore, when an organisation is designed, managers
should consider the way they structure the organisation very carefully so
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that the structure of the organisation does not become a barrier to effective
communication. Communication systems also need to be set up to ensure
that common goals can be reached. Moreover a climate of trust has to be
established to ensure that communication is open and free-flowing and that
the best possible communication can take place. Ultimately, if organisations
want to succeed and establish effective communication in the company,
employees need to be trained in the preparation and delivery of messages.
Need for open communication
If an atmosphere of participation is to be created, then there needs to be a
great deal of open communication. This communication should take place in
an atmosphere of trust. People also need to work together in an atmosphere
of understanding. Teamwork needs to be encouraged and the goals should
be set by the whole group rather than imposed on them. Managers need to
coordinate activities and encourage the flow of informative messages through
the organisation.
Social and productive value of messages
Organisations need to pay attention to the social as well as the productive value
in organisations. While the productive messages provide employees with the
information that gets the job done, the social messages in organisations are
valuable for creating and maintaining relationships. They reflect the attitudes,
beliefs and expectations of the people who run the organisation. Extensive
communication is needed to understand people. People are not predictable
and managers need to realise that there is no simple way to deal with the
variety of human problems found in their organisation. It is important for
them to be highly sensitive to people’s needs and to keep communication
channels open.
No one best way to organise a company
Some theorists stress that there is no one best way to organise the parts
of an organisation. In an unstable environment where a company has to
adapt rapidly to changing demands, the best communication would be
achieved if different sections were allowed to organise themselves according
to their specific communication needs. For example, a research department
developing new products over a long period could function very differently
from a production section that has to produce goods quickly to meet
immediate demands.
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Departments have different needs
Organisations usually consist of different departments. This differentiation
causes difficulties in communication because each department has widely
differing needs and perceptions. Both short-term and long-term needs and
perceptions have to be catered for in an organisation. Managers need to
integrate these two for the good of the company.
Managers also need to have effective conflict-resolution skills in order to
stop harmful interpersonal clashes. In addition, special care has to be taken
to ensure that each department knows what the other department is doing
and why. This places great demands on managers’ and workers’ interpersonal,
oral and written communication skills.
On the other hand, an organisation in a stable environment, which
does not demand rapid change, does not have to have widely differentiated
communication systems. It can rely on a bureaucratic system, a rigid hierarchy
of departments and standardisation of communication systems. The decision
of a communication system and the lines of communication within an
organisation will then depend greatly on the way in which managers structure
the organisation.
Organisational structure
Woods and West (2010:586) describe organisational structure as ‘[t]he formal
system of task design and management reporting relationships that controls,
coordinates and motivates staff so that they work together effectively to achieve
the organisation’s goals’. What is important to understand is that the design
and structure of the organisation shapes behaviour in the organisation.
Managers have to consider very carefully how they structure the organisation
as it will impact on the behaviour and communication of the employees
(individuals and teams or groups). Organisational structure can be likened
to the structure of a building that has various rooms, doors and windows.
When walking from one room to another, the structures guide you to exit and
enter through the doors and not the windows. Similarly, the structure of an
organisation will impact on its employees’ behaviour and communication.
There are basically six elements organisations’ managers need to address
when designing the structure of the organisation. These include:
1. Work specialisation or the degree to which activities are subdivided into
separate tasks.
2. Departmentalisation or the basis on which jobs are grouped together.
3. Chain of command or the reporting lines in the organisation.
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Span of control or the total number of individuals a manager controls.
5. Centralisation and decentralisation, which refers to where the authority of
decision-making lies.
6. Formalisation, which refers to the required rules and regulations that will
direct employees and managers.
4.
Based on the six elements described above, a manager or business owner can
decide on the most suitable organisational structure to serve the needs of
the organisation. It is important to grasp the importance of organisational
structure since it has a significant influence on organisational communication.
Most organisations make use of organograms to depict the structure of the
organisation visually. As mentioned in Chapter 2 (see Figure 2.6 on page 18),
an organogram is a visual representation of the formal framework of working
relationships. It indicates the different positions in the organisation, how
these positions are grouped together and arranged into departments and
how these positions and/or departments are interrelated or linked within
the organisation. In most instances the visual presentation of organisational
structures also illustrates the lines of authority and lines of communication
within the organisation.
The four most common organisational structures include:
1. line organisational structures (hierarchical system)
2. line and staff organisational structures
3. functional organisational structures
4. matrix organisational structures.
Line organisational structure (hierarchical system)
In line organisational structures, authority and communication runs vertically
from top to bottom. This implies that each employee will have only one
immediate team leader, supervisor or manager who will be responsible for
making decisions and communicating instructions down the line of authority
and communication. This line of authority and line of communication in a
line organisational structure is illustrated in Figure 5.1 on the next page.
Line organisational structures are designed to allow for a carefully
controlled flow of messages up and down a hierarchy of managers and
departments. Communication is very formal and managers have tight control
over their subordinates. They also control the flow of information. In this
structure, the more levels there are in the hierarchy, the greater the risk of
message distortion. In addition there will be more and more rules to deal
with the numbers and types of messages generated.
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General
manager
Financial
manager
Accountant
1 x Accounting
assistant
5 x Till
operators
Product
manager
Stock and
inventory control
manager
1 x Stock
and inventory
assistant
6 x Packers
Floor
manager
4 x Floor
assistants
4 x Cleaners
Figure 5.1 Example of a line organisational structure
In this structure, horizontal communication, or communication among
managers at the same level in the hierarchy, is not encouraged unless special
arrangements have been made. If managers do communicate horizontally,
it could be described as ‘contracting lines of communication’ because the
vertical flow of information gets bypassed. It may also refer, for example, to
a junior manager who communicates directly with a senior manager, going
over the head of his or her immediate superior. In general, contracting lines
of communication refers to any means of communication that bypasses the
normal chain of command in an organisation.
Line and staff organisational structure
The line and staff organisational structure is similar to the line organisational
structure in terms of lines of authority and lines of communication, except
that it includes expert staff who advise management and employees on any
level in the organisation. These expert staff are appointed in an advisory role
only and do not function as or replace managers. Ultimately the manager is
still responsible for making the final decision and can decide whether or not
to use the advice of the expert. Figure 5.2 on the next page illustrates a line
and staff organisational structure.
Expert staff advise managers and line managers on a range of special fields.
Often these fields or areas of expertise are those in which the managers and
line managers lack knowledge or skills. Managers can also delegate work to
groups of staff experts who work on specific tasks.
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Leader
Production
manager
Research
and
development
expert
Factory
supervisor
Marketing
manager
Market
research
expert
Marketing
assistant
Supervisor
Expert in
human
resource
theory
Human
resources
manager
KEY: The solid lines show the line
manager’s authority. The arrowed lines
show the expert’s authority. Note that
these experts may each report directly
to the leader if necessary.
Figure 5.2
Figure 5.2 Example of a line and
organisational
An staff
example
of line and staffstructure
functions
The solid lines
showstaff
the lineinmanager’
s authority.
The arrowed such
lines show
staff authority.
There KEY:
is usually
expert
special
departments,
as the
human
resources,
Note that these experts may each report directly to the leader if necessary.
finance, information technology and research and development. All these
special departments help the managers and line managers to achieve the
goals of the organisation.
This division between managers, line managers and staff experts frequently
leads to conflict. People in expert staff departments often feel they are treated
as inferior. On the other hand, managers and line managers often feel
threatened by expert staff’s advice. They also sometimes get offended by the
excessive use of technical terms and jargon by these experts.
Functional organisational structure
The most basic organisational structure is the functional organisational structure,
where tasks related to each management function are grouped together. For
example, sales and advertising, which relate to the marketing function, are
grouped together under the marketing management function. A functional
organisational structure consists of line authority and communication as well
as functional authority and communication.
Line authority and communication is the same as the line organisational
structure, where managers and line managers have authority and communicate
instructions down the line, as illustrated by the solid lines in Figure 5.3 on
the next page. Functional authority and communication on the other hand
refers to when someone from one functional management area has authority
over employees in another functional management area. For example, the
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financial management function has authority over the budgets of all other
departments and can therefore instruct other departments to draw up and
present their annual budgets for approval. Functional authority is illustrated
by the dotted lines in Figure 5.3 below.
Chief operating
officer
Human Resource
manager
Marketing
manager
Financial
manager
Operations
manager
Figure 5.3 Example of a functional organisational structure
Functional departments have the advantage in that they group specialists
together. However, care has to be taken that departments do not defend
their territories to such an extent that communication between departments
becomes difficult and conflict arises.
Matrix organisational structure
The matrix structure is ‘typical of a project environment, where employees
with different types of expertise are brought together to work on a project,
such as the development of new products or services’. (Botha & Musengi,
2012:152) In a matrix organisational structure, employees are usually grouped
in two ways: by the function of the group and by the product/project team
they are working with. Employees therefore report to more than one manager,
such as a functional manager and a project manager. This dual reporting
sometimes creates conflict among the superiors and causes confusion for
employees since it makes prioritising tasks difficult. Teamwork and effective
communication is extremely important to ensure the effectiveness of a
matrix organisational structure.
Figure 5.4 on the next page is an example of a matrix organisational
structure. It is clear from this figure that the matrix organisational structure
is more complex than the other structures. It implies that employees should
possess good interpersonal skills and that it requires a skilled general
manager/project manager (matrix manager) who can maintain a balance
between functional and product interests.
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KEY: Solid single lines show the normal management and
communication networks for the company.
Solid double lines show how each project team is managed. A leader
could, for example, select one member from each group.
Broken single or double lines show that the organogram is incomplete.
Leader of
construction company
Manager
research
and
development
Manager
planning
and
design
Leader
for specific
large building
project
Research group
for large
building
projects
Planning and
design group for
large building
projects
Leader
for specific
small building
project
Research group
for small
building
projects
Planning and
design group for
small building
projects
Figure 5.4 Example of a matrix organisational structure
Figure 5.4
An example of a matrix structure
Communication
anshoworganisation
KEY: Solid singlein
lines
the normal management and communication networks for the company.
Solid double lines show how each project team is managed. A leader could, for example, select one
Organisations need to pay attention
to five
member
fromkey
eachareas
group. of communication:
Broken
single
or
double
lines
show
that
the
is incomplete. so that
1. Information should flow freely throughout organigram
the organisation
everybody has easy access to the information they need to do their
jobs well.
2. There are different types of messages used within the organisational context.
3. Information and message overload should be prevented.
4. Information and message underload should be avoided.
5. The lines of communication and the directions in which that
communication flows need to be scrutinised.
These five key areas are discussed in greater depth in the sections that follow.
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The need to ensure good information flow
It cannot be emphasised enough that no organisation can exist or succeed
without effective communication. The implication of this is that organisations
need to be structured in such a way that they achieve the best possible flow of
information. However even in the best designed and structured organisation,
the structure will always place certain restrictions on information flow and the
content of messages. In addition, members of an organisation have different
needs, perceptions and expectations. This means that a single message is
unlikely to address all the communication needs of all the employees and
therefore that a perfect message, where a perfect sharing of meaning among
all employees takes place, is not possible.
Since people differ in their wants, needs, expectations and perceptions,
communication in organisations will always be a complex matter. For
example superiors might ask subordinates for certain information but the
subordinates, not wishing to provide this information, will withhold certain
crucial facts. On the other hand, subordinates might feel that they are entitled
to certain information, such as the financial well-being of the organisation,
but the superiors, feeling it is confidential, will refuse to provide it.
People sometimes make the mistake of thinking that communication in
an organisation is only about transferring factual information. Messaging in
organisations is much more than this. Messages also include information
about people’s feelings and attitudes, which contribute to the climate and
culture of the organisation. But some of the most important messages in
any organisation are job-related messages. In order to ensure that a task gets
performed at an optimal level, the employee(s) need to be provided with
quality information. The instructions need to be clear and expectations
also need to be clearly communicated. It is essential to include important
information, such as what needs to be completed, by when and at what
standard. Employees need to know what is expected of them and the
communication channels need to be as open as possible if they are to succeed
in their jobs. Equally important is constant and adequate feedback in order
to ensure that tasks are being accomplished and that expectations are being
met. However, organisations also need to guard against overloading their
staff with information. (This will be discussed in ‘Information and message
overload’ on page 90.)
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Types of messages
In organisations, there are four types of messages, namely messages that:
• build and maintain good relationships
• contain information
• provide instructions
• concern the values, philosophy and ethics of the organisation.
Messages to build and maintain good relationships
Messages to build and maintain good relationships flow in all directions in
the organisation and their main purpose is to keep communication channels
open and to pave the way for future relationships. They have the potential to
build a good organisational culture and a supportive climate. These messages
are not intended to provide people with information or instructions, but take
the form of small talk and include things such as greetings, comments about
how people feel, enquiries about people’s health or families and expressions
of goodwill or sympathy.
Messages containing information
People need all kinds of information to enable the business to run smoothly.
For example, people need information about policies and company benefits,
but they also need information about the tasks they need to do. This
information needs to be as precise as possible so that people can base their
decisions on accurate information. These messages also flow in all directions
in an organisation.
Messages providing instructions
These messages are the orders or guidelines given in an organisation to ensure
that jobs are done. They may also include standard procedures to be followed
when routine tasks are undertaken. These messages generally flow from the
top down. When providing people with instructions, remember to:
• make sure the purpose of the task is clearly communicated
• keep instructions clear, concise and simple
• repeat instructions at least once
• communicate important instructions verbally as well as in written form
• make sure people are provided with accurate information
• break complex instructions down into simpler parts
• communicate expectations clearly
• make sure people understand the instructions correctly.
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Messages about the values, philosophy and ethics of the organisation
Employees need to understand the values, philosophy and ethical position
of the organisation to guide them in their dealings with customers, suppliers
and the general public. These messages also generally flow from the top down.
Information and message overload
Information overload occurs when employees or departments receive more
information than they can deal with at any one time. Overloading refers both
to too much information and information that is too complex. If overloading
occurs, people feel overwhelmed and important messages may be ignored
as a result. Mistakes are also more likely to be made and people will give
inadequate or stock answers.
Ways in which information overload can be managed
Organisations can take a number of steps to avoid and manage overloading. They can:
◗
run courses to improve the ability of staff to cope with the management of multiple
messages
◗
encourage lower levels of the company to filter messages and reduce the amount of
information they send upward
◗
encourage management to monitor the amount of messages sent to employees and to
stagger these messages so that employees do not get overloaded
◗
add more communication channels
◗
train staff to arrange messages in order of priority.
Information and message underload
Information underload is as big a risk in organisations as information
overload. Information underload occurs when employees or departments do
not receive enough information to do their jobs effectively. Underloading can
lead to frustration, an inability to make decisions and serious mistakes.
Ways in which information underload can be managed
In order to prevent underloading, companies can ensure that:
◗
all information channels are properly designed and properly used
◗
each section of the company receives all the information necessary for it to operate successfully
◗
staff members who work quickly and efficiently receive the right amount of information.
Lines of communication in an organisation
Communication in organisations always has a purpose and is strongly
influenced by the structure of the organisation. Messages do not float around
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randomly. They are prepared with specific purposes in mind, have specific
audiences, specific content and flow via certain networks and channels.
These channels include:
• networks
• vertical communication channels
• horizontal communication channels
• informal channels of communication (the grapevine).
Networks
CENTRALISED NETWORKS
Networks refer to the way in which communication circulates among the
employees in a company. They are the interconnecting lines of communication
used to pass information from one person (or one section) to another.
Networks may be classified as centralised or decentralised.
Centralised networks generally depend on one person at the centre who
is responsible for controlling the flow of messages. They are successful
for simple tasks, but they become less effective for more complicated and
Wheel
multifaceted tasks.
Decentralised systems, on the other hand, do not depend on one person at
the centre to regulate the flow of messages. Everybody communicates freely
with everyone else without having to go through a central person. These
networks are more successful when complex problems have to beChain
solved.
DECENTRALISED NETWORKS
CENTRALISED NETWORKS
Circle
Wheel
Circle
All-channel network
Figure 5.5
Communication networks
Chain
Figure 5.5 Types of networks
DECENTRALISED NETWORKS
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As seen in Figure 5.5 on the previous page, there are various types of centralised
networks. For example, the wheel network allows messages to be sent from the
centre to each person on the outside. Each person communicates with the
centre, but is unable to communicate with the other people in the network.
The chain is similar to the wheel except that the people at the ends can
communicate with only one other person.
The circle allows messages to be sent to the left or right but not to other
members of the circle. There is also no one at the centre of the network.
The all-channel network is a decentralised network that allows all members
to send messages to, and receive messages from, all other members. The flow
of messages is therefore not restricted and the group does not have a leader.
Although the free flow of communication in this type of network has major
advantages, a major disadvantage is that the risk for information overload is
very big.
The type of network chosen will determine the flow of messages and type
of interaction.
Roles in networks
In networks, individuals often perform specific tasks and have particular responsibilities. Some
of the common roles in networks are as follows:
◗
isolates
◗
liaisons
◗
gatekeepers
◗
stars
◗
cosmopolites or outside links.
Isolates are individuals who work on their own. These individuals may have been given a task
to do that separates them from the rest of the group. Isolates need to ensure that they are not
starved of information or contact with the rest of the network. They run the risk of not being able
to work properly because they are so isolated.
Liaisons are people who form links between various work groups in an organisation. They
are essential for the effective working of an organisation. In their jobs, liaisons receive more
feedback and have more opportunities to deal with others than people who do not fulfil this
function. Although liaisons link different groups, they are not members of any of these groups.
Gatekeepers regulate the flow of information and access to resources or key individuals.
For example, a CEO’s personal assistant can regulate who gets access to the CEO and who
does not because he or she will be responsible for booking appointments with the CEO. Some
of these personal assistants also screen the CEO’s mail and pass on only selected messages.
Some gatekeepers are able to decide what information will be sent on to other members of the
network. Gatekeeping has positive and negative effects in an organisation. On the positive side, a
gatekeeper can prevent information overload by filtering and screening messages. On the negative
side, a gatekeeper can screen out important messages and restrict the flow of communication.
The gatekeeper’s power lies in the control of access to messages, resources and people.
continued on following page >>
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Stars are the focus of most of the communication within the group. They have many
relationships with other members of the organisation. In an organisation, stars tend to have a
great deal of on-the-job influence with most group members. Sometimes their role is labelled as
opinion leader. Opinion leaders are powerful, respected and followed without having any formal
leadership role.
Cosmopolites or outside links have a high degree of communication with the group’s and the
organisation’s environment. They give information to surrounding groups or to other businesses.
They also bring information back into the group. By reporting outside information to the network
they keep it going. Through contacts outside the system they bring vital information into the
network about the activities of the environment within which the organisation works. Examples of
cosmopolites are public relations practitioners, sales people and customer support staff.
It is important to understand that roles are not necessarily permanent. Anyone can
become an opinion leader or star and everyone in the organisation has the power to become a
gatekeeper by deciding to withhold certain information.
Vertical flow of communication
The vertical flow of information is crucial for the running of an organisation.
The biggest value of vertical communication is that it is a means of providing
staff with instructions (downward communication) and to receive feedback
(upward communication).
Downward communication
Downward communication refers to any communication where a superior
communicates with a subordinate. This type of communication can take
place on several levels, as the hierarchy in Figure 5.6 indicates. You will see
that at every level there is a level below it, which means the communication
will flow downward. However, people at the bottom of the hierarchy do not
tend to make use of downward communication because there is no one in
the company who reports to them.
CEO
Top
management
Directors
Senior mana
Management
Middle mana
Superviso
Workers
Employee
Figure 5.6 Downward communication
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In downward communication, messages sent from managers to subordinates
generally have nine basic purposes, namely to:
1. describe the organisation’s goals, philosophy, strategy and mission
2. describe the organisation’s ethical standpoint
3. describe general organisational policies and procedures
4. describe employees’ relationships with the organisation
5. instruct people on how to do a job or task
6. give information on how one job is related to others being performed in
an organisation
7. give people feedback on how successful previous jobs have been performed
8. give departments and individuals feedback on their general performance
9. motivate, encourage and support staff.
A major problem with downward communication is that a lot of information
gets lost or distorted when it is passed on from one person to another. If you
have ever played broken telephone, you will understand this problem. You
can play this game in class. One of your classmates needs to think of a short
message and must then whisper it in the ear of another classmate, who must
then whisper it in the ear of the next classmate until everyone has heard the
message. The last person to receive the message must say it aloud. Is the final
message the same as the original one? Can you see how problematic it is
when we pass information from one person to another? This is why direct
communication is so valuable.
Motivating employees is also a very important function of downward
communication. The hopes, feelings and aspirations of people are important.
Managers therefore need to be concerned about what their employees do,
how they do it and especially why they do it. Moreover, performance and
motivation are linked, so managers need to ensure that they use communication
effectively in order to motivate their staff. Good communication combined
with training can help change a worker’s abilities and skills. People’s goals and
levels of aspiration can also be changed through effective communication.
Listening skills are also very important in motivating staff.
Downward communication should also be used to create an atmosphere
of trust. Communication then should be regarded as a transaction in which
participants create meaning together in an atmosphere of trust.
The following types of messages, among others, are mainly used in downward
communication:
• oral and written instructions
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•
•
•
•
•
•
policy manuals
memoranda
reports
notices
in-house magazines or newspapers
job specifications.
Downward communication can be used to engage in the following topics:
• benefit programmes for employees
• a list of the organisation’s products and how they are used
• careful descriptions of the types of relationships that management wishes
to have with employees
• analyses of strikes
• records of union–management negotiations
• information on the organisation’s dependence on customers
• existing rumours
• the organisation’s viewpoint on issues
• social news
• instructions for performing tasks
• safety programmes
• contemplated changes in staff and production.
Downward communication is not always successful. The following are the
major barriers to effective downward communication:
• Managers are not sure what types of messages to flow downward.
• Managers are not sure how much information to flow downward.
• Organisations have problems with the functional literacy of their staff.
Functional literacy refers to a person’s ability to read and prepare the
messages that are necessary for a specific job. These messages enable a
manager, for example, to function as a manager. However, as a functionally
literate manager, he or she must be able to:
• read long, complex financial reports containing graphics
• prepare monthly reports
• prepare letters and memoranda in the right style and tone
• prepare and deliver short, persuasive talks to employees and customers
• speak effectively on the telephone
• know how to write professional emails.
• Information sent downward is not always relevant to staff and can lead to
information overload.
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• Too much information is sent downward, which again can lead to
information overload.
Upward communication
Upward communication is the opposite of downward communication as it
flows from subordinates to superiors. When you look at the organisational
hierarchy in Figure 5.7 you will see that it indicates communication with
someone at a higher level of the hierarchy. Upward communication is often
used to gain feedback from employees. It is important that managers listen to
their staff and provide them with an opportunity to express their concerns or
to make suggestions for improvement. Upward communication is enhanced
by an open-door policy and a supportive climate.
Effective upward communication therefore places heavy demands on
managers and subordinates alike. Managers have to be prepared to listen to
criticism or to new ideas that might seem threatening. They have to foster
an atmosphere of openness and trust and should strive to be as objective as
possible. Subordinates in turn have to be prepared to suggest new ideas and
criticise present practices. They also have to be as honest and open as possible
if upward communication is to succeed. Hiding mistakes from a manager,
for example, can have disastrous results. Managers also need to encourage a
two-way flow of information so that they can judge how well their messages
have been received.
CEO
Directors
Senior managers
Middle managers
Supervisors
Employees
Figure 5.7 Upward communication
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The six main purposes of upward communication are to:
1. receive feedback on how staff has received messages from managers
2. receive feedback on the progress of tasks
3. receive feedback on employees’ attitudes, motivation and perceptions
4. receive suggestions from employees
5. check on individual performance
6. receive proposals from employees.
The main types of messages involved in upward communication are:
• oral and written reports
• memoranda
• proposals
• spoken and written suggestions.
Upward communication is not always successful. The following are some of
the major barriers to effective upward communication:
• Senders of messages fear that they will be seen as incompetent.
• Senders fear the response of, ‘You raised the problem, you solve it’.
• Messages get distorted as they move up the hierarchy. People leave out
parts of messages that they think could potentially harm them. Because of
selective perception, people have a tendency to pay attention to the parts
of the message that they agree with and feel comfortable with and ignore
the rest.
• Managers are more likely to use and pass on those messages that are
positive, appropriate to the situation and supportive of policies.
• Employees keep quiet and do not pass on messages because they fear losing
their jobs.
Horizontal channels of communication
Horizontal communication, also called lateral or sideways communication
or peer communication, takes place between people on the same level and
it can take place on all the levels of the company. For example, between
managers of equal rank. One of the main goals of horizontal communication
is to promote teamwork and cooperation and it contributes significantly to
linking activities among and across departments.
If horizontal communication is encouraged, management needs to decide:
• who is to be informed of which department’s activities
• the amount of detail to be reported
• the medium to be used for this type of communication.
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Much of this communication will take place through face-to-face discussions,
although internal reports, emails and memoranda are also used. Horizontal
communication has the potential of being very problematic. A wide variety
of tasks exists within an organisation and sometimes individuals have to
compete for resources to achieve their individual or department goals. This
can result in rivalry or a tendency to withhold information from those who
are perceived to be members of the ‘out-group’. These differences can lead to
serious conflict and a negative climate.
Major barriers to effective horizontal communication may include some of
these examples:
• Rivalry between departments can result in withholding information from
each other. Departments build their own small empires. They are reluctant
to share their knowledge and resources with other departments.
• Departments, for example the Information Technology (IT) department
or the Sales department, can become extremely specialised. People from
other departments will then struggle to understand the technical terms
and jargon they use, resulting in conflict.
• Departments become isolated and are not motivated to communicate
with other departments. This creates out-groups and in-groups, which is
not good for the culture of the organisation.
• Employees are not rewarded for good horizontal communication.
Informal communication or the grapevine
Sometimes staff in an organisation find that the prescribed patterns of
communication do not give them the information that they want or require.
They will then establish their own informal communication system. This
informal system, or grapevine, is particularly common when people work
closely together.
The grapevine conveys information about people and their attitudes and
relationships. It also passes on interpretations of events, predictions about
organisational plans and strategies (such as increases or retrenchments)
and people’s values and needs. People turn to the grapevine when they
have an interest in a topic and when the information about that topic is
scarce or ambiguous. The purpose of the grapevine is therefore to inform,
influence, explain and entertain. As an organisation increases in size, so
does grapevine activity. The flow of communication in the grapevine is also
much faster than through ‘normal’ channels, but it is likely to be incomplete
and distorted.
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The grapevine fills an information void. It gives meaning to activities within
an organisation. It has three major functions:
1. It serves as a barometer regarding the organisation, giving vital feedback to
management regarding the organisation.
2. It serves as an important message source. The grapevine is most active
when there are great changes in an organisation. It is also active when
information is new and when face-to-face communication is easy.
3. It helps members of an organisation to make sense of what is going on. As
management’s messages travel through the grapevine, they are translated
into words that make sense to workers.
A superficial view of the grapevine is that it follows no set pattern of content
or direction. Many managers assume that the information moving along
the grapevine causes problems. Organisational research suggests, however,
that the grapevine need not be a meandering, uncertain and unreliable
channel of communication; it can be fast and predictable in its direction and
membership. It can also be more accurate than superficial observation might
suggest. Moreover, ‘gossip’ is ingrained in human nature and the grapevine
can therefore never be eliminated completely.
The grapevine has three specific attributes that make it important and useful:
1. It is fast.
2. It is accurate, with 75–90% accuracy for non-controversial information.
3. It carries a great deal of information. For example, it allows people to
send messages that do not fit into the formal channels of communication.
It also carries messages that develop relationships and create a sense of
belonging.
Managers can therefore tell a great deal about the mood of their employees
if they pay attention to the grapevine. At its best the grapevine allows people
to blow off steam. It can also boost morale by uniting staff. The grapevine is
especially important when staff are interested in new policies or procedures.
However at its worst the grapevine can spread rumours. Rumours often
convey prejudices, emotions and half-truths. Rumours are based on unverified
information with very little supporting evidence. The problem is that they
can threaten an organisation if they are taken as true and acted upon (for
example resignations). The greater the stress in an organisation, the greater
the likelihood of rumours will be. Organisations can, however, do some of
the following to minimise the effects of the grapevine:
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• Involve people in decision-making. The more informed people are, the
less likely they are to go to the grapevine for information.
• Be aware of unclear and ambiguous communication. Encourage feedback
to ensure messages are understood.
• Do not ‘hide’ bad news from employees. Openness and honesty is
necessary to build credibility and trust.
Outward communication
Business organisations have to serve customers to survive. In addition
they have to communicate with other stakeholders, the general public and
suppliers. All these activities could be termed outward communication.
Much outward communication takes the following forms:
• face-to-face discussion
• telephone calls
• emails
• blogs
• meetings
• formal written reports
• formal written proposals
• letters
• press releases
• advertisements.
Organisations have to ensure that they analyse the needs of their audience. In
particular, their style of communication should stress the great importance of
customers. Members of organisations involved in face-to-face work, meetings
or telephone calls also need to cultivate effective speech and non-verbal
behaviour. Letters should stress service to the customer and should be written
in a friendly or neutral tone.
Major barriers to effective communication in organisations
Every single person sending, receiving or passing on messages in an
organisation needs to ensure that the communication of the message is:
• accurately heard or read and understood
• believed
• acted on.
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However, even when people communicate with the best intentions, messages
can be distorted because of ambiguity, a lack of understanding or because a
sharing of meaning did not take place.
The following are some of the major barriers to effective communication and
message flow in organisations:
• The number of stages through which a message has to go.
• The time allowed for messages to move through the organisation.
• Lack of understanding of what the message means.
• Shortening of messages because people cannot be bothered to share full
information with others.
• Filtering of messages at each stage. (Each person in the communication
chain makes a judgement call in terms of what the next person should or
should not receive.)
• Deliberate distortion. (People send only what they want others to receive
and leave out information that they perceive as damaging to themselves.)
• Too much information is received (information overload).
• Not enough information is received (information underload).
Implications for communication
Organisations need to establish the best possible conditions for messages to
be distortion-free. These conditions include:
• messages should be as accurate and clear as possible
• messages should provide all the information essential to decision-makers
at each stage
• the right medium(s) should be chosen for each type of message on each
occasion. Messages could, for example, be spoken, written or use graphics.
• the procedures for the giving and receiving of messages should be very
clear and rigidly kept.
• there should be a clear system of authority and accountability
• conditions should allow for rapid transmission of messages as well as
rapid feedback
• organisations should test the flow of information regularly to ensure
that messages go where they are needed. A communication audit can
be conducted to determine how effective the communication is in
the organisation.
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Conclusion
An organisation is a structured working environment where tasks are
completed, organised and managed by groups of people in order to reach the
organisation’s goals. How the work environment is structured and organised
will therefore affect the flow of communication in the organisation and
therefore depends on the organisational design and structure. Communication
channels, then, can either promote or impede the flow of communication in
organisations and should be utilised and managed in such a way that they do
not become barriers to effective communication.
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CHAPTER
6
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Introduction
With a population of more than 50 million people, South Africa is considered
an exciting environment that is made up of numerous co-existing cultures.
The benefit of these numerous cultures is that, combined, they create a vibrant
environment for arts and culture, which makes South Africa a popular tourist
destination the world over. However the many cultural differences we experience
on a daily basis make for some interesting challenges in the workplace.
Furthermore, globalisation has brought about international cultural
challenges in the workplace. It is quite possible that during the course of a
single work day you will get to work with colleagues from Africa, America,
Europe, Asia and/or Australia. Within each of these regions are numerous
other cultures, all with their own unique beliefs, norms and expectations.
In addition, companies are increasingly involved in international trade,
which underscores the need for effective intercultural communication.
Communicating effectively can become quite complicated when dealing
with all these different languages, behaviours and histories.
Intercultural communication has never been easy. Culture is a complex and
difficult concept to define and grasp and it can certainly not be equated to a
few traditions of certain ethnic groups. Still, it is very important to understand
the role culture plays in people’s lives because a person’s cultural background
strongly influences his or her attitudes and conduct and will certainly influence
his or her communication style.
Communicating with people from different cultural backgrounds can
create uncertainty. Intercultural communication is not something that comes
naturally to people and there are very few models from history to guide
organisations in this respect. Any education and training for today’s challenging
intercultural situation therefore needs to guide people into appreciating, rather
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than fearing or opposing, these differences. We have to move away from our
traditional ethnocentrism (see the definition on page 111) and try to work out
new relationships across the cultural divide.
Cultural differences can often be a source of conflict in organisations.
Cultural sensitivity is therefore required, especially in a country with such
great diversity as South Africa. It is the responsibility of the organisation
and its management to help people overcome some of the barriers to
effective communication in an intercultural environment and to teach all
their employees ways to improve intercultural communication. Any form of
prejudice is self-destructive and as far as a business is concerned will certainly
not lead to good business or a profitable organisation.
Organisations also have their own cultures and new people joining
the organisation will need to go through a process of acculturation, which
is to learn to adapt to the new values and culture of the organisation. An
organisation will further benefit from creating a supportive climate where
trust is created and where all staff from all cultures feel supported, respected,
valued and appreciated.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• understand cultural uniqueness
• determine the relevance of intercultural communication
• define culture
• explain the importance of effective intercultural communication
• discuss how cultures differ
• discuss how the differences between cultures influence the communication
process in the workplace
• recognise and discuss the areas where intercultural sensitivity is required
in the South African context
• explain the barriers to intercultural communication
• describe how to strengthen communication and relationships between
cultures.
Important definitions in intercultural communication
In order to grasp and understand what is meant by culture, and intercultural
communication in particular, the following definitions need to be understood
and mastered.
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Culture
Broadly speaking, the term culture refers to a shared system of values, attitudes,
beliefs, assumptions, expectations and symbols that a particular group of
people share. This system acts as a set of rules or norms that keep a group
of people together, govern their behaviour, influence what they regard as
important in life and has an impact on what they consider appropriate and
inappropriate behaviour. These people are likely to share a view of themselves
and of the world and they will consequently think and behave in similar
ways. They will use a shared symbolic code system such as a language that
facilitates easy communication between them (Thill & Bovée, 2007:74). In
short, different cultures have different worldviews that affect the way in which
they interact and communicate.
Worldview
A worldview is central to any culture. The term refers to any culture’s
philosophical views of life, deities, humanity, nature and the universe. This
worldview is mostly taken for granted in any culture and hardly ever questioned
or scrutinised. It runs through all aspects of cultural life and is accepted as the
norm, or what qualifies as ‘normal’ and socially acceptable behaviour.
The problem is that most cultures do not have the same worldviews and
these differences often lead to intercultural conflict. For example, the African,
Asian and European worldviews differ significantly from one another. The
African worldview, for example, values the concept of Ubuntu. This concept
refers to the achievement of personhood through participation in the
community and can be roughly translated as ‘humanity towards others’
(SouthAfrica.info, 2012), or ‘I am because you are’. Ubuntu is the belief that
we are all connected by a universal bond of sharing. This view stresses that an
individual has no value unless he or she has strong connections with other
people. This is also known as a collectivist worldview.
The Western or European worldview, on the other hand, values individual
enterprise. We are expected to take the initiative and make our own way in
life. Individual accountability is stressed and individuals are under constant
pressure to perform and achieve. This is also known as an individualistic
worldview, where emphasis is on the individual as opposed to the group.
The idea that there are fundamental differences in cultural world views
may be very threatening to people. If good intercultural communication
is to be achieved, however, then the worldview of each culture needs to be
acknowledged, accepted and respected, which is very challenging when certain
cultural ideologies (dominant ideas) are in direct contrast with one another.
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Cultural norms
Note
Norms are rules for behaviour and, within a
The term ‘culture’ has been
cultural context, norms refer to what people in a
used here instead of the
words ‘race’ or ‘ethnic group’.
culture value as the right way of behaving. These
The word ‘race’ often has
norms are learnt in a particular culture through
negative connotations. ‘Ethnic
the process of socialisation, which is learning
group’ has a similar meaning
how to behave in an acceptable way according
to ‘race’. It is very difficult to
make accurate generalisations
to a certain society. They will vary from one
about racial or ethnic groups.
culture to another. Below are some examples of
The word ‘culture’, as used
different cultural norms:
here, suggests that there will
be many variations within a
• Individualism versus collectivism: In some
racial or ethnic group and
cultures it is expected that when you make
that not all people from a
a decision you must place the group above
particular race or ethnic group
yourself, while in other cultures uniqueness
will behave in the same way.
and individuality are considered more
important. If you were born in a collectivist
culture you would put your family, tribe, clan or organisation’s needs
above your own (Samovar et al, 2013:177–180). In an individualistic
culture your needs would take priority and you would be more likely to
consider your own career before the organisation’s needs.
• High context versus low context cultures: People from a high context culture
are able to communicate a lot of background information without
having to verbally express all the details. Basing their understanding on
traditional ways of behaving, they are able to ‘read between the lines’
and therefore go beyond the verbal message by using non-verbal codes
and the context of the conversation (family, social, work environment)
to derive and share meaning. The context and non-verbal codes are as
meaningful, if not more, than the verbal message. In low context cultures,
on the other hand, explicit communication is valued and the context is
hardly considered. People from low context cultures want and need as
much detail as possible during verbal communication in order to share
meaning and they prefer not to rely heavily on non-verbal cues. They
expect people to say what they mean and verbally express as much detail
as possible (Samovar et al, 2013:194–196).
• Masculinity versus femininity: Some cultural behavioural norms are based
on the dominance of masculine or feminine behaviour. A culture is argued
to be masculine when the dominant values in society are male orientated.
These cultures are often more assertive, career orientated and materialistic,
placing less emphasis on interpersonal relationships than would feminine
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cultures. Feminine cultures are more nurturing and supportive of less
fortunate people. These cultures encourage a more androgynous work
environment promoting sexual equality (Samovar et al, 2013:183–184).
Cultural mores
This term describes the customs and habits that cultural groups accept as
right. These customs and habits will vary from culture to culture. For example,
in some cultures the colour black is considered an appropriate dress code to
be worn at a funeral. In other cultures the colour white is appropriate during
times of mourning.
Affirmative action
Affirmative action is the process whereby organisations take special steps
to assist, train, develop and employ people of a specific cultural group or
cultural groups that may have been seriously disadvantaged in the past
because, among other things, they were:
• discriminated against because of race, disability or gender
• not allowed access to good education
• prevented from occupying certain positions or having certain jobs
• denied access to post-school tertiary training and education because of a
lack of financial resources.
Affirmative action can take on the following forms:
• bursaries for education and training given to individuals from specific
cultural groups
• positions in organisations reserved for people from specific cultural groups
• specific on-the-job training given to people from specific cultural groups.
Culture and climate in organisations
Each organisation develops its own unique culture and all organisations
are characterised by a certain climate. Both the culture and the climate are
important in an organisation because they can play a significant role in the
success or failure of a company. Let us look at the differences between these
two concepts.
Culture as applied to an organisation
The word ‘culture’ as it is used in organisations refers to the sharing of a
set of basic assumptions, ideas, values, beliefs, attitudes and organisational
norms. These values, attitudes and norms develop slowly over time as
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members of the organisation learn to cope with certain problems of working
together as a group and adapting to the business environment in which the
organisation has to function. These assumptions, beliefs and values have
usually worked well enough to be considered valid and to become the
cultural norm. Because people perceive them as the norm, they accept them
as the appropriate way to think and behave and use them as a means to
help them solve organisational problems. As is the case with other cultural
norms, organisational norms tend to become so internalised by employees
that they are no longer aware of them. These norms then become part of the
collective mind of an organisation and the culture becomes a conceptual
framework within which an organisation works.
Problems may arise when new people join the organisation because they
bring with them a different set of ideas, attitudes, values, perceptions and
behaviours. However, as people join the organisation they are likely to be
socialised gradually by other members of the organisation until they also
internalise the organisation’s culture. In fact, most organisations tend to
employ people who already hold some of the key beliefs and attitudes that
are in line with the organisation’s culture. Most members of an organisation
also understand the cultural values of their organisation once they have
worked there for some time and it is usually these values that hold the
organisation together.
However, a serious problem may arise when people of different cultural
backgrounds start working in the same organisation. If the present culture of
the company is not flexible enough, then the acceptance of different cultural
groups may become a challenge. In situations like these it is essential to
change the climate first. After this, the culture of the organisation will change
slowly to accommodate the new intercultural situation.
Climate in an organisation
An organisation’s culture develops slowly and is hard to describe. On the other
hand, the climate of an organisation describes the day-to-day atmosphere in
an organisation and, like the weather, it can change relatively quickly as the
environment changes. It refers to the ways in which people behave towards
one another and may therefore change fairly rapidly.
The climate in an organisation is determined by the ways in which employees
work together in their formal and informal encounters. An organisation with
a climate of fear will have employees who are always worried that they are not
working hard enough or long enough to meet the job requirements. These
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employees may always be afraid of losing their jobs if they are perceived to
not be achieving the desired results.
The climate will be created according to who speaks to whom and by
people’s perceptions of these interactions. The climate will be affected by
perceived differences in power between people. These perceived differences in
power are especially important in intercultural communication. If people of
one culture perceive themselves to be in an inferior position, they are likely to
become defensive. Good intercultural communication has a far greater chance
of success between people who perceive themselves to be of equal status.
Different parts of an organisation may also have different climates because
people in an organisation may work under different conditions.
The following will bring about changes in climate:
• styles of management
• work pressure
• available resources.
The climate in a group may change fairly rapidly from a supportive and
positive one to a defensive and negative one. Managers and staff therefore
need to be constantly sensitive to the climate in the group or department.
Culture and climate compared
The following table compares the key differences between culture and climate.
Table 6.1 The differences between culture and climate
CULTURE
CLIMATE
lasts a long time
lasts for a short time
develops slowly
develops and changes quickly
depends on a known past of some
length of time
does not depend on a known past
operates on a higher level of
unconscious assumptions and values
operates at a level of everyday
emotions, attitudes and beliefs
collective, therefore individual variations
are lost in the culture
the unique characteristics of
organisational members can influence
the climate
not likely to be affected by short-term
changes
responds to short-term changes
deeply buried in people’s minds,
therefore relatively invisible and hard
to access
awareness more accessible and
behaviour more visible
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Implications for communication
• Managers and employees need to cultivate an atmosphere of trust and
open communication.
• Listening skills should be cultivated.
• People should be sensitive to each other’s non-verbal communication.
• All managers and employees should be taught how to prepare and deliver
both oral and written messages in order to ensure that a positive climate
is created.
• Managers and employees should be trained in conflict resolution.
Intercultural communication
This is a special type of communication in which people from different
cultural backgrounds have to communicate with one another. This type of
communication can make people very anxious and tense because people
from different cultural backgrounds tend to have different worldviews. People
find it very difficult to understand other people’s worldviews and this leads to
uncertainty, which, in turn, make people nervous.
Intercultural communication involves a high risk and it can only be successful
if the parties involved are relatively open-minded and accommodating. The
reason intercultural communication is regarded a risk is because it frequently
entails questioning and even giving up strongly held beliefs and ideas. It
may also require us to change attitudes that we regard as very important.
However, when confronted with intercultural communication it is essential
to keep in mind that the individual with whom you are communicating may
think differently to you and you therefore need to find ways to make yourself
understood despite these differences.
People involved in intercultural communication may also be using
different verbal and non-verbal codes. In fact, even if they use the same codes,
they may attach different meanings to them. For example, in some countries
a symbol that everything is okay is the thumbs up sign (the fingers forming
a fist with the thumb pointing up). In other countries this same symbol may
be considered offensive and profane.
We therefore have to negotiate meanings much more carefully in
intercultural situations and keep in mind that the sharing of meaning will
be a lot more challenging in these situations. Therefore the results of any
communication are less predictable and people may also find it more difficult
to plan accurately for other people’s responses.
Even though intercultural communication is challenging and we trust and
feel more comfortable around others with whom we share certain values,
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attitudes and beliefs, effective intercultural communication is extremely
important in order to improve cultural relations not only in South Africa
but also globally. It further ensures that when we are working with people
from other cultures, we understand one another and work together effectively
(Cleary, 2003:28).
Barriers to effective intercultural communication
Some of the major barriers to effective intercultural communication are:
• Cultural stereotyping: This term refers to what people do when they describe
or label people of a specific culture or ethnic group in a particular way and
where every member of that cultural or ethnic group is classified in the same
way. Through cultural stereotyping, no allowance is made for individual
differences within the culture. Unfortunately people who make use of
stereotyping behave towards individuals from other cultures as though
the stereotype is true, regardless of whether they have any evidence for the
limiting assumptions they are making. They may, for example, stereotype
people from a particular cultural group as dishonest and untrustworthy.
Any person they then meet from this group will be classified as dishonest
and untrustworthy even if they have no evidence to support this notion.
• Ethnocentrism: This term refers to people’s unconscious belief in the
superiority of their own culture. They believe that other cultures are inferior
even though they have no evidence or proof for this notion. Ethnocentric
people place their culture at the centre of their world. They then measure
all other cultures in relation to their own and view any culture that deviates
from their own as inferior. Strongly ethnocentric people may see the
cultural behaviour of others as a sign of physical or moral decay. Keep in
mind that people have always shielded themselves from these differences
in ways of seeing the world. Politics and religion are other examples of this
tendency in humans.
• Defensiveness: People are defensive when they are not open to new
possibilities and protect and defend their own views at all costs. They tend
to be dogmatic and reluctant to listen to new ideas. They refuse to change
their views and hang on to past attitudes.
• Differences in verbal and non-verbal communication: As mentioned before,
people from the same culture often share a symbolic code system, such as
language. Language can be a major barrier to interpersonal communication
because people from different cultural backgrounds often also speak
different languages. If, for example, English is your first language and you
communicate with a non-English speaking person from another culture,
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•
•
•
•
•
you may use a word or phrase that the other person is not familiar with,
which will make the sharing of meaning confusing and difficult. Moreover,
non-verbal communication also differs from culture to culture, which
further complicates the sharing of meaning.
Differences in directness: As previously mentioned, some cultures are high
context cultures where communication is indirect and people are expected
to read between the lines. Other cultures are low context cultures where a
high value is placed on being direct and getting to the point.
Different attitudes, values and beliefs: People do not always see the world
in the same way and differences in attitudes, values and beliefs can easily
lead to conflict.
Prejudice: You are being prejudiced when you have certain preconceived
ideas or opinions that are not based on reason, experience or evidence. You
may, for example, have an adverse opinion about people from a particular
cultural group, even though you may have no proof to support this opinion.
Prejudice comes in many forms, including racism and cultural relativity:
• Racism refers to the belief in the biological superiority of one group over
another. A cultural group having racist views may even regard other
cultures associated with other races as inferior. Racism can be implicit
or explicit. Racism is explicit when people make use of racist language
or when they clearly express their feelings of superiority to members
of other racial groups. Someone who is racist is likely to emphasise
differences between cultures.
• Cultural relativity refers to people’s classification of other cultures in
terms of the way in which they view their own culture. Such people
are unable to understand the true nature of other cultures because they
have a fixed way of describing another culture that can be completely
inaccurate. They judge other cultures as good or bad from the point of
view of their own culture.
Assumptions: An assumption is something that we accept as true or certain,
again without any proof that this is indeed the case. People assume that
certain things are true, even though they may not be. In intercultural
communication people may make assumptions about people from other
cultures that may not necessarily be true.
Different ways of thinking: People from different cultures may think
differently. One culture may, for example, value facts as proof that
something is true or real. Another culture may value intuition more as a
way of arriving at a solution. People holding different worldviews will also
find it difficult to communicate.
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Understanding intercultural communication
The convergence model of communication, illustrated in Figure 2.3 on page 14
in Chapter 2, is particularly useful for helping people to understand intercultural
communication. This model supports the view that effective intercultural
communication is a process in which meaning needs to be negotiated. This
negotiation of meaning is especially important when people from different
cultures are communicating face-to-face.
The sender from one culture encodes a message, using his or her own
frame of reference that includes his or her cultural background and speaks
to a receiver from another culture. The receiver decodes the message but is
not quite sure about the meaning because he or she uses his or her own
frame of reference (cultural background) to make sense of the message.
The receiver will then, in turn, encode a second message to get more clarity
on the original sender’s message. In this way the two people from different
cultural backgrounds keep exchanging messages until they reach some form
of understanding. This understanding may not be perfect. This is the reason
why the sender’s and receiver’s ellipses overlap only partially in the model
illustrated in Figure 2.3 in Chapter 2.
The two communicators then continue negotiating meaning as they strive
to achieve a better understanding of each other’s messages. However, the
situation just described is based on the assumption that both participants are
willing to communicate, have a positive attitude towards each other and have
a desire to understand each other. Problems arise when the attitudes of the
participants are negative towards each other. Problems may also arise if they
do not understand each other’s language or when one or both of them have to
communicate in a language that is not their mother tongue. There are many
other barriers to good intercultural communication such as ethnocentrism,
cultural stereotyping, prejudice and others that have already been discussed
and defined.
As mentioned before, one of the biggest problems of intercultural
communication is that it makes people anxious because it creates
uncertainty. People from different cultural backgrounds may not share each
other’s values, which may place a strain on their communication. Moreover,
people with different cultural backgrounds are less able to predict how their
communication will turn out and they find it more difficult to predict the
other person’s responses, hence the uncertainty.
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How can organisations improve intercultural communication?
This section lists 21 ways in which organisations can improve intercultural
communication. The list covers both general and specific approaches.
1. Organisations should strive to create an atmosphere of trust by helping
all cultural groups to understand each other’s worldviews, values, specific
hopes and fears. People should also become aware of the difficulties that
other people face.
2. Organisations should address people’s fears regarding people from other
cultures. Fear of another cultural group may generate dislike. Where there
is dislike, people have greater difficulty acknowledging similarities with
other cultures. Fear can be overcome if people from different cultural
backgrounds learn more about each other and if employees have a realistic
approach to intercultural communication.
3. Organisations should also stress that people do not have to give up their
own ideas or values in order to appreciate and accept other people’s ideas
and values.
4. Most importantly, organisations need to encourage staff to respect other
cultures’ ways of experiencing life. All cultural groups in an organisation
should feel secure in their cultural identities and they should feel accepted
and acknowledged. Both differences and similarities need to be accepted
and confirmed in a non-judgemental way.
5. Organisations should help people to accept differences between cultures
in an open and honest way and encourage a positive attitude towards
cultural diversity.
6. Organisations should stress that an acceptance of diversity will improve
relationships and therefore improve the success of the organisation.
Emphasis needs to be placed on the fact that diversity is valued and that
it is a strength and a source of innovation as opposed to a weakness and a
source of conflict.
7. Organisations should help staff to understand the transactional
nature of intercultural communication and that meaning needs to be
negotiated. Staff need to understand the barriers to effective intercultural
communication and should be encouraged to treat communication as
a creation of meaning or a negotiation. This approach will help staff to
understand that communication may not be perfect the first time.
8. Organisations, in order to avoid cultural stereotyping, should encourage
staff to see each other as individuals rather than as members of a group.
If only groups are recognised, people will have a tendency to classify
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themselves in terms of in-groups and out-groups. This approach is likely
to encourage stereotyping and keep prejudices alive.
9. Organisations should help people to learn about other cultures through
the personal experience of individual relationships. Organisations need to
stress that, although it is difficult to gain an accurate idea of other cultures
because of the variations within different cultural groups, people should
not make generalisations or stereotype people from other cultures. One
way of overcoming this tendency is to encourage people to get to know each
other as individuals. They will then rely less on general information about
the other culture and instead gain genuine knowledge of the other person’s
nature, values and attitudes. Organisations therefore need to encourage
informal socialising among people from different cultural backgrounds
and encourage staff to make time for social interchange and recreational
pursuits. In this way they can get to know and appreciate each other.
10. Organisations should, if possible, ensure that there are enough members
of each cultural group employed within the organisation. In this way,
people will begin to understand that there are individual differences
within cultural groups and that not all people belonging to a certain group
will act in the same way. As already mentioned, staff should be helped to
understand that there are many differences within one culture and that it
is virtually impossible to make accurate general statements about people
from a particular culture.
11. Organisations should address intercultural communication problems
directly. These problems should be discussed openly and honestly.
12. Organisations should make staff aware that social class often plays a more
significant role than culture per se and that people from the same social class
are likely to share certain values and beliefs, regardless of their racial or ethnic
background. People from the same social class are therefore likely to share
certain cultural values with each other and could be more similar than two
people from the same cultural background but from different social classes.
13. Organisations need to keep in mind that different age groups or generations
will react differently to intercultural communication. A person’s level of
education will also play an important role in his or her comfort with and
willingness to engage in intercultural communication. The higher a person’s
level of education, the less likely he or she will be to make use of stereotypes
and the more willing to engage with and learn from diverse others.
14. Organisations need to make staff aware of the dangers of stereotyping
when they interact with people of different cultures. Stereotyping should
be openly and honestly discussed.
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15. Organisations should do their utmost to change attitudes of superiority and
inferiority and, by implication, ethnocentrism. Equality in communication
should be stressed and practised. The organisational goal of creating a
supportive climate in which everyone is respected and valued should be
placed above all cultural and individual goals. The organisation should
also ensure that systems are in place that will make this type of interaction
a reality.
16. Organisations should encourage people to build a sense of identity and
positive self-esteem. Once people are confident of their identities and
develop a positive self-esteem, they are more likely to accept others.
17. Organisations should have effective affirmative action programmes
in place. These programmes should go hand-in-hand with changes in
attitudes. If they do not, then affirmative action could become a form of
window-dressing instead of an empowerment tool.
18. Organisations should help staff in very specific ways to understand
different ways of communicating. In particular, staff should understand
the following:
a. Language is a communication barrier, especially when the participants
are not communicating in their mother tongue.
b. There are different approaches towards constructing messages. For
example, Westerners value getting to the point immediately. Other
cultures view this as discourteous and value first gathering all the issues
relevant to the messages and then getting to the point. At the personal
level some people may exchange pleasantries for a long time before
getting to the reason for the meeting. A person with a Western approach
would find this delay very irritating.
c. Culture influences how non-verbal communication is interpreted. In
particular, different cultures have different attitudes towards:
• touching
• eye contact
• personal space
• ways in which one’s hands are used in conversation
• dress and levels of formal dress
• time.
19. Organisations should encourage their staff to speak slowly and carefully
if they are using a language unfamiliar to their listeners. They should keep
their messages simple and easy to follow. People should be careful about
using humour, because people from other cultural backgrounds may not
understand it.
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20. Organisations should make staff aware of different negotiating styles. These
examples should help staff become more sensitive to cultural variations:
a. One best way versus specific nature: Some cultures consider that there is
one best way of doing things and assume that there is one unchanging
set of rules that applies to any business situation. Other cultures stress
the specific nature of a particular negotiation. Each business situation
is likely to be different in their eyes. They may, as a result, seem to
be saying irrelevant things and not keeping to the issues, but they are
simply trying to understand the specific situation. They do not apply
the same set of rules to every situation.
b. Individual compared to group decisions: One cultural approach in
negotiations may be to seek a quick decision by making a sudden offer
without referring to the Head Office for confirmation. This approach
will make negotiators reluctant to change their minds. Another group,
in contrast, seeks consensus. They may agree only tentatively and then
withdraw an offer after consulting with their Head Office.
c. One or many things at a time: Some business people like to do one thing
at a time, whereas others like to do many things at once.
d. Different approaches to status: Some cultures respect those who have
achieved status through hard work and brilliance. In contrast, other
cultures value status that is based on family and seniority.
21. Organisations should strive to have a fair language policy. If possible, staff
should be encouraged to learn other people’s languages. In practice, this is
not always possible because of the wide variety of languages spoken; this
is particularly true in South Africa where we have 11 official languages. An
international trend is to use English as the language of communication.
Some companies are using what is called ‘controlled English’. This is
normal English, but with a carefully selected vocabulary of about 2 000
words. In addition, the grammar is normal English grammar, but only
simple sentence constructions are used. Everyone in the organisation
would be expected to know and use this controlled English in writing and
speaking. It is easy to understand and learn because one word has only
one meaning.
Intercultural sensitivity
It is essential in organisations that people go through the process of
acculturation, which refers to a person’s ability to adapt to another culture or,
in an organisation, to adapt to a new corporate culture. However, in terms of
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communication between different cultures or intercultural communication,
it is important to develop people’s intercultural sensitivity.
For example, people who are ethnocentric will see difference as a threat
to their own values and behaviour and they tend to respond to difference in
a defensive, protective or threatening way. As a result, they are likely to look
down on other cultures.
Ethnorelativism is basically the flip-side of the coin of ethnocentrism.
Ethnorelativism is when someone is not threatened by difference but tries to
understand and accept other cultures. This is when people move away from
the position that culture is something inherent and static, to the position that
culture is learned and it is a process that we all engage in. Ethnorelativists
therefore have great empathy and intercultural sensitivity.
Ethnorelativists also do their best to avoid cultural arrogance. They try to
approach each new intercultural communication setting with a beginner’s
attitude and mind. They are curious about diverse others and keen to learn
more about alternative ways of viewing the world and solving problems.
Conclusion
The more you can accept cultural differences, acquire the ability to know and
understand that most behaviour is cultural and not universal, and function
comfortably in relationships with diverse others, the more tools you have to
solve problems and the better you will become at intercultural communication.
In order to do this, it is important to recognise that people from different
cultural backgrounds will find it more difficult to negotiate and share meaning
because they use different verbal and non-verbal symbols to communicate.
And even if they use the same symbols, the meaning of these symbols is often
different, which causes confusion and communication difficulties. However,
the more you learn about and understand cultural dimensions, such as
collectivism versus individuals, femininity versus masculinity, high context
versus low context cultures and how they impact on communication, the
more you will begin to communicate more effectively in intercultural contexts
and you will be able to really make a difference in intercultural encounters.
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CHAPTER
7
THE INTERVIEW
Introduction
An interview is a special form of interpersonal communication. An interview
situation is specially created in order to provide interviewers with an
opportunity to discover facts about an interviewee or his or her attitudes or
opinions towards certain things. When an interview is conducted, there may
be a single interviewer or an interview panel consisting of several members.
Interviews are most commonly conducted face-to-face, however they may
be conducted through the use of a communications technology, such as
video- or teleconferencing.
The interviewer (or the interview panel leader) guides the course of an
interview in order to ensure that the goals of the interview are achieved. Prior
to commencing an interview, a well-prepared interviewer will devise a series
of questions intended to reveal the interviewee’s response as efficiently and
accurately as possible.
Interviews should be purposeful, meaningful and directed conversations,
rather than an informal chat. It is also in both party’s interests to prepare
adequately for an interview in order to get the best out of it.
In most peoples’ experience, an interview is a component of a recruitment
selection process, although they are often also encountered at termination of
an employment engagement, when applying for a bank loan or visa or as a
survey tool as part of a research exercise.
In this chapter we will discuss the following:
• The special nature of interviews
• Types of interviews in an organisation:
• job interviews
– the factors relevant to the job interview
– the differences between a one-on-one interview and a panel interview
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•
•
•
–– the interviewer’s preparation
–– the interviewee’s preparation
–– the phases of a typical interview
–– the panel interview
–– the characteristics of a good interview
information-seeking interviews where information is sought from
customers, suppliers and employees
performance-appraisal interviews
exit interviews.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• describe the special nature of interviews
• describe four major types of interviews in an organisation
• describe the factors relevant to the job interview
• explain the difference between a one-on-one job interview and a panel
job interview
• describe the importance of preparing for a job interview
• describe the phases of a typical job interview
• describe the characteristics of a good job interview
• provide the major advantages and disadvantages of open and closed
questions used in a job interview
• design your own ‘candidate scoring grid’
• write a letter of application for a job
• develop your own curriculum vitae.
The special nature of interviews
Interviews differ from ordinary conversations in that they:
• demand specialist knowledge if they are to be successful
• take place in a controlled setting
• are two-sided and are conducted in a predictable way
• have prescribed roles for both interviewer and interviewee
• are conducted with a specific purpose in mind
• rely on effective verbal and non-verbal communication for their success
• rely on active listening
• are based on formal questions and answers.
Based on the nature of an interview we can then define an interview as a
planned conversation between two parties during which questions are asked
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and answered in order to achieve a specific goal. This conversation is designed
to exchange information and attitudes about a specific subject. An interview
is therefore:
• a conversation rather than an interrogation
• a form of planned communication, consisting of well-designed questions
that ensure the exchange of specific facts and opinions, enabling accurate
impressions to be formed by both sides.
Interviews may be structured or unstructured. Structured interviews are carefully
prepared in advance, with an established set of questions. Such interviews are
designed for very specific purposes, such as finding an appropriate candidate
to employ in a particular position. Unstructured interviews are more flexible
and the interviewer may depart from his or her specific plan. The interviewee
is allowed scope to answer questions in detail even if these details are not
fully relevant to the conversation. The interviewer will however try to keep to
a general plan.
Types of interviews in an organisation
In an organisation we can distinguish between various types of interviews. In
this chapter, we will discuss the following four types of interviews:
1. job interviews
2. information-seeking interviews
3. performance-appraisal interviews
4. exit interviews.
The job interview
The job interview forms part of the recruitment and selection process of
an organisation. Making the correct selection is critical to the success of
the organisation. For this reason the job interview is important for an
organisation and therefore we will go into more detail when discussing this
type of interview.
This section looks at:
• the factors relevant to the job interview
• the differences between a one-to-one job interview and a panel job interview
• the interviewer’s preparation
• the interviewee’s preparation
• the phases of a typical job interview
• the characteristics of a good job interview.
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A job interview is an example of an organisation performing a due diligence
investigation. In this case the investigation aims to determine which individual
is the best choice for employment at the organisation based on his or her:
• technical and work-related skills
• communication skills, which may include the applicant’s ability to
generate usable documentation of technical procedures, manufacturing
techniques and others
• work attitude
• problem-solving ability
• creative prowess.
For these reasons, job interviews may be seen as transactions. The interviewer
and interviewee interact to determine whether the interviewee is the
most suitable candidate for the job. In the case of interviews conducted
by a recruiting agency, the interviewer may be attempting to find the best
employment ‘fit’ for the candidate from among many possibilities.
Factors relevant to a job interview
Important factors in a job interview
Purposes
Nature of
the job
Memory
Personal
attitudes
Personal
bias
Level of
preparation
Perceptions
of both
parties
INTERVIEW SETTING
INTERVIEWER
Ability to
receive
feedback
Types of
questions
asked
INTERVIEWEE
Sensitivity to
non-verbal
communication
Motivation
of both
parties
Language
ability
Thinking
patterns
Listening
skills
Figure 7.1 Important factors in a job interview
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◗
◗
◗
◗
◗
◗
◗
◗
◗
◗
Interview setting: The interviewer should ensure that the interview setting is not
confrontational. Formal settings (conducted from either side of a formal work desk) may
prevent applicants from expressing themselves naturally and are often dispensed in favour
of more informal settings.
Interview panel: The panel should be very well prepared with a clear set of purposes, a good
overall plan and well thought out questions.
Interview candidates: Ideally the candidate should be familiar with the core business of
an organisation which is obtainable through basic background research. The candidate
should be able to prepare for likely questions based on this information and the information
provided on the position itself. The candidate should be able to link the intention of each
question back to the organisation’s core business and to the position itself.
Purpose: To be successful, the interview should be organised around a clear set of purposes.
The interviewer(s) should determine precisely what they wish to gain from the interview.
They should make these purposes known to the interviewee, who should also approach the
interview with a similarly clear set of purposes.
Nature of the position: The interviewer must have a clear and detailed description of the
duties required of a successful applicant. This description should inform the types of
questions asked at the interview.
Level of preparation: Interviewing needs special skills and careful preparation. Interviewers
need to understand and be able to:
◗
determine an appropriate set of selection criteria for the position
◗
plan an interview
◗
prepare a set of effective and relevant questions
◗
interpret candidates’ responses and react to these (for example effectively ask
appropriate follow-up questions).
Perceptions: Both parties will arrive at the interview with different sets of perceptions. They
should strive to understand these perceptions through the use of carefully constructed
questions and thoughtful answers.
Types of questions: A good interview should be conducted by means of carefully planned
and prepared questions in specific relevant areas. These questions should be designed
to enable an interviewee to talk openly and freely. Closed questions demanding exact
answers should only be used to fill in details. In this case, open questions naturally lead to
a more in-depth discussion, while closed questions may be answered with a simple yes/no
response. Open and closed questions will be discussed in more detail later.
Motivation of both parties: The parties must be appropriately motivated in order to perform
well in an interview. A lack of motivation from either party will become apparent quickly and
could result in the interview lacking drive and direction. Interviews lacking in motivation from
either party are unlikely to result in the appointment of the candidate.
Listening skills: Both parties must employ active listening techniques. They must listen
carefully to the questions being asked and the answers being given in order to fully
understand them both as well as the motivations behind them. The interviewee should make
sure that he or she has heard and understood the question being asked and respond to that
specific question. The interviewer should make sure he or she listens to the answer being
given. Both parties should resist jumping to conclusions.
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◗
◗
◗
◗
◗
◗
Thinking patterns: The interviewer and interviewee should both attempt to understand the
thinking patterns of the other party. Understanding the other party’s intentions will likely lead
to a successful interview.
Language ability: The ability to use language carefully and correctly is extremely important
as it avoids misperceptions and misunderstandings between parties. This is particularly
important if the correct use of technical or other terms specifically related to the position
need to be used. If an interviewer is uncertain about the language, then it is advisable to
write out the questions beforehand. The interviewee should practise answering anticipated
questions beforehand and prepare a stock of words and phrases for the interview. Both
parties should give the same meanings to words.
Sensitivity to non-verbal communication: Each party should strive to be sensitive to the
other party’s non-verbal communication. Interviewers should analyse their own non-verbal
biases and stereotypes. This analysis should help them to judge people more fairly. Each
party should also show that they are listening actively and should regulate their turn-taking.
Ability to receive feedback: Interviewees should be mindful of responses from interviewers
in order to adjust their responses.
Personal bias and attitudes: Both parties should be aware of their own biases and attitudes.
Such general awareness improves their sensitivities both to the types of questions being
asked and to the replies given.
Memory: Both parties should strive to remember exactly what the other party has said.
Accurate memory will help the interviewer to guide the course of the interview and to return to
key points as required. The interviewee should attempt to remember difficult or multifaceted
questions. Interviewees should also remember what they have said in order to strengthen
points they made earlier in the interview.
Panel interviews
Panel interviews are generally conducted to provide breadth of opinion and
to eliminate favouritism from the recruitment selection. In a panel interview,
a panel Chair will generally discuss the division of responsibility between the
panel members.
As an example, a panel member might be the manager that the applicant
would be reporting to if appointed. The manager might ask questions relating to
the applicant’s ability to perform certain technical tasks related to the position.
Another representative, for example from the Human Resources department,
might ask questions relating to the applicant’s ability to work extended hours
or his or her access to personal transport.
The panel will decide which applicant to appoint based on many factors,
including his or her performance in the interview. For senior appointments,
the panel may consist of board members and for the sake of transparency an
external Chair may be used.
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Selection committee
The job interview is part of a recruitment selection process performed by a
selection committee. The Chair of the selection committee often chairs the
interview itself but this is not always the case.
The selection committee ensures that:
• the position has been approved at board level or as required
• the position has been budgeted for by the business unit making the
appointment and by central finance
• the position has been identified as needing to be created or filled through
an appropriate process, such as gap analysis, and is not being conducted
simply due to the resignation or termination of a previous employee
• the position has an approved/desired start date
• a position description has been generated for the position
• the position description contains clearly defined selection criteria
• the applicants being interviewed have been assessed against the stated
selection criteria and shortlisted for interview
• a plan has been prepared for the interviews along with a brief statement of
intent for the interview panel members
• a set of questions relevant to the position has been prepared
• a set of general questions has been obtained, for example from human
resources or the head of the department that is recruiting
• a score sheet/notes sheet has been prepared in order for interview panel
members to note their impressions of the interviewee’s responses
• interview panel members are selected based on their anticipated
contributions to the recruitment process and these may not always be
members of the selection committee itself.
Once these processes have been completed, the selection committee will
appoint an interview panel Chair who ensures that all members are properly
briefed on the position being filled, the required duties of the position and
the selection criteria.
The interview Chair not only ensures the timely progression of the interview
through the stages and questions, but also ensures that each panel member:
• understands which questions he or she will be asking the candidates
and the intention behind asking those questions in order to follow up
appropriately if needed
• has appropriate knowledge and skills to enable him or her to assess the
responses given by candidates
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• understands any other duties that may be assigned to him or her, for
example the preamble discussion on the purpose of the position may
be assigned to a particular panel member rather than being only the
Chair’s responsibility.
Interview panels have their own dynamics, which should be taken into
account by the panel Chair in order to ensure that the appropriate information
is obtained from the candidates, rather than the interview becoming a
discussion between the panel members themselves.
The panel members should ensure that they:
• are well prepared
• use active listening to enable them to interpret the candidates’ responses
• keep their minds open and do not jump to conclusions
• avoid guiding or leading candidates to provide particular answers
• devise follow-up questions where appropriate, for example to enable a
candidate to provide a more complete response
• apply their experience in order to assess the candidates’ ability to perform
the duties of the position.
Table 7.1 Example of a candidate scoring grid for panel members
CANDIDATE
1
2
3
4
5
6
Appearance
Honesty
Ability to communicate
Knowledge of the job
Suitability for the job
Selecting a supplier or vendor
Organisations rarely operate without business partners, such as suppliers,
resellers, distributors or support organisations. A more detailed and in-depth
selection process similar to the job interview is often conducted as part of a
due diligence process, forming a component of the business partner selection
process. However, such an interview may be conducted with many attendees
from both organisations.
To perform supplier or vendor selection, managers may also devise a
range of questions to determine whether a supplier or vendor will meet the
requirements of the organisation. The managers may pose the same questions
to all possible suppliers and rate them accordingly. The supplier or vendor most
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likely to meet all the requirements of the organisation can then be selected to
supply a specific set of products or services to the organisation or to act as a
distribution or sales channel for the organisation’s products or services.
The role of questions in interviews
The interviewer should plan a set of questions for each stage of the interview.
These may consist of a mix of open and closed questions depending on the
type of information being sought. Open questions require general information.
They enable interviewees to expand on a topic, express opinions and give
the reasoning behind opinions. Closed questions, on the other hand, demand
specific answers, even ‘yes’ or ‘no’. They restrict the interviewee’s choices and
may be used to assess an applicant’s factual knowledge in specific areas.
Open questions
Some examples of open questions:
• What is your reaction to the recent changes in tax laws?
• In what ways do you think you could increase sales?
• How can you contribute to the success of the company?
Advantages of open questions
The advantages of open questions include that they:
• help to show the interviewee’s ways of thinking and priorities
• give an interviewee freedom to construct an answer
• show how much an interviewee knows
• show how articulate the interviewee is
• help to build a good relationship because the questions do not imply
a judgement
• can be less threatening if the interview becomes tense.
Disadvantages of open questions
The disadvantages of open questions may be that:
• they take time and energy to ask, answer, interpret and assess
• they may need expert preparation
• they make it more difficult to control the interview
• recording the answers during the interview is more difficult
• answers may be interpreted differently by the different panel members
• responses may become long-winded and meander around a topic or
depart onto a tangent unless kept under control, resulting in difficulty in
assessing the interviewee’s level of knowledge and skill.
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Closed questions
Some examples of closed questions:
• Do you believe that changes to tax laws were needed?
• Can sales be increased?
• Is it important to evaluate the success of a new expanse claims policy?
Advantages of closed questions
The advantages of closed questions include that they:
• save time
• allow the interviewer to control the flow of information
• enable the interviewer to obtain exact information
• enable the interviewer to fill in gaps in the interviewee’s replies
• help a shy interviewee to start talking
• enable interviewers to ask a number of questions in a short time.
Disadvantages of closed questions
The disadvantages of closed questions may be that they:
• limit the replies
• can reduce an interview into an interrogation
• could make the interviewee defensive if too many are asked
• can restrict the interviewee’s choices of answer and need to explain.
Changing closed questions into open questions
It is possible to change a closed question into an open question by using
‘follow-up’ questions. If a candidate is asked, ‘Can sales be increased?’ and
responds, ‘Yes’, then the candidate may be asked to expand their answer with
a follow-up question, ‘What strategies might you employ to do so?’ This
allows candidates to provide additional information where their response to
a closed question does not provide the depth of information needed to assess
the candidates adequately. Switching to open questions may also reduce or
eliminate any defensiveness candidates may feel with mainly closed questions
and may help to avoid the interview becoming an interrogation.
Interview preparation
Interviewers should prepare a range of open and closed questions, in order
to address these areas:
• motivation to join or to change roles within the organisation
• work history and previous relevant experience
• education and training
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career plan
initiative and motivation
leadership and management skills
ability to work in team situations
independence
communication skills, both verbal and written
ability to work at the designated workplace, which may be different to the
interview location
• ability to work at the designated hours, for example shift work or organising
weekend promotional events may be involved
• any other issues that may have an impact on the candidates’ employment,
for example a restriction of trade.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Interviewees should prepare for the interview by:
• researching the organisation and determining its core business
• considering the position description and/or advertisement to assess its
relevance to the organisation and its core activities
• analysing their strengths and weaknesses in relation to the type of
organisation and the position
• preparing to sell their relevant strengths
• assessing the position in relation to career objectives
• considering the likely questions that the panel will ask at the interview
• creating a list of questions to ask the interview panel
• reviewing their letter of application and curriculum vitae.
Phases of a job interview
Interviews go through a series of four phases. Interviewers should prepare
different approaches and questions for each of these phases.
1. The first phase is an introduction. This usually includes a brief statement of
the purpose of the interview itself and a brief introduction of the members
of the interview panel and their positions within the organisation.
2. The second phase is generally an information gathering phase, centering
on the candidate’s responses to questions that are intended to determine
the applicant’s skill levels, opinions and attitudes to a range of work and
workplace-related issues. A range of open and closed questions will be
used during this phase to determine the candidate’s suitability to the
work activities required of a successful applicant as well as his or her
compatibility with the workplace and department.
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Phase three generally involves a negotiation around workplace, hours, shifts
and salary conditions and provides time for the candidate to pose their
own questions to the panel.
4. The fourth and final phase enables the interview panel Chair to sum up
and to close the conversation. The steps required in order to select an
appointee are usually discussed and the time frame for that decision and
appointment are made known.
3.
Some informal discussion may then occur but, at this point, the interview is
considered closed and ends on a friendly note.
The job application
The letter of application or covering letter and curriculum vitae (CV) are crucial in
any job search. Their quality and content will make someone decide whether
to interview an applicant and will be used by the interviewer to prepare for
the job interview, for example to enquire about previous work experience.
The letter of application
A letter of application should be focused and to the point. The letter should
be clearly written, structured and formatted.
The letter should have at least the following content:
• a clear subject line stating the vacancy being applied for, including any
reference numbers
• an opening paragraph giving more detail about the vacancy, for example
referring to a vacancy advertisement
• a statement of the applicant’s reasons for seeking the position
• a statement of the applicant’s skills relevant to the position
• a statement of intended achievements in the position
• a statement demonstrating that the applicant understands how his or her
reasons for seeking the position, skills and intended achievements will
benefit the organisation
• reference to his or her attached curriculum vitae
• applicant’s contact details
• references and/or referee contact details.
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Example
This is not intended to be a template to be followed, however, it shows the points
that should be covered in a job application covering letter. Since different positions
may place different emphases on the applicant’s skills, this should only be
considered as a guideline to the approach and tone of the application letter.
585 Globe Mansions
16th Street
SIMONSVILLE
3685
24 August 20__
Dear Mr Xhaba,
Clear subject line
APPLICATION FOR VACANCY OF TRAINING AND
DEVELOPMENT MANAGER
Immediate reference
to advertisement
I wish to apply for the post of Training and Development
Manager, as advertised in the ABC on 20 August 20__.
The vacancy of Training and Development Manager in your
organisation would be of great interest to me, as I wish to
pursue a career in training and development.
Use of sub-heading
to state the
contribution that
the writer can make
CONTRIBUTION TO YOUR ORGANISATION
I believe that I can make an effective contribution to your
organisation for the following reasons:
• my relevant tertiary education
• my previous experience in training and development
• my knowledge of management
• my ability to get on with people.
Use of sub-heading
to focus on future
studies
PART-TIME STUDIES IN TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
I wish to pursue my studies in training and development
part-time and plan to become a training and development
specialist in three years’ time. I believe that these plans
will fit in with your organisation’s proven record of sound
organisational development.
Referral to CV and
referees
I attach my curriculum vitae containing the names of three
referees that may be contacted in confidence.
I am available for an interview at any time. My contact
numbers are:
Work (021) 872 3456
Fax (021) 872 3457
Cell 082 663 9622
Home (021) 628 2434
Fax (021) 628 2433
Email: mattie@hotmail.ac.za
Contact details
Yours sincerely
A.J. MATTHEWS
Encl. Curriculum Vitae
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The curriculum vitae
This document is a record of an applicant’s personal details, achievements
and experience. It should be a document which ‘sells’ the writer and should
at least contain:
• personal details
• professional profile
• professional experience
• positions held
• areas of expertise
• education
• special awards or accomplishments
• references.
Example
The following example illustrates a possible curriculum vitae. Note that it has
been set out to be highly readable. A CV will normally be read in 20 seconds by
strangers. Therefore include headings that catch the eye of the reader. A one-page
summary may also be included. Remember that your CV is where you describe and
sell yourself.
AJ MATTHEWS
HONOURS IN INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
DIPLOMA IN BUSINESS MANAGEMENT/QUALIFIED ASSESSOR
POST-GRADUATE CERTIFICATE IN HIGHER EDUCATION
7 Mont Blanc, 74 Cape Cherry Street, Cape Town
HOME: (021) 628 2434 CELL: 082 663 9622 EMAIL: matthewsaj@gmail .com
GENERAL MANAGER – STRONG EDUCATION/TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
AND HUMAN RESOURCES BACKGROUND
Professional profile
• Versatile manager with hands-on experience.
• Strategic professional who deploys participative management style in fastpaced, diverse workforce.
• Proactive change agent who spends time in employee environment
encouraging learning and promoting the increased productivity that results in
value-added customer service.
• Excellent team builder and consultant on personnel issues and organisational
development and training.
• Motivated achiever with demonstrable ability to recommend enhancements to
business processes.
• Strong interpersonal, written and verbal communicator who can deliver effective
presentations, consult on projects and maintain collaborative relationships.
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• Exceptional problem-solver with keen ability to resolve issues, provide
enhancements, analyse/define business processes for improvement; define,
design, develop and implement highly successful solutions specifically in
teaching and learning environments.
Areas of expertise
• Teaching and learning
• Curriculum development
• Management and facilitation of
training/teaching and training/
teaching department
• Development strategy, objectives,
policies, training programmes
• Employee and management training
• Succession planning/management
practices and programmes
• Recruitment, testing and staffing
• Diversity programmes
• Employee health and safety
management
• Employee relations programmes
• Quality assurance
• Business management
• Policy assessment
• Multi-unit management
• Operations management
• Performance management
• Project management
• HR systems
• Database management
• Business process enhancement
recommendations
• Workflow analysis
• Legislative knowledge and
experience in SDA, EEA, LRA, BCEA,
BEE
• Customer services/support
Professional experience
Give the title of your current position held, the organisation name where you are
currently employed and the date from when you started at this organisation. List
the duties and responsibilities, for example:
• Leadership and co-ordination:
a. Ensuring the commitment and compliance within the department to
the maintenance, development, implementation and monitoring of
organisational policies and procedures.
b. Monitoring and mentoring of other team members to ensure ability to work
within required parameters.
Give the title of your previous position held, the organisation name where you were
previously employed, date from when you started at this organisation. List the
duties and responsibilities as you did for your current position.
Provide a reason for why your employment ended at this organisation, for example:
Reason for leaving: Promoted and transferred to Pretoria Branch
Education
• Application for Masters in Organisational Development at the University of
Cape Town was successful. Commencing studies in January 20__.
• Post-graduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE) at the University of Cape
Town. Modules completed:
• Professional development
• Mediating learning
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• Assessment practice
• Leadership and management
• Educational technology
• Research supervision
• BA Honours – Industrial Psychology, University of the North West
• Strategic Human Resource Management (BSKP 615)
• Vocational Psychology (BSKP 616)
• Organisational Development (BSKP 621)
• Human Capacity Development (BSKP 622)
• Psychometry (PSG 731)
• Psychological Evaluation (PSG 732)
• Practical Psychological Diagnostics (PSG 733)
• Research Methods (PSG 734)
• Clinical Aspects & Therapeutic Approaches (PSG 735)
• Psychopathology (PSG 738)
• Statistics (ST 732)
• Diploma in Business Management, Independent Institute of Education
Endorsed by the Chartered Institute of Business Management
• Management Accounting and Finance
• Marketing
• Human Resource Management
• Corporate Strategy
• Business Law
• Qualified Assessor with the ETDP Seta
• BA Degree, Potchefstroom University for CHE
Majors in Industrial Psychology and Business Sociology/Industrial relations
References
1. Woodcrest College
Mr G Botha (MD)
Contact Number: (021) 998 1977 / (021) 998 1728 (Last known number)
Cell: 084 788 9909
2. Frontline
Ms R Motsepe
General Project Manager
Contact Number: (021) 269 8755 or (021) 789 9222 (Last known number)
Cell: 087 555 4609
3. Adcorp
Ms K Perreira
Training and Development Specialist
Contact Number: (021) 267 4339 or (021) 384 4356 (Last known number)
Cell: 082 676 2225
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Notes on curriculum vitae
• Consider including a one-page summary of your CV. Selection committees
regularly receive many, sometimes hundreds, of CVs for a single position
and need to scan these quickly for relevant information. The summary will
help them to find important information quickly.
• Strive to update your CV every six months.
• Customise your CV for each application in order to better address the
specific requirements.
• If a limit is placed on the length of the CV, stay within that limit.
• Make sure your CV remains vibrant and relevant while marketing yourself.
The information-seeking interview
Managers at all levels of an organisation are required to make decisions. In
order to make these decisions, managers have to use and interpret information
to allow them to make informed decisions.
These decisions can range from what products or services to add to
or remove from the company’s portfolio, to which supplier to use for
specific services or products. To assist managers in making these decisions,
management can make use of the information-seeking interview. This type of
interview may, for example, help managers to determine the needs and wants
of the customer.
A market survey is a type of information-seeking interview in which sales
staff and/or customers are selected from a target group to interview to gain
information about opinions on and attitudes towards certain products or
services. The information acquired may then be used by managers to make
decisions in terms of the organisation’s products or services.
This type of market survey is intended to determine the types of
enhancements the end-users of a product or service expect and to ensure
that the organisation maintains its competitive advantage. In this way, the
products or services maintain their desirability in the marketplace, which
enhances the organisation’s long-term viability.
In the above scenarios the information-seeking interview includes
structured and carefully worded questions and a clear purpose. The interviewer
will have to:
• select the interview subject based on a set of selection criteria
• obtain the interview subject’s cooperation
• use specific questioning tactics to obtain the best response
• evaluate the results
• make an informed decision based on the results.
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The information-seeking interview can also be used in relation to employee
grievances where the Human Resources manager might interview the relevant
employee to gain information in terms of his or her grievance. In this
scenario the information-seeking interview will not be structured. Instead, an
environment conducive to the complainant expressing his or her grievance
will be created by allowing a free flow of communication. In this case, the
interviewer will also be more likely to use prompting or probing questions.
He or she will have to listen with great care to the answers of the unhappy
employee. Both the interviewer and the interviewee will have to work together
to define and discuss specific problems.
The performance-appraisal interview
This type of interview is conventionally intended to provide employees
with feedback on their performance within an organisation, although many
organisations now perform ‘360 degree’ appraisals, with the employee
providing feedback to the organisation as well.
These types of interviews are designed to provide an assessment of the
employee’s performance against previously agreed goals and to help them
improve their performance against those measured goals.
The interviewer starts by providing the interviewee with information on his
or her performance. This should then develop into a conversation in which
the two work together to plan and set work goals in a transactional situation.
The interviewer should be very careful to:
• stress the employee’s performance and provide constructive criticism and
guidance to the employee
• be very specific about strengths and weaknesses
• help the interviewee decide on specific reasons for weak performance and
remedial actions
• help the employee plan his or her specific future performance to reach
specific goals.
Although the interviewer is very much in control here (a power relationship
commonly exists between the parties), he or she should strive to make the
interview a two-way process.
The exit interview
This type of interview is designed to discover why people have resigned from
an organisation. Since there might be some ill feeling or animosity between
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the parties, the interviewer should try to establish a pleasant and trusting
atmosphere. The interviewer should plan specific questions to encourage the
interviewee to give honest answers.
The interviewer should practise active listening and should use prompting
questions to encourage a free flow of information, opinions and feelings.
Conclusion
Organisations use interviews in various situations where information
gathering is required and/or face-to-face interaction and immediacy are
important. The most commonly experienced interview type is the job
interview. The interviewer must be able to determine if the interviewee is the
right fit for the organisation and for the position advertised. Job interviews
should allow a candidate to display him- or herself as a person, not simply a
list of skills. When applying for a vacant position it is important to ensure that
the curriculum vitae you submit sells you and catches the eye of the reader in
order to secure an invitation to an interview. If you are the one conducting the
interview, make sure you prepare interviews effectively to source the relevant
information in order to make the correct decisions, recruit the best candidate
for a position, appropriately appraise the work of others and determine why
employees decide to leave the organisation.
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CHAPTER
8
FORMAL MEETINGS
Introduction
Meetings form an integral part of any organisation. The primary purpose of
meetings is to share information, discuss problems and their solutions and
make decisions. A well-run meeting encourages good business communication
and it provides people with an opportunity to make a personal contribution
and influence the functioning of the organisation. If meetings are not run
properly, they can lead to conflict and loss of productivity.
Organisations create hierarchies of structures intended to carry out various
aspects of the business of the organisation. These may start with a Board,
Executive Committees (‘EXCO’), Management Committees (‘MANCO’),
various operational groups, task teams, down to social committees. These
meetings and their associated management structures carry different ‘weights’
and may be assigned to various authorities. For example, organisations may
only allow financial commitments above a certain value to be made by its
Board. Decisions carrying certain legal implications, such as acquiring and
merging with another organisation, may also need to be performed by bodies
higher up in the structure. Committees hold meetings that are conducted in
line with their position within the organisation’s hierarchical structure. Those
committees higher up in the structure will conduct themselves formally, such
as making decisions through a formal voting process, while those lower down
may dispense with many formalities.
Formal meetings are called by means of a ‘Notice of Meeting’ and are often
held according to a schedule published well in advance, particularly in the case
of public bodies such as governmental structures, as well as publically listed
companies. These meetings follow a set agenda where different people have
different responsibilities and duties. Formal minutes are taken as a record of
the proceedings and may be distributed widely, for example extracts may be
published in the Government Gazette, distributed to shareholders and may
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be referred to and commented on in news media. Normally a formal meeting
is run according to a constitution and a set of rules.
This chapter will include a discussion on the following aspects:
• the difference between a formal meeting and a small group informal meeting
• duties of the Chair, Secretary and Treasurer
• rules for the conduct of meetings
• the writing of Notice of Meetings, agendas and minutes.
The chapter also shows examples of:
• a Notice of Meeting
• an agenda
• the minutes of a meeting.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• describe the differences between formal meetings and small group
informal meetings
• describe and set out the duties of the Chair, Secretary, Treasurer and the
other officials
• prepare a Notice of Meeting, an agenda and a set of minutes, professionally.
Differences between formal and small policy-making meetings
This chapter highlights the difference between formal meetings and small
policy-making or decision-making groups.
Formal meetings:
• vary in size from seven people to an Annual General Meeting (AGM)
attended by hundreds of people
• are called by means of a Notice of Meeting
• have an agenda
• have their proceedings recorded in minutes
• are run by a designated Chair, a Secretary and, if required, a Treasurer
• are governed by a set of formal rules
• may have a formal constitution that governs, for example how often they
are convened.
Small informal policy-making or decision-making meetings may have some
of these characteristics, but not all.
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Aspects of formal meetings
This section covers the following aspects of formal meetings:
• duties of the Chair, Secretary and Treasurer
• rules for the conduct of meetings
• the writing of Notices of Meetings, agendas and minutes
Duties of the Chair
The Chair should plan for the meeting well in advance. He or she is responsible
for the following aspects of the meeting.
Before the meeting
• If the meeting is optional, checks that it is really necessary to have the
meeting in the first place.
• Ensures that the time and place are appropriate and that the venue is big
enough to accommodate all the attendees.
• Checks the venue to ensure that it is comfortable and has the right seating
arrangements.
• Checks that equipment is working if video and teleconference facilities
are needed.
• Sees that an agenda has been prepared and sent off in good time so that
people can prepare for the meeting. This timing is especially important if
a constitution lays down the period of Notice of Meeting.
• Gives people advance warning if they have to prepare topics or reports for
the meeting.
• Ensures that all proposals have been correctly worded and have been
properly seconded.
• Gives people advance notice of these proposals on the agenda.
• Checks that a microphone is available as well as appropriate audio-visual
aids and lighting.
• Checks that the minutes of the previous meeting are sent out in advance,
with the Notice of Meeting.
• Sees that sub-committees have met and that their reports are ready for
the meeting.
• Prepares a Chair’s report and sends this out in advance.
• Prepares thoroughly for the meeting.
• If necessary allocates a time-limit for the discussion of each item.
• Appoints someone to record the proceedings and take minutes.
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During the meeting
•
•
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•
•
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•
Ensures that the meeting starts on time.
Makes sure that everyone has the agenda and understands it.
Moves the business of the meeting along.
Keeps to the agenda, notwithstanding items of ‘other business’.
Discourages distracting behaviour, for example:
• conducting conversations separate from the main discussion
• talking off the point that is being discussed
• talking past each other, for example purposefully not answering a
question being asked.
Keeps to the formal rules of debate where necessary.
Allocates an order for speakers and questions.
Sees that everyone has a fair chance to speak.
Summarises the discussion if necessary.
Ties up loose ends.
Identifies any action that has to be taken and by whom.
Sees that the Secretary records the exact wording of any decisions taken for
recording in the minutes, as well as the names of proposers and seconders.
Sees that the Secretary records financial transactions correctly if applicable.
Where necessary, delegates responsibilities and has these recorded.
Acts impartially throughout the meeting.
Strives to be fair when decisions are made.
Exercises a casting vote only when no other way can be found of resolving
a matter.
Sees that motions have been correctly put forward and seconded.
Sees that votes have been correctly counted and recorded.
Summarises all decisions at the end of the meeting and ensures that people
know what they have to do next.
Duties of the Secretary
The Secretary, such as a qualified Company Secretary, is responsible for:
• ensuring that notices of meetings are published in the correct places, for
example publically listed companies are required to publish notices of
shareholder meetings in national newspapers
• keeping the records of the meetings by taking minutes of the meeting
• keeping the Chair up-to-date with all the factors affecting the meeting
• keeping a correspondence file
• keeping an attendance register.
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Before the meeting
• Ensures a notice of the meeting has been published and distributed within
the time period prescribed in the constitution.
• Ensures the agenda has been properly set out with the correct wording and
is sent out in advance.
• Ensures all minutes are up-to-date and correspondence has been correctly
filed so that it can be presented at the meeting.
• Ensures the venue has been booked and that the correct tables, chairs,
microphone and audio-visual aids have been booked.
• Ensures that the venue is ready for the meeting.
During the meeting
• Ensures that everyone signs the attendance register.
• Checks that the required number of attendees is present according to the
constitution to form a quorum, which is the minimum number of people
required to pass a vote.
• Reports to the Chair on the numbers present.
• Reads out the minutes of the previous meeting if the minutes have not
been sent out in advance and proposes that they be accepted as a true
record of previous proceedings.
• Records the proceedings, ensuring that exact wording, figures and names
have been recorded.
• Ensures that all motions, with both the proposers and seconders, have been
accurately recorded.
• Records numbers of votes.
• Records the names of those who have to take further action and deadlines
for this action where relevant.
• Collects copies of the Chair’s and committee’s reports for filing.
After the meeting
• Writes up the minutes of the meeting within a predetermined time period
and sends them to the Chair for checking.
• Once the minutes have been checked, files a copy and sends copies to the
Chair and Executive Committee where appropriate.
• Writes all letters as directed by the Chair.
• Briefs the Chair on matters to be followed up.
• Briefs sub-committees and individuals if they undertook to do specific
tasks and, before the next meeting, reminds them of deadline dates.
• Helps the Chair prepare the agenda for the next meeting.
• Checks that all rules in the constitution have been correctly followed.
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Duties of the Treasurer
A Treasurer’s duty is to keep accurate accounts of all financial transactions.
He or she also has to run the bank account and prepare the accounts for
annual auditing.
Before the meeting
• Prepares appropriate financial statements for the meeting.
• Ensures that the Chair and the Secretary receive copies, for the Secretary to
file with the minutes of the meeting.
• Ensures that all figures on the agenda have been correctly recorded.
During the meeting
•
•
•
•
•
•
Reads out the financial statement if appropriate.
Presents the accounts to make them official.
Presents the cheque list since the last meeting for the group’s information.
Answers any financial queries.
Records any financial transactions that need to be done after the meeting.
Advises the meeting on all financial matters.
After the meeting
• Checks with the Secretary that all financial transactions have been correctly
and accurately recorded.
• Pays any accounts as directed by the meeting.
• Keeps the account books up to date.
• Reports to the Chair that accounts have been paid.
Duties of any other officials
If the organisation or constitution allows for any other officials, they should:
• prepare any reports and presentations as necessary
• ensure that they attend all meetings
• work closely with the Chair
• keep accurate records of all that they do
• ensure that they do their duties according to the constitution.
Notice of Meeting, agenda and minutes
All formal meetings are called by means of a typed Notice of Meeting. This is
normally accompanied by a formal, typed agenda. The proceedings are then
recorded in formal minutes. This section describes the format and content of
these messages.
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Notice of Meeting and agenda
Example
The following example shows the format for a combined Notice of Meeting and
agenda. Please note that a section headed ‘Notes’ has been left open on the
right-hand-side. Those attending the meeting can make notes in this column.
NOTICE OF MEETING
NOTES
ABC COMPANY
Notice is hereby given that the third Annual General Meeting of
Shareholders of the above Company will be held at the Company’s
registered office, 25 First Street, Townsville on Wednesday
8 August 20__at 10h00.
AGENDA
Item
Notes
1. Notice convening the meeting
2. Apologies
3. Minutes of second Annual General Meeting
4. Matters arising from the minutes
5. Correspondence
6. Directors’ Report for the year
7. Balance Sheet and Profit and Loss Account for year ending
30 June 20__
8. Auditors’ Report on the accounts for the year ending
30 June 20__
9. Election of Directors to replace Mr C. Zulu and Mrs A. Smith.
Both of these have retired by rotation and are standing for
re-election.
10. Declaration of dividends of 7% of the Preference Share
Capital and 10% on the Ordinary Share Capital for the year
ending 30 June 20__.
11. Fixing of payment to Auditors for the past year
12. Any other business
13. Closure
By Order of the Board
Signed:
A.C. Mkizi (Secretary)
Date: 1 July 20__
Registered office
25 First Street
Townsville
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Example
If the meeting is less formal and is to be attended by a small number of people
from one department, then the Notice of Meeting and agenda could be set out as
shown below. Notice that the agenda is far more specific.
ABC COMPANY
NOTES
Production Department
Notice of Meeting
Our next Production Planning Meeting will be held as follows:
Date: 18 June 20__
Time: 10h00 to 11h00
Venue: Committee Room 2
Those attending: Joe Fischer, Ike Zitha, Fikile Mahlangu
AGENDA
OBJECTIVE OF MEETING: To decide whether to recommend a
10% increase in production in the Trimming Department
Agenda item
Purpose
Time
Presenter
Materials to be read in advance
1. Establish criteria for making decisions
Consensus
12 min
2. Review three-year production figures
Information
10 min
Attached figures
3. Consider short-term use of excess capacity in Trim Department
Decision
30 min
Attached estimates and proposal
Minutes of meetings
Minutes are the official record of the proceedings of a meeting. They also
record the exact wording of:
• resolutions taken
• decisions on finances
• appointments to vacancies and terms of office
• instructions
• contracts.
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Minutes are important documents for four major reasons:
1. They remind those who attended and those who did not about the business
of the meeting.
2. They form part of the historical records of an organisation.
3. Once approved, they are the official, legally binding records of a meeting.
4. They may be used as evidence in court.
Minutes should, therefore, be very carefully and accurately written. They
should be factual, unambiguous and to the point. Minutes provide an
efficient means of communicating the deliberations, decisions and opinions
of groups of people within an organisation.
Essential elements of minutes
Minutes should contain some or all of the following elements:
• name of the organisation
• type of meeting
• place, date and time of meeting
• the Chair’s name
• the Secretary’s name
• a record of the names of those who attended
• apologies for absence
• the Notice of Meeting
• opening and welcome
• minutes of previous meeting
• matters arising from the minutes
• correspondence
• financial report
• new business
• general
• closure
• Chair’s signature and date
• distribution list
• ‘Action’ column on the right-hand-side with deadline dates where
appropriate.
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Example
The following example illustrates extracts from a set of minutes. Note particularly
the use of:
• headings
• a multiple decimal numbering system
• the ‘Action’ column for the initials of those who are to take action and also for
deadline dates of when the action should be completed.
ABC COMPANY
Minutes of the third Annual General Meeting of the ABC Company
held at the Company’s Registered Offices, 25 First Street,
Townsville on Wednesday 8 August 20__ at 10h00.
1. Present
Mr A. Wentzel (Chair)
Mr A.C. Mkizi (Secretary)
Mr S. Stander
Mr K. Zulu (Treasurer)
Mrs A. Smith
Twenty shareholders (see attached list)
Action and
deadlines
2. Apologies
Apologies were received from:
Mr Z. Motau
3. Notice of meeting
The Secretary read the Notice of Meeting. The Chair declared
the meeting open and welcomed those present.
4. Minutes of second Annual General Meeting
It was proposed that the previous minutes be accepted as a
true record of the second Annual General Meeting (held on 10
June, 20__). The minutes were accepted into record.
Proposer: Mr K. Zulu
Seconder: Mrs A. Smith
5. Matters arising
The Chair reported on the following matters
5.1. Action items from previous meeting:
Mr K. Zulu reported that the group’s financial prospectus had
been revised to reflect higher than expected earnings in the
previous quarter and that the prospectus had been reissued as
minuted at the previous meeting.
6. Correspondence
The Secretary read the correspondence relevant to the second
Annual General Meeting.
continued on following page >>
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7. Election of directors
The following were elected for the period 8 August 20__ to
7 August 20__
• Mr K. Zulu (proposer …….., seconder ……….)
• Mrs A. Smith (proposer ……, seconder …..…)
8. Payment to auditors
Mr Wentzel, seconded by Mr S. Stander, proposed as follows:
That the auditors, Messrs J.K Pelle and Partners, be paid for
the year 1 July 20__ to 30 June 20__
The meeting so resolved.
ACTION:
Mr K. Zulu
S.S.
2 Sept 20__
9. Other business
No items of other business were raised.
10. Closure
The meeting closed at 11h30 with a vote of thanks to the
Board of Directors.
Signed: (Chair)
Date:
Attached: List of all those who attended.
Distribution list
Guidelines for the conduct of meetings
The following are a set of guidelines for a formal meeting. We have already
discussed other guidelines on the specific duties of the Chairs, Secretaries
and Treasurers.
Duties of Chair during meeting
Signs the minutes of the meeting once they have been approved.
Insists that all speakers address the meeting through the Chair.
Names speakers to indicate when they may speak.
Ensures that speakers receive a fair chance to speak.
Ensures that speakers keep to the agenda.
Ensures that responders stay on topic when responding to questions.
Controls the amount of time that speakers have.
Closes the debate on a topic when considered necessary.
Hands over the chair to the Vice-Chair when reading the Chair’s report.
Reads the exact wording of a motion to the meeting before inviting debate
on it.
• Appoints people to count votes by secret ballot or by a count of hands.
•
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•
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•
•
•
•
Uses a casting vote when votes for or against a motion are equal.
Accepts amendments to motions provided that they have been seconded.
Gives rulings on points of order.
Calls for a vote if any of these rulings are challenged.
Guidelines for speakers
• Address the meeting through the Chair.
• May speak only once on a motion but may speak on an amendment.
• May exercise their right of reply if they have proposed a motion (after this
no one else may speak – proposers of amendments have no right of reply).
• Retain their right to speak on a motion if they ask a question to gain
information on that motion.
• Cannot propose an amendment to a motion once they have spoken on
that motion and it remains the same.
• May interrupt other speakers on points of order.
• May then speak on their own points of order while the original speaker
remains silent.
Proposing of motions
Meetings should adhere to the following guidelines on motions:
• Motions must be proposed and seconded.
• A motion may be added to with the consent of the proposer.
• The proposer and seconder have a right to speak first on a motion.
• If not amended, motions are put to the vote.
• A motion is ‘carried’ if a quorum votes in favour of the motion.
• The number of members required to achieve a quorum will depend on the
constitution of the meeting.
• If motions are carried they become ‘resolutions’ and are minuted as such.
• Motions may be amended by changing, removing or adding words.
• An amendment needs a proposer and seconder.
• The amendment is voted on. If the amendment is approved by the meeting,
the amended motion called the substantive motion is put to the meeting.
• Two amendments cannot be accepted together.
• Each amendment needs to be voted on separately.
• A motion cannot be withdrawn unless the meeting, as well as the proposer
and seconder, agree.
• A motion is recorded as ‘carried unanimously’ if everyone votes for it. If
nobody votes against it, it can be recorded as nem.con. (no one against).
This could apply if some people abstain.
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• A proposal that opposes a motion cannot be accepted as an amendment.
It has to be put as a counter-proposal and the meeting will then vote on
whether to accept this proposal or not. If the counter-proposal is defeated,
the meeting will then vote on the original proposal. If the counter-proposal
is accepted, then the original proposal falls away.
Types of motions
The following are a selection of motions used to regulate meetings:
• If someone feels that the discussion about a motion has gone on long
enough, he or she may propose that ‘the question now be put’ through
the Chair. If this is accepted, the meeting then has to vote immediately
on the motion.
• Someone may wish the meeting to move on to the next motion on the
agenda. He or she may then propose a motion ‘to proceed to the next
business’. If this is carried, the meeting leaves the motion under discussion
without voting and moves on to the next motion.
• If a confidential matter is discussed, it may move into committee
(a sub‑group of meeting attendees move into another closed room to
discuss the matter at hand). A motion ‘to move into committee of the
whole’ is then put. If this is carried, everyone has to stay in the room until
the meeting moves out of committee. Once the meeting moves out of
committee, the matter may not be discussed. However the committee’s
determination may be reported to the larger meeting.
• If a member needs more time to consider a proposal, he or she may
propose a motion ‘to postpone’ debate to a new date.
• A member who wishes the meeting to reconsider a resolution made at the
meeting may propose a motion ‘to reconsider’ the resolution.
• A member who feels uneasy about a resolution taken at a previous
meeting may propose a motion at the next meeting ‘to review and rescind’
a motion.
Conclusion
The main purpose of a meeting is to share information, to make decisions
or to solve problems. To ensure that a meeting is run properly, it has to be
run in accordance with a set agenda where different people have different
responsibilities and duties. The meeting proceedings are then recorded and
these assist organisations to keep a record of the decisions that were made.
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CHAPTER
9
GRAMMAR, STYLE AND TONE
IN THE ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT
Introduction
Before we are able to write or present messages or ideas, it is important that
we learn the basic English language skills necessary to achieve successful
communication. Mastering these skills is critical, especially in a country
where most people speak and read English as a second or even third language
and the likelihood of miscommunication is high. In this chapter we will look
at the following grammatical and stylistic elements of preparing effective
messages:
• parts of speech
• effective vocabulary for workplace documents
• use of jargon in the workplace
• correct use of sentence structure and punctuation in workplace documents.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• identify and work with the main parts of speech in the English language
• explain and illustrate the terms ‘denotation’ and ‘connotation’ as they
apply to words
• describe four functions of words
• explain the difference between fact and opinion
• explain how to choose a vocabulary for professional messages
• explain and illustrate the terms ‘concrete’, ‘relative’ and ‘abstract’ words
• explain what is meant by words that pre-judge a situation
• explain the difference between formal and informal words
• write and communicate grammatically correct messages
• use the rules of number to avoid grammatical errors in numbers
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
use the rules for case, participles and gerunds
use defining and non-defining clauses correctly
use the rules for ‘shall’ and ‘will’ correctly
use the rules for ‘can’ and ‘may’, as well as ‘may’ and ‘might’
use the terms ‘its’ and ‘it’s’ correctly
use the rules for ‘only’ and ‘even’
use the rules for ‘not only … but also’ correctly
define the terms ‘style’ and ‘tone’
explain and illustrate the term ‘levels of formality’
explain and illustrate the following styles: high formal, formal, consultative,
casual and intimate
explain the differences between a personal and impersonal style
explain and illustrate the differences between active and passive styles
explain and illustrate the differences between a concise and a wordy style
explain and illustrate the differences between a clear style and an
ambiguous style
explain and illustrate what is meant by the word ‘tone’
explain and illustrate the term ‘jargon’
use simple, compound, complex and compound-complex sentences
show your understanding of the rules for punctuation
use the rules for writing clearly and concisely to help you write effective
business messages that are easy to read and understand.
Parts of speech – a quick revision
You will no doubt have covered the various parts of speech some time during
your school career. It is however important to recap the basics before we
start so that you have something to build your skills on. The table below
summarises the basic parts of speech and provides a quick explanation of
their function, a clue and an example so that you can identify and work with
each part of speech.
Table 9.1 Parts of speech
NAME
FUNCTION
CLUE
EXAMPLE
NOUN
Common noun
Naming word
a, the …
The pigeons made a mess on
Robben Island.
Names, people,
places, etc.
Capital letter
Proper noun
Sophiatown singer Dolly
Rathebe now lives in Cape
Town.
continued on following page >>
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Collective
noun
Names,
collections or
groups of things
Replaces ‘lots
of …’
A pride of lions.
Abstract noun
Names,
concepts or
things you
cannot really
see or touch
You can give it
to someone,
but not in a
box.
He is full of …
Madiba’s strength of
character and forgiveness
helped to heal South Africa.
PRONOUN
Replaces a
noun
Can replace a
noun
Tokyo Sexwale was sent
to Robben Island in 1977.
He described Mandela as
‘towering over’ it.
ADJECTIVE
Describes
nouns/pronouns
The ... girl
The tortured prisoner was
determined to ignore the
vicious guards.
VERB
Words
describing
actions
Can you do…?
He does…
He escaped the confines of
his cell and walked across
the island.
ADVERB
Modifies the
verb (tells you
more about it)
When, where
or how
something is
done
He escaped quietly (how)
after dark (when) and swam
across the channel (where).
PREPOSITION
‘Small words’
that show
relationships or
position
Usually
before nouns,
pronouns, or
articles
He sat down behind the
guard on the ground and
spoke softly to him.
CONJUNCTION
Words that
connect
phrases,
clauses and
paragraphs
to each other,
either because
of similarities or
differences
and/but/not
only/ however/
either ... or/
neither ... nor
The prisoner worked hard
to keep out of trouble and
managed rather successfully.
However, there was one
particular guard who never
failed to notice him.
ARTICLE
‘a’, ‘an’ or ‘the’
a, an
(indefinite
articles);
the (definite
article);
and zero
article.
A prisoner insisted on
feeding the pigeons and so
invited the mess.
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Words and meanings
Words on their own have no meaning; they take on the meaning that people
give them. You may be familiar with the famous quote from Shakespeare’s
Romeo and Juliet, in which Juliet argues that ‘A rose by any other name would
smell as sweet’. She simply means that it is not the name ‘rose’ that makes
the flower smell, it is the rose itself. If we called it a ‘sero’ instead of a rose,
it would still be the same flower. In the ever-evolving English vocabulary,
people agree to some extent on the meaning of words and then record these
meanings in dictionaries to assist the sharing of meaning. Meanings of words
do change over time and dictionaries have to be kept up-to-date. Take the
word ‘advise’. A dictionary might suggest that ‘advise’ means ‘to give advice’.
However in business letters it is often used to mean ‘inform’, as in ‘We wish
to advise you that your order has arrived’. Which is the ‘correct’ meaning?
Are both correct? Look up this word in different dictionaries and see if the
meanings are the same or different.
Ultimately, because the meanings of words are assigned by users, there is
no guarantee that we share the same understanding of them. This ambiguity
can cause dangerous miscommunication in the workplace.
When you are trying to establish meaning, the best definitions usually
include examples of how words are used. They are therefore shown in context.
Take the word ‘message’ for example. It is meaningless on its own and we
need to find its context by asking:
• Is it spoken?
• Is it written on a scrap of paper?
• Is it a long, factual report?
• Is it a highly emotional love letter?
• Is it a business letter declaring someone redundant?
People’s overall use of words could be greatly improved if they were to correct
two commonly made mistakes:
1. They assume that the word is the object it describes. The word ‘company’
for example is not the actual group of people that it refers to – it is simply
an identifying label.
2. They assume that one word can refer to all the others of that object.
The word ‘organisation’ is general and does not describe every kind of
organisation. Further definition would be necessary and so you would
have to specify for example between an NGO and a for-profit organisation.
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This failure to distinguish between ‘all’, ‘one’ or ‘some’ leads to poor thinking
and potentially damaging communication. It also leads to dangerous
generalisations such as ‘all organisations are corrupt and out to make a quick
buck’. This is clearly not the case as there are many ethical organisations
that operate for sustainable profit and value and also myriad non-profit
organisations that do not ‘make a quick buck’ at all. ‘Some’ or ‘one’ may be
dishonest or out to make a quick buck, but not ‘all’ and it is dangerous and
simplistic to generalise in this way.
Denotations and connotations of words
The word denotation refers to the core or dictionary meaning of a word.
Connotations on the other hand are the suggestive or emotive qualities that words
take on. For example if you hear the word ‘Rottweiler’, you attach certain
connotations to it, such as excellent watchdog or vicious animal depending
on, among other things, your past experiences with Rottweilers. Connotations
are difficult to record in a dictionary but they are nevertheless powerful tools
and bring about either positive or negative feelings. Because many of these
connotations are culturally bound, try to be aware of the effects of words
across the different cultures of sub-Saharan Africa, since a compliment to one
culture may be interpreted as an insult to another.
To give an example, denotatively the word ‘fox’ refers to a small, furry
mammal. However, if one were to describe someone as a fox, one group of
people may take this connotatively as a compliment to someone’s ability
to think strategically, while another would be insulted at the insinuation of
devious thinking. The need for caution is clear.
Many scientific and technical words are strictly denotative. They can be
used precisely and carry virtually no suggestive qualities. Words such as
‘thermostat’ or ‘oxygen’ refer to specific concepts and there is little ambiguity
attached to them. Most other words, including denotations, are not nearly as
precise and so it is important that you are careful when selecting your word
choices and that you convey the full and appropriate meaning of your words
to your audience.
However words with strong connotations are important in many types of
communication and are especially popular in the marketing and advertising
realms. They convey attitudes, both positive and negative, and can leave
lasting impressions. They are also very effective for generating goodwill for
an organisation if chosen with care. When used for advertising, branding and
other purposes, careful research is usually undertaken to ensure that the right
message is conveyed and that no unintended offence is taken.
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The following examples show how connotations can convey different kinds
of messages:
• Your range is too gaudy for our superior clientele. (negative and condescending)
• Select from our colourful and mood-enhancing range of materials. (positive)
• I found your behaviour at the last meeting to be childish. (negative)
• These paintings show a childlike simplicity. (neutral to positive)
• It has been drawn to the attention of the undersigned that you continue to
materialise late for work. (negative, stiff and condescending)
• I noticed that you have arrived at 08h30 for work twice this week. (neutral
and factual)
Synonyms
A synonym is a word with the same or similar meaning to another word.
However, because of the wide range of denotations and connotations that
each word may carry, it is often dangerous to simply interchange one word
for another.
People need to be very sensitive to shades of meaning when they choose
words. The important point about working with closely related words such
as ‘big’ and ‘large’ is to know how they differ. For example, are ‘small’, ‘tiny’
and ‘minute’ the same? How do ‘large’, ‘enormous’ and ‘huge’ differ? Do they
differ only in degree? Are ‘enough’ and ‘sufficient’ synonyms? Is ‘sufficient’ a
more formal word than ‘enough’?
Functions of words
Words perform a range of functions in messages. Their major functions are to:
• convey facts
• convey opinions
• persuade
• help people communicate in social settings.
Conveying facts
As the sender of a message, if you intend to convey facts, then you should use
words with strong denotations and make use of checkable facts.
The following example from a report illustrates factual language. This is
also called referential language.
Example
The building contains 15 columns of reinforced concrete. Each column is 5 m high
and measures 30 cm x 30 cm. These columns have been placed 10 m apart.
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Conveying emotions
Words that carry emotions have a range of connotations. These connotations
suggest opinions rather than facts. The following example shows a mixture
of opinion and fact, with the opinion clearly dominant. Words that are used
to express opinions and encourage an emotional response are also called
emotive. It is best to avoid emotive language in academic and business writing
unless it is used in marketing material or to sell an idea.
Example
This is the finest building of its kind. The soaring and graceful columns support a
brilliantly designed upper storey that houses a suite of elegant offices.
The words ‘finest’, ‘soaring’, ‘graceful’, ‘brilliantly’ and ‘elegant’ convey the
positive opinion of the writer. When this type of language is used, people are
likely to become distrustful and may even feel manipulated.
Differences between fact and opinion
People sending and receiving messages should take great care to distinguish
between fact and opinion. For example, compare ‘You are the best salesperson
in the team’ (opinion) with ‘You sold ten motor cars in the last month,
compared with Peter’s five’ (fact). Compare ‘You are a thief ’ (opinion) with
‘The missing purse was found in your bag’ (fact).
Using words to persuade
People could attempt to persuade others by using factual language or
emotive language, or they could use a mixture of the two. The ratio will
usually depend on the purpose of the persuasion and the type of audience
it is being directed at.
Example
The following example illustrates an attempt to persuade by means of facts. The
writer has avoided strong connotations.
Buy the Bio-valve Pump for the following reasons:
It has a phosphor bronze impeller guaranteed for five years.
◗
It can pump 200 litres of sludge a minute.
◗
It has an 8-m head.
◗
All parts are locally made.
◗
The supply of parts is guaranteed until 2020.
◗
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Example
This example tries to persuade people by emotive means.
Buy the innovative Bio-valve Pump. Highly reliable and completely portable, it can pump far
more sludge than previous-generation pumps. You simply won’t find a better one on the market.
Most of the language above is pure opinion. The only real fact given is its
portability and the hint that it is more efficient than other pumps, but no real
comparison is made and no evidence is given to substantiate these claims.
Using words for social reasons
People use standard words when they meet and part. These standard words,
sometimes negatively referred to as platitudes, are used to acknowledge
other people. They can be used without thinking and often do not carry the
meanings on the surface that they should. A greeting such as ‘How are you?’
will often be responded to with ‘I’m fine, thank you’. The speaker would not
expect a long description of someone’s health. These social formulas help
to oil the wheels of conversation. They are therefore very important to help
people in organisations, especially strangers, to work together.
To impart
information
To impart
information/
To persuade
To persuade/
To express
personal feeling
Referential
language
Persuasion
based on
fact
Shared
Persuasion
based on
opinions
Purely
emotive
language
Textbooks/
Technical
reports
Feasibility
reports/
Proposals
Propaganda/
Advertising
Novels/
Poetry
Curses/
Exclamations
To express
personal feeling
Figure 9.1 The main functions of words
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Choosing vocabulary for professional messages
In this section a range of choices is provided to help you select appropriate
vocabulary for professional messages. We will deal with how these elements fit
into the overall readability of a message in Chapter 13, so keep them in mind
when we get to that section.
Dealing with technical terms
Technical terms are essential when communicating with certain audiences.
However, where possible, they should be avoided for a mixed or non-technical
audience. Keep in mind though that even a technical or expert audience may
not understand all your terms. Therefore you have a range of choices:
• define all technical terms in a glossary for that message, which would be a
successful approach for a technical report
• leave out all technical terms
• start by defining your key terms and in a discussion you could write these
on flipchart paper or on a presentation slide
• explain terms as you come to them in your message.
Many people are tempted to choose difficult technical words because they appear
impressive. However, messages crowded with these terms do not communicate
effectively and may even alienate your audience. You are strongly advised to
keep your messages simple. Remember, effective communication is all about
the sharing of meaning.
Differences between familiar and unfamiliar words
Choose familiar, often-used words rather than seldom-used ones. Unfamiliar
words make messages more difficult and they often also increase the number
of syllables per word. This makes it hard to read and listen to messages.
Compare the following:
Less familiar
to take cognisance of
to terminate
to proliferate
disbursements
emoluments
More familiar
to note
to stop/end
to increase
payments
income
Differences between referential and emotive words
Referential words are factual, whereas emotive words suggest an attitude or
opinion. Referential words are more appropriate in reports and other forms
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of business writing. A mixture of referential and emotive words would be
better in business letters or marketing material. Compare the following:
Referential (factual)
Emotive
The XYZ motor car used
7 l/km in city driving.
The motor car is extremely
fuel-efficient.
Sales increased by 25%.
There was a significant increase
in sales.
The meeting was productive.
The meeting was a huge success.
Differences between generic and specific words
Generic words are general words that refer to classes or groups of words.
Specific words refer to individuals, objects or events. The generic word
‘message’ could, for example, refer to the specific ‘technical report’, ‘proposal’,
or ‘letter of adjustment’. But the division is not as clear-cut as this. Some
words are more specific than others. Compare the following:
Generic
Letter
Less generic
Business letter
More specific
Letter of adjustment
Very specific
Letter of adjustment to Ms Sithole
who complained about a faulty
article, telling her that the article
will be replaced.
Reports should be as specific as possible. Other messages will contain words
that are more or less specific according to the sender’s choice.
Concrete, relative and abstract words
When selecting the most appropriate vocabulary for your business documents,
you should be aware that words may be divided into the following categories:
• concrete
• relative
• abstract.
These are convenient categories to describe the type of information that
words give.
Concrete words
Words are not of course concrete but this category is useful for words that
describe objects we can experience through our senses or refer to things we
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can see, touch, smell, taste or hear. Such words do not require any abstraction.
Examples are ‘office desk’, ‘iPad’ or ‘envelope’.
Relative words
These words are generally classified as adjectives or adverbs. They mean different
things to different people and usually reflect the user’s opinion. Words such as
‘huge’, ‘excellent’, ‘rich’, ‘poor’ and ‘very’ are relative words. They should be
avoided in messages such as reports where the emphasis is on facts.
Abstract words
Abstract words refer to general concepts and have no specific referents against
which they can be checked. Words such as ‘organisation’, ‘management’,
‘labour’ and ‘cost’ are difficult to define and so examples to illustrate abstract
words are essential if people are to understand their exact meaning. You
should therefore be very careful when you use abstract words. Always give
examples so that your audience knows how you are using the abstract word
and so that the meaning is shared.
Avoiding words that pre-judge a situation
Senders should be careful about using words that indicate pre-judgement of a
situation. Such words have either positive or negative connotations that make
clear, unbiased communication difficult. For example: This meeting is going
to be a disaster. (negative); This meeting is going to be complex. (neutral). Who
is that slob with Shakti? (negative); Who is that man with Shakti? (neutral).
Selecting formal and informal words
Senders should choose words that are appropriate for their message’s level of
formality. A formal report or business letter needs a different vocabulary from
an informal talk. Compare the following levels of formality:
• The writer wishes to tender his apologies in this matter. (very formal)
• I wish to apologise for the mistake. (formal)
• I’m very sorry about this. (informal)
Informal words such as ‘nice’ and ‘terribly’ do not have precise meanings.
Compare the following examples:
Informal
fantastic
guy
quote (noun)
Formal
enjoyable
man
quotation
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Organisations should use a vocabulary that is formal rather than informal
although there is an increasing tendency to use less formality once business
relationships have been established. However be very careful that you understand
the situation correctly before you adjust your messages and ensure that you
always conform to your organisation’s policies and to its particular style of
writing messages. A good idea, especially in electronic communication (email
in particular), is to wait for the other person to ‘relax’ their formality before you
do. Please do not however revert to the same kind of social language that you
may use with your friends. It is hardly ever appropriate in the workplace context.
Checklist for choosing the right word
Have I:
◗
chosen words with exact meanings?
◗
defined technical terms?
◗
checked that my audience and I share the same meanings?
◗
chosen words with the right connotations?
◗
chosen referential words where appropriate?
◗
avoided words that pre-judge a situation?
◗
chosen words at the right level of abstraction?
◗
chosen words at the right level of formality?
◗
avoided relative words in factual messages?
◗
given examples to help my audience understand any abstract words that I have used?
Style, tone and jargon
Style and tone defined
Style may be defined as a way of selecting and putting words together for a range
of purposes and a range of audiences. It refers to a way of writing or speaking.
This is also known as discourse. In academic writings such as academic essays,
articles and theses for example you are expected to use academic discourse as
opposed to informal, emotive and creative styles of writing.
Style and tone are closely linked. Tone is defined as the sender’s attitude
towards the receiver and the material being communicated. Tone is reflected
mainly in the choice of vocabulary, but other more subtle uses of grammar,
such as punctuation choice, may also indicate tone.
Style in messages
A style may be defined in terms of whether it is:
• formal or informal
• personal or impersonal
• active or passive
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• concise or wordy
• clear or ambiguous
• concrete or abstract.
In this section each of these styles is described and examples of each are
provided to demonstrate the concepts clearly.
Levels of formality
A written or spoken style may be described as formal or informal in terms of
five different levels of formality. Figure 9.2 illustrates these five levels, each of
which is explained in more detail below.
HIGH FORMAL
OR FROZEN
Very formal/
Impersonal
FORMAL
Suitable for
business letters
CONSULTATIVE
Suitable for less
formal situations
CASUAL
More spoken
than written
INTIMATE
Spoken
Figure 9.2 Levels of formality
A high formal or frozen style is often impersonal. It is characterised by:
• a very formal vocabulary comprising long, unfamiliar words
• long, involved sentences
• long paragraphs.
The subject matter is often complex. Very little attention is paid to the
relationship between the writer and the reader. Look at the following example.
Example
As a result of this experiment on durability, it can be hypothesised that the original
substance was of a dense nature, of great durability and longevity, with the ability to
withstand sustained high degrees of pressure.
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Note the very formal vocabulary and long sentence. The next example is an
extract from a memorandum.
Example
It has been noted by the Personnel Department that the need for a course in
telephone techniques should be regarded as a high priority by our organisation in
the immediate future. This belief has been strengthened by an in-depth investigation
of a large number of telephone conversations undertaken by a team of investigators
under the supervision of this Department.
Note the use of the impersonal ‘it’ and the passive forms such as ‘has been
noted’ and ‘should be regarded’. Organisations should avoid using this style
even if it does look very official. It is hard to read, off-putting and very difficult
to listen to.
A formal style is less formal than the high formal style and is effective for all
types of oral and written messages. Let us examine the changes from the high
formal style to this simpler, formal style in the following example.
Example
The Personnel Department has noted the need for a course in telephone techniques.
We should consider this course a high priority. A team of investigators strengthened
this belief after they examined a large number of telephone conversations.
Note the active style, the short sentences and the short paragraphs. A formal
style should have:
• formal and complete sentences
• short sentences
• short paragraphs
• a simple but formal vocabulary
• no slang
• no short forms such as ‘you’re’ and ‘I’m’, but first person is permissible in
most formal writing.
A consultative style is a degree less formal than the formal style and is suitable
for both spoken and selected written messages in organisations. In particular,
it is suitable for memoranda and talks or oral reports within a company. The
example on the next page illustrates a consultative style.
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Example
We, in the Personnel Department, feel that there’s a great need for a course in
telephone techniques. We’ve become even more sure of this need now that we’ve
gone through a report from some investigators, who analysed a large number of
telephone conversations and came up with some surprising answers.
Note the following aspects of the above style:
• It uses the personal pronoun ‘we’.
• It uses the short form ‘we’ve’.
• The vocabulary has been simplified.
• The vocabulary is more casual, for example ‘came up with’.
• The sentences have been kept short but complete.
This style is used when writers or speakers wish to establish and maintain a
close relationship with their readers or listeners.
A casual style is more suited to speaking than writing. The language is
conversational and the sentences may be incomplete. Abbreviations are used.
The following memorandum was written in a casual style.
Example
My Department feels that we’re in need of some training in telephone work. We’ve
had some experts in. They’ve been analysing what’s been going on telephone wise.
What a shock! Our staff hasn’t got a clue on how to speak on the phone!
Note the short forms and casual vocabulary such as ‘hasn’t got a clue’. Note
also that the sentences are short.
An intimate style is used among people who know each other very well. It
uses short forms, informal words and incomplete sentences. The following
example illustrates this style.
Example
Hi there! We dropped in to see you. Alas! No one in. See you Saturday. Cheers!
This style is not suitable for business communication in organisations and
should be avoided.
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Personal or impersonal styles
A personal style uses personal pronouns and is generally less formal than
an impersonal style. An impersonal style uses the impersonal pronoun ‘it’.
In addition, it also uses more passive structures and is more formal. The
following example illustrates the personal style.
Example
Dear Mr Langa
POINT OF SALES SOFTWARE ORDER
I am pleased to let you know that your business’s new point of sales software has
been completed. We will test it over the next two days and once we are happy with it
we will deliver and install it at your offices as requested.
The following example illustrates the impersonal style.
Example
The writer was instructed to report on the major problems in the distribution of XYZ
products. It has been found that delivery routes have been poorly planned and that
the company’s agents have not been planning properly.
The impersonal style is suitable for reports where the stress is on the content
rather than on the writer. It is also useful for tactfully indicating blame
without actually pinpointing a ‘culprit’. Note the use of:
• ‘the writer’
• the passive forms
• the impersonal ‘it’.
Active or passive styles
English uses two voices: active and passive. The following examples show the
difference in the active and passive styles:
• Active: The CEO (Actor) dictated (Action) the memorandum (Acted on).
• Passive: The Memorandum (Acted on) was dictated (Action) by the
CEO (Actor).
The active form is called ‘actor–action order’. This is a more vigorous style
and where possible writers and speakers should use it since it speaks directly
to the audience. A passive style makes writing less direct and can lead to
long-windedness if writers are not careful.
The passive style is, however, acceptable:
• when a report has to be written impersonally. An impersonal style and
the passive often go together, as in, ‘It is recorded by X and Y that the
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high temperatures …’. It is often used in
academic discourse.
• when a writer wishes to emphasise a point,
as in, ‘The regulations have been broken
once again’. This stresses the regulations.
It is more effective than ‘someone has
broken the regulations once again’.
• when you wish to remain neutral in a
potentially difficult situation, as in, ‘The
form was returned unsigned’ rather than,
‘You did not sign the form’.
Note
The ideal style for a report is an
impersonal, active style, as in,
‘Smith and Jones note that …’
or ‘The writer examined all the
cases reported …’, rather than,
‘It was noted by Smith and Jones
that …’ or ‘All the cases reported
were examined by the writer’.
Most word-processing programs are equipped to provide a read-out of the
percentage of passive sentences that you have used in any specific message.
This is usually part of the information from the Readability Statistics which
we will deal with in more detail in Chapter 13. For now, keep in mind that
you should keep the number of passive sentences as low as you can. Try to
keep them below five per cent of your total text.
Concise or wordy styles
A concise, rather than a wordy style is preferable for messages. A long-winded
style wastes everyone’s time and often dissuades people from reading at
all. Using ten words when five would do costs organisations a great deal of
money. Messages are often much longer than necessary and frequently take a
long time to prepare.
A long-winded or wordy style has the following characteristics:
• too many words to express what could be expressed simply
• long, involved sentences.
The following examples illustrate a wordy style and a shorter version.
Example
Taking all these factors into consideration at this point in time, it can be safely
assumed that the accident was not of a serious nature and that we need to take
cognisance of the warnings issued in the recent past.
This could more easily be written as follows:
All these factors suggest that the accident was not serious. However, we should
note the recently issued warnings.
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Concise messages are those in which every word counts. However there is no
need to reduce every sentence so that it becomes meaningless.
Clear or ambiguous styles
A clear rather than an ambiguous style helps the reader or listener to understand
the meaning straight away. There should be no doubt about its meaning.
Ambiguous messages or messages with more than one meaning are caused by:
• vague references of pronouns such as ‘it’ or ‘they’
• pronouns not agreeing with the noun to which they refer (in number,
person and gender)
• poor word order
• words that have more than one meaning in the sentence
• poor punctuation.
For example, someone might say, ‘If your baby has trouble digesting cow’s
milk, boil it.’ Does the ‘it’ refer to the baby or the milk? That person should
rather say, ‘If your baby has trouble digesting cow’s milk, boil the milk.’
Concrete or abstract styles
A concrete style is better to use than a vague style. A concrete style gives facts and
figures. A vague style gives equivocal or unclear information that is difficult to
use. Take the following examples: ‘Many people consider that the drastic drop
in sales was caused by …’. This message is vague – just who are these ‘many
people’? Compare this to, ‘The Sales Director and CEO consider that the 50%
drop in the sales of Mackberry phones in January 2013 was caused by …’. This
message is concrete, more accountable and transparent.
You may have noticed that vague styles are often used in the media.
Examples like ‘experts agree’ abound and you should be wary of information
presented in this way. Which specific experts are they quoting? If the news is
factual and reliable, the name of its origin will usually appear. Remember this
and, where possible, try to keep your messages concrete instead of vague.
Tone in messages
Tone, which indicates the attitude of a sender to a receiver, is very important
in both spoken and written messages. In spoken messages tone is conveyed
by your voice, facial expressions, the way you stand and the words you use.
Tone in written messages is conveyed by the words and the ways in which
they combine.
Tone is described by relative words such as:
• friendly – unfriendly
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• relaxed – stiff or pompous
• formal – informal
• sincere – sarcastic.
Where possible, the tone of a speech should be friendly or neutral rather than
aggressive. Reports should be neutral while business letters should be friendly
or neutral depending on the purpose and audience.
Example
Compare the tone of the following:
Receipt of your letter is acknowledged. Please be advised that your interest will
be deposited by the undersigned in the designated account forthwith.
The above is pompous and unfriendly. It could be re-written as follows:
Thank you for your letter dated 20 January. I am pleased to let you know that I
will be depositing the interest into your account shortly.
This is much friendlier in tone but is still acceptably formal.
Jargon
The term ‘jargon’ describes the terminology or language that is specific to a
particular group of professionals or events. In the business world, jargon can
become so entrenched that the people writing messages fail to understand
the inaccessibility of it to outside readers. The banking, legal and insurance
industries for example have long been accused of using their own forms of
jargon to confuse the public and a new trend is for them to speak in plainer,
simpler language. There are however many industries, professions and sports
that still use jargon. The key to its use is to ensure that the intended audience
will understand the message. Therefore keep your audience in mind when
you need to use jargon.
In addition to the above characteristics, business letters may contain stock
phrases or sentences that are classified as business jargon. Some examples are:
• Please find enclosed …
• We are in receipt of …
• Your letter of 29 January refers …
• We are pleased to advise that …
Writers should try to replace these phrases and sentences with clear, simple
writing where possible.
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Example
The following example illustrates some of the elements of jargon:
Your letter of the 25th inst. refers. Please be advised that the undersigned has
taken cognisance of your complaint about the company’s negligence in the matter
of the above named contract and we undertake to endeavour to investigate every
avenue to ensure that all problems are rectified by us.
Note the stock words and phrases:
• inst.
• refers
• taken cognisance
• above named
• endeavour to investigate.
In addition, note the long sentence and the high number of syllables for each word.
Checklist for an effective style
Have I:
◗
selected the right level of formality?
◗
selected the right personal or impersonal style?
◗
used an active rather than a passive style?
◗
used passive forms that are suited to the message?
◗
been as concise as possible?
◗
been clear?
◗
avoided ambiguity?
◗
been concrete, rather than abstract?
◗
avoided elements of jargon?
◗
kept the number of syllables per word as low as possible?
Sentence structure and punctuation
In addition to the particular style, tone and vocabulary you choose, the way
that you combine these elements plays an important role in the success or
failure of your message. In the following section we will deal with concord,
sentences and punctuation.
Concord and language rules
Concord simply refers to the rule that a verb must agree with its subject (a
noun or pronoun) in number and person. A pronoun must also agree in
number, person and gender with the noun to which it refers. This sounds
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a little more complex than it really is, but a simple example will illustrate
the general principle. If someone says, ‘He are writing his business report
yesterday’, most of us will easily identify that this sentence is incorrect.
We just will not necessarily know why. For first-language English speakers
who hear English spoken more often, understanding concord may come
naturally. Second- or third-language English speakers however often do not
have this advantage and may require a little more explanation. In the case of
the example above:
• The first problem is the use of the verb ‘are’ (writing). ‘Are’ is used for
plural nouns. In this case, the verb should be in the singular since the
subject is ‘he’ singular.
• The second problem is that ‘are writing’ is written in the present and the
sentence indicates that the business report was written ‘yesterday’. Thus
‘are writing’ should be changed into the past tense.
• To be correct, the sentence needs to read, ‘He was writing his business
report yesterday’ or ‘He wrote his business report yesterday.’ The verb now
agrees with the subject in both number (singular) and tense (past).
The following rules should help you to avoid common errors in number.
1. Singular subject, singular verb:
The speaker is talking.
2. Plural subject, plural verb:
The speakers are talking.
3. Two or more subjects joined by the coordinating conjunction ‘and’ will need a
plural verb:
The boy and the man are talking. (double subject); The boy, the girl and
the man are talking. (multiple subjects)
4. When the two subjects form a single thought or have a very closely related
meaning, a singular verb may be used:
My teacher and friend was at the awards ceremony. (one person, not two)
5. Nouns that are plural in form but singular in meaning require a singular verb:
Physics is the study of heat, light, sound, mechanics and electricity;
Mathematics is compulsory; The team was at the meeting.
6. Subjects that are plural in form, which indicate a quantity or number, require a
singular verb when the subject is regarded as a unit:
Ten kilometers is too far to walk; Five years is a long time to wait for any girl.
7. Two or more plural subjects joined by ‘or’ or ‘nor’ will require a plural verb:
Either the spreadsheets or the timecards are wrong. (alternative subjects);
Neither the workers nor the managers were at the meeting.
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Two or more singular subjects joined by ‘or’ or ‘nor’ will require a singular verb:
Either Mark or Ranek is certain to be there; Neither Helen nor Buhle was
able to go.
9. If the subjects differ in number or person, the verb agrees with the nearer (if
possible, however, avoid this type of sentence):
Neither Jack nor the other boys know; Either they or I am at fault.
10. When the subject and the complement of the verb ‘to be’ are of different numbers,
the verb must follow the number of the subject:
The stars were our only guide; Our only guide was the stars; Were the stars
our only guide?; Was our only guide the stars?; The best part of the meal is
the coffee and cigars; The coffee and cigars are the best part of the meal.
11. Always use a singular verb after the pronoun ‘it’:
It is the girls who must decide.
12. After ‘there’, the verb is singular or plural according to the number of the subject
that follows:
In the meadow there stands a mighty oak; There exist no forces that can
help us.
13. Singular pronouns require singular verbs. These pronouns are singular: ‘each ‘,
‘every one’, ‘everybody’, ‘any one’, ‘anybody’, ‘someone’, ‘somebody’, ‘no one’,
‘nobody’, ‘one’, ‘many a one’, ‘another’, ‘anything’, ‘either’, ‘neither’:
Each has to go alone; Someone is speaking now; Everybody has made this
kind of mistake.
14. ‘None’ (literally ‘no one’) is followed by a singular verb:
None of the sugar has been spilt.
15. A verb should not agree with a noun or pronoun that intervenes between it and
the subject. Red herrings cause the mistakes in the following sentences:
a. Each of us are going. (‘are’ should be ‘is’)
b. I think almost every one of the Judges of the High Court are represented
here. (‘are’ should be ‘is’)
c. An immense amount of confusion and indifference prevail throughout
the world. (‘prevail’ should be ‘prevails’)
d. The cause of the requests and demands were not apparent. (‘were’
should be ‘was’).
16. A pronoun must agree in number, person and gender with the noun or pronoun
to which it refers:
Everybody is expected to contribute his or her share; Anyone who wishes
to may bring his or her own camera.
17. Always use the correct pronoun:
One does not forget one’s own name. (The possessive of the indefinite
8.
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pronoun is ‘one’s’, not ‘his’.); One of the children has dropped his or her
handkerchief. (Here ‘one’ is a numeral pronoun.); If an individual is guilty
of fraud, he or she should be punished. (An individual is singular, so it
cannot be ‘they should be punished’.)
18. A collective noun takes a singular verb when the group is regarded as a unit, but
a plural verb when the individuals of the group are regarded separately:
The staff has asked him to appear at the meeting; The staff are arriving in
a few hours.
19. If a collective noun is used with a singular verb, any pronoun that refers to that
noun must be singular too; if a collective noun is used with a plural verb any
pronoun that refers to that noun must be plural too. Either: ‘The committee adds
these words to its report.’ or ‘The committee add these words to their report’.
Rules for case
The case of a noun or pronoun refers to the form that it takes if it is:
• subject
• object
• governed by a preposition.
In this section we deal with pronouns because their forms change. Nouns
do not change their form as shown in these examples: He (subjective case)
chased the dog; The dog chased him (objective case).
Prepositions
Pronouns governed by prepositions are in the objective case. Note the
following examples: The dog was chased by him; Between you and me, I think
that he is wrong.
Who/whom
Note the use of who (subjective case) and whom (objective case): Who are those
people over there? (subjective); To whom do you want to speak? (objective).
Rules for participles
Participles are parts of verbs and may appear in either the past or
present tense. They are also able to function as adjectives called
gerundives and as nouns called gerunds. The following examples illustrate
each type: Nelson Mandela donated (past participle) his walking(gerundive) stick to charity; Nelson Mandela is donating (present
participle) his walking-stick to charity; His love of walking (gerund) is
well known.
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The most common error you may encounter is the use of misrelated
participles. In this case, the subject of the action is not clearly identified and
there is ambiguity as to who is doing the action. For example: Hanging on
the curtains, the mother told her children to behave. Can you see that we should
have more clearly identified that it was the children who were hanging on the
curtains and not the mother?
Restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses
A relative clause is an adjectival clause beginning with who, which or that. It refers
to and describes a noun or pronoun. Relative clauses are divided into restrictive
or non-restrictive clauses. Restrictive clauses are essential to the meaning of a
sentence while non-restrictive clauses give extra, non‑essential information.
Look at the following examples and ensure that you understand the difference
between them: This is the house that I bought in 2010 (restrictive); The house,
which I bought in 2010, has since been altered (non-restrictive).
Rules for ‘and that’ and ‘and which’
Sometimes two restrictive or non-restrictive clauses are used in one sentence.
The pair ‘and that’ or ‘and which’ should always follow a defining or nondefining relative clause. The following example illustrates this rule: I like the
car that has a manual gearshift and that is reasonably priced. (Both of these
clauses are defining clauses.)
The following use of ‘and which’ is wrong: They bought the vehicle at a
low price and which they thought was a bargain. (In this example the words
‘and which’ do not follow from another ‘which’ clause.)
Rules for ‘shall’ and ‘will’
‘Shall’ and ‘will’ are parts of the verb ‘to be’. They have different meanings
when they are used with different personal pronouns. These meanings show:
• the simple future (future with no implication of determination, willpower
or threat)
• the involved future (future, plus determination, willpower or threat).
The simple or plain future is shown as follows:
• I shall
• you will
• he/she/it will
• we shall
• you will
• they will.
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The above use stresses only what will happen in the future. There is no
suggestion of determination, willpower or threat. If however ‘shall’ and ‘will’
change places, then they are being used to express a future scenario that
requires determination or willpower or that holds a threat.
The involved future is shown as follows:
• I will
• you shall
• he/she/it shall
• we will
• you shall
• they shall.
These two examples illustrate the plain future: I shall leave at five o’clock; They
will drive to campus. These two examples illustrate the involved future: I will
leave at five o’clock whether you are ready or not; They shall drive to campus
despite threats to stop them.
Rules for ‘can’ and ‘may’
The formal rule is that ‘can’ has the meaning of ‘capability’, whereas ‘may’ has
the meaning of ‘permission’. Look at the following examples: The company
cannot issue the report because the copying machine has broken down.
(Here the meaning is that the company is not able to.); The company may
not issue the report until permission has been obtained. (Here the meaning
is stressing permission.)
Rules for ‘may’ and ‘might’
For permission
While ‘may’ and ‘might’ are used to imply permission, ‘might’ is more
tentative or hesitant. Look at the following examples: May I leave now?
(Here the speaker is asking for permission.); Might I ask you a favour if you
are not too busy? (Here the speaker is asking permission, but the approach
is more hesitant.)
For present and future possibilities
‘May’ and ‘might’ are used to refer to present or future possibilities. However,
‘may’ suggests a serious possibility, whereas ‘might’ suggests a remote possibility.
For past possibilities
When referring to past possibilities, only ‘might’ should be used after a main
verb in the past tense. The example shows typical use: The last time we stayed
here we were warned that we might not be able to get a booking for the show.
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‘May have’; ‘might have’
‘May have’ and ‘might have’ both show past possibilities. However, ‘may have’
suggests that the possibility still exists while ‘might have’ suggests that the
possibility no longer exists. Look at the following examples: She may have
been cured earlier, but she was given the wrong treatment. (This suggests
that she is still alive and is cured after receiving other treatment.); She might
have recovered from her illness had the doctors given her the right treatment
immediately. (This stresses the remote possibility of her living and also that
she did not recover.)
Rules for ‘its’ and ‘it’s’
The meanings of ‘its’ and ‘it’s’ are governed by conventions. The form ‘its’
(without an apostrophe) always shows possession. The form ‘it’s’ is a shortened
form of ‘it is’ and should only be used when an informal style is appropriate.
Therefore you will not make much use of it in a business context. Confusion
of these words is widespread so please ensure that you understand the use
of each, as illustrated in these examples: The company sold its shares. (This
stresses that the company owned the shares.); It’s not clear what happened
(informal); It is not clear what happened (formal).
Rules for sequence of verbs
If two verbs are used in a sentence, each one should be complete. The following
example is wrong: I cannot believe that he never has and never will behave in
such a way. (‘behave’ is correct after ‘will’, but not correct after ‘never has’.)
This sentence should be re-written as follows: I cannot believe that he never
has behaved and never will behave in such a way. (Each verb is now complete.)
Position of ‘only’ and ‘even’
‘Only’ and ‘even’ are used to emphasise words or sections of sentences.
They should be placed as closely as possible to these words or sections. For
example: He even worked at night in order to pass the examination. (This
stresses that he worked at night.); Even he worked at night in order to pass the
examination. (This lays the stress on ‘he’. It implies that he is clever, but that
he had to make a special effort.); Only that student passed his examination.
(This stresses a particular student.); That student only passed his examination.
(This stresses that the student passed, but did not do very well.)
‘Not only … but also’
‘Not only … but also’ are called correlative conjunctions. They join two items
together. These items should be kept as close as possible to each other. The
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grammatical structures for each joined item should also be the same and the
rules of concord considered.
Compare: At the end of the year, the company’s trade in this country had
not only increased far beyond the target, but also its overseas trade. (Here the
section after ‘but also’ is incomplete.)
With: At the end of the year, the company’s trade not only in this country
but also overseas had increased beyond their targets. (This version stresses
that trade in this country and overseas has increased.)
The split infinitive
Formal usage often demands that an infinitive form such as ‘to go’ should
not be split, as in ‘to only go’ or ‘to seldom go’. It is difficult to make a strict
formal rule here because usage varies. Sometimes a split infinitive appears
clumsy as in ‘Although critics have suggested that the company takeover was
an attempt to in some way save it from insolvency …’ (Here the infinitive has
been split.). This split infinitive could be rewritten as, ‘… an attempt to save
it in some way from insolvency’. (Here the infinitive has been kept together.)
At other times the split infinitive does not appear jarring, as in, ‘I did not
intend to even try to copy what he has done.’ However the safest rule is to
avoid splitting the infinitive in academic and formal writing, particularly if
you know that you have a conservative reader.
Types of sentences
In this section we describe four major types of sentences that are useful in
writing: the simple, the compound, the complex and the compound-complex
sentence. A basic understanding of these types of sentences should help you
to improve your writing.
The simple sentence
This is a sentence with one clause in it. A clause contains a finite verb, which
has a clear subject, number and tense. Look at the following examples and
ensure that you understand each subject and finite verb: She arrived early.
(subject = she; number = singular; tense = past); The shop stewards will call a
meeting. (subject = the shop stewards; number = plural; tense = future).
The compound sentence
A compound sentence is a sentence that has two main clauses of equal value.
For example: The Town Planning Company did the general planning and the
Engineering Company worked on the details. (Each clause could stand on its
own as a sentence.)
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The complex sentence
A complex sentence has a main clause and at least one subordinate clause.
The subordinate clause adds extra information and is not essential to the
main point of the sentence. For example: The marketing executive, who was
well-qualified, managed the company effectively. (The main clause is ‘The
marketing executive managed the company effectively.’ The subordinate
clause, ‘who was well-qualified’, is not essential to the sentence.)
The compound-complex sentence
A compound-complex sentence contains at least two main clauses and at
least one subordinate clause. However you should try to avoid using these too
frequently in your business messages. They are often unwieldy and become
complicated to follow. For example: The manager, who understood the
techniques of computer-aided design, ran the team and her partner, who was
not as experienced, worked on a less complex project.
This sentence contains two main clauses:
1. ‘The manager ran the team’
2. ‘(and) her partner worked on a less complex project’.
There are also two subordinate clauses:
‘who understood the techniques of computer-aided design’
2. ‘who was not as experienced’.
1.
When you plan your business messages, try to vary the types of sentences that
you use. However remember to limit your use of the more complex sentence
types, because simple, compound or compound-complex are generally easier
to follow.
Rules for punctuation
Punctuation has a complex function today, but in general the aim of
punctuation is to indicate the logical structure of sentences. In addition
punctuation is used to denote pauses in reading aloud. Punctuation should
help you to express yourself in a logical, clear language in your essays,
examinations and all business messages.
The full stop
The full stop needs no explanation, but errors in both its use and lack of use
should be explained.
1. The use of a full stop where none belongs, for example: While waiting
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for his chance to arrive. He lost his nerve. (wrong); While waiting for his
chance to arrive, he lost his nerve. (right).
2. Omission of a full-stop where one is needed, for example: The people
searched the forest, they could not find the thief. (wrong); The people
searched the forest. They could not find the thief. (right).
The question mark
The question mark should be used at the end of a question. For example,
‘What supplies do we need to complete the job?’ Question marks should
not be used at the end of an indirect question or paraphrased question. For
example, ‘He asked who she was.’
On occasion, a question mark may appear as internal punctuation. This
may occur in parenthetical use or in order to express doubt, as shown in the
following examples: Then Brown (have you ever known such a fool before?)
picked up the letter and left the club; Cataline, the Roman conspirator, was
born in 108 (?) BC.
Finally, question marks are also used at the ends of courtesy (or rhetorical)
questions, such as: Please let me know if I can answer any more questions?;
Would you mind taking your feet off my desk?
The exclamation mark
The exclamation mark should only be used after
sentences or words denoting sudden or extreme
emotion. There has been a recent tendency to use
it indiscriminately, with many people believing
that an exclamation mark can amplify the most
ordinary idea. For example: Quickly, now! Jump
before the boiler explodes! (right); Come to
Noodnicks smash-bang, skip-the-limit, actionpacked cash-o-valurama!!! (wrong).
Note
Exclamation marks can be used:
◗
within sentences, such as,
‘Poor child! He desperately
wanted to go.’
◗
after interjections, such as,
‘Oh! Help!’
Internal punctuation
The colon
The colon is used in the following ways:
1. to introduce the members of a set, for example, ‘I like the following
vegetables: carrots, onions, cabbage and leeks’. Remember that you should
only use a colon after a complete statement.
2. to introduce examples, quotations and explanatory material, for example,
‘The manager resigned from the company: she was frustrated at the lack
of opportunity.’
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The semi-colon
In general, semi-colons separate elements that are too dense or full to be
separated by a comma, yet are not necessarily full sentences. The main uses
of the semi-colon are:
1. to separate the main clauses of compound sentences that are not connected
by a conjunction or a conjunctive adverb. For example: Certain spices were
used as a medium of exchange; early traders were said to have … (This
could have been written as two separate sentences, but the semi-colon
clarifies the relationship between them.)
2. to separate main clauses when the second clause begins with a conjunction
such as ‘therefore’, ‘so’, ‘accordingly’, ‘hence’, ‘moreover’. For example: Poetry
is a more difficult art to master than prose; moreover, it is an older art.
3. to separate elements of a set or list if any of the elements contain commas.
For example: The building was filled with eager, nervous applicants;
harrassed, irritable officials; and hard-pressed interviewers.
The dash
With the general loosening of English prose style, the dash has come to
take over many of the jobs formerly reserved for the colon, semi-colon
and comma. The dash is more forceful than the comma; it can be used to
emphasise phrases that – when set off merely by commas – would not be so
noticeable. The dash may be used:
1. in place of the colon to introduce a list of explanatory remarks. For example:
The Browns brought their whole family – boys, girls, babies and dogs.
2. to set off parenthetical expressions. For example: Tom – the idiot – tried to
tell her what to do.
3. to set off phrases or words for the sake of emphasis. For example: Would
you believe it? They found her – asleep.
The comma
The use of commas is largely a matter of common sense. If they aid in the
understanding of a sentence, put them in; if they do not, leave them out. Read
the following sentence: These incidents, however, trivial in themselves, are
liable to lead to more serious demonstrations. Would you have used all of
these commas? Decide which ones, if any, are unnecessary.
Commas, in general, may be used to:
1. separate independent clauses connected by coordinating conjunctions.
For example: He went to Australia, and he never came back.
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set off some word, phrase or clause that lies outside the main part of the
sentence (to show parenthesis). For example: Her father, whom she loved
dearly, died last year.
3. set off introductory dependent clauses preceding independent clauses. For
example: When you snore, I have trouble sleeping.
4. separate items in a list. For example: He bought peaches, grapes, apples
and plums.
5. indicate an important change in the normal word order. For example: Like
many of the romantics, he died young.
2.
Writing clearly and concisely
The following rules should help you to write clearly and concisely.
Avoid circumlocution
Circumlocution is an indirect or roundabout expression. It is a way of
writing and talking round a subject instead of talking about it in a simple,
straightforward way. Be brief and to the point.
Table 9.2 How to avoid circumlocution
NOT
BUT
in respect of
about; concerning
with regard to
about; concerning
with a view to
to
having regard to the fact that
as; because
on the supposition that
if
in the event of
if
in spite of the fact that
although
in reference to
about
with regard to
about
in many instances
often
on many occasions
often
in few instances
seldom
a few occasions
seldom
the majority of
most
continued on following page >>
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Do not use a verb and a noun when a verb alone will do:
He made the suggestion
He suggested
He exercised his influence
He influenced
I am under the necessity of
I need to
Do not use a verb and a phrase when a verb and an adverb will do:
He behaved in a disagreeable way.
He behaved disagreeably; He was
disagreeable.
Avoid roundabout expressions using abstract words such as nature, sort, extent,
condition, degree, character, quality, kind, description, manner:
His work was of inferior quality.
His work was inferior.
His views were of an extraordinary kind.
His views were extraordinary.
Avoid under-statements done in a half-apologetic way to impress:
It is not without interest
It is interesting
not an inconsiderable amount
much
possessing an influence by no means to
be despised
influential
not infrequently
often
not wholly unconnected with
with
Avoid redundancy
Redundancy is the use of unnecessary words. Get rid of every word that has
no work to do, is not pulling its weight or whose omission would not mean
the loss of anything significant.
Unnecessary emphasis of words
Examples of words that can often be dispensed with are: absolute, supreme,
definite, complete, perfect, exact, distinct, positive, quite, remarkable.
You may also dispense with their corresponding adverbs of degree. For
example: ‘This is (definitely) so’; ‘I must have (complete) rest.’
Unnecessary modifying or deprecatory expressions
The following words are usually superfluous: more or less, for the most part,
possibly, a little, to a certain extent, somewhat, probably, in my (humble)
opinion, practically, approximately, rather.
Words like these should never be used to qualify emphatic adjectives. Do
not say ‘somewhat infinitesimal’, ‘rather infinitesimal’, or ‘more or less unique’.
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‘As to’ is seldom necessary
Remove it from a sentence and the meaning of the sentence will not be
changed. For example: ‘It is not clear (as to) what happened.’
Unnecessary repetition of the same idea (tautology)
• PIN number (‘number’ is not necessary since it is part of the acronym,
Personal Identification Number).
• The tribe faced total annihilation. (‘total’ is not necessary).
• Her belongings still remain here. (‘still’ is not necessary).
• They entered into a joint partnership. (‘joint’ is not necessary).
• We are giving you the true facts. (‘true’ is not necessary).
• This offer includes a free gift. (‘free’ is not necessary).
Trite phrases
Avoid phrases used to bridge awkward gaps or to give a little more time for
thought, as well as trite phrases and catchwords calculated in some way to save
the writer trouble.
• If we examine the case carefully …
• If I may be so bold as to hazard a guess …
• When all is said and done …
• Let us consider …
• Let us pass on to the next point …
• You may take my word for it …
Phrases to get attention or emphasis
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Look …
To be frank with you …
You know what I mean …
Personally …
I mean …
Honestly …
You know …
Literally …
Listen …
I’m telling you …
See …
As a matter of fact …
To tell you the truth … .
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The stock adjective
Avoid using the stock adjective that has been used so frequently with a particular
noun, it has ceased to have any special significance. Examples include:
• sickening thud
• subdued whispers
• deafening roar
• uproarious cheers
• actual fact
• at long last
• feverish impatience.
Many of these have become clichés and you should try to find new, more
interesting combinations of nouns and adjectives.
Conclusion
In order to become an effective communicator in the business environment,
it is important that you learn how to write well. Your ability to write well
will have many advantages. One of the most important advantages of writing
well is that it will influence others’ perceptions of your competence and
intelligence. People who are incapable of expressing themselves clearly are
often seen as less competent. Writing well involves not only writing correctly
– following the rules of spelling, grammar and punctuation – but also writing
clearly and knowing how to share meaning with others. Having the skill of
communicating ideas and information effectively – and holding your reader’s
interest at the same time – will provide you with a competitive advantage in
both the business and academic worlds.
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CHAPTER
10
WRITING SUMMARIES AND ESSAYS
Introduction
The ability to summarise messages and write effective essays is essential for
academic and business writing. Summaries and essays should convey an
informed, precise, accurate and professional image, so it is important to plan
and execute them carefully.
In this chapter we will provide you with an overview and practical look
at how to tackle summary and essay writing. You are encouraged to actively
practise the skills taught here with practical examples of your own – use articles
in the media or from your textbooks – to turn this theory into useful skills.
The following elements of summaries and essays are examined in this chapter:
• characteristics of a summary
• other types of summaries
• purposes of a summary
• requirements for writing a summary
• procedure for writing a summary
• characteristics and types of essays
• procedure for writing an essay.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• identify the purposes and characteristics of various summaries
• identify the main differences between different kinds of summaries
• write a variety of well‑written summaries, according to purpose
• identify the purposes and characteristics of essays
• select an appropriate style of essay according to your purpose
• plan, write and edit an essay according to purpose.
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What is a summary?
A summary is a reduced version of the original text. It does not have a fixed
length but should be long enough to reflect the main points of the original
document and should prepare readers for the original text if they decide to
read it.
Characteristics of a summary
A summary has the following characteristics. It:
• is placed at the beginning and not at the end of a text
• keeps the reader’s needs in mind
• has no fixed length – it is as long as is necessary
• includes key information
• may change the emphasis of the original document
• may change the proportion of the information
• may change the order of the information
• may have key summary diagrams and other figures
• uses your own words.
Many summaries are similar in length because most readers are prepared to
spend only a few minutes reading them. For example, a summary of only
three sentences will usually be too short and one that goes on to a second
page may annoy the reader because it takes too long to read. For these
reasons, most summaries are between a quarter and a full page in length.
Writers are strongly urged to find out what the readers’ needs are before they
begin summarising any texts.
The length of the summary will depend on what needs to be summarised.
For example, say you need to summarise the investigation of an accident
that has no single cause, but there are twelve minor contributing causes. In
your summary you should include all twelve contributing causes in a long
summary covering one page.
If you need to summarise a report with only one conclusion and one
recommendation, you should write a short summary giving the conclusion
and recommendation, briefly including the key findings. This summary
should be about half a page in length.
If the original report is only two pages long, then a summary is not
necessary. However it would be helpful to give two sentences at the beginning
to tell the reader what the report is about.
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Chapter 10: Writing summaries and essays
Other types of summaries
Four other terms are often used to refer to summaries: a précis, an executive
summary (also called a synopsis) and an abstract. They are not, however, all
the same thing. Each of these is briefly outlined below.
Précis
A précis is a summary that keeps the information in the same order as the
original text. You may remember writing these as a school exercise with a
fixed length (usually one third of the original). A précis also keeps the original
document’s proportion. For example, if half the report gives the findings and
only a quarter gives the conclusions and recommendations, then the précis
will keep to the same proportions.
Keep in mind that a summary, as opposed to a précis, may change the
order and the proportions of the original text, depending on the reader’s
needs and time. A précis is sometimes needed, but summaries are used for
most documents in business.
Executive summary or synopsis
An executive summary, also know as a synopsis, is the same as a summary. They
will also be written to suit the needs and time of the reader and both may
change the order and proportion of the original information if necessary.
If you are asked to write an executive summary of a larger document,
please remember that an executive summary:
• is usually no more than one page long (400–450 typed words)
• is written for busy executives who need to read the summary quickly
• may be published and circulated separately to the original
• must be highly readable, with short paragraphs and sentences, sub‑headings
and short bullet lists.
Your strategies for selecting information for your executive summary will
be different each time. For example, if you are summarising an evaluative
report, devote most of your space to summarising your conclusions and
recommendations. If you are summarising an important interim report,
devote most of your space to summarising the main facts.
Abstract
An abstract is like a précis in that it is a compressed version of the original, but
in the same order and proportion. There are two kinds of abstracts:
1. informative abstract (a full-length summary)
2. descriptive abstract (two or three sentences only).
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The informative abstract gives all the main points from the original whereas
the descriptive abstract is written to give the reader a brief idea of what is in
the original. While descriptive abstracts are usually from different documents,
summaries and synopses are always part of the original document.
Writers should use the words ‘Summary’, ‘Executive Summary’ or ‘Synopsis’
for business writing.
Purposes of a summary
Readers need summaries for four main reasons.
1. They help readers decide whether or not they need to read the original text.
2. They help readers to get to the main points quickly and reliably.
3. They inform readers of the purpose of the original document.
4. They remind readers of the key points in the original, which then helps
them to read the original more easily.
Requirements for writing a summary
In order to write an effective and precise summary, a writer must be able to:
• grasp the main idea or thesis statement in a passage
• grasp the key points in a passage
• rewrite these key points simply and logically so that the reader understands
what the original passage is about
• organise and present information coherently
• choose and write words in a clear, informative style
• present the summary in a highly readable way.
Procedure for writing a summary
You may feel daunted when your boss tells you, for example, that she needs
a summary of a 100-page annual report ‘asap’. However you can ensure that
your task is not impossible by using this simple procedure for writing your
summaries:
1. Decide on the reader’s needs.
2. Decide on how much time the reader has to read the summary.
3. Read the passage and all associated correspondence twice to find out what
the main idea/s are.
4. Write down the main idea/s in your own words.
5. Write down a title (of your own) for the summary.
6. Read the passage or passages again and, to isolate the key points, underline
the main idea or key sentence in each paragraph. These will capture the
most important ideas.
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Chapter 10: Writing summaries and essays
Write down what each paragraph is about.
8. Decide on the order and the proportions of information.
9. Decide on what you wish to emphasise.
10. Following your new order, prepare a topic outline of the main and
supporting ideas, emphasising the most important points.
11. Check your outline against your notes and the original and check that you
have inserted the right summary diagrams and figures in the correct places.
12. Decide on the length of your summary. Write out your first draft in your
own words.
13. Check your draft against your outline to ensure that you have all the main
ideas in the right order.
14. Check your draft for style, grammar, punctuation, readability and length.
15. Write the final version.
7.
A style for summary writing
Use an informative style that gives exact figures. Be direct and use exact
information to guide the reader. Remember that the informative style helps
the reader to gain a complete picture of the original.
Look at the following example which shows a comparison between vague
and informative styles of writing.
Example
Vague style
Tighter ABC specifications on retail grade Flexit 501 require operational changes to improve
our product. High temperature oxidation tests have been performed. They have shown
improved results. However the oxidation jacket has to be changed before even higher
temperature tests may be made.
Note the use of ‘high’ and ‘even higher’. These words are too vague.
Informative, specific style
ABC specifications for retail grade Flexit 501 now restrict impurities to 3.2 ppm instead of
7.0 ppm. Oxidation tests at 180 °C improved purity. However the oxidation jacket has to be
changed before we are able to test at over 210 °C.
Note the use of exact figures.
Use short, simple and active sentences. Keep to the most familiar words.
Use the range of techniques given in Chapter 13 on readability. Make sure
however, that you do not write in a telegram style. Write full, formal sentences.
The example on the next page illustrates the difference between a telegram
style and a simple but active style of writing.
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Example
Telegram style
Box mobility poor with ‘soft-air’. Air cushion should be used, but system cannot adapt to air
pressure changes. Also problems with …
Short, simple, active style
Boxes cannot be moved easily with the ‘soft-air’ system. The air cushion system should be
used. However, this system cannot adapt to changes in air pressure. There are also some
problems with …
Figure 10.1 on the next page summarises the above two sections, that is, the
procedure for writing a summary and the style for writing a summary.
The following examples will illustrate the suggested step‑by‑step procedure
for writing a summary. Firstly, there is a box containing the original text with
the key sentences already underlined. Then an example on page 192 shows
the stages of writing the summary, which highlights the theme of the passage,
the key ideas and the readers’ needs. This is followed by how to write the topic
outline. Finally, on page 193 there is an example of three actual summaries
of the same text, but each has been written to different lengths, namely one‑
third, ten per cent and five per cent of the original length.
Original text
THREE FACTORS THAT LEAD TO GOOD INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION IN COMPANIES
Good communication in companies starts with effective interpersonal communication.
Management can devise the finest set of networks and organisational patterns. However, if the
people do not work well together these networks will fail. This essay describes three aspects of
interpersonal communication that are vital for good communication in companies. The first is
good listening, the second is sensitivity to non-verbal behaviour and the third is effective use of
language. In this essay each of them are discussed in turn.
Good listening, or active listening as it is sometimes called, is a mental and physical
process. It places demands on the listener’s ability to concentrate on the full message. Good
listeners should listen both for the facts and the emotions behind those facts. They should be as
sensitive as possible to the speaker’s non-verbal behaviour. They should show by the position of
their body that they are listening.
A good understanding of non-verbal behaviour is essential for effective interpersonal
communication. People should be particularly sensitive to the listener’s signs that he or she
wishes to join in the conversation. People should show that they are listening. They should
ensure that they keep good eye contact and should be aware of people’s space-needs.
The other side of good listening is good speaking. The effective use of language is the third
topic of this essay. Speakers should always use language that is simple and geared to the
listener’s needs. They should not be tempted to use difficult words to impress. All that they will
do is confuse the listener and destroy communication.
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Chapter 10: Writing summaries and essays
Decide on reader’s needs and time available
Read passage or all correspondence twice
Reread
Can you write down the main idea or ideas quickly?
No
Yes
Write a title for the summary
Reread
Can you find the key idea in each paragraph and write it down?
No
Yes
Decide on order, proportion and emphasis of summary
Prepare a topic outline
Insert/change
Are all important points in the right order, proportion and emphasis?
Yes
Have summary diagrams been put in the right places?
No
Reread
No
Yes
Decide on the length of your summary
Write your first draft
Reread
Check your draft against your outline. Is it correct?
Yes
Is the draft the right length?
No
Adjust length
No
Yes
Check for style, grammar, punctuation and readability
Write final version
Figure 10.1 How to write a summary
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Stages in the summary
Example
Theme
In the previous example, the main theme of the passage is about good
interpersonal communication in companies, with the stress on good listening,
sensitivity to non-verbal communication and effective use of language.
Key ideas
The key ideas of this passage, which will form the topic outline (shown below), are
taken from each paragraph.
• Paragraph one: Good communication in companies starts with effective
interpersonal communication.
• Paragraph two: Good listening, or active listening, is a physical and mental
process.
• Paragraph three: A good understanding of non-verbal behaviour is essential for
effective interpersonal communication.
• Paragraph four: Speakers should use language effectively.
Readers’ needs
Remember that the reader needs to know the three key points within a few seconds.
These three key points therefore need to be emphasised and so should be placed
first in your topic outline.
With all this information, you will now be able to write your topic outline as
illustrated below.
Write the topic outline
Example
1. Good communication in companies
1.2 Effective interpersonal communication
1.2.1 Active listening
1.2.2 Sensitivity to non-verbal behaviour
1.2.3 Effective use of language
2 Active listening
2.1 Mental process
2.2 Physical process
3. Sensitivity to non-verbal communication
3.1 Sensitivity to listener’s signs
3.2 Show that you are listening
3.3 Effective use of eye contact
3.4 Sensitivity to people’s space-needs
4. Effective use of language
4.1 Use simple language
4.2 Avoid difficult words
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Chapter 10: Writing summaries and essays
Three summaries of different lengths
Example
One-third length
The target number of words is 100 or one-third the length of the original. The word
count includes the title.
EFFECTIVE INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION IN COMPANIES
Effective interpersonal communication in companies depends on active listening,
sensitivity to non-verbal communication and the use of simple language.
Active listening is a mental and a physical process. The listener should concentrate
on the speaker’s emotions, as well as the facts. People should show that they are
listening.
People should be sensitive to non-verbal signs. They should allow each other to
speak and should maintain good eye contact. They should also be sensitive to each
other’s space.
Finally, people should use simple language. They should avoid difficult words that
are hard to understand.
(100 words)
Ten per cent length
The target number of words is 30, including the title.
EFFECTIVE INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION IN COMPANIES
Effective interpersonal communication in companies depends on active listening,
sensitivity to non-verbal communication and the use of simple language. These will
help people to work well together.
(33 words)
Five per cent length
The target number of words is under 20, including the title.
EFFECTIVE INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION IN COMPANIES
Active listening, sensitivity to non-verbal communication and simple language are
essential in companies.
(19 words)
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Essays and essay writing
As mentioned in the introduction to this chapter, you may be called on to
write essays of various styles in the work environment. This section will
provide you with a basic overview and structure for their creation.
Characteristics and types of essays
An essay is a piece of writing, often written from the view of the author. It is
frequently used in business for persuasive, investigative or other purposes.
Although it is highly unlikely that your boss will call on you to write a
descriptive essay (like the ones you were required to write in school), he or
she may well ask you to write a formal, objective essay outlining, for example,
your opinion on a particular business problem or proposal.
We will not go into detail regarding the various kinds of essays, but
Table 10.1 below summarises the main kinds of essays you might encounter,
as well as the tone and whether or not referencing is required.
Table 10.1 Types of essays
TYPE OF ESSAY
PURPOSE
TONE
REFERENCING
REQUIRED
argumentative*
prove a viewpoint
objective
yes
cause-and-effect*
establish relation
objective
yes
expository*
inform
objective
yes
informal
communicate
subjective
no
literary
analyse a piece of
literature
objective
usually
persuasive*
persuade
objective
yes
research*
discover/explore
objective
yes
review*
analyse and report
objective or
subjective
usually
* These are the kinds of essays you might be required to write in the business
environment.
Despite the differences in these different types of essays, they all share a basic
structure, which can be represented diagrammatically, as shown in Figure 10.2
on the next page.
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Introduction
Thesis Statement
Outline of main ideas in the essay
Signposts
Body
Paragraph 1:
Controlling idea/Topic sentence
Supporting ideas/sentences, eg, examples,
statistics, quotes, explanations, illustrations, etc.
Body
Paragraph 2:
Topic sentence
Supporting sentences
Body
Paragraph 3:
Topic sentence
Supporting sentences
Followed by other paragraphs if necessary
Conclusion
Restates thesis statement
Sums up main points of essay
Figure 10.2 Basic structure of an essay
Procedure for writing an essay
There are three main steps to consider when you are asked to write an essay:
planning, writing and completing.
Planning the essay
Analyse the topic
This is a small but essential element of essay writing. A topic analysis looks at
the direction and content words of your instructions and makes sure that you
focus on the given topic without wandering off the point. It also ensures that
you include all the necessary elements of the essay. You can analyse your topic
in whichever way you find best. The following method, however, should be a
useful starting point for you.
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The first thing to do is to identify the direction words from your instruction.
Direction words are verbs/words that tell you how to write your essay. Here are
some examples:
• discuss: give details and/or outline positive or negative points
• illustrate: give examples to prove your argument
• criticise: examine the positive and negative aspects
• argue: persuade the reader that something is true.
The next step is to look at the content words, which let you know what information
you need to include in your essay. For example, if you were asked to ‘discuss
communication’, then you would give details and positive and negative points
about communication in general, as that is your content. However if the topic
said ‘communication in the workplace’, then your content would change to a
specific focus on communication in the business environment only.
Once you have divided your words into content and direction words you
should see which direction word applies to which content so that you define
the appropriate concepts and illustrate the correct points. You should also be
able to make sure of the order that the information should follow and how
much information to include for each point.
Example
As an example, say your topic was: ‘Discuss communication barriers in the
workplace and suggest several solutions. Illustrate your points.’
You could divide this as follows:
Table 10.2 Analyse your topic
DIRECTION WORDS
CONTENT WORDS
ORDER
Discuss
Communication barriers
in workplace
First
Suggest
Several solutions
After barriers
Illustrate
Above points
Give examples throughout
as points are presented
This tells you that your main section will focus on the discussion of
communication barriers in the workplace, where you give details and
examples of these barriers. This section will go first. The next section, which
would be shorter, would offer various solutions to the problems discussed
above. You would also give examples throughout the essay, highlighting the
particular barriers and solutions.
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Gather information
Once you have decided what information you require, you need to gather the
appropriate information. While we will not go into detail on how to do this in
this chapter, it is important that you select the most appropriate resources to
back up any statements that you make in your essay. Journal articles are often
the most reliable, but the information required will determine the source that
you use. Remember that web-based resources are usually not as reliable as
printed material, so ensure that you check your sources carefully before using
them. It is important to use valid and reliable information in business and
academic essays.
Organise the information
So how do you plan or outline your content properly? It is sometimes tricky
to make sure that your paragraphs flow logically. It is therefore very important
that you use some method to structure your paragraphs beforehand.
There is no set method for planning, but spider diagrams, mind maps or
even skeleton outlines (that order your information by using topic sentences
into a contents-page-type list) may all work to order your information. You
need to find the method that works best for you and for your topic.
Remember, as with all your skills, the more you practise organising
information logically, the better you will become at it. Keep in mind though
that almost nothing frustrates a reader more than a poorly structured
document where he or she struggles to determine what the author is trying
to communicate.
Writing the essay
As indicated in the essay structure in Figure 10.2, all essays have three main
components, namely the introduction, body and conclusion. You should
ensure that all three of these appear in whatever type of essay you are required
to write. To give you a better understanding we will discuss each of these
components briefly.
The introduction
The purpose of the introduction is to introduce or present the topic to the
reader and in a way it is another type of summary. To fulfil its function of
presenting the topic to a reader, it should follow these guidelines:
• It must have a thesis statement. A thesis statement is a sentence (or two) that
states what the essay is about and familiarises the reader with the main
points covered in the essay.
• It must state the writer’s point of view or argument.
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• It must include only the main ideas covered in the essay.
• It must not go into supporting detail.
• It should signpost the essay by using words such as ‘firstly’, ‘secondly’ and
‘lastly’ to indicate the general order of the information.
Therefore the introduction gives direction to your writing so that the reader
knows exactly what to expect.
The body
The body of an essay is made up of different paragraphs and explains in more
depth the statements made in the introduction. Each paragraph discusses
one main idea and is made up of different types of sentences.
• Topic sentences: These are usually but not always the first sentence in a
paragraph. They state the main idea of the paragraph.
• Supporting sentences: These support the main idea of a paragraph and
provide evidence and examples.
Each paragraph should lead neatly and logically towards your conclusion,
ultimately either proving or disproving your argument, or providing the
necessary information, depending on the purpose of your essay.
The conclusion
The purpose of a conclusion is to conclude or finish off the essay. The
conclusion should:
• sum up or briefly state the main points covered in the essay
• restate the writer’s point of view or argument
• not introduce new facts or information that did not appear in the body.
Although it may be tempting to do so, try to avoid using quotes in your
conclusion as they are not your ideas and therefore will probably not
adequately reflect your work.
Completing your essay
Once you have written your first draft, you need to revise and evaluate it
for content and readability and then edit and rewrite it for conciseness and
clarity. Never hand in a first draft as a final draft. It will reflect very poorly on
you and your work.
In this stage you need to evaluate your draft essay and see how it can
be improved. It is important to be honest with yourself if you are going to
make a significant improvement. If you are sure that you can evaluate your
own strengths and weaknesses, then do the work yourself. However if you are
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not sure of your strengths and weaknesses, ask a friend, lecturer or trusted
colleague to go over your work with you. It is often difficult to see your own
mistakes and it is then useful to get an objective opinion.
In the evaluation of your essay, you need to go through it and correct
problem areas in terms of your content. This stage helps you to work
specifically on your content or arguments. Many people do not examine their
content closely enough once the first draft is written. It is important to make
sure that you do have the right arguments and that they correspond with the
topic of your essay.
One way of finding problem areas is to ask questions. By using these
questions to assess your work, you should be able to evaluate and improve
your work. If your answer is ‘No’ to any of these questions, then you need
to work on that problem. You may use the checklist below to check your
content, including the structure, language, grammar and the referencing of
your work. (We will discuss referencing in detail in Chapter 12.)
Once you are ready to present you final essay, ensure that you produce it
on suitable, formal paper and in an appropriate format.
Checklist for finalising your essay
Content
◗
Do I have sufficient content? Is it enough according to the topic?
◗
Have I included all of the necessary information?
◗
Is this information in an appropriate and logical order?
◗
Is my content relevant? Does it correspond with the topic?
◗
Are my arguments/statements/claims valid? Are they logical and supported by evidence?
◗
Have I provided enough evidence to support my arguments/statements/claims?
◗
Is my evidence of a good quality?
Structure
Does my introduction introduce my topic?
◗
Have I included a suitable thesis statement?
◗
Have I looked at only the main points in my introduction?
◗
In the body of my essay, does each paragraph look at only one main idea?
◗
Have I used an appropriate topic sentence to express that idea?
◗
Does each paragraph have sufficient and relevant supporting ideas?
◗
Is there any repetition of ideas?
◗
Is my writing concise and to the point?
◗
Does my conclusion finish off my essay?
◗
Does it discuss only the main points covered in my essay (no new ideas are introduced)?
◗
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Conclusion
It is important to know how paragraphs can be arranged within a document
to create a structure that communicates your main ideas and message in
a way that is easy to read, follow and understand. The precise structure of
a document will vary depending on its nature, but it is always essential to
ensure that your documents follow a clear and logical structure. Keep in mind
that poorly structured essays will frustrate your reader and will consequently
reflect negatively on you.
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CHAPTER
11
HOW TO APPROACH A CASE STUDY
Introduction
Case studies describe situations or incidents in organisations. These cases are
used to analyse problems in organisations so that people can learn how to
solve them. It is also useful to look at case studies so that we can learn from
past mistakes. This chapter covers the following aspects of case studies:
• what is a case study?
• critical reading
• how to approach a general case study where one major question is asked.
• how to approach a specific case study that focuses on an aspect of
communication.
Once these approaches are covered, a case will be presented and analysed.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• analyse a case effectively
• describe the background to a case
• identify the problems in the case that need to be solved
• identify what the organisation should do to solve the problems (this
statement is the key objective; there may be more than one objective)
• determine the possible courses of action that the organisation should take
to meet the objectives
• evaluate each course of action against the objectives
• identify the course of action that best meets the objectives
• write out the complete case, stating what the organisation should do.
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What is a case study?
A case study is a description of a situation in an organisation. This description
is used to study an aspect of the organisation, such as the management style
of its leaders. A case study might also describe an incident in an organisation.
This incident is then analysed, for example in terms of the quality of the
communication around the incident.
Case studies are useful for studying, among others, problems in
organisations. They help students, managers and employees to acquire
knowledge of business principles by examining real situations. The first step
to approaching a case study is to read the information presented critically.
Approaching a general case study
This type of case describes a general situation in which participants have to
solve a problem. The reader is then asked, ‘What should the company do?’ or
‘What should X and Y do?’
Problem-solving procedure
The following problem-solving procedure is recommended for this type of case.
1. Make sure that you understand the background to the case. Ask yourself the
following questions:
a. What are the characteristics of this type of organisation or company?
b. How do people work together in this organisation?
c. Why do they work in this way?
d. What effects do people’s relationships have on the organisation?
2. Decide on the problems that have to be solved. Problems that seem obvious
may not be the real problems. Sometimes they are only the symptoms
of a deeper problem. Careful analysis is therefore necessary to find out
what the real problems are. For example, say that the obvious problem
in company X is that the sales and product development departments do
not cooperate. The real problem however is that the managers of these
departments have not been trained in effective problem-solving skills.
3. Once you have established the real problems, state the objectives necessary
to solve these problems. Objectives answer the question, ‘What should the
organisation do to solve the problems?’
4. An example of an objective is: ‘The managing director, in order to meet
the lack of problem-solving skills, should ensure that the two managers
are properly trained in these skills and that a mentoring programme is
introduced to develop the specific skills needed for them to function at an
optimal level within the organisation.’
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Once the objectives have been established, decide on possible courses of
action to achieve these objectives. For example, a possible course of action
to ensure that the two managers are trained is to hold regular workshops
on problem-solving. A senior and more experienced manager could also
be assigned to these managers to act as a mentor and coach so that they can
develop the necessary problem-solving skills that will be most beneficial
to the company.
6. Each course of action should now be evaluated against the objectives.
7. The final stage is to decide on which course of action to take that best
meets the objectives.
5.
Approaching a case study with specific questions
Case studies also cover specific incidents in the field of interpersonal or
small group communication. Often specific questions are asked at the end.
Approach this type of case as follows:
1. Read through the case and analyse:
a. the exact situation in which people are working and interacting
b. the personalities of the people involved
c. the surroundings in which people are working.
2. List all the communication barriers and breakdowns.
3. Analyse each barrier and breakdown very carefully. Take into account all
the factors that affect communication. Pay special attention to:
a. both the senders’ and the receivers’ goals, needs, perceptions, personality
and mood
b. external pressures on senders and receivers
c. the messages being sent and received: are they spoken, written,
non‑verbal or graphic? What is their content?
d. any physical or psychological noise that could be distorting messages
e. any defences put up by the sender or receiver
f. communication skills with the stress on listening and the ability to
communicate both information and emotion
g. layout of the office with the stress on positions and sizes of desks; check
whether the position and size of a desk are barriers to communication
h. level of tidiness as this might affect people’s perceptions of others
i. the way people are dressed as this will affect communication
j. use of space with the stress on invasion of others’ space
k. telephone techniques with the stress on handling messages and forming
a good relationship with the caller.
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Example of a case
Please read the following case and the questions that follow. The questions
will be answered to give you an idea of how to approach this type of case.
THE INTERVIEW
Nomsu Motsepe had been interviewing job applicants for the trainee manager position
since 8.30 am. It was now 4 pm and she was looking forward to a short break before
the final interview of the day. She checked her schedule – Gavin Stephens, 4.30
pm. She decided to have coffee sent in to her office as she didn’t have time to go to
the canteen. Unfortunately, Gavin, who had lost his way, was 20 minutes late. As a
result the interview began with Nomsu feeling irritable and Gavin flustered.
Nomsu: Good afternoon, Mr Stephens. Take a seat.
Gavin: Thanks Mrs er Ms Mots … er …
Nomsu:MOTSEPE. Right. Let’s get started straight away. What made you
apply for this particular job, Mr Stephens?
Gavin shuffled in his seat and Nomsu noticed that he kept adjusting his tie.
Gavin:Sorry, I’m a bit hot after running here. Phew! Um … well, I’ve done a
management course at Tech and I … this ad said it was for a trainee
manager.
Nomsu: I see. Do you know anything about ABC Ltd.?
Gavin: Ja, don’t you make toys and that sort of stuff?
Nomsu:You could put it that way. Mr Stephens, we’re looking for someone
who can think creatively – do you have any hobbies or activities that
are creative at all?
Gavin:Um, not really. I surf in the summer … But I enjoy working with
people.
Nomsu: Can you give me any examples?
Gavin: What d’you mean?
Nomsu:Well, have you worked in a team, or perhaps organised a surfing
competition?
Gavin looked around the room for a few seconds. His gaze settled on Nomsu’s cup
of coffee.
Gavin:I must have – I just can’t remember now. Um … I led a group of
scouts on a two-day hike. Oh yes! I was a member of the Debating
Society at school. That can be pretty creative!
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Nomsu:Right. Mr Stephens, we are hoping to fill this position by the end of
October. Would you be available then?
Gavin: Yes. I can’t wait to stop delivering pizzas.
Nomsu:Hmm. Well, I think that’s it. Is there anything you’d like to ask me
about the firm or the position?
Gavin:Er … is there a bar on the premises? I wouldn’t mind something
cool to drink.
(Unfortunately, Nomsu did not find Gavin’s attempted joke funny.)
Nomsu: Right. If that’s all …
(Nomsu rose briskly and extended her hand, which Gavin shook firmly.)
Gavin:
Thanks. Sorry I was late. Goodbye, Mrs Motsepe.
Gavin left hurriedly, leaving Nomsu nursing her crushed hand.
Questions
Analyse the factors that led to a poor start to the interview.
2. Analyse Mrs Motsepe’s interview. Did she run the interview properly?
Support your answer with examples from the case.
3. Analyse Gavin Stephens’ behaviour during the interview. Was he properly
prepared? Pay special attention to his answers. How should Gavin have
prepared better?
4. Analyse the types of questions that were asked.
5. Analyse Gavin Stephens’ non-verbal behaviour during the interview. How
should he have behaved?
6. Write about 200 words on how to prepare and conduct a good interview.
1.
Answers to questions
The interview started badly because Mrs Motsepe had been interviewing
people all day. It seems as though she had not had much of a break all
day, so it is likely that she was tired. The case states that she did not have
enough time to go to the canteen. She must have been tired and hungry.
Gavin Stephens then arrived twenty minutes late because he lost his way.
He was flustered and Mrs Motsepe was irritated at the delay. These factors
meant that the interview did not start well.
2. Mrs Motsepe should have started by giving Mr Stephens an idea of the
objectives of the interview. She should then have given him some idea of
1.
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the types of questions she would be asking. The interview should have been
taken through a set of stages:
a. setting Gavin Stephens at ease and welcoming him to the interview
b. preliminary negotiation
c. detailed negotiation
d. closure.
Mrs Motsepe was not able to move through these stages very well because
of Gavin Stephens’ poor answers. She did, however, try to negotiate with
Gavin Stephens by asking him:
• why he had applied for the position
• whether he knew anything about ABC Ltd.
• whether he had any creative hobbies
• whether he had worked in a team.
However, she did not go into enough detail at each stage. The questions
seem disjointed. At the end of the interview she should have told Gavin
what would happen next and by when he could expect to hear from them.
The interview was not well conducted because both parties were ill at ease
and not well prepared.
3. Gavin Stephens behaved poorly during the interview. He should have
ensured that he was on time for the interview. He should have checked
the directions and he should have left early to make provision for any
unforeseen circumstances, such as getting lost.
He was not properly prepared for the interview. He was also ill
at ease and did not pay attention to his non-verbal behaviour. His
first answer was vague, which was a clear indication that he had not
prepared fully for the interview. He did no research on the company,
he had not studied the job description and seemed vague about why
he wanted the job. His other answers were also vague and unhelpful.
At the end his inappropriate attempt at humour left a bad impression.
He created the impression that he was not serious about the position.
Gavin should have prepared by:
a. researching the company and finding out as much as possible about it
b. studying the job description carefully and matching it with his own
skills and experiences
c. preparing answers to anticipated questions
d. making sure where the company was situated so that he could find it
and arrive on time.
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Chapter 11: How to approach a case study
Mrs Motsepe started the interview by asking an open question to encourage
Gavin to start the conversation and share his thoughts and ideas. She then
asked a closed question that would have been better expressed as, ‘What
do you know about ABC Ltd.?’ She then asked him a closed question about
his hobbies, which could have been better expressed as, ‘Please describe
your hobbies.’ She could then have asked open and closed questions to
find out more about his creative abilities. She closed by asking whether he
had any questions to ask. This is an effective way of finding out whether
the interviewee has thought about the pros and cons of taking up the
position and whether he or she has any concerns.
Mrs Motsepe should have asked more open-ended questions with some
closed questions to find out the finer details.
5. Gavin Stephens showed signs of nervousness and lack of preparation. Some
of his behaviour was also disrespectful and created a poor impression. Mrs
Motsepe would have noticed these signs and probably formed a negative
opinion of him. Gavin’s particular negative behaviour included:
• shuffling in his seat
• frequently adjusting his tie
• vague answers
• hesitant answers
• not directly answering the questions
• interrupting himself
• changing the topic
• poor eye contact as he gazed at Mrs Motsepe’s coffee cup.
4.
Gavin should have answered boldly and fluently. He should have used
good eye contact and sat comfortably in his chair without shuffling. He
should have avoided fiddling with his tie.
6. Conducting a good interview
An interview can only be effective if both parties are well prepared. The
interviewer should start with getting a clear idea of the job description and
what the company is looking for. He or she should then clarify his or her
objectives for the interview and should have a prepared interview plan.
Once the interview has been planned, he or she should prepare a set of
open and closed questions based on the topics to be discussed and in line
with the needs of the company and job description.
Once the interviewee arrives, he or she should be welcomed and made
to feel at ease. The interviewer should explain the purposes of the interview
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and give some idea of the range of topics to be covered. The interview can
also be started with a clear job description.
The detailed negotiations should then begin. The interviewer should
encourage the interviewee to answer freely and openly. Open questions
should be used so that the interviewer can form an impression of the
interviewee and his or her experience and views. The interviewer should
use closed questions to get specific answers and finer detail.
The interviewer should bring the interview to a close by asking the
interviewee if he or she has any questions. The interviewer should then
close the interview by telling the interviewee what will happen next and
by when he or she can expect an answer from the company. (238 words)
Conclusion
Being able to analyse a case is a very important and useful skill in organisational
contexts. Approaching a case study requires you to read the information
presented about the incident critically. By asking certain questions you can
focus your reading and analyse the situation in greater depth. Because actual
events and practices are used in a case study, they can be linked to action
plans and the insight gained from these can be used to contribute to changing
practices in order to make the organisation more effective and efficient.
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CHAPTER
12
REFERENCING
Introduction
The academic world and by implication the advancement of knowledge
thrives on ideas, arguments and different perspectives. What makes the
academic world different is that these ideas, arguments and perspectives need
to be scrutinised rigorously for them to be accepted as credible and believable.
In an academic environment, we need to find evidence and support for our
ideas through the process of research. However the research process is fairly
involved and we do not always have the time to test our ideas in a scientific
manner. An option is to draw on the research findings and ideas of others.
Therefore, if you want to write reports, business or academic proposals,
business plans and academic essays or articles that you want other people
to find credible, you may want to use other people’s ideas to support your
arguments.
If you do use other people’s ideas to support your arguments, however,
you need to acknowledge them by providing the details of the books,
articles and other sources where you found their ideas or research findings.
Acknowledging the work of others or using their ideas or research findings as
evidence to support your own arguments is called referencing or citation.
Referencing is also about educating yourself because, by reading the works
of others, you deepen your insight and in the process you develop informed
opinions and more sophisticated ways of thinking. Through referencing, you
demonstrate that you are well read and informed and that you have put in
the effort to educate yourself about the topic and can therefore form credible
arguments and opinions. Moreover, proper referencing is testimony to your
academic integrity.
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Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• understand the need for referencing
• avoid plagiarism
• paraphrase
• know the difference between primary and secondary sources
• know when you do not need to reference
• know the difference between credible academic sources and sources that
are unreliable.
The need to reference
Most people think that the main reason for referencing is to acknowledge
other people’s ideas. Although this is a very important reason, another
important reason for referencing is that it gives credibility to our arguments,
ideas and opinions and serves as evidence for the arguments we are making.
All credible academic work is therefore always well referenced.
There are five key reasons why you have to use references:
1. References give your work credibility because it shows that you have based
your work on expert opinions and that your arguments are supported by
scientific evidence.
2. Referencing shows that you have covered your field thoroughly and that
you have read widely in order to form an informed opinion.
3. If your sources are recent it shows that your reading is up-to-date.
4. It presents others with an opportunity to advance their own knowledge
because through referencing they can go back to the original source to
examine the evidence for themselves.
5. You demonstrate academic integrity because referencing helps you to avoid
plagiarism.
What you do not need to reference
You do not need to reference:
• anything that can be regarded as common knowledge
• your own views and opinions
• your own conclusions drawn from the evidence that has been presented.
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Avoid plagiarism
Neville (2007:4) describes plagiarism in the academic world as a deliberate
decision by someone to not acknowledge the work of others or to blatantly
ignore the requirement to do so. Plagiarism is copying other people’s work
and presenting it as your own. But what is wrong with that? There are several
reasons why plagiarism is unethical and wrong.
• If you plagiarise, you are robbing yourself of an opportunity to learn and
develop the skills you will need later to succeed in your career or studies
because assignments are designed to help you to learn.
• By plagiarising, you deny yourself the opportunity to improve your skills
through honest feedback.
• You are committing fraud because you are ‘stealing’ from others.
• You build a negative reputation for yourself because others will see you as
dishonest and lacking integrity.
• You disrespect your peers who have put in the necessary effort and have
worked diligently to complete their assignments and you also denigrate
their hard work.
• You deny others the recognition they deserve through not acknowledging
their work.
• You misrepresent your own abilities and thereby mislead others.
There are several excuses people use for plagiarising. None of these excuses
are acceptable or excusable. Some of these excuses are:
• I am not a first-language English speaker so I cannot express myself
adequately in English.
• The quality of my work is so poor that I will never pass if I don’t plagiarise.
• It is the only way I can get good marks.
• I didn’t realise I was plagiarising.
• I did not plan my time well and ran out of time to complete my assignment.
• No one will know.
• My friend did not mind that I copied his or her work.
• I lost some sources or couldn’t remember where I found the material, so I
did not reference them.
Unfortunately the Internet makes it easy for people to plagiarise because it
is so easy to cut and paste other people’s work. This is a terrible practice and
should be avoided. Also remember that it is your responsibility to ensure that
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you acknowledge all your sources. Do not make yourself guilty of plagiarism
by omitting some of your sources or by copying other people’s work without
referencing them. Moreover, remember that you still need to reference even if
you have paraphrased or even synthesised other people’s work. You synthesise
work when you take the ideas of several authors and come up with your own
view based on all of their views. You can then make use of source integration
where you provide the references for all of the authors you used to come up
with your own idea. The following is an example of source integration:
Example
It needs to be emphasised that each person’s experience of reality and how a
relationship is defined are largely matters of perception. People are constantly
assigning meaning to and making sense of their experiences, and the meaning
assigned to an event is often influenced by communication among participants
(Arriaga, Reed, Goodfriend & Agnew, 2006:1046; Curran, 2002:581; Littlejohn &
Foss, 2008:113).
The following is relevant in terms of plagiarism or violating copyright laws.
You are plagiarising or violating copyright laws if you:
• copy more than the prescribed or permitted amount of 10%
• scan, change, translate or convert information into other formats
• photocopy complete or large portions of books, articles, etc.
• place copyrighted works on a website
• copy or reproduce sound recordings, music, videos, CDs, DVDs, films,
plays, etc. without prior written permission
• plagiarise the ideas or works of others, be it from print or electronic sources.
A useful electronic plagiarism detection service, called Turnitin.com®, can
also help you to avoid plagiarism. It is a software program that is accessible
via the Internet and allows you to check any work for incorrect references or
possible plagiarism.
Using and referencing direct quotes
The most obvious instance where you need to reference is when you make
use of a direct quote that contains the exact words of the author whose work
you are using. When you make use of a direct quote, you have to indicate
that it is a direct quote by making use of quotation marks. However direct
quotes should be used selectively and you should never depend too heavily
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on them. As a rule of thumb, it is not appropriate to make use of more than
10% direct quotes in any written work.
Only use direct quotes for:
• definitions or parts of definitions
• terms that a particular author has coined and cannot be paraphrased
• particularly powerful or controversial statements
• incorporating informal language into academic writing
• any part of a law, theory, policy or principle.
Remember that when you make use of a direct quote you always need to
include the page number, unless it is an electronic source that has no page
numbers. However when you make use of a direct quote, you need to make
sure that it does not disrupt the flow of the rest of your writing. In order to
integrate direct quotes into the rest of your writing, you can either make the
quote part of the sentence or you can make use of a reporting verb followed
by a colon. For example:
• According to Neville (2007:4), plagiarism in the academic world can be
defined as ‘a deliberate decision by someone to not acknowledge the work
of others or to blatantly ignore the requirement to do so’.
• Plagiarism can be defined as: ‘a deliberate decision by someone to not
acknowledge the work of others or to blatantly ignore the requirement to
do so’ (Neville, 2007:4).
As a rule, a direct quote entails the exact words of the source from which it
is quoted, but sometimes we want to omit certain sections of the quote or
we need to insert words to provide the reader with some context. When we
omit something from a direct quote we make use of an ellipsis (three dots).
For example, Gottman (2001:80) points out that finding an ‘academic home’
for relationship studies is problematic, and he argues that ‘… for the field of
psychology as a whole it seems that the relationship is too big a unit of study’.
When we need to alter a certain section of a quote to make the meaning
clear, we add the additional words in square brackets. For example, Glenn
(1991:269) states that: ‘… many women who made such commitments [to
marriage] 20 to 30 years ago are the impoverished “displaced homemakers”
of today.’
We also use square brackets when we want to start a direct quote midsentence and we need to change the first letter of a word from upper case
to lower case. For example, Littlejohn (1996:207) explains that ‘[T]he
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phenomenologist in this [social phenomenological] tradition concentrates
not only on the [phenomenon] itself but also on the language used to describe
the [phenomenon] and the meanings reflected in this language’.
If there is an obvious mistake in a reference, you can use [sic] in square
brackets to show that the misspelt word has been deliberately included. For
example: Jones (2014:12) indicates that ‘… my patience are [sic] exhausted.’
You also always need to reference any material that was copied directly, for
example when you copy data, figures, tables, images, music, videos or frameworks.
Paraphrasing
As previously mentioned, referencing gives your arguments validity and it is
consequently vital to include it in any form of writing where you are trying to
convince your reader to accept your argument. However, when you make use
of the work and research of others, it is essential to paraphrase. You paraphrase
when you state the work, words and ideas of someone else in your own words.
Please note, however, that even when paraphrasing, you still have to reference
the author, since the idea is still his or hers and not your own.
Paraphrasing not only helps you to avoid plagiarism, it also allows you
to structure your own work in a more logical way because you can integrate
other authors’ thoughts more fully into the structure of your writing. Through
paraphrasing you are also able to present your unique interpretation of
another author’s ideas. Paraphrasing involves putting other people’s ideas in
your own words, while keeping the same meaning.
Paraphrasing can also take on the form of a summary, where you reduce
an author’s ideas by highlighting only the key points in a discussion and
leaving out unnecessary or irrelevant details and examples. Even in cases
where you have left out substantial pieces of information, you still have to
cite the original source of the ideas that you have used.
Many students find the following process useful for summarising and
paraphrasing information:
1. Read the text several times: academic material is often complicated and it
is necessary, every so often, to read the same text several times before you
can fully comprehend what the author(s) is trying to convey. If the text is
full of academic jargon or other complicated words, terms, concepts and
theories with which you are not familiar, you may need to look up their
meanings first. You can make use of a dictionary and the Internet to help
you understand them. It is important to understand what you have read,
otherwise paraphrasing will be impossible.
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Identify the main points the author is making: in order to capture the essence
of someone else’s argument you first need to identify the main ideas
he or she is trying to make. You can highlight these main points with a
highlighter or, if it is not your own material, write down the main ideas or
type them in a word-processing program.
3. Consider how these points support or contradict the argument you want to
make: remember that you use the ideas of others for a purpose, mainly to
substantiate your own arguments. Get clarity about the structure of your
own assignment and make sure that you know how you want to structure
your own argument and how this information can be used to validate
your argument.
4. Try to determine what the attitude of the author is towards the topic: an author
can be critical, supportive or neutral or have any other attitude towards a
certain topic. It is useful to then write down some reporting verbs that can
be used to describe this attitude. For example, you can use words such as
‘maintains’, ‘states’, ‘proposes’, ‘asserts’, ‘declares’ and others to report an
author’s attitude.
5. Try to phrase the main points in a way that means approximately the same as the
original idea: also keep in mind that if subject-specific academic jargon is
used, you do not have to change it and you can acknowledge it by making
use of inverted commas.
6. Without returning to the original text, write down the main ideas in your own
words and link it logically to your own argument: the only way in which you
will be able to maintain a logical flow in your essay or assignment is to
link all your ideas in a consistent and coherent manner – and you will
only be able to do this if you write everything in your own words.
7. Reread the original text to ensure that you have retained the intended meaning:
compare what you have written to the original text and make sure that you
did not distort the original meaning. Once you are satisfied that you have
interpreted the meaning correctly, remember to reference the source.
2.
Using synonyms
To paraphrase a text you can use a variety of techniques, such as synonymous
words, synonymous word forms or synonymous phrases. In the example on
the next page, the student has used synonymous word forms (scanners –
scanner; use – using) in bold; synonymous words (convert – recreates) in bold
italics; and synonymous phrases (their ‘eyes’ – the scanner’s eyes) in italics.
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Example
Look at the following examples which show the use of synonyms to paraphrase.
Original source:
scanners convert analogue data into digital information... scanners use
small electronic components (called CCDs, PMTs, or CISs) as their ‘eyes’...
Student text:
A scanner recreates an image, such as a graphic, using small electronic
components referred to as the scanner’s eyes...
Be cautious though, because simply replacing certain words with synonyms
is not paraphrasing. Let’s say the original sentence was: ‘The art of good
management is to find a way to make problems so interesting that everyone
wants to work on finding creative solutions to these problems’.
You cannot then simply replace certain words with their synonyms, because
replacing words with synonyms is not paraphrasing. For example, if you did
the following, it would still be plagiarism: ‘The art of good management is
to find a tactic to make problems so exciting that everybody wants to work on
finding innovative solutions to these problems.’
However, if you keep the main idea but put it in your own words, it is not
plagiarism. For example, the following sentence captures the same idea, but
it is phrased very differently: ‘The skill of effective management lies in the
ability of the manager to invent a way in which challenges are framed in such
a stimulating way that most employees would want to work on discovering
novel answers to problems.’
Remember that you still need to reference even when you have paraphrased.
Changing word forms
A common approach to changing the word forms in a sentence is to change
the main verb into a noun or, less commonly, to change the main noun into
a verb. For example, compare the two sentences on the next page:
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Chapter 12: Referencing
Example
Original source:
Scanners convert analogue data into digital information.
Paraphrased sentence:
The conversion of an image, such as a graphic, by a scanner occurs.
Re-ordering main ideas
Another way of paraphrasing is to change the order of the main ideas in a
sentence. One way of doing this is to change the active voice to passive voice
or the passive voice to active voice. The active voice focuses on who or what is
affected by a process or event, while the passive voice focuses on the event or
process. For example compare the use of ‘scanners convert’ and ‘the conversion
of’ in the examples above.
For further information on the use of active and passive voice, refer back
to Chapter 9.
What information to record
Books
If you wish to record details of a book, then you should record the following:
• author(s) (initial(s) and then surname)
• editor or translator (if relevant)
• title of the book (underlined or in italics)
• name of the series in which the book appears (underlined) and volume
number in the series
• number of volumes (if relevant)
• number of the edition (if it is not the first)
• the facts of publication
• place of publication
• name of publisher
• year published
• page number(s) to show where the information came from.
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Journal articles
Record details of a journal article as follows:
• author(s) (initial(s) and then surname)
• title of article
• name of journal (underlined or in italics)
• volume and issue number of the journal
• date of the volume or issue
• page numbers of the relevant pages in the article
• page numbers of the first and last pages of the article.
Example
Gogwana, G. 2009. Water crisis solutions. Southern Africa Journal of Ecological
Balance, 2(4), pp.49–56.
This refers to the
volume number
This refers to the
issue number
This refers to the
page numbers
Electronic sources
Record details of electronic sources as follows:
• author(s) or editor(s) (initial(s) and then surname)
• title of page
• title of site
• copyright date or the date the page was last updated
• full Internet address of page(s)
• date you accessed the source
• any other relevant information pertaining to the page or website.
Using the numbered system
If you use the numbering system, then you should:
• number each reference in the message
• have a list of references at the end of the page or the chapter or at the end
of the document
• have a bibliography.
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Chapter 12: Referencing
Example
A reference in a document would be written as follows. Note the superscript
numbers 1 and 2 in the text.
Smith and Jones refer to the following communication problems in
organisations.1 However, Anderson describes the same problems in different
terms.2
These numbers must be referred to in two ways:
a. in a list of references (order of appearance)
b. in a bibliography (alphabetical order of surname).
List of References
1. Smith, J. and Jones, L. 1985. Communication in organizations. New York:
ABC Publishers. p.6.
2. Anderson, P. 1990. Classifying communication problems in organisations.
Journal of Business, 3(2). p.50.
Bibliography
Anderson, P. 1990. Classifying communication problems in organisations.
Journal of Business, 3(2): 48–56.
Smith, J. and Jones, L. 1985. Communication in organizations. New York:
ABC Publishers.
Note the different page references in the examples. Also note that the
bibliography provides the first and last pages of the article.
Referencing systems
Something that students often find confusing is that there are a great number
of referencing styles in usage and all of them have different yet consistent
rules. What is important is that, although the style may differ from system
to system, the referencing style needs to be used consistently throughout the
text. In other words, you cannot mix different referencing styles in the same
piece of work.
The Harvard referencing style is one of the most commonly used referencing
styles although even this system has considerable variations in it.
Harvard style
The Harvard style uses shortened references in brackets in the text. A list of
references is not necessary (as in the numbering example above). All the works
referred to are listed in a reference appendix or bibliography at the end. These
entries are in alphabetical order of surname. Please note that this method is
also called the ‘author–date’ method.
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Example
Smith and Jones refer to the following communication problems in organisations
(Smith & Jones, 1985, p.6). However, Anderson describes the same problems in
different terms (Anderson, 1990, p.50).
Reference list
Anderson, P. 1990. Classifying communication problems in organisations. Journal of
Business, 3(2): 48–56.
Smith, J. and Jones, L. 1985. Communication in organizations. New York: ABC
Publishers.
Please note: A reference list refers only to those works that you have referred to in
your message. If you have used other work, but not referred to it, then use the word
bibliography. Then list all the works that you have read.
Specific examples of references
The following examples show you how to reference specific source types:
Example
Citing a book with more than one author
Bok, JJ, Ehlers, K and Mpetha, L. 2003. New approaches to management. Durban:
S.J. Press.
A book produced by editors
Johannes, P. and Smit, B. (eds.). 2002. Transformational leadership. Cape Town:
ABC Press.
An edition of a book that is not the first edition
Molefe, JJ. 2002. Intercultural aspects of transformation. 3rd edition. Johannesburg:
Eagle Press.
A section or chapter in a book
Baker, A. 2002. Specifics of transformational leadership, in Leadership theory,
2nd edition, edited by J. Thomas. London: Triangle Press: pp.80–91.
Citing a conference paper published in proceedings
Moll, K. 2004. An investigation into non-verbal aspects of transformation:
preliminary findings, Proceedings of the 3rd National Conference on Transformation,
1–3 July. Durban, pp. 20–35.
Citing an unpublished thesis or an interview
Venter, J. 2003. A comparison of transactional and transformational leadership styles
in a simulated environment. University of Cape Town: Unpublished Ph.D thesis.
Poole, E. 2003. Working for transformation in the workplace. [Personal interview,
1 June], University of Cape Town: Unpublished.
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Chapter 12: Referencing
Referencing electronic sources in business writing
You will be using the Internet a great deal in your research. All the information
that you gather will have to be correctly referenced.
Please note, however, that you cannot always guarantee that your Internet
sources are correct and authentic. Anyone can publish almost anything on
the Internet, which creates problems in terms of the integrity of several of
the sources on the Internet. It is therefore important that you ensure that
the information you use comes from a reputable source. You should have a
disclaimer at the beginning of these references. This disclaimer should state that
you have used the information in good faith. However you cannot guarantee
that it has been checked by experts. Your best sources of information are
therefore refereed articles and books published by well-known publishers.
According to Du Toit (2013) one can ask the following questions to determine
whether an Internet source is a reputable source:
• Does the work appear to be well researched?
• Is the information linked to an original source?
• Is there a bibliography or are links given to other helpful sites?
• Is the information current? When was the last time it was updated?
• Does the site appear to be biased?
• Has the site been rated by any reputable groups?
• What are the goals of the site? To provide information or to advertise?
• Who is the target audience?
The 15 types of electronic information
The following list gives a range of 15 types of electronic information.
Following this, we will give examples on how to reference these 15 types of
electronic information.
The list is as follows:
1. World Wide Web, home page
2. Online books
3. Online encyclopaedia article
4. Encyclopaedia article, CD-ROM
5. FTP file
6. Journal article, online
7. Journal article, CD-ROM
8. Magazine article, online
9. Abstract, CD-ROM
10. Material from online database
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11. Newspaper article, online, simple
12. Discussion list message, real time
13. Discussion list message, archived
14. Newsgroup article, online
15. Personal electronic communication (email).
You need to set out all of these so that your readers can go back to your original
sources. Using the concept of Uniform Resource Locators (URLs), you will be
able to give specific locations for your source materials.
A Uniform Source Locator (URL) has four parts:
1. Protocol: //www.southworks.com/
2. Site: fielding/
3. Path: sections.html
4. File: Among the various protocols now being used are the following: http, gopher, ftp, telnet
and news.
Here are examples of how to reference these15 types of electronic information.
Example
1. World Wide Web, home page
Basic form: Author/editor (if known). Revision of copyright date (if available). Title of
page. Publication medium [Online]. Page Publisher. Available: URL (Protocol: Site/
Path/File). [Access date].
Example: Starways interpersonal South Africa. 2002. [online]. Starways, Inc.
Available at: http://www.npta.com. [Accessed 1 Jan 2013].
2. Book, online
Basic form: Author. Date of material (if given, otherwise n.d.) Title. Publication
information for printed source (if available). Publication medium [Online]. Name of
repository of the electronic text (if known). Available: URL (Protocol: Site/Path/File).
[Access date].
Example: Adams, J. 1995. Writing clearly. Cape Town WP: J.L. Smith Press. [online].
Southern University. Available: http://www.southern.edu/acis/management/smith/
smith.html#11. [Accessed 4 May 2013]
3. Online encyclopaedia article
Basic form: Author (if given). Date of material (if given otherwise n.d.). Title of
material accessed. Title of encyclopaedia in italics. Publication medium [online].
Name of computer service or information provider (if available). Available: URL
(Protocol: Site/Path/File) [‘search term’, if available for retrieval]. [ Access date.]
Example: Financial Reforms in Europe 1990–1999. 2003. Britannica Online. [online].
Available at: http://www.eb.com [‘financial reforms’]. [Accessed 16 July 2013].
continued on following page >>
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Chapter 12: Referencing
4. Encyclopaedia article, CD-ROM
Basic form: Author (if given). Date of material (if given otherwise n.d.). Title of
material accessed. Title of encyclopaedia in italics. Edition, release, or version (if
relevant). Publication medium (CD-ROM). Name of vendor (if relevant). Electronic
publication date.
Example: Genetic Engineering. 1990. World Wide Encyclopaedia. Version 1-0.
[CD-ROM]. World Wide (Pty) Ltd, 1995.
5. FTP File
Basic Form: Author (if known). Date of material (if given otherwise n.d.). Title. Date.
Publication medium [Online]. Available: URL (Protocol: Site/Path/File). [Access date].
Example: Jackson, P. 1997. Hole in ozone above Antarctic – True or False? 12
June 1997. [Online]. Available at: ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet/news.answers/
antarctic/ozone/antarctic. [Accessed 10 June 2013].
6. Journal article, online
Basic Form: Author(s). Year of publication. Article title. Journal title in italics, Volume
(Issue) paging or n.pag. (indicating no pagination). Publication medium [Online].
Available: URL (Protocol: Site/Path/File). [Access date].
Example: Keeting, J. 1996. Maintaining standards in business writing. The Online
Journal of Business Writing 1(1) n.pag. [Online]. Available at: http://winsome.apax.
edu/standards/hand.html. [Accessed 10 July 2013].
7. Journal article, CD-ROM
Basic Form: Author(s). Year of publication. Article title. Journal title in italics, Volume
(Issue): paging. Medium [CD-ROM]. Database Name. File identifier or number.
Accession number.
Example: Joshua, J. 1995. Research into business writing problems. University
Report 20.8 (1995): 5–11. [CD-ROM]. ABCD Business. Volume 2. Article 20B.
8. Magazine article, online
Basic Form: Author(s). Date. Article title. Magazine title in italics date and page (for
magazines published every month or two months, do not give volume and issue
numbers even if they are listed). Publication medium [Online]. Name of computer
service or database. Available: URL (Protocol: Site/Path/File). [Access date].
Example: Rozner, H. 1997. Will your email get you fired? Email Journal Feb. 1997: 20.
[Online]. ABI/INFORM. Available: telnet://jason.ucop.edu. [Accessed 15 June 2013].
9. Abstract, CD-ROM
Basic Form: Author (if given). Date. Publication information for printed source
(including title and date of print publication). Title of database. Publication medium
(CD-ROM). Name of vendor (if relevant). Electronic publication date.
Example: Abwa, D. 1991. Assessing service in the hotel industry: ABC-A25/5. Wonder
World U. Dissertation Abstracts On disc. [CD-ROM]. UMI Pro Quest. March 1993.
continued on following page >>
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10. Material from online database
Basic Form: Author (if given). Date (if given, otherwise n.d.). Title of material.
Database title. Medium [Online]. Name of computer service (if appropriate).
Available: URL (Protocol: Site/Path/File) [‘search term,’ if necessary for retrieval].
[Access date].
Example: Women in small business. 1997. SA Census Bureau. [Online]. Available:
http://www/census.sa-gov/ftp/pub/bus/www/abc100.html. [Accessed 15 June
2013].
11. Newspaper article, online, simple
Basic Form: Author(s). Date of publication. Article title. Newspaper Title. Date,
edition, section: page (if given). Database Name (if applicable). Publication medium
[Online]. Available: Name of computer service (if used) or URL (Protocol:Site/Path/
File). [Access date].
Example: Moses, E. 1997. Company rules for email etiquette. Cape Cryer. 15 July
1997, business sec. Cyber Cape. [Online]. Available: http://www.epcryer.com/
library/cyber/week/ao4dat.html. [Accessed 10 July 2013]
12. Discussion list messages in real time
Basic Form: Author(s). Date. Subject of message. Date. [Online posting]. Discussion
List. Available email: DISCUSSION LIST@email address. [Access date].
Example: Veldsman, B. 1997. Problems in written communication. 8 Jan. 1997.
[Online posting]. Written Communication discussion list. Available email: WRICOM@
ebbs.comm.vt.edu. [Accessed 11 Jan 2014].
13. Discussion list message, archived
Basic Form: Author(s). Date. Subject of message. Date. [Online posting]. Discussion
List. Available email: LISTSERV@email address/Get. [Access date].
Example: Benson, J. 1997. ABC’s airline hotel booking system. 11 Feb. 1997.
[online posting]. Travel. Available email: LISTSERV@travelnet.gov/Get travel 148356.
[Accessed 11 July 2013].
14. Newsgroup article, online
Basic Form: Author (if given). Date. Article title. Newsgroup focus. Available: URL
(Protocol: Topic.Subtopic[s]). [Access date].
Example: Korea sends confusing signal on ship dispute. 5 July 1997. World, Asia
and Korea business. Available: news: clari.world.asia.korea.biz. [Accessed 7 July
2013].
15. Personal electronic communication (email)
Basic Form: Sender (Sender’s email address). Subject of Message. Email to
recipient (Recipient’s email address). Message date.
Example: Smith, W. (wsmith@abc.com). Excellent websites for information on fog
index. Email to Michael Fielding (mfielding@fish.com). 6 July 2013.
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Chapter 12: Referencing
Alphabetising references
All the sources that appear in either a bibliography or reference list must
always be in alphabetical order. Never number your references and do
not use any bullets in your reference list. We use the authors’ surnames to
arrange them in alphabetical order, not their names or initials. Surnames are
alphabetised as they are used, even the more complex surnames that include
articles or prepositions. For example, De la Ray, De Saussure, Du Plessis and
Van der Walt, not Plessis, Ray, Saussure and Walt.
If you made use of several works from the same author and some of them
have been published in the same year, you can distinguish them from each
other by adding lower case letters after the year.
Example
Johnson, JL. 1996a. Art and the student. 3rd edition. Oxford, Miller Publishing.
Johnson, JL. 1996b. Postmodern art. Oxford: Miller Publishing.
The in-text reference for these sources will look as follows: In a study by Johnson
(1996a, p.30), he states that…
Also, if you use different works from the same author but published in
different years, you list these sources in chronological order from the earliest
to the latest publication.
Example
Smith, T. 2009. The beauty of art. London: City Publishing House.
Smith, T. 2010. The beauty of art. 2nd edition. London: City Publishing House.
Also note that you cannot use ‘et al’ in a bibliography or reference list, you can
only use it in in-text referencing. Please note however that the first time you
use a source with more than two authors, you need to reference all the authors
and thereafter you can use the name of the first author followed by et al.
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Example
Due to the strong links between intimate relationship functioning and a wide range of
outcomes for adults and children, researchers and policy makers have increasingly
recognised that people’s desire for happy and satisfying relationships has important
public health consequences (Markman, Stanley & Kline, 2003:16). As a result,
there is an aspiration among policy makers across many nations to implement
programmes to help couples – especially those at high risk of marital problems –
achieve satisfying relationship and family stability (Markman et al, 2003:16).
In the bibliography or reference, however, you must again provide the details of all
the others:
Markman, HJ, Stanley, SM & Kline, GH. 2003. Why marriage education can work and
how government can be involved: illustrations from the PREP approach, in Vision
2003: contemporary family issues, edited by WD Allen & LL Eiklenborg. Minneapolis,
MN: National Council on Family Relations: 16–23.
Conclusion
In order to be successful in your academic studies, you need good reading,
thinking and writing skills. However, one of the most important skills you need
to acquire is how to avoid plagiarism. This can be done through paraphrasing
and good referencing skills. You may also make use of the electronic plagiarism
detection service Turnitin.com® to help you avoid plagiarism.
If you apply your referencing skills correctly it will contribute significantly
to your academic and business integrity. It will also enhance the quality of
your work and, if you are studying, it will help you to achieve higher marks
and deepen your knowledge of your particular field of study.
On the following page you will find some useful abbreviations and their
meanings, as well as a brief list of Latin and Greek forms of singular and
plural words that are commonly used in academic and business writing.
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Useful abbreviations and their meanings
‘In such a manner’, ‘so’ or ‘thus’
sic
Chapter
ch.
Editor
ed.
Editors
eds.
No date
n.d.
No place, no publisher, no page
n.p.
Page
p.
Pages
pp.
Paragraph
para.
Uniform Resource Locator
URL
Et alii is used when there are too many authors/
editors to list – it means ‘and others’
et al
Anonymous
Anon
Ellipsis
… (three dots only, no
more)
Volume
Vol.
Appendix
App.
Number
No.
Ibidem meaning ‘the same’. It is used when
referring to a work that you have just quoted
Ibid.
Greek and Latin singular and plural forms
Be mindful of the following Greek and Latin singular and plural forms often used in academic
and business writing.
SINGULAR
PLURAL
analysis
criterion
datum
medium
phenomenon
hypothesis
locus
spectrum
analyses
criteria
data
media
phenomena
hypotheses
loci
spectra
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CHAPTER
13
THE ELEMENTS OF READABILITY
Introduction
Readability refers to the ease with which readers are able to read and interpret
a written message. It includes all the elements in a text that help readers to
cope with that text. This chapter stresses that we are now in an extremely
visual and multicultural age. Written messages have to look visually attractive
to both gain and maintain people’s attention and they also need to be easily
understood by a variety of cultures. Because readers differ in their reading
abilities and interests, it is up to the writer to ensure that a message is presented
in the most appropriate and appealing manner.
Writers need to cater for these needs if they want their messages to be
successful. This chapter will deal with the following facets of readability:
• the needs of the reader and writer
• techniques for catering for readers
• readability indices
• calculating the Gunning Fog Index.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• identify the needs of the reader and writer in written messages
• use a range of readability techniques to help you present effective messages
• list items effectively
• use your word-processing program to identify the readability statistics of
your messages
• calculate a Gunning Fog Index for your message
• write your message to specific readership levels so that they match the
reading levels of your readers.
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Chapter 13: The elements of readability
Reader and writer needs
The readability of a message depends on both the writer and the reader. For
that reason, writers should be as sensitive as possible to the reader’s abilities
and needs.
The writer has to cater for:
• the reader’s need to gain information from a message. The message
therefore needs to be clear and easy to follow, in a language and style that
is easy to understand.
• the reader’s emotional needs. Ensure that you understand the audience
you are writing for so that you neither speak down to them (patronise
them) or speak over their heads. If a reader is offended by the style of
language and approach you have used, there is little chance that he or she
will receive the message successfully.
The writer relies on the reader’s ability to:
• read efficiently
• understand the message.
What can writers do to cater for readers’ needs?
You, as a writer, have a range of techniques available to you to cater for your
readers’ needs. The most important thing to remember is to write for your
audience. This means that you need to understand the level at which they are
able to read. Beyond this understanding, however, when you are planning
your message, you need to consider the following vital elements to ensure
that your message is easily readable.
General layout techniques
• Use brief summaries at the start of messages.
• Present messages that are well organised, unified, coherent and contain
the right emphasis.
• Provide appropriate linking words in paragraphs and sentences.
• Write in a clear, simple style.
• Make use of short paragraphs and sentences.
Vocabulary techniques
• Choose a vocabulary suited to your audience.
• Explain difficult words by defining them in an appropriate spot on the page.
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• Keep the number of syllables per word as low as possible.
• Explain difficult or abstract ideas by giving examples.
• Write at a low level of abstraction.
Layout techniques
•
•
•
•
•
•
Use correct punctuation to help your readers understand your message.
Use headings as signposts.
Print selected important points in bold where you want to attract attention.
Put appropriate sections of your messages in frames to attract attention.
Use a multiple decimal numbering system.
Use short, bulleted lists where appropriate.
Other techniques
• Indent sub-sections to show different levels of importance.
• Choose fonts carefully. Serif fonts are often chosen for readability, which
refers to writing that is not only easy to read but also interesting and
pleasurable. Sans-serif fonts on the other hand are said to be suitable
for legibility, which refers to how easy it is to decipher the actual writing.
This is similar to deciphering people’s handwriting. It is easy to decipher
the handwriting of some people, while it is very difficult to decipher the
handwriting of other people. For these reasons, choose:
• appropriately sized serif fonts such as Garamond or Georgia (size 11)
for print
• appropriately sized sans-serif fonts such as Arial (size 12) or Verdana
(size 10) for online messages like emails.
• Use a high percentage of white space (uncovered space on your page) to
ensure visual variety on your pages.
• Reduce your readers’ eye-span by printing in double columns. (If you are
unable to print in columns, then set your margins to about 3cm wide on
each side.)
• Use colour to attract your reader’s attention.
• Choose paper of appropriate quality if you are writing for print. Plain,
high-quality paper of above 170gsm is considered professional, depending
on what you are printing. Do not use ‘pretty’ paper with busy watermarks
or pictures.
• For longer messages, such as reports, writers should ensure that:
• the cover is attractive
• the Title Page is well set out
• the Table of Contents is comprehensive and well set out
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Chapter 13: The elements of readability
•
•
•
graphics are properly integrated into the report. They should be functional
and included in a report only when their content is being discussed;
never include a graphic or image just for the sake of including an image.
when graphics are introduced, they should be analysed so that the
reader knows how to interpret them.
key points in any graphic should be highlighted.
It should be clear from these techniques that writing is both a verbal and a
non-verbal activity. It relies on the manner of presentation as much as the
content of the message itself. We will now discuss the use of multiple decimal
numbering and the use of lists in your writing. When used effectively, both
methods will help to make your messages more readable.
Multiple decimal numbering systems
A multiple decimal numbering system is very useful if the information you
are presenting is complex. This system shows the reader:
• what the most important points are
• the order of these points
• how the sub-points relate to the main points.
Example
The following example illustrates a multiple decimal outline with bold headings.
Procedure for letter writing in business
1. Deciding on purpose
1.1 Give facts
1.2 Recording information
1.3 Generate goodwill
2. Deciding on letter type
2.1 Letter of enquiry
2.2 Response to enquiry
2.2.1 Good news
2.2.2 Bad news
2.3 Letter of complaint
2.4 Letter of adjustment
2.4.1 Good news for readers
2.4.2 Bad news for readers
3. Selecting appropriate style
3.1 Formal style for formal occasions
3.2 Consultative style for less formal occasions
4. Selecting techniques for achieving good readability
4.1 Subject-line to prepare reader
4.2 Headings as signposts
continued on following page >>
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Note that headings should be as complete as possible. Avoid one-word headings.
Underline the main headings or put them in bold to make them stand out. Indent
the sub-headings.
Using lists
You will have noticed that this book uses bulleted lists to convey important
information in an abbreviated way. This is because lists are very effective and
generally easier to read and remember than prose, but writers should present
them carefully:
• all lists should be introduced
• list items should follow logically and grammatically from the introduction
• list items should all follow the same grammatical (parallel) structure
• long lists should be avoided, with six items being at the upper-limit
• sub-headings should be used to break up longer lists
• lists should not be overused – they highlight important points only, so
mix them with paragraphs that use full sentences and graphic formats
such as tables and graphics.
The following three examples illustrate techniques of listing.
Example 1
The Personnel Department should ensure that all new staff are:
• given an induction course
• introduced to their colleagues in their departments.
Example 2
The following list is incorrect.
The Personnel Department should ensure that:
• all new staff are given an induction course
• to introduce all new staff to their colleagues in their new departments ✘
The item marked with a cross does not follow from the introduction. In addition,
it is not grammatically ‘parallel’ (it does not use the same verb form) as the
previous item.
continued on following page >>
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Example 3
The following example illustrates the potential for a list.
All new staff should be inducted in three phases. In the first phase they are
introduced into the company. The second phase is the introduction to the
department. The third phase is specific training for their jobs.
Although there are a number of ways to write this, it could be rewritten as
follows:
All new staff should be inducted in three phases:
• Phase one: Introduction to the company.
• Phase two: Introduction to the Department.
• Phase three: Specific training for their jobs.
In the example above, the use of the list improves readability by reducing repetitious
phrases and neatly summarising similar ideas into a more manageable format.
We will now take a brief look at some readability indices, which are valuable
tools for determining how easy or difficult a message is to read.
Readability indices
Readability indices are used to calculate the ease of readability and the grade
level of messages. For example, a message that would be easy for most South
Africans to read might have a readability score of 75 and a grade level score
of 6. In other words, a person in South Africa who has completed Grade 6
should easily understand the piece of writing.
Your computer’s word-processing software will calculate two types of indices:
• the Flesch Index (which shows the ease of readability on a scale of 0–100,
100 being the easiest)
• the Flesch–Kinkaid Index (which shows the grade that the message would
be appropriate for, with the lower the grade being indicated, the higher
the readability).
Depending on what word-processing software you use, the procedure to
calculate readability may differ. Generally, the readability scores will be
available in the Review/Spell-check section of your software.
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The procedure below applies to Microsoft® Word software:
• Type your message/document.
• On the Review menu, click Spelling & Grammar.
• Then click the Spelling and Grammar tab.
• Click on the Options box on the bottom left.
• Under Proofing Options, select the boxes Check grammar with spelling and
Show Readability Statistics.
• Then click OK.
• Click on Spelling & Grammar to perform a spell-check on your document.
Once your word-processing program has completed its spelling and grammar
check, it will pop up a box that displays information about the readability
level of your message. Examine the screenshot below and then note the
analysis that follows.
Figure 13.1 Readability statistics screenshot
Used with permission of Microsoft®
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How to calculate readability levels
The first section counts the number of words and characters, paragraphs and sentences used in
the entire document (please note that the screenshot includes only the first paragraph). From
this example, we can see that although it is a relatively short piece of writing, it already looks
like a ‘tough’ piece to ‘chew’ since there are only 3 sentences and almost 99 words. This means
that the sentences are probably going to be quite long, which increases reading difficulty.
The second section, entitled ‘Averages’ is a more summarised version of the first ‘Count’
section and shows that the average number of words per sentence is 43, which is very high.
It also indicates that there are, on average, only two sentences per paragraph. This is evident
in the first paragraph on the screenshot – and the writing is very complex as a result.
The final section, ‘Readability’, is the one that will give you the calculated readability scores
on the previously mentioned scales, the Flesch Reading Ease Score and the Flesch-Kincaid
Grade Level. You will remember from Chapter 9 that using passive sentences reduces readability
and adds complexity. Just 33 per cent of this text’s writing is in the passive voice, so its high
difficulty level is not due to over use of the passive voice.
In this case, the Flesch Reading Ease Score rates our message at 56.9 (out of 100) on
its scale. This means that our document is quite difficult to understand. For most business
messages, aim at a score of between 60 and 70 or over. Our example here would only be
appropriate in a highly academic environment and would require a great deal of concentration
on the part of the reader.
Finally, the Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level score of 8.5 reveals that this document would
probably require 8 years of educational training to understand! Very few people in the world
have this level of training or reading ability and so this would definitely not work as a message
to mainstream audiences.
The table below describes the various Flesch Reading Ease Score categories,
which you may use as a guide when planning and editing your messages for
the selected audiences. Examples have been provided to help you understand
the levels of writing.
Table 13.1 Flesch Reading Ease Score categories
FLESCH READING
EASE SCORE
DESCRIPTION OF
READABILITY
TYPICAL MAGAZINE
90–100
very easy
comics
80–90
easy
inexpensive fiction
70–80
fairly easy
fiction
60–70
standard
digests, popular non-fiction,
The Times, mass non-fiction
50–60
fairly difficult
The Mail & Guardian
30–50
difficult
academic papers and journals
0–30
very difficult
scientific papers, professional journals
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Calculating the Gunning Fog Index
We do not always have the computer tools available to us when we need to
consider the readability level of a piece of writing. In cases where you receive
a printed copy, for example, you need to know how to calculate readability
without the assistance of a computer. You can do this by using the Gunning
Fog Index, which is another respected readability index. It provides the same
result as the Flesch-Kincaid Index and is geared to both American and South
African grade systems.
The Gunning Fog Index is based on:
• the average number of words per sentence
• the percentage of words of three or more syllables (these are classified as
long words).
The procedure for calculating a Gunning Fog Index is shown below.
How to calculate a Gunning Fog Index
1. Take a passage of not less than 100 words to the nearest sentence as your sample.
2. Count the number of words. Remember that all numbers should be written out as words.
For example, 1992 (nineteen ninety two) counts as three words.
3. Count the number of sentences (look for full stops). Remember that colons (:) and
semi-colons (;) count as major punctuation marks (full stops) for the purposes of
this index.
4. Work out the average word-length of sentences by dividing the number of words by the
number of sentences.
5. Count the number of words with three or more syllables. Do not count:
◗
proper nouns – these are, for example, the names of cities and the titles of posts,
such as Polokwane
◗
three-syllable words ending with ‘es’ or ‘ed’ (only count these when they have four or
more syllables)
6. Work out the percentage of long words (divide the number of long words by the total words
in the extract and multiply by 100 to get a percentage).
7. To calculate the Fog Index, add the answers from 4 and 6 and multiply by 0.4. This factor
gives the reading level of the passage.
This process is not as difficult to master as it may sound. Let us use an example
to demonstrate.
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Example
The Fog Index of the following passage is calculated as follows.
Communication1 in small groups is very important2 in all organisations3. Many decisions4
are made in small groups, rather than by individuals5. To be effective6, small groups need
practice. People in these groups also need to understand7 how to work in groups. They
need, in particular8, to understand9 that equal attention10 should be paid to the task and
to the ways in which people work together11. This second aspect is called the process role
of groups. People need to listen to each other. They should also be very sensitive12 to each
other’s non-verbal behaviour13. If they do not work well together, they are not likely14 to solve
problems very well.
◗
This passage has 110 words.
◗
There are nine sentences.
◗
The average number of words per sentence is thus 110⁄9, which is 12.2 words per
sentence.
◗
There are 14 long words.
◗
The percentage of long words is, therefore 14⁄110. This is 12.72%.
◗
Calculate the Fog Index as follows:
1. Add the average number of words per sentence to the percentage of long words.
The calculation is: 12.2 (WPS) + 12.72 (LW) = 24.92.
2. Multiply this total by 0.4. The calculation is 24.92 x 0.4 = 9.96. This is the Fog
Index of the above passage.
Thus the Fog Index of the above passage is 9.96, which falls within the easy reading range
as a person with a Grade 9 education should manage to read it easily.
When you write messages, you should target your message to the lowest level
of potential readers. However, please do not rely on the index as the sole
guide to readability. Make sure that you understand your audience’s needs
and that you have used a range of readability techniques, as discussed earlier
in this chapter.
Practical suggestions for writing
In business, aim at:
• an average of 12 words per sentence
• no more than 10% long words.
This combination results in a grade level of between 8 and 9, which falls
within the easy reading range. In business, aim at an index of between 7 and 9.
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If you have to write technical messages, then you may have to use more
technical words. These are often three syllables or more. In technical writing,
aim at:
• an average of 15 words per sentence
• no more than 15% long words.
This combination results in a grade level score of 12 or a grade 12 reading
level. If you wish to write at a level above grade 12, you should always ensure
that your readers will manage with this level.
Checklist for readability
Have I:
◗
considered my intended audience’s needs carefully in the planning stages?
◗
put a summary at the beginning of my message?
◗
planned my message properly?
◗
ensured that my message is coherent?
◗
provided good transitions between paragraphs?
◗
written in a clear, simple style?
◗
kept the number of syllables per word as low as possible?
◗
written short sentences and paragraphs?
◗
used lists correctly?
◗
used an effective numbering system?
◗
used headings?
◗
provided enough white space?
◗
reduced the reader’s eye-span by using columns or wide margins?
◗
written at an appropriate grade level score?
Conclusion
In this chapter, we examined the concept of readability and provided some
valuable tools with which to plan, analyse and improve your business
messages for your intended audience. At this stage, you should feel
comfortable using computer software readability statistics and your own
Gunning Fog Index calculations in order to adapt your writing appropriately
to your target audience.
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CHAPTER
14
PLANNING, ORGANISING AND CONSTRUCTING
MESSAGES FOR ORGANISATIONS
Introduction
Messages are integral to the effective running of any business. On a daily basis
you will be communicating with other people via email, letter or memo. It is
important that the messages you create in your communications are planned
and formatted properly. This will make sure that you are understood and that
you get a valid and appropriate response to your communication. The way
in which these messages are created and the formats for the different types of
messages are discussed in this chapter. Emails, letters and memos are explained
and the appropriate format for each is given in detail so that all your future
written communication is professional. Before you can type a message, however,
you need to know what you are going to say; this chapter offers suggestions on
how to brainstorm, plan and then structure your ideas.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• understand the importance of the structure of a message
• construct a well-planned message suitable for different audiences
and media
• explain the elements and structure of a business letter
• compile an effective:
• business letter
• memo
• email.
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Planning and organising messages
Before you can write a message, you will need to know how to plan and
organise a message, understand your audience and understand the importance
of writing for a specific context and medium. Well-organised messages are
essential to the success of your message. Writing for business always needs to
be purposeful because you are trying to get a message across that will represent
your business. Every message will differ depending on the audience you write
for, so it is essential to know your audience.
The audience
Every message that you ever produce will be aimed at a particular audience
that you are trying to reach. This is called a target audience. When you speak
to a friend your style, tone and message will be different to when you address
a Professor at a university or a manager in your work environment. You will
always need to adjust your messages according to your target audience. Just as
your personal messages will always be aimed at a specific target audience, so
too will your business messages. It may be an internal message, which would
be to people within the organisation or it could be external communication,
which is to people outside your organisation. However, people outside your
organisation will be segmented because they will all come from different
demographic backgrounds, such as age, race and income group, to name a
few. Communicating with different demographics means that your messages
will need to be targeted at different groups and so will need to differ in order
to align with the wants and needs of each target audience. Therefore it is
always important to know your audience before you even plan and organise
your message.
Any audience immediately needs to know two things about a message:
1. What are its purposes?
2. What is it about?
A well-organised message starts with the identification of the audience,
brainstorming, generating ideas and then leads on to good research and
effective use of sources followed by selecting the right medium and tone for
your message.
Brainstorming
One of the best-known techniques for stimulating creativity is brainstorming.
The purpose of brainstorming is to enhance creativity through group
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discussion. Certain rules are enforced to permit all group members to express
their ideas and to reduce critical evaluations that might inhibit creativity
(Arnold & Feldman, 1986:408).
Most of us are familiar with brainstorming from our schooling, when we
had to draw spider diagrams for comprehension. Brainstorming allows one
to think creatively or ‘out of the box’. It is used to generate fresh, innovative
ideas for events. Just remember that the idea has to be ‘do-able’. Once the
brainstorming session is over, ideas are sifted through and the ones that are
not in line with the event or organisation’s objectives are removed. Through
a process of elimination from least to most important, a final, useable idea
should emerge.
Generating ideas
Well-known advertising executive, Leo Burnett, defines creativity as ‘the art of
establishing new and meaningful relationships between previously unrelated
things […] which somehow present the product in a fresh, new light’ (Bendinger,
2009:136–137).
Life happens around us every day – so there is generally no shortage of
subject matter but the real task of the writer is to take these creative ideas
from your mind and to put them onto paper.
Bendinger (2009:136) lists six critical stages in the ideas process:
1. Preparation: collect input, background and information.
2. Frustration: the left side of your brain does not know what to do with all
this information and so is frustrated.
3. Incubation: now the right side of your brain goes to work with the
information. You may discuss it with others to further incubate your idea.
4. Illumination: this is the light-bulb moment when you get the idea.
5. Evaluation: this is the rational side of deciding if the idea is good, if it will
work and running it by others.
6. Elaboration: this is the working out of the idea, making it work and is often
the hardest part.
Planning information
Once you have gathered your ideas you will need to obtain information on
your selected idea and then you need to organise it.
Organise your information in two stages:
1. Stage one: A pattern of inter-connected ideas radiating from a central idea.
2. Stage two: A topic outline with a thesis statement and numbered headings.
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This approach will ensure that you use all your key ideas.
Figure 14.1 illustrates a creative pattern or mind map. Note that each idea
is connected. Continue this process until you have reflected the content of
your notes. Then check that each group of ideas fits together. Move ideas into
other groups.
Figure 14.1 Example of a mind map
Topic outline
Aw 14.1 - Mind map
Once you are satisfied with your pattern, select major items and supporting
points and arrange them in an outline. At the top of the outline, write in
one or two sentences to say what the information is about. This is your thesis
statement or key idea. A good thesis statement will help you to achieve a
unified message. A unified message has one central theme running through it.
A good outline will ensure that you do not jump from one idea to another
and back again. Your audience should then be able to follow your argument.
Choosing an appropriate style, context and medium
It is important that all messages that are used in business communication are
unified in order to strengthen and reaffirm the business message. Depending
on the message that has to be written you will need to analyse what style
to choose. The style and tone are dependent on the medium that has been
selected for the purpose of the message. For example, if you were writing an
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advertisement for a billboard, you would use a different style and tone to
that of writing a press release for a newspaper. The choice of medium is also
very important and depends on who the target audience is. If your target
audience for example is 70-year-old retired people, it would not be a good
medium selection to communicate via Twitter. All messages, regardless of
style, context and medium, should be clear in their messaging.
Points of major impact in a message
• The beginning and the end of a message have the greatest impact. Pay
special attention to the beginning of your message. Aim to create a good
first impression because this is likely to last throughout the message. Your
readers should know at once what the message is about so also use the
beginning to present your key points.
• A bad first impression could destroy your message.
• People are likely to remember best what they hear or read last. This applies
especially to short messages and to articles. Research suggests however that
very few people read the appendices at the end of reports.
• Use the end of a message to summarise and to urge action. Use the end of
business letters to generate goodwill for your organisation.
• The middle sections of messages are the weakest parts of the message, so
make sure that the layout and organisation of your written messages are
very good in the middle. People tend to skim the information, so you
should try to attract and maintain their attention. For talks and oral reports
make sure that you use non-verbal communication and a good message
structure to carry your message.
Checklist for well-organised messages
Have I:
◗
stated my purposes clearly?
◗
analysed the needs of my audience?
◗
selected the right format?
◗
brainstormed my ideas in the form of a creative pattern?
◗
selected main and supporting points and put them into an effective topic outline?
◗
organised my information effectively?
◗
used the beginning and the end of my message for the best impact?
◗
checked for unity, coherence and emphasis?
◗
shaped my message correctly according to points of major impact?
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Constructing business letters for organisations
Business letters also act as ambassadors for companies. They help to meet
the organisation’s objectives by generating goodwill and helping customers.
Although emails are the standard method of communicating in business
today, letters are still the most formal method of written communication. The
content of these letters and the way in which they are expressed are therefore
important, as they will have a big impact on people. The skills learned in this
section can be applied to writing emails as well.
Letter writers should understand how to:
• prepare an effective letter
• write in a style suited to the reader’s needs
• write in a tone that establishes a good relationship
• generate goodwill
• make requests and respond to requests
• complain and respond to complaints
• write good-news, neutral and bad-news letters.
This section therefore covers the following aspects of writing business letters:
• planning letters
• writing in an appropriate style
• achieving the right tone
• making letters readable
• formats for letters
• writing bad-news letters
• writing different kinds of letters.
Planning letters
Anyone writing a business letter should go through the following steps.
Purposes of letters
Letters are written to:
• give facts
• ask for information
• persuade
• complain
• get action
• generate goodwill.
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A business letter may have several different purposes. Writers therefore need
to be skilled in planning and writing to achieve these purposes.
Audience
Writers should analyse the needs of their readers very carefully. The letter
should not only cater for the reader’s emotional need to be treated in a friendly
way, but also the reader’s needs for information and to get action. The letter
should also be clearly written in language that the reader can understand.
Strategising letters
A letter should be so well planned that the reader is able to follow the letter
from beginning to end. The ideas should flow logically with good transitions
between paragraphs. Sentences should flow evenly from one into the next.
Letters should be unified, coherent and have the right emphasis. If a letter has
to contain a number of topics, then the reader should be prepared for these.
The example below shows how this could be done.
Note how the writer has used the subject-line, the opening paragraph and
separate headings to guide the reader.
Example
Note that this letter has been shortened.
Dear Ms Magaba
SALE OF CLOTHING – COLOURS, PATTERNS
AND SIZES
Thank you for your letter of 20 July. We are very
happy to sell the clothes that you offered us.
We would, however, like to negotiate on three
aspects of the sale:
• colours of dresses
• patterns available
• sizes available.
Specific headings used
Colours of Dresses
...
Patterns Available
...
Three topics of the letter
given here
Sizes Available
...
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Writing in an appropriate style
All business letters should be simple and clear. Many writers are tempted to
write in a complex style with long words, thinking that this approach will
impress others. In reality, this style will simply confuse readers. The same
rule applies to abbreviations and acronyms. The reader may not know the
acronym and this may result in the reader misunderstanding the message.
The following example illustrates this approach.
Example
The undersigned is of the opinion that no good will eventuate from the aforesaid
proposition regarding the implementation of the IMC. It is therefore proposed that
postponement of a decision be regarded as imperative.
This could be rewritten as follows:
I am not happy about your proposal to implement the integrated marketing
campaign. I therefore urge you to delay a decision.
Letters should be written in a formal or consultative style depending on how
relaxed and friendly you wish to be. The international trend is towards a clear,
simple style. This style must cater for a wide range of readers. However, it is
also important to remain professional. Do not use slang or language that
could be considered offensive.
Achieving the right tone
Tone is defined as the attitude of the writer to the reader. An effective tone is
very important in letters. Writers should strive to be neutral or friendly. They
should avoid a stiff, pompous, unfriendly and tactless tone. Tactless letters
imply that the reader is wrong or inferior. A tactless tone stresses suspicion,
obligation or compulsion.
The following suggestions will help you to write in a more appropriate tone.
Table 14.1 Achieving an appropriate tone
NOT
BUT
Your letter of 23 April refers.
Thank you for your letter of 23 April.
Please find enclosed ...
I have pleasure in enclosing …
Your company claims that …
Your letter states that …
In response to your letter about the
alleged loss of goods …
We are concerned that you have not
received the goods that we sent you …
continued on following page >>
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Your clerk must have misunderstood our
instructions …
Our list of instructions stressed that …
You failed to sign the attached form.
The attached form was sent to us
unsigned. (Note the use of the passive
here.)
Making letters readable
Use a range of techniques to make letters readable. The following techniques
are effective:
• a clear subject-line
• an overview at the beginning of the letter
• lists
• short sentences (an average of 12 words per sentence is recommended)
• short paragraphs
• one-sentence paragraphs to highlight important points
• a simple vocabulary
• a short summary of key points at the end of the letter
• action stressed at the end of the letter.
Formats for letters
Letters have a set format. The block format is widely used today as illustrated
in the example below.
Example
Heading or letterhead
ACE LEATHERWORKS (PTY) LTD
38 FIRST STREET, INDUSTRIA
P.O. BOX 35
INDUSTRIA
PH: (011) 537689
FAX: (011) 537699
Reference
Ref. 2/3/03
Date
25 August 20__
Inside address
Mr J. Jephtas
28 Diagonal Street
CREDITVILLE
4569
continued on following page >>
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Example
Salutation
Dear Mr Jephtas
Subject-line
ORDER FOR FINE LEATHER (ACE 25/6)
Body of letter
Thank you …
…
The leather …
Complimentary closing
Yours sincerely
Signature
M. Ngoza
Typed name
Position in Company
M. NGOZA
SALES MANAGER
Encl.
MN/ab
Reference to items
enclosed
Initials of sender
and typist
The components of the block format
• Heading or letterhead: Many companies use pre-printed stationery. The
heading or letterhead would then include:
• name of the company, with a logo
• type of business
• address
• telephone and fax numbers
• email address
• names of company executives.
If there is no pre-printed heading, then the writer’s address should be
typed at the top of the left-hand-side of the page above the inside address
(see below).
• Reference: This gives a code to enable the letter to be filed and easily retrieved.
Both sender and receiver use this code to refer to all correspondence related
to the topic. The reference is placed above the date.
• Date: This is the date on which the letter was written. In the block style it
is placed above the inside address.
• Inside address: This address identifies the receiver by name or firm. If
possible a person should be named in the address.
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• Salutation: This is the standard opening of the letter, which greets the
person named in the address. If a post is named, then use ‘Dear Sir’ or
‘Dear Madam’. If you are unsure who the letter’s recipient will be, use the
phrase ‘To whom it may concern’. But use this sparingly. Rather try and
get the name of someone to whom you can address the letter, as this will
also ensure that you have someone to contact if a response to your letter
is delayed.
• Subject-line: This is a heading that gives the subject of the letter and is
placed after the salutation. It is essential to have this heading. It should
be typed in bold capitals and underlined. The subject-line should always
stand out from the letter.
• Body of the letter: This includes the following:
• the opening paragraph that gives the subject of the letter
• the middle paragraphs that develop the letter
• the closing paragraph that summarises, stresses action to be taken and
generates goodwill.
• Complimentary closing: The complimentary closing should be ‘Yours sincerely’
if someone has been named. However if ‘Dear Sir(s)’ or ‘Dear Madam’ has
been used then the letter should end with ‘Yours faithfully’.
• Signature: The sender signs his or her name above his or her typed name.
• Typed name: This gives the initials and name of the sender, followed by his
or her position in the company. If the sender does not indicate otherwise,
the reader will assume that the sender is a man. It is very important that
senders state how they wish to be addressed. For example, a woman might
wish to be addressed as ‘Ms’, ‘Miss’ or ‘Mrs’. Senders might have special
titles such as ‘Dr’ or ‘Prof.’ and these should be shown after the typed name.
• Reference to item(s) enclosed: The term ‘Encl.’ is used to show that documents
(or more) have been enclosed with the letter. It is useful as a record that
other documents have been sent.
• Initials of sender and typist: The initials of the sender normally appear first
in capitals followed by the initials of the typist in small letters.
• Presentation of letter: Letters should be typed on good quality bond paper.
The quality of the paper is very important for creating a good impression.
Attention-line
Some letters have an attention-line. These letters should be written as shown
in the example on the following page:
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Example
XYZ (Pty) Ltd
Cross Street
ACEVILLE
1234
Attention line
Attention: Mr J. Khan
Dear Sirs (Address the Company, not Mr Khan.)
An outline plan for a letter
The following outline plan for a letter shows the great importance of
organising a letter very carefully:
• Address: if possible, name someone
• Salutation: use the person’s name
• Subject-line: make this as full as possible and print in bold capitals.
Opening paragraph
This paragraph should be short and should:
• tell the reader immediately what the letter is about
• summarise key points
• establish goodwill through its tone
• be written with short sentences and a simple vocabulary
• be written to give the reader a good first impression.
Middle paragraphs
These paragraphs should:
• be short and written in a clear, simple style
• be very well set out, using a range of techniques, such as headings and lists,
to make them as readable as possible
• have short sentences
• develop the letter logically, giving the necessary facts.
Final paragraph
This is a very important paragraph. It should:
• be written clearly and simply
• be written with an effective tone to generate goodwill
• summarise key issues
• state what the reader should do next
• state what the writer will do next
• leave a good final impression.
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The following example shows a letter that has been written according to all
the principles described.
Example
STAR PUBLISHERS (PTY) LTD
11 Star Road Bookville
Tel: (123) 596578 Fax: (123) 596579
Ref: 1/6/8
10 September 20__
Ms J. Turner
Super Research Company
P.O. Box 58
BOOKVILLE
5678
Dear Ms Turner,
Sharp focus in
subject-line
RESEARCH PROJECT 58: POTENTIAL MARKETS FOR ABC
RECIPE BOOK
Goodwill established
I am very pleased that you are willing to undertake
research into potential markets for our ABC Recipe Book.
Overview of three
stages given
The research should be undertaken in three stages:
• Stage 1 Research into local demand.
• Stage 2 Research into country-wide demand.
• Stage 3 Research into specific recipe needs.
Three headings that will
be used to guide reader
Headings used to
guide reader
Stage 1: Research into local demand
Please start on this stage right away. We should be
grateful for some figures by the end of October. These will
help us formulate our immediate marketing strategy.
Stage 2: Research into country-wide demand
We should be very happy if you could let us have figures by
the end of February next year. These figures will help us to
plan the next phase of our marketing strategy.
Stage 3: Research into specific recipe needs
We need the results of this research only at the end of
next year. At that stage, we shall be planning a number of
specialist recipe books. Your figures will be essential for
our detailed planning.
Writer states
what reader
should do next
Please take this letter as our permission for you to go
ahead.
Leave a good
final impression
Yours sincerely,
We look forward to working with you.
K. BHAWA
MANAGING DIRECTOR KB/gc
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Writing bad-news letters
Writers of good-news and neutral letters announce the main points of their
messages immediately. However with bad-news messages, they should cushion
the blow of the bad news. Bad-news messages should be written with:
• a neutral subject-line
• at least one buffer paragraph.
Writers of bad-news letters should always try to keep the goodwill of the
readers even though these readers receive bad news.
Approaches by different cultures
Please note that cultures vary in their approach to both giving and receiving
bad news. Some cultures prefer a direct approach while others prefer an
indirect approach. Study your reader’s cultural approach very carefully before
you write and send letters to him or her containing bad news. The following
alternative plans are suggested for bad-news messages. Writers should select
either a direct or indirect plan according to their purposes.
Table 14.2 Direct and indirect approaches to bad-news messages
DIRECT PLAN
INDIRECT PLAN
NEUTRAL SUBJECT-LINE
Application for post …
NEUTRAL SUBJECT-LINE
Application for post …
THANKS
Thank you for your application for this
post. We appreciate your interest in
joining our company.
THANKS
Thank you for your application for this
post. We appreciate your interest in
joining our company.
REGRET
We find your qualifications and
experience most impressive. However,
we regret that we do not have any vacant
posts at the moment.
REASON
Our company has decided to promote
internally for the next year …
REASON
Our company has decided to promote
internally for the next year …
THANKS
Thank you for your interest in our
company.
REGRET
We find your qualifications and
experience most impressive. However,
we regret that, because of the above
reason, we do not have any vacant posts
at the moment.
THANKS
Thank you for your interest in our
company.
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Writing different kinds of letters
This section covers the writing of different kinds of letters. All of these demand
special knowledge and a special approach. The types of letters covered are:
• letters of enquiry and request
• replies to letters of enquiries and requests
• refusals to requests
• letters of complaint
• letters of adjustment
• letters refusing adjustments
• unsolicited sales letters
• letters of invitation.
Letters of enquiry and request
These letters ask for information or ask someone to do something. They should
be so well written that the reader is happy to reply. The plan for the letter
should be as follows:
• Subject-line: This clearly announces the subject.
• First paragraph: Start with a clear statement of why you have written the
letter. State:
• what you want
• who wants it
• why it is wanted.
• Middle of letter: This part should give exact details, preferably in a list.
• Final paragraph: Generate goodwill by thanking the reader and reinforcing
the action asked for at the beginning of the letter.
Example
ACE CATERING COMPANY
28 Third Street
Townsville 4568
Tel: (031) 586312 Fax: (031) 586313
20 September 20__
Mrs J. Singh
The Sales Manager
Food Supplies Ltd
53 Eighth Street
JAMESTOWN
9983
continued on following page >>
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Example
Dear Mrs Singh
Subject-line
ENQUIRY ABOUT BULK SUPPLIES OF RICE
First paragraph
Thank you for your prompt reply to my telephone call today.
I confirm that we are interested in buying bulk supplies of
rice from you. However, before I start detailed negotiations,
please give me the following specific information.
1. We need about 20 kg of rice a week. Can you guarantee
such a supply of rice for the next year?
2. How soon can you deliver after the date of our order?
3. What type of packaging do you use?
4. What discount will you offer for cash?
Please let me have your answers in the next ten days so
that we can start detailed negotiations.
Middle of letter:
specific requests listed
Last paragraph:
exact request at end
Yours sincerely,
J. SIMBA
CATERING MANAGER
JS/ab
Replies to letters of enquiries and requests
These replies should be specific. They should answer each item so that the
reader can use the answers to make a decision. Writers should also try to
generate goodwill because these letters could result in business for their
company. The plan for the letter should be as follows:
• Subject-line: This should clearly announce the subject.
• First paragraph:
• Thank the enquirer for his or her letter.
• Restate the request to show that you have understood the inquiry.
• Use this paragraph to generate goodwill.
• If you cannot meet the request, do not apologise in this paragraph.
• Middle of letter:
• Give exact answers, point-by-point.
• If you are enclosing price lists or any other messages, refer to them.
• If you cannot meet with any request, say so and express regret in the
middle of the letter. Always try to be as helpful as possible. Say why you
cannot give any missing information.
• Final paragraph: Invite the writer to ask for any help or information he or
she may need. Use this paragraph to generate goodwill.
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The example below is of a letter that is able to meet a request.
Example
FOOD SUPPLIES LTD
53 Eighth Street, Jamestown 9983
Tel: (046) 21567 Fax: (046) 21568
25 September 2003
Mr J. Simba
Catering Manager
Ace Catering Company
28 Third Street
TOWNSVILLE
4568
Dear Mr Simba,
Same heading used
Re-focus on request
Answers given
point-by-point
Goodwill
ENQUIRY ABOUT BULK SUPPLIES OF RICE
Thank you for your letter of 20 September, enquiring about
bulk supplies of our rice. We are very happy to meet your
needs and I should like to answer your questions as
follows:
1. We can certainly supply 20 kg of rice a week. We
guarantee our supplies for the next year. We keep large
stocks in our warehouse and always order six months
in advance.
2. All orders are sent off within 24 hours of receipt. We
use the very efficient local road transport services.
3. We pack all our bulk rice in double-thickness sealed
polythene bags. Each bag weighs 5 kg. These bags are
packed into cardboard boxes.
4. We offer a 30% discount for cash on delivery. We treat
90 days as cash.
I attach our latest brochure listing our range of products.
If you have any further queries, I shall be very happy to
answer them.
Yours sincerely,
J. SINGH (MRS)
SALES MANAGER
Encl. Product brochure
JS/mb
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Refusals to requests
Sometimes a request has to be refused. Writers should treat this type of letter
as a bad-news letter, which is covered in detail earlier in this chapter. It takes a
good deal of care to refuse a request without losing the goodwill of the reader.
The plan for a refusal letter should be as follows:
• Subject-line: This should be neutral. It should not give the bad news.
• Opening paragraph: The inquirer should be made to feel welcome.
• Middle paragraphs:
• The situation should be reviewed.
• The request should be refused.
• Final paragraph:
• The writer should suggest other possible sources of information to
clarify the refusal or other companies that may be able to assist with
the request.
• The writer ends with a friendly closing. This is usually an offer of service
in other areas in the future.
The following is an example of a letter refusing a request.
Example
25 September 20__
Mr J. Simba
Catering Manager
Ace Catering Company
28 Third Street
TOWNSVILLE
4568
Dear Mr Simba
ENQUIRY ABOUT BULK SUPPLIES OF RICE
Clear opening style
Thank you for your letter of 20 September, inquiring about
bulk supplies of our rice.
Since our telephone conversation on 20 September the
situation has changed. We have received a fax from our
agents in Malaysia stating that regular supplies of rice
cannot be guaranteed for the next six months because of
poor rains.
continued on following page >>
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Example
Bad news given in
middle paragraphs
We very much regret, therefore, that we cannot guarantee
supplies of rice for the next year.
Goodwill and
service stressed
We shall, however, do our utmost to send you the quantities
of rice that you have ordered. We will continue to offer our
very best service in the supply of dried foods, as we have in
the past.
Yours sincerely
J. SINGH (MRS)
SALES MANAGER
JS/mb
Claims and complaints letters
These letters are written because people wish to get action. They have a
problem that needs to be solved or a complaint that they wish to express.
They may be angry but their main purpose is to get action. They should,
therefore, be tactful and should avoid accusations, sarcasm or other highly
emotive language.
The plan for a letter of complaint should be as follows:
• Subject-line: This should state the facts of the complaint.
• First paragraph: A friendly opening that establishes a good relationship.
• Middle paragraphs:
• A statement of the problem.
• Full details of the problem to help the reader take action.
Final
paragraph:
•
• A motivation to the reader to take the desired action.
• A statement of what the writer considers to be fair action.
The example on the following page shows a letter of complaint.
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Example
30 October 20__
Mrs J. Singh
The Sales Manager
Food Supplies Ltd.
53 Eighth Street
JAMESTOWN
9983
Dear Mrs Singh
Sharply focused
heading
Friendly opening
BROKEN 5 kg BAGS OF RICE: INVOICE 2568, 25 OCTOBER
A statement of
the problem
However, the third order arrived with three broken bags. As
a result, we had to buy extra rice at nearly twice the price.
Exact details
given in a list
Thank you for your prompt delivery of our first two orders of
brown rice. The rice was of very good quality.
DETAILS OF ORDER
The details of the order are as follows:
Date of order:
22 October
Date of delivery:
25 October
Invoice Number:
2568
Delivery Lorry:
Number 3
Driver:
Mr K. Bhana
Number of bags delivered:
Five
Number of bags found broken: Three
BREAKAGE DURING PACKING AND DELIVERY
The three broken bags seem to have been broken during
packing or delivery. We take the greatest care when we
unpack our food consignments and our unpackers state
that they found the bags broken.
Exact request made
and goodwill kept
Since we did not break the three bags, we should be
grateful if you would replace them when you send our next
order.
Yours sincerely,
J. SIMBA
CATERING MANAGER
JS/ab
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Letters of adjustment
These letters are replies to letters of complaint. They are either good-news
or bad-news letters. They should be written to generate as much goodwill as
possible.
Letter granting an adjustment
The following is a plan for a good-news letter of adjustment.
• Subject-line: This should refer exactly to the details of the complaint.
• Opening paragraph:
• Thank the writer for calling attention to the problem.
• Express concern for the problem.
• Middle paragraphs:
• The reader should be told exactly what steps will be taken to solve
the problem.
• If the reader has to take certain steps as well, then these should
be explained.
• Final paragraph:
• The writer should again express concern.
• The writer closes by expressing goodwill and a desire to continue
offering a service.
The example below illustrates a good-news letter that grants an adjustment.
Example
5 November 20__
Mr J Simba
Catering Manager
Ace Catering Company
28 Third Street
TOWNSVILLE
4568
Dear Mr Simba
Exact heading
BROKEN 5 kg BAGS OF RICE: INVOICE 2568, 25 OCTOBER
Concern expressed
Thank you for your letter of 30 October. I am most concerned
that three of our bags of rice arrived broken. I am also
concerned at the inconvenience and loss that you suffered.
Writer maintains
goodwill
continued on following page >>
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Example
REPLACEMENT FREE OF CHARGE
Adjustment gladly
made
I am very pleased to offer you five 5-kg bags of brown rice
free of charge. They will be delivered with our next order on
10 November.
Request for action
I should be most grateful if you would return the three broken
bags so that we can find the reason for their breakage.
Goodwill maintained
Once again, please accept my apologies at your
inconvenience. We assure you that we will take the utmost
care to pack our rice and to give you the best possible service.
Yours sincerely,
J. SINGH (MRS)
SALES MANAGER
JS/mb
Letter refusing adjustments
Sometimes writers find that they must refuse adjustments. Such letters are
bad-news letters.
The plan for such a letter is as follows:
• Subject-line: This should refer to the subject in a neutral way.
• Opening paragraph:
• The complainant is thanked for calling attention to the problem.
• The writer expresses concern for the problem.
• Middle paragraphs:
• The writer reviews the problem.
• The writer refuses or partly refuses the adjustment.
• Final paragraph: The writer expresses goodwill and tries to maintain a good
relationship with the complainant.
The letter on the next page is an example of a letter refusing an adjustment.
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Example
5 November 20__
Mr J. Simba
Catering Manager
Ace Catering Company
28 Third Street
TOWNSVILLE
4568
Dear Mr Simba
BROKEN 5 kg BAGS OF RICE: INVOICE 2568, 25 OCTOBER
Goodwill and concern
expressed
Report back to reader
Thank you for your letter of 30 October. I am most concerned
that three of our bags of rice arrived broken. I am also
concerned at the inconvenience and loss that you suffered.
CAREFUL PACKAGING
I have checked with our packers and quality control
supervisor. They report that all the rice was very carefully
packed in plastic bags and then into our special delivery
boxes. Our plastic bags are extra thick to withstand all
bumps during delivery.
I can only assume that the bags were broken when they
were unpacked.
Bad news
I, therefore, regret that I cannot meet your request for a
replacement of the three broken bags. However, as a gesture
of goodwill, I shall be sending you a 5-kg bag of our finest
brown rice.
Goodwill maintained
We shall continue to offer you the very best products and
packaging at the lowest prices.
Yours sincerely,
J. SINGH (MRS)
SALES MANAGER
JS/mb
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Note
Bad-news letters are difficult to write. Writers should keep their language neutral or positive
rather than negative. They should never suggest that the person complaining has been careless.
Writers should avoid the following expressions since they put the reader in the wrong:
◗
You failed to read the instructions.
◗
You claim that we packed the goods badly.
◗
We fail to understand why you neglected to sign the form.
◗
You must sign the form immediately and send it to us.
Writing bad-news letters was covered in detail earlier in this chapter (see page 252).
Unsolicited sales letters
These letters advertise products or services. People do not expect them. They
therefore have to be very attractive and well set out to gain attention. The
following is a suggested plan for an unsolicited sales letter.
• Subject-line: This should state the name of the service or product. It should
also give the main selling point.
• Opening paragraph:
• This should gain the reader’s attention.
• The main selling points should be given.
• Middle paragraphs:
• These paragraphs should expand on details already given.
• They should be very well set out.
• The writer should use the following readability techniques to attract the
reader’s attention:
– the name of the product in CAPITAL LETTERS
– repetition of product name
– headings
– lists
– short sentences
– short paragraphs.
Final
paragraph:
•
• This should urge action, for example by referring to a reply-paid card.
• To make it easy for the reader to contact you, the letter should also give
easy contact details, such as telephone, toll-free or fax numbers or an
email address.
The example on the following page is of an unsolicited sales letter.
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Example
RUSTPROOFERS
12 Cross Street, Cape Town
Tel: (021) 345678 Fax: (021) 345679
Dear Customer
RUSTPROOF: A PRODUCT THAT STOPS RUST IN ITS TRACKS
How many rusty cars have you seen round Cape Town? Is your car rusting away and
losing value? RUSTPROOF will stop rust in its tracks – all for R100.
WHAT WILL RUSTPROOF DO FOR YOU?
• RUSTPROOF has been tested in the worst weather conditions. It cannot be
beaten.
• RUSTPROOF binds with the rust and stops it right there!
• RUSTPROOF can be polished.
Consider this:
• No primer
• No expensive spraying equipment
• Paint on and leave to dry
• Dries in 10 minutes
• Duco finish
• Thirty colours to choose from.
HOW CAN YOU GET RUSTPROOF?
Fill in the attached card and post it to us. We’ll do the rest.
If you prefer, call us toll-free on 080 3456. Our highly trained consultants will give
you free advice on rust-proofing your car.
Remember – RUSTPROOF.
Yours sincerely,
J. Davis
MANAGER
Letters of invitation
When organisations hold functions to which guests are invited, they send out
formal invitations.
These invitations state:
• who is hosting the function
• the place
• the date
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• the time
• the dress code (where relevant)
• an address and telephone number for responding.
The style of an invitation is formal. The following two examples illustrate a
formal invitation. Note that the first example has been set out in the form of
a letter.
Example 1
ACE CATERING COMPANY
28 Third Street, Townsville 4568
Tel: (031) 586312 Fax: (031) 586313
24 November 20__
Mr and Mrs J. Singh
53 Eighth Street
JAMESTOWN
9983
Dear Mr and Mrs Singh
Subject-line
INVITATION TO CATERING DISPLAY: 3 DECEMBER 20__
Goodwill
The Board of Directors of Ace Catering Company has
pleasure in inviting you to a display of our latest catering
facilities.
Details of display
The details of the display are as follows:
• Date: 3 December 20__
• Time: 18h00
• Venue: The Company’s Showrooms, 28 Third Street,
Townsville
Details in a list
Exact request made
Please let us know by 1 December whether you are able to
attend. Our telephone number is (031) 58 6312.
Goodwill
We look forward to meeting you.
Yours sincerely,
J. SIMBA
CATERING MANAGER
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Example 2
ACE CATERING COMPANY
28 Third Street, Townsville 4568
Tel: (031) 58 6312 Fax: (031) 58 6313
THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF ACE CATERING COMPANY
request the pleasure of your company at a display of their new catering facilities
On 3 DECEMBER 2003
At THE COMPANY’S SHOWROOMS
28 Third Street, Townsville
Time 18h00
R.S.V.P. by 1 December 20__
Ms. K. Bhawa
P.O. Box 85, Townsville 4568
Telephone: (031) 58 6312
Checklist for business letters
Have I:
◗
prepared a letter that helps to create a good company image?
◗
set out the letter in an up-to-date format?
◗
catered for my reader’s needs?
◗
addressed the reader by name?
◗
given the reader a clear subject-line that states what the letter covers?
◗
created a good first impression in the first paragraph?
◗
told the reader what the letter is about in the first paragraph?
◗
given the facts in a clear and logical order?
◗
written the letter in a coherent way so that the reader can follow the arguments?
◗
written an effective closing paragraph that generates goodwill and tells the reader what to do
next?
◗
set out my letter in a highly readable way?
◗
written my letter in a clear, simple style?
◗
chosen words for the right tone?
◗
kept the number of syllables per word as low as possible?
◗
punctuated my letter well?
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Memoranda
Memoranda, often called memos, are messages written inside organisations.
They are organised like letters but vary a great deal in formality. They may
also be set out as reports with numbered headings.
Memoranda are used to:
• communicate information to people who have to attend a meeting
• inform people about company policies
• confirm points made in a conversation or meeting
• confirm decisions or agreements
• keep people informed of events in the company
• contact staff who are difficult to reach by other means.
Format of a memorandum
The format of a memorandum is totally different from that of a letter. Many
companies have standard printed memorandum forms. If staff do not have
such forms they usually create their own. The form below illustrates the
format for a memorandum.
Example
NAME OF COMPANY
MEMORANDUM
TO:
DATE:
COPIES TO:
FROM:
SUBJECT:
Conventions of memorandum writing
Memoranda do not have salutations or complimentary closes. The writer
normally has his or her typed name at the end. He or she could also end off
with initials. The conventions for memorandum writing are as follows:
• To: The person addressed is normally given a courtesy title such as Mr or
Mrs only if he or she is of higher rank than the sender. The job title, for
example ‘Sales Director’, is included. This avoids confusion especially in
large companies.
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• Copies to: If the memorandum has to be addressed to a receiver and other
people for their information, then the ‘Copies to’ section is used.
• From: The writer may give a courtesy title such as ‘Mr’ or ‘Mrs’ if he or she
feels that the readers might not know him or her. If the readers know the
writer, then the writer’s name is enough. The writer will give his or her job
title if the company is large or the reader does not know him or her.
• Date: Give the date of the memorandum for reference. The following style
for the date is recommended: 6 December 20__.
• Subject: Write a clear subject-line above the first paragraph. This should
announce the title of the memorandum.
• Style: Memoranda are written in styles ranging from formal to consultative.
The following example illustrates a memorandum.
Example
ACE CATERING COMPANY
MEMORANDUM
Clear subject-line
Opening paragraph
gives the full message
TO: All Catering Staff
DATE: 29 November 20__
FROM: James Simba, Catering Manager
SUBJECT: CATERING DISPLAY 3 DECEMBER – STATEMENT
OF NEEDS
Thank you for agreeing to work over weekends to get
the display ready. So far we’ve had 60 responses to
our invitations. I now need written statements of your
specific needs.
Please send me, by 1 December, a written statement
of your needs at the display stands. I need to know:
• The name of your stand.
• How many tables you need.
• The amount of floor space that you need.
• The number of helpers that you need.
• Any special facilities that you need such as specific
lighting or refrigeration space.
Goodwill
I look forward to the display. Judging from the amount
of work you have been doing it should be excellent.
J. SIMBA
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Checklist for memoranda
Have I:
◗
set out the memorandum correctly?
◗
provided a good subject-line?
◗
set out the memorandum clearly so that i will get the right response?
◗
written the memorandum in a clear and simple style?
◗
written to achieve a good, friendly tone?
The electronic office
Organisations today transmit messages electronically in preference to on
paper. These may be classified as electronic offices. An electronic office utilises
desktop computers, laptops, printers and fax machines to complete office
tasks, such as communicating both internal and external business messages,
creating documents, storing documents and information gathering. This
section covers:
• the advantages of electronic offices
• computer-based work stations
• storage and retrieval of information
• faxing
• electronic mail (email).
Advantages of electronic offices
The electronic office offers many advantages to businesses. In particular, it
speeds up the following aspects of business:
• transfer of messages
• access to information
• response to customers’ needs
• response to what competitors are doing
• accurate analysis of information.
Consequently, it also frees up staff to do more creative work.
Today, the electronic office requires fewer pieces of equipment to perform
many of the functions that a range of special machines had to perform in
the past. The amount of paperwork once required to complete everyday office
tasks has been reduced. Documents (including word-processed documents,
number-based spread sheets and presentations) can be quickly and efficiently
produced and shared with colleagues, clients and suppliers via email, electronic
servers (large-scale electronic storage devices) or cloud services (Internet-based
document storage and processing).
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Computer-based workstations
In most organisations, computers have been installed on every employee’s
desk. Each desk therefore becomes a workstation that is set up with either
a desktop computer or a laptop. The laptop option is more often used for
employees who are required to work in the office and when travelling.
The desktop or laptop computer will then be connected to ‘server’ systems.
These server systems:
• store the organisation’s documents
• send, receive and store email messages
• process the organisation’s data, such as finance data.
Employees will have varying access to the server in order to store and receive
information. This will be dependent on the employee’s job description and
job requirements.
Computer workstations are extremely versatile because of the many
software programs that are now available. These programs allow staff to
perform sophisticated activities that only experts could do a few years ago.
Documents can be edited, images manipulated, presentations developed,
payroll and finances tracked, stock monitored, brochures, advertisements
and posters created – and these are only a few of the different tasks that can
be undertaken on computers. All that is required is the right software and the
skills to use that software.
For example, computers enable companies to publish documents that are
professional in layout and appearance. This is called desktop publishing. By
combining words and graphics, individuals are able to design and produce
a range of excellent newsletters, catalogues and reports. The computer screen
allows the designer to lay out blocks of text, headlines and diagrams so that
he or she can see exactly what will be printed.
Electronic networks
Workstations may be interconnected using an electronic network known
as a Local Area Network (LAN). The connections are made physically using
Ethernet cables or wirelessly using Wi-Fi. The size and complexity of the
network depends on the size and needs of the organisation. Networks may
have centralised server systems providing services to end-user workstations.
The workstations access these central server systems via the LAN, enabling
them to store data centrally and access the centralised network services, such
as email and the Internet.
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Also connected to the LAN will be the office printers. Often companies
will purchase large multi-functional printers that workstations share. These
large printers allow users to scan, copy, print, fax and email documents. All
computers that have access to the network will then be able to store, retrieve
and print documents.
Problems arising from access to networks
Many people now have access to what used to be private networks and banks
of data. Three questions arise as a result:
• How can information that is stored in online electronic form be protected?
• What would the impact be if private information was divulged to
unauthorised users?
• Who should control access to this information (Individuals? Organisations?
Governments?) and what would the impact of them doing so be?
Organisations try to control user-access to organisational information by using
usernames and passwords. Individuals and organisations now commonly
use encryption techniques to protect their information from unauthorised
access. However, Internet users can easily send or receive large volumes of
information to or from others via email and organisations commonly utilise
systems that examine email messages for such information. Ensuring the
confidentiality of organisational information therefore remains a challenge.
The impact of unauthorised access to organisational information could
range from leaking the method for creating a product (for example a recipe)
to revealing personal information (for example a staff member’s salary).
Organisations need to ensure that such data:
• is accessible only to those users whose duties require access to that
position, for example Human Resources or payroll officers need access to
salary information
• is protected through the use of backup services, which often involves
copying data to another location
• cannot be accessed or intercepted by others.
Storage and retrieval of information
Organisations generate large amounts of data and information. Many of these
have to be saved for later reference. Efficient storage systems are therefore
essential. They have to be well organised so that information may be retrieved
at any time.
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Record-keeping requirements vary from organisation to organisation and
according to the content of the document. For example, the terms and
conditions of a contract must be retained for at least as long as the contract
remains in force. These types of documents are regarded as records. Many
organisations implement record management systems for both printed and
electronic documents to ensure that these records cannot be changed once
they have been placed in the system.
The widespread usage of computers has meant that new methods of
storing information have had to be devised. Organisations now have options
for how to store their information: they can store them in hard copy (printed
out and stored in filing cabinets) or in digital format (on hard drives or cloud
services) or both.
This section briefly covers the following methods of storing information:
• Hard-copy storage systems, such as:
• filing cabinets
• visible card files in drawers
• rotary files
• horizontal files.
• Digital storage formats, such as:
• online storage
• cloud storage
• storage discs (CDs, DVDs and USB ‘thumb drives’).
Hard-copy storage
• Filing cabinets may store information according to the date or the
alphabetical order of subject or companies. Each filing cabinet drawer
should have:
• clearly marked files
• an index page at the front of the drawer
• a card on the outside.
• Visible card files in drawers: Each card summarises information that directs
the searcher to documents stored elsewhere.
• Rotary files: These files are similar to card files but the cards are stored on
a rotating holder for easy access. These cards guide people to documents
stored elsewhere.
• Horizontal files: These take the form of many shallow drawers in a cabinet.
They are useful for storing plans and other large documents.
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Digital storage
• Online storage: Computers connected to a network and server will often
store information on the server, which acts like an electronic filing cabinet
with a large storage capacity. The server then becomes a large hard drive
where information needs to be stored systematically for easy retrieval.
Retaining information in electronic format enables information to be
easily located. This can be done for example by searching documents or
information using specific keywords or phrases.
• Cloud storage: Also available is the use of online storage called cloud storage.
Cloud storage allows for documents to be uploaded onto the Internet and
stored until needed. Security passwords and usernames are given to those
who are allowed access to the information. Those with access can then,
at any time and from any location, retrieve these documents by going
online and downloading the document back onto their laptop or desktop
computer. However, organisations must take care when using such online
services, since they may lose control over the security of their corporate
information.
• Storage discs: Another method of data storage is the use of storage discs
such as CDs, DVDs and USB ‘thumb drives’. These portable storage devices
are widely used due to the convenience they offer users. However they
allow corporate information to be freely removed from a workplace.
Organisations often implement and enforce policies governing the use of
such devices as part of a data leakage prevention strategy that also covers
email content.
Whichever method of storage is used, it is important that the way the
information is stored is systematic and consistent.
Faxing
The fax or facsimile (Latin: ‘make the same’) machine transmits typed
or hand‑written messages to another fax machine by using a telephone
connection.
Faxed messages should be:
• highly readable
• very clearly written with a dark ink.
Poor handwriting should be avoided because reproduction on fax paper is
not always perfect.
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Faxed messages should be sent with a cover page. This should state:
• the receiver’s name and company with a fax number
• the sender’s name and company with a fax number
• how many pages are being sent.
The sender should also type ‘Page 1 of 5’, ‘Page 2 of 5’, etc at the top of each
page. Receivers can then check that they have received the whole message.
Checklist for faxing
Have I:
◗
prepared the message clearly so that it will be easily read at the other end?
◗
ensured that I have written very clearly so that the receiver will be able to read
my message?
◗
included a cover page giving my fax number and stating how many pages
there are?
◗
typed or written ‘Page 1 of 5’ etc at the top of each page?
◗
dialled the correct number?
Electronic mail (email)
Using email has become a popular method of communicating within the
business environment as it can be used ‘at a fraction of the cost and time it
takes to pick up the phone or draft a memo or letter’ (Shober 2010:40). An
electronic mail system allows people to send messages via their computers
to other people whose email address they know. Email messages are also
convenient because they can be replied to immediately or stored and referred
to when needed. Because of the speed and convenience that using email
brings to the modern office, it is important to know what etiquette is required
when sending and replying to email.
Electronic communication means that we can communicate easily and
instantly from offices, homes, schools and most forms of transport. Email is a
popular form of communication because with smartphones, even when not
at the office, electronic communication can be received and sent to a number
of people quickly and efficiently. If we own a fax machine or scanner and a
computer or a smartphone and can access the Internet, we can communicate
globally with anyone who has the same technology.
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Electronic mail as an effective form of communication
Many organisations have accepted electronic mail (email) as the best way
of communicating, believing that email gives them a competitive advantage
because it is:
• fast
• inexpensive
• readily available
• independent of the receiver’s presence
• enhances agility (for example through the use of smartphones).
Organisations are using email for a range of business activities including:
• overall stakeholder communication
• product development
• training staff
• giving and receiving work assignments
• testing ideas and products
• staff administration
• solving problems
• sending out circulars (electronic bulletin board)
• marketing themselves and their products
• sending personal messages.
Construction of electronic messages
Electronic messages are the same as the range of messages already described.
Readers read a message on a screen in the same way as they would read
a letter, memorandum or report printed out on paper. However, these
messages have to be very well set out and highly readable if they are to
attract attention.
Many email messages in the form of memoranda and even letters are
becoming informal. Their tone and structure are becoming more relaxed and
casual. This is because many users perceive email to be a less permanent and
less formal way of communicating. The casual exchange of email messages is
now called ‘e-chat’ because it is so informal. However, while many receivers
of email are happy to accept these informal messages, senders are urged to
keep their organisational emails formal. Informal messages have a tendency
to become too casual, badly organised and hard to follow.
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What to avoid when constructing an email message
The following are normally not accepted in formal business writing and
therefore are not acceptable when using email:
• incomplete sentences
• shortened words
• acronyms (groups of first letters of words)
• symbols (such as a smiling face) used to create ‘emoticons’ (business people do
not normally feel the need to show strong emotion in their business messages)
• using parts of messages that are out of order because you have replied by
using the same message. Do not simply keep some sections of the original
message and delete others.
The effect of email on organisations
This section covers six aspects of the effect of email communication on
organisation. Email:
1. can blur hierarchies in organisations
2. can increase the volume of messages and increase costs
3. increases the choice of media for conveying messages
4. changes the nature of message permanence and message security
5. changes the rules about who owns the message and whether it is private
and confidential or not
6. needs its own etiquette guidelines.
Blurring of hierarchies
Until recently, most organisations have been organised in some form of
pattern. This pattern tells people the line of command. It also tells people
about the formal lines of communication. However, email can cause major
changes in the above communication process. Senders can now avoid this
traditional method of communication.
A secretary would normally screen all telephone and written messages.
However, with email, every person has an email address. He or she may
therefore receive messages directly. This lack of screening means that anyone
can communicate with someone several levels higher on the organisational
chart. With email, ordinary members of staff have a better chance that senior
staff will read their messages.
This could mean that the hierarchy in the organisation does not exist for
email and that all users are equal. However, people in organisations have
different amounts of power and status. They would like to keep these and
need some isolation if they wish to do so.
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Increasing volume of messages and increasing costs
Experts in commerce and industry are predicting that the volume of electronic
mail is likely to increase hugely. At this stage, readers are reluctant to ignore
email, even when it could be classified as ‘junk mail’.
For example, one business writer reported that she had 275 email messages
waiting on her computer one Monday morning. A world-famous software
developer is reported as having received 5 000 email messages soon after his
email address was published. Clearly these people have little hope of reading
all their messages in detail. Organisations will have to work out ways of
reducing the number of messages. In addition, these messages could remain
in electronic storage indefinitely if storage systems are not checked.
Any member of staff can now send the same message to all employees
with relative ease. Using wide area networks such as the Internet, users can
find email addresses for any of the organisation’s email users. Companies can
now use banks of computers to search for likely customers. They can send a
variety of messages to these customers all over the world.
Organisations should set out policies governing the use of email and
expect all employees to abide by a code of conduct. This code of conduct will
differ depending on the nature of the company and the kind of information
that will be shared using email. For example, some organisations have a
limited time frame by which the employee will have to reply to a message
(depending on their job function). In customer care centres, the sooner the
email is responded to, the happier the client will be. Some organisations
also insist on having access to the employees’ work email account. This is to
ensure that the employee is meeting all privacy and security measures.
Any email message sent out must support the organisation’s goals and
mission and must not contain any confidential or classified information. The
use of a work email account for personal use is also often discouraged.
Choice of communication medium
The choice of communication medium affects the ways in which employees
project themselves and their organisation. Organisations have had to develop
guidelines to help senders choose the best medium and channel.
The table on the following page gives an idea of some of the characteristics
of different messages, namely telephone, email and messages that are typed,
printed out and posted. Note that the characteristics vary a great deal. Email
differs a great deal from formal typed and posted messages. Staff therefore
need guidelines on how and when to use these media.
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Table 14.3 Comparison of some characteristics of telephone, email and typed messages
TYPED, PRINTED
AND POSTED
MESSAGES
CHARACTERISTIC
OF MESSAGE
TELEPHONE
EMAIL
Formality of message
varies
varies
varies, but
more formal
Accountability of sender
or receiver
generally low
moderate
high
Ease of distribution to
a very large audience
low
high
moderate
Need for security
of message
moderate
high
high, especially
if confidential
Need for permanence
of message
low
high
high
Ability to cross the
hierarchy in an
organisation
low
high
moderate
Message security and retention
Email messages are admissible in a Court of Law. As a result, email messages
(along with other electronic messages) are official communications and the
organisation should treat them as such.
The legal requirements for the retention of communications between
parties apply equally to messages sent and received in electronic format.
Organisations are required to retain electronic communications in the
same way as they are required to retain printed messages. For this reason,
organisations should ensure that they plan for the retention of such
messages, both in terms of the message count and the data storage that may
be required to ensure that the message retention requirements are met.
Message ownership and privacy
Email messages are now causing legal problems about who owns the
message. Does the individual employee own the electronic message or does
the organisation own it? Laws already cover an organisation’s right to open
staff’s postal mail and to monitor telephone calls. However, the legal issues
surrounding the organisational monitoring of staff’s email messages are less
well defined.
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For example, the following legal questions arise with email:
• Are email messages unofficial or official exchanges?
• If they are perceived to be less formal and less permanent, does this mean
that they are less important?
• Are organisations allowed to monitor staff’s email?
Recent rulings around the world have allowed organisations to monitor email
messages and use them against staff in disciplinary hearings. Internationally,
courts have ruled in favour of employers when there has been a dispute
between the employee’s right to privacy and the employer’s right of ownership
of the email message.
Organisations are legally responsible for electronic messages sent by
employees. Each organisation has its own policy with regards to email, which
is ordinarily communicated to new employees. A code of conduct is signed
and it will be explained whether or not the organisation monitors company
email. Employees therefore need to be very careful about the messages that
they send using work-allocated email addresses. Employees should consider
segregating personal email messages into a ‘personal’ email account not
associated with or operated by their employer.
Email etiquette
Many organisations do not yet have policies governing the format, content
or use of email. Users of email therefore need to take care of their messages.
They also need to show good manners and learn correct email etiquette.
The following etiquette guidelines should help people when they create
email messages.
• Always include a salutation at the beginning of your email and a signature
at the end of the email.
• Be considerate. Do not give too much information in each message.
• Make your messages highly readable. Do not type the whole message in
capital letters as it looks as though you are shouting at your reader.
• Use headings, short paragraphs, short sentences and lists.
• Do not use ‘text speak’, for example: LOL, ROFL, BTW etc. or emoticons
in business emails.
• Focus your messages. If you start a new topic, use a new subject heading.
• Have good subject-lines. Make these unique. Good subject-lines help
readers to file, cross-reference and retrieve messages. They will also ensure
that your email does not get deleted without being read.
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• Do not send junk mail, such as chain letters. They overload systems.
• Check your distribution list before you send any mail that you have received.
Receivers may already have copies of that item. Also, do not add people to
the distribution list unless they have to receive the communication.
• Assume that the messages you send and receive are permanent. Do not say
anything in email that you might not want to be made public or sent on
to others.
• Do not send on confidential mail without first getting permission.
• Be aware that email might not be as private as you wish. If you wish to
send a private message, then use another method of communication.
• Plan your messages carefully. Use text editors and spell checkers to make
sure that your message is accurate.
• Explain all technical terms if your readers have varying levels of knowledge.
• Do not add too many attachments to your email. Large bulky messages
clog the network.
Creating effective emails
The next section covers instructions for preparing effective email messages,
including:
• planning and typing your email
• catering for the special demands of email
• preparing email for international readers.
Planning and typing your email
Each email message creates an image of you and your company. Make sure
that your email messages:
• are well planned
Note
• focus strongly at the beginning
• have a good flow of information
Remember that the
demands of email are the
• attract your reader’s attention
same as those for your
• look attractive and are easy to read
ordinary typed messages.
• are free from grammatical, spelling
and other mistakes.
Addressing your email
Make sure that you type your receiver’s email address on the address line every
time you send a message. If you communicate often with a number of people,
then create an address book. An example of how to address an email can be
found on the following page.
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Example
How to address an email
TO:
CC:
BCC:
Email address of your receiver.
Enter the email address of anyone who should receive a copy.
Send blind copies to people without your original receiver’s knowledge (this
is discouraged and users should consider CC: instead).
Use the following five rules:
1. Prepare your message as though it were being read by a very wide audience.
If your message is too personal, confidential or important for a wide
audience, then use another medium.
2. Always use your subject-line and opening paragraph to prepare your
readers for the whole message. Write this paragraph for readers who do
not wish to read a complex message.
3. Check your readability and flow of information.
4. Don’t express anger within the message. This is called SHOUTING. Don’t
type anything that you would not be prepared to say face-to-face or in
front of someone else.
5. Send to specific people. Don’t send copies to people who do not need
the message.
Write a good subject-line
Capture the interest of your readers right away. Use a fully informative
subject-line. For example, do not write, ‘Customer increase’. Rather write
‘15% increase in customers in Gauteng area’. Do not use jargon, acronyms or
technical terms in your subject-line. Write your subject-line to appeal to all
your readers.
Include a salutation and a signature
You are never certain about who will read your email. Make sure therefore
that you include a salutation and signature in every message that you send.
These allow your hidden readers to follow your message. In addition, include
a salutation and signature when you are sending on messages. Identify who
must receive the forwarded message. Explain briefly why you are sending on
the message. Then sign your name. If you do this carefully, you will make
clear your role in the history of the message, no matter how many times it
has been sent on.
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Write a very clear opening paragraph
Make sure that your focus is on the beginning of the message. This opening
must summarise the whole message. Write your opening paragraph so that
you encourage your readers to read further.
The following opening paragraph has been badly written. It lacks focus.
Example
Subject: Telephone Calls
We have 100 telephones in our building. Of our 200 employees, about 150
regularly use telephones for lengthy private calls. The main problem is that these
lengthy calls are blocking our system. We have had numerous complaints from our
customers that they cannot get through. We, as management, are very concerned
about this and are thinking about ways of freeing up our telephones so that
customers can get through. From 1 January 20__, all telephones will be monitored
on our new electronic system. Weekly printouts will be scrutinised to find out who
is using the telephone unnecessarily. Those who make more than one private call
a day will be asked to pay for the extra calls. Any employee who regularly uses the
telephone for excessive private calls will be warned. After three warnings you will be
dismissed from the company.
Here is a suggested re-written version.
Example
Strong focus in
the subject-line
Subject: USE OF TELEPHONE FOR PRIVATE CALLS: ONLY
ONE CALL A DAY ALLOWED
Direct approach here.
The main message is in
the opening paragraph
From 1 January 20__ staff may make only one private call
a day. All telephones will be monitored on a weekly basis.
Anyone who breaks this rule will be warned. After three
warnings you face dismissal. We have to cut costs or face
redundancies.
Use of list to
attract attention
EXCESSIVE TELEPHONE BILLS
Management is very concerned for two reasons:
1. Customers cannot get through to us.
2. Our telephone bills have doubled in the past year.
REDUCED PROFIT AND INCREASING COSTS
All staff know that our profit has decreased by 25% in the
past year. We also have to face increasing costs. Therefore
we have to reduce our costs or face redundancies.
Reminder of the action
CUT THE TELEPHONE BILLS
Please, therefore, ensure that you obey the above rules.
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Use direct opening sentences
Avoid the following openings:
• The purpose of this email is …
• I’m writing to you because …
• In response to your email of …
Be direct. Have a very sharp focus in your first sentence as shown in the
example below.
Example
Note strong focus of first
and second sentences.
We need to change our communication consultants. Please
be ready to discuss the change at our next meeting.
Customer surveys show that we are perceived as inefficient
and that we are not focused on our customers.
Use the inverted pyramid
Use the inverted pyramid design for your email.
Opening paragraph that gives all the key points of the message
Includes action to be taken and goodwill
Less important information
Less important information
Ending to remind the reader
of the key issues and action
Express
goodwill
Figure 14.3 The inverted pyramid
For example if you are sending your CV by email, then make sure that you
summarise all your key points at the beginning. Do not use a chronological
approach. This will lead to a rambling message that will not be read.
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Special demands of email
Email is quick. However, all the rules of planning, sentence structure, readability,
grammar and spelling still apply. Electronic writing is no different from your
ordinary writing. Because email is so important in business, the following
suggestions can help you to send messages that are eloquent and professional.
Preparing to send your message
As you prepare to send your message, ask these questions:
• Who will my readers be? Don’t forget that your company or organisation owns
your email. Your managers and supervisors may well read your messages,
even if you do not want them to. Your company can take action against you
if your email is judged to be inflammatory or against company policy.
• Is email the best way to send my message? Do not only rely on email when you
could use the telephone or talk directly to someone. Having a conversation
is a good way to build relationships. However it is a good idea to follow the
phone call with a summary of the conversation via email; you will then have
written confirmation of what was agreed during the conversation. People
can easily deny that a conversation has taken place, but a saved sent message
can be used to show that the conversation did take place and when.
• Who should receive copies? You cannot control who reads your email once
you have sent it. You therefore need to carefully consider who should
receive copies.
• Is my message necessary and is my subject-line relevant? Take great care not
to overload receivers with unnecessary messages. Many staff now receive
up to 300 email messages a day. They cannot hope to read them all. They
will therefore scan rather than read them in detail. They are also likely
to delete many messages or file them for later reading. This is why the
subject-line of your email should be directly relevant to the topic of the
email. The recipient of the mail will immediately know if the email is
important enough to read now or can be saved for later.
• Should I send blind copies? You may wish to send the email to other people
without your reader’s knowledge or because your company’s policy
demands that you do so. These are called blind copies, often abbreviated as
BCC. You need however to be very careful about who receives blind copies.
If one recipient of the blind copy chooses to reply and clicks ‘Reply all’, the
recipient of the email will know that this person was included in the mail
list without his or her knowledge.
• Is email the quickest way of getting a reply? Remember that email may be the
best way to communicate quickly in type. However, you may not be able
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to get a quick reply. If you want a quick reply, consider the telephone or
a face-to-face meeting. Again, follow the conversation with a summary
email of the conversation.
Preparing email for international readers
If you use English, remember readers may not be English-speaking. Keep your
style clear and simple. Ask the following questions:
• Do they speak the same language as I do?
• Will they be able to follow a complete message?
Note
• Will they understand the way in which I write
Never use humour,
dates? For example, how will they interpret
acronyms, abbreviations
7/8/04? Does this mean the 7th of August or July
or undefined technical
the 8th 2004? Rather type 7 August 2004.
terms.
• Will my readers understand my way of showing
time? For example, will my readers expect me to
use the 24-hour clock or a.m. or p.m.?
• What measuring system must be used? Must I, for example, use a metric
system or some other local system that they can understand?
Checklist for sending email
Have I:
◗
chosen email as the best medium for my message?
◗
designed my email with a good subject-line?
◗
placed the full message in my opening paragraph?
◗
set out my email in a highly readable way?
◗
typed in a clear, simple style?
◗
avoided being too casual?
◗
stated exactly what I want?
◗
stated exactly what the reader should do?
Conclusion
Messages are integral to the effective running of any business. The messages
that are sent out from a business can have an impact on the reputation
of the company. Unprofessional, incorrectly worded or badly phrased
communication will impact on the perception that stakeholders have of the
company. By adhering to the suggestions made within this chapter, you will
be able to confidently communicate with colleagues, suppliers, customers
and your employer. Finally, always remember to read your communication
one last time before sending it off.
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CHAPTER
15
CORPORATE IMAGE AND CORPORATE
IDENTITY
Introduction
In this chapter you are introduced to the concepts of corporate identity and
corporate image. An identity is the unique characteristics belonging to a certain
individual or shared by members of a group.
Therefore corporate identity can be described as everything that is distinctive,
lasting and central to an organisation that gives it a particular character. It
is created, to a large extent, by the kind of intentional and unintentional
messages that the organisation’s decision-makers communicate. It is similar
and closely related to the culture of the organisation since it provides people
with a framework of shared assumptions that lead to collective actions. But
it is an enduring symbol that helps people to recognise and remember the
company. Slogans, branded stationery, logos, uniforms and décor play a
significant role in corporate identity.
Corporate image, on the other hand, is how the public views the organisation.
It is a perception of the company that exists in the minds of the individuals
who receive and interpret messages sent out by the company. In the same
way that your words and actions influence how other people see you, every
message that is written or verbalised by or on behalf of an organisation
influences how that organisation is perceived by the public. Image then is
closely linked to the organisation’s reputation. The image of an organisation
is far less stable than its identity and can change very quickly, for example
through circumstances, media coverage and performance. The image of an
organisation is very important because a negative image can ruin a company
in no time. This is why most companies spend huge amounts of money on
branding, public relations and corporate advertising in order to maintain a
positive image and reputation. Therefore, understanding an organisation’s
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corporate identity and corporate image is essential for effective business
communication to take place.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• differentiate between corporate identity and corporate image
• define corporate identity and corporate image
• explain and give examples of the elements that make up an organisation’s
identity
• describe the factors that affect corporate image
• justify why corporate identity and corporate image are important for
business communication.
What is identity?
Who am I?
Have you ever asked yourself, ‘Who am I? Why do I have certain
characteristics? Why does this make me feel so unhappy while
it is doesn’t seem to upset others? What makes me unique?’
These are examples of questions you have probably asked yourself consciously
or unconsciously since you were a child. How you answer these questions is
how you build up what is termed your identity. Your identity comprises those
characteristics that distinguish you from everybody else. For example your
personality traits, beliefs, aspirations, style, likes and dislikes are what make
you unique. Yet your identity is not fixed and stable. Your identity changes and
develops constantly. Moreover most people seem to have multiple identities,
such as a gender, professional and a social identity. Your social identity for
example refers to the groups you belong to, as well as your circle of close
friends or your family.
In contemporary society, people are increasingly starting to think
of themselves as brands when it comes to their identities and identity
management. Thinking of yourself as a brand and managing your own brand
image could hold many advantages for you. For example, if you go for a job
interview or if you want a promotion in your current company, you will need
to know how to ‘sell’ yourself and how to create a positive image of yourself.
Nonetheless, just as you have an individual identity, so too does every
organisation and this is referred to as a company’s corporate identity.
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What is corporate identity?
Corporate identity is defined by Botha, Chaka, Du Plessis, Krause, Rawjee,
Porthen, Veersamy and Wright (2007:259) as ‘the specific and unique qualities
of an organisation and can be compared to the identity of a person’. What is
significant about this definition is that every organisation’s identity is unique
and very specific, similar to a fingerprint of an individual. No two companies
will ever have the same identity.
The following points are important in terms of corporate identity:
• Corporate identity is the combined elements that make a company
identifiable or recognisable by its stakeholders. Therefore, it helps people
to recognise and identify with the company. For example, Apple’s logo
makes the company highly identifiable and people like to identify with
Apple because they associate the brand with quality and innovation.
• Corporate identity is largely visual and therefore includes aspects such as
uniforms, icons, corporate colours, letterheads and typeface.
• Organisations can manipulate their image to create a good impression.
Broadly speaking, one can therefore think of corporate identity as the visual
elements organisations use to make themselves recognisable and that gives
the company its unique character.
Botha et al (2007:259–261) and Tench and Yeoman (2006:251) identify the
following specific elements that form part of a company’s corporate identity.
The company logo
The logo refers to a sign, symbol or visual emblem that is used to identify
and differentiate the organisation from others. For example, the Proudly
South African campaign has created a symbol that is used on some locally
manufactured products. This differentiates local products from imported
products. People seeing the symbol may be motivated to buy the product in
an attempt to support local businesses and help the South African economy.
Since an organisation’s corporate logo plays such a significant role in its
identity, it is not advisable to change the logo. However, there are certain
instances in which it could be beneficial to the organisation to alter or even
change its logo. Botha et al (2007:263–264) state the following reasons for
changing a logo:
• it is old fashioned and no longer associated with progress and innovation
• a merger
• a government policy
• a change of investors
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•
•
•
•
legal requirements
the company has a new direction and vision
social, cultural, religious or political pressure
similarity to another company logo.
The corporate colours
Corporate colours refer to the specific colour(s) that the company uses and
is recognised by. For example, Volkswagen’s corporate colours are blue and
white, while Coca-Cola’s are red and white.
The corporate typeface
Corporate typeface refers to the actual style of the letters that the company uses.
For example, the following word is written in different typefaces: Coca-Cola,
Coca-Cola, or Coca-Cola.
Slogans used by the company
A slogan refers to a word or phrase that the company uses so that its target
public can identify the company or brand. Slogans do however change over
time. For example, Volkswagen has made use of some of the following slogans
over the years:
• Drivers wanted
• Once driven, forever smitten
• If only everything in life was as reliable as a Volkswagen
• Das Auto.
Coca-Cola is known for its slogans and the familiar music that goes along
with it. Some of its slogans have been:
• Things go better with Coke
• It’s the real thing
• Always Coca-Cola
• The Coke side of life
• Enjoy Coca-Cola.
Corporate merchandise and correspondence material
Corporate merchandise refers to pens, mugs, mouse pads, T-shirts, bags
and other products, while correspondence material refers to forms of
correspondence, such as letterheads, facsimiles, application forms and email
signatures. Corporate merchandise and forms of correspondence always use
the company’s corporate colours so that the company is easily recognisable.
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Companies use the following to promote their image:
• transportation
• packaging
• signage
• advertising
• promotions
• personnel uniforms
• letterheads
• email signatures
• merchandise.
What is corporate image?
Corporate image differs from corporate identity in that a corporate image
cannot be controlled by the company and is very difficult to change. Corporate
image refers to the way in which a company is viewed by its target public
and is closely linked to its reputation. It is therefore the impression that the
company creates in the minds of its target public.
Think about this …
Think of any retail organisation. How do you perceive this organisation’s brand? Ask three or four
other people how they perceive the same organisation. When you put all these ideas together,
you will have a good indication of the organisation’s corporate image. Now think of another retail
organisation. How do you and others perceive this organisation’s brand? How does it differ from
the way you perceived the other organisation’s brand? Do you think your images are the same
images that these organisations are trying to project?
You can use this exercise with any organisation such as a school, airline, sports team,
government service agency such as the South African Police Services or a parastatal such
as Eskom.
Because it is based on perceptions, corporate image will differ from one
individual to the next, but the image of the company usually refers to the
collective perceptions of its publics. The organisation’s corporate image then
is in the eyes of its target public, which, unlike the company’s identity, cannot
be controlled by the company.
Just by its existence, an organisation portrays and sends messages to its
various stakeholders. These messages in turn influence the target public’s
image of the organisation. Because it is closely linked to what an organisation
does, it can also differ over time (Tench & Yeoman, 2006:255).
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Simply put, corporate image is everything that forms our knowledge of that
organisation, including all our personal perceptions, experiences and what
we have ever seen, read and heard about an organisation. Corporate image is
therefore the impression created by ‘how the organisation looks, what it says
and what it does’. It is what you ultimately believe about an organisation
(Botha et al 2007:254). It is crucial for companies to act in ethical ways
and to be good corporate citizens because once a company’s reputation or
image is ruined, it is very difficult to repair. In addition, a negative image can
cause the downfall of the organisation. A good corporate image is usually
earned over years by the organisation and is created by all of its intended and
unintended actions.
However, although a company’s image is closely linked to its reputation,
it is not exactly the same thing. Tench and Yeoman (2006:253) make use of
a very good analogy to explain the difference between corporate image and
reputation. They equate corporate image with a photograph of an organisation
taken at one moment in time by an individual, whereas organisational
reputation is when that individual collates all the photographs (or images)
taken over a period of time into an album and forms an opinion of the
organisation by looking at the entire collection of photographs.
The following is a list of some of the ways and tactics that organisations
use to influence the perceptions of their target public and other stakeholders
in order to create a positive corporate image for the company (Tench and
Yeoman, 2006:255):
• advertising
• community relations
• corporate colours and designs
• direct marketing
• events
• financial communication
• lobbying
• media relations
• newsletters
• personal selling
• relationship marketing
• sales promotions
• sponsorships
• staff training.
The factors that follow influence corporate image (Botha et al, 2007:256–259);
(Skinner, Von Essen, Mersham & Motau 2010:269–271).
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The size of the organisation
How large or small the organisation is affects people’s perceptions of it. People
perceive bigger organisations as more powerful and stable, while they often
perceive smaller organisations to be more caring and to provide personal
and customised services. These are generalisations but they do impact on the
corporate image because they affect trustworthiness and loyalty.
Think about this …
Think of two really big organisations and two really small organisations. Do you think the big
organisations are more powerful? Why or why not?
The standing of the company
The standing of an organisation refers to whether the organisation has a
national or international footprint.
The facilities of an organisation
Facilities refer to the physical building from which a company runs its
business. It is the physical location from where the company operates. Have
you ever noticed how one shop in a shopping mall differs from the next?
Each shop has a look and feel of its own. Some companies also have much
nicer offices than other companies and some companies are located in nicer
areas than other companies are. The facilities of an organisation will add to
people’s perceptions of that company. For example, an auditor running a little
business from his or her house will not be perceived to be as successful as an
auditor working for a company with plush offices in an upmarket business
park in an exclusive suburb.
Think about this …
Think of a shop in your favourite shopping mall. Think of the shop’s facilities. What kind of image
do these facilities portray? What do you think of the brand when you are in the shop?
The organisation’s actions, community involvement and social
responsibility
Environmental concerns, human rights and certain economic practices
have all begun to play a more significant role in how people perceive an
organisation. This is particularly true for younger generations. People want
organisations to be socially responsible, involved with the community they
serve and be good overall citizens. Corporate social responsibility is vitally
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important for organisations that get their resources from the environment
and/or community.
Performance of products and quality of service
How well or how poorly a company’s products perform will influence its
image and so will the quality of service they perform. Most people are looking
for quality products and fast and efficient service, but they also want to feel
special. However, the better a company’s products perform and the better
their service is, the more favourable the perceptions people will form about
that company and the more positive the company’s image will be.
The behaviour of staff
Customer service is a key area of corporate image and the way people are
treated by the staff of an organisation will influence people’s perceptions
of the organisation. Competent, friendly, helpful and professional staff can
contribute considerably to the image of an organisation.
Management style
Staff usually only behave in desirable ways that contribute to the image of the
organisation if they are managed well. Good management can make or break
an organisation. Management influences organisational policies and plays a
major role in establishing the culture of the company. Managers also affect
the way the organisation is run and how satisfied or dissatisfied staff will
be. Moreover, managers need to govern staff so that they can deliver quality
service to the company’s customers.
Labour relations
In a socially conscious world, issues related to labour have become more
prominent. The way in which a company treats its employees and whether
this treatment is perceived as ethical, fair and just will influence how that
company is seen by the rest of the public.
Marketing and advertising practices
Corporate marketing and advertising refers to the planned messages that an
organisation sends out to the public. The greatest factor that can ruin the
image of an organisation is advertising that is false or misleading. People
do not like to be deceived or treated in unethical ways. Therefore companies
who mislead people through unethical marketing and advertising will very
soon earn a bad reputation.
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Public relations practices
The way in which an organisation’s public relations practitioner deals with
crises, open days, corporate social investment and other public relations
practices are all important aspects of managing the organisation’s image. All
press releases and communication with the public must be honest and ethical.
Share earnings records
If a company is listed, the different shareholders and even stakeholders
who are not shareholders, such as employees, want to know how well the
company is performing in terms of the profits it is making. It is important to
share this information with all stakeholders. Profitable companies with good
share earnings usually have a good image while losses and a decrease in the
share price can seriously harm the image of the company.
Perceived value for money
Most people want to feel that they are getting value for their money. If
something is very expensive, people expect it to be of a superior quality and
will become upset if this expectation is not met. Not giving value for money
or overcharging for inferior products or services can quickly ruin the image
of a company.
Why are corporate identity and corporate image important for
business communication?
All communication in an organisation is a form of business communication
– from customer service to the letters and emails sent out, to large scale
advertising and marketing campaigns. Every message that you ever send out
on behalf of your organisation will be a representation of that organisation.
Even symbols such as emblems, logos and uniforms are a form of business
communication. Combined, all these messages and forms of business
communication go towards creating an organisation’s corporate identity and
will influence people’s perceptions of that company. This, in turn, contributes
to the corporate image.
Therefore, effective business communication is crucial to a company’s
success because each and every form of business communication contributes
to its corporate identity. This in turn will influence the perceptions and
consequently the image that people will form of the company, its products,
its services and its people.
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Conclusion
In this chapter we established that our identity plays a major role in who we
are and what we are about. The same is true for organisations. Within the
organisational context, both a corporate identity and a corporate image are
very important to ensure the continuing success of an organisation.
Corporate identity determines what messages the decision-makers of an
organisation will communicate about the organisation, to both internal and
external stakeholders. These messages will shape people’s perceptions of the
company, which contributes to the company’s corporate image.
Good business communication contributes significantly to both the
corporate identity and image of a company and can ultimately lead to the
success of a company.
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CHAPTER
16
GOOD CUSTOMER RELATIONS
AND TELEPHONE ETIQUETTE
Introduction
With the amount of choices on offer to consumers it is becoming increasingly
important for companies to differentiate themselves from their competitors.
An effective way of doing this is to offer consumers the best possible service.
Good customer relations is a great marketing tool because customers who get
good service are going to tell their friends about their experiences with your
business, which can lead to more business (Evenson, 2005:1). The better the
service, the more customers talk and the more business you do.
Every point of contact that a customer has with an organisation
communicates something about the organisation; this message can be either
positive or negative depending on the customer’s experience of the exchange
(Ouwersloot & Duncan, 2008:66). A customer service representative with
an unprofessional tone will result in a customer interpreting that person’s
behaviour as being representative of the organisation as a whole. Poor service
from a staff member, whether over the phone or in person, could result in a
loss of business. Inattentive employees give the impression that they would
rather be somewhere else and that the customer is not important, which
makes customers feel uncomfortable and less likely to stay a customer.
This chapter will discuss aspects of customer relations with a particular
focus on telephone communication that will assist in ensuring that each
customer encounter is professional yet friendly.
The aspects to be covered include:
• an explanation of customer relations
• how to answer a phone call
• making a phone call
• clarifying the message during a phone call.
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Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• explain what customer relations is
• discuss the importance of customer relations
• explain the importance of telephone etiquette in a business context
• describe the correct tone, pace, inflexion and volume of voice when
speaking on the telephone
• explain the correct procedure when making a telephone call
• explain the correct procedure when answering a telephone call
• list the rights of a telephone user
• list bad habits used when talking on the telephone and how to avoid them.
Customer relations
The key to good customer relations is to place yourself in the shoes of your
customer. Imagine that you are walking into the business for the first time
and think about how you would like to be treated and the kind of service you
would expect.
The only way to really know the likes and dislikes of the customer is to
maintain an open dialogue with them Thill and Bovée (2007:23). In order
to do this, all opportunities for open dialogue with the customer have to
be treated with professionalism. A continued relationship with a customer
and an understanding of what he or she likes and dislikes could result in an
increase in profits, as the customer will not only return for future products
and services, but will become a proponent of the organisation. When people
experience good customer service, they often tell their friends and family.
The customer service experience offered by the organisation is then spread by
word of mouth, resulting in new customers.
Inadequate or poor service could result in the opposite. Customers who
are exposed to poor telephone etiquette may feel that they are being treated
badly or that they are neglected by the organisation. They will then take their
business somewhere else, resulting in a loss of profit and possibly reputation
if the customer then talks to others of the experience.
Ensuring good customer relations
A touch point is any encounter that a customer has with a company. Every
touch point that a customer has with your organisation is an opportunity
to impress him or her and ensure return business from that customer. For
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example, walking into a store, calling a customer care centre, visiting the
company’s web site or receiving a phone call from a sales person are all touch
points. These need to be carefully managed so that the customer gets the best
conceivable experience with as little frustration as possible.
Some examples of poor customer relations that can leave a customer
feeling frustrated and angry are:
• being kept waiting or getting no reply when a return phone call is promised
or a course of action has been agreed upon
• either being ignored when entering a store or office or being harassed
continuously by phone or in-store. Customers want to be helped when
needed but also require time to reflect on the product or service they are
about to purchase
• being spoken to rudely when requesting information or assistance
• being treated as a nuisance rather than integral to the company’s success
• being lied to. Be honest and, if you cannot help the customer, explain
why, offer to get back to them with someone who can and then do this
immediately.
There are many more examples of poor customer relations. Can you think of
any? How could the situation have been handled differently in order to avoid
the poor service you received?
When interacting with a customer it is important to do the following:
• Keep the company’s culture in mind. If the business is very formal and
professional, then your communication should also be formal. A more
informal culture will lead to a more relaxed interaction with customers.
• Start the relationship off on a positive note by making a good first
impression:
• do not keep the customer waiting
• greet your customer with a warm and sincere smile
• introduce yourself
• speak clearly
• pay attention to the customer – listen to both what they say and how
they say it
• offer your assistance or guide the customer to whoever can help
• dress appropriately and neatly
• make sure your non-verbal and verbal communications are sending the
same message – the good done by greeting a customer politely will be
negated if the person is slouched behind a desk.
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• Do not pre-judge the customer. Keep prejudices aside and listen to the
customer before deciding on an appropriate course of action.
• Ask questions and listen carefully to the answer before responding.
• Participate in active listening.
• Try and maintain a positive attitude throughout the interaction. Negative
emotions can easily alter the interaction and result in a negative encounter.
The more positive the attitude, the better the interaction will be.
• Deal with each customer on an individual basis. Each customer will have
unique needs and will feel respected if dealt with as such.
• Keep all communication professional, yet friendly. This holds true for
difficult or angry customers. Remaining professional, demonstrating
understanding and being polite can help diffuse any potentially
problematic situations.
• Be respectful. Think of how you would want to be treated in the same
situation and act accordingly.
• Be honest and keep to your promises. If you have said that you will contact
the customer within the hour, time yourself if you have to, but call them
back as promised.
• End the relationship on a positive note:
• ask if the customer is satisfied with the course of action you recommended
• try and determine if there is anything else the customer may need
• thank the customer before saying goodbye.
• Always remember that the success of the business relies to a large extent on
your relationship with the customer.
Telephone etiquette in business
Whether making a phone call to a colleague or supplier or receiving a phone
call from a potential or existing customer, it is important to understand that
the person on the other end of the call will form an opinion of you and
the company by the way you handle the call. With the exception of vocal
cues, non-verbal communication cues are not available to the participants
on a phone call, which means they need to rely only on what is said (the
actual words) and how it is said (tone, inflections, pace, volume) in order to
interpret the message (Ellis, 2002:40).
Often the telephone is the first point of contact with an organisation and
in some cases may be the only contact for many customers. An organisation
therefore needs to create an image of itself over the telephone that creates the
perception that its employees are:
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
helpful
efficient
interested
concerned
honest
friendly
professional.
Speaking on the telephone
When dealing with a customer over the phone, there are few non-verbal cues
to assist in interpreting what either person is trying to communicate. The only
non-verbal cues available are the warmth of the person’s voice and the tone,
pace, inflexion and volume of his or her voice.
Therefore pay attention to the following non-verbal cues.
• Tone: A person’s tone of voice can either be interpreted as warm and
welcoming or harsh, abrupt and patronising.
• Pace: You also need to pay attention to your pace. If you speak too fast
a customer may think that you a rushing or impatient. If you speak too
slowly you may sound condescending or that you are not really interested
in your customer. However, slow down the speed at which you speak when
conversing with individuals whose native language is not similar to yours,
to allow them time to translate and process what you are saying.
• Inflexion: This is equally important because a monotone, dull or flat voice
could be interpreted as boredom or disinterest. Vary both your pitch and
inflections in order to convey that you are interested in the conversation.
• Volume: The volume of your voice is particularly important in telephone
conversations. A whisper of a voice will not only result in the caller
not hearing the conversation, but could also be interpreted as a lack of
confidence. In fact, increase the volume of your voice slightly to convey
confidence (Ellis 2002:40); (Thill and Bovée 2007:46).
Establishing a good telephone procedure
Organisations need to establish good telephone procedures. They also need
to establish a consistent approach to the way the telephone is answered
throughout the organisation. Bad telephone etiquette is problematic because
it upsets customers. When someone is working and the phone rings, he or she
may see it as an interruption and answer in an irritated voice. No organisation
can afford to be rude to its customers. There are also few things that frustrate
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customers more than vagueness and unhelpfulness. Good telephone
procedures include the following:
• Use your voice carefully.
• Speak slowly and carefully to give the caller the impression that you are
interested in him or her and in the problem.
• Show that you are alert, calm, confident and enthusiastic. Vary your
voice and show that you are listening by saying ‘I see’ or ‘Yes’.
Choose
your words carefully.
•
• Aim your language at your caller’s level. Do not be tempted to use
technical terms that are likely to confuse him or her.
• Show a positive attitude.
• Be positive and helpful. Avoid negative words such as ‘too busy’ or ‘I
can’t right now’. If you cannot solve the problem immediately, take
down the customer’s details and then deal with the matter and get back
to them as soon as you can. Ensure that you follow up any complaint.
Let the caller know when he or she may expect help or feedback.
• Be assertive rather than aggressive or submissive.
• When a caller is angry, try not to be intimidated. Answer in a confident
way. Ask for the caller’s name and use it.
• Control the call by asking open-ended questions such as, ‘What do you
think the fault is?’ Make it clear to the caller that you are writing down
all the relevant points. State clearly what you will do next.
• Cultivate good listening habits. For example:
• listen for the total message:
–– listen for the facts as well as the speaker’s attitudes and emotions
–– try to get the total message especially when the caller is angry.
• take notes:
–– help yourself to concentrate by taking notes from the beginning
–– have a note pad and pen next to the telephone at all times
–– read back the message to ensure that you have recorded it correctly.
People stop listening to a caller for six major reasons:
1. They make up their minds in advance about what the caller is going to say.
2. Something draws their attention away from the call.
3. The caller has an uninteresting voice.
4. The caller has an accent that is hard to understand.
5. The caller is angry.
6. They panic because they are inexperienced in handling difficult calls.
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When making a telephone call
People making a call should ensure the following:
• Plan the call in advance. Draw up a list of topics that you want to discuss,
as you would for an informal agenda.
• Try to minimise distractions and avoid noises that could annoy the person
you are talking to.
• After greeting the recipient of your call, identify yourself, your position
and your organisation.
• Explain the purpose of your call.
• Make sure that the other person has the time to talk. Ask if it is a good time
to talk, as you may have called as they are about to go into a meeting or
they may be working on something that will distract their attention from
your conversation.
• Get to the point of your call.
• Before ending the call, summarise the key points of the conversation.
Recap the tasks you have offered to complete for the caller. This will help
clarify whether any misunderstandings have occurred during the call.
• End the call in a polite and friendly manner.
• Once the conversation has been concluded, send an email to the other
person briefly summarising the conversation. This will allow for a ‘paper
trail’ of the conversation that you have had, which you can refer to in
future conversations. (Ellis, 2002:41); (Thill & Bovée, 2007:46)
When answering a telephone call
There are four key stages in answering a call.
Stage 1
• Greet the caller as follows:
• ‘Good morning/afternoon’.
• ‘Thank you for calling’.
• The name of your organisation.
• Your name.
• ‘May I help you?’
• When you give your name, introduce yourself clearly.
• Establish a good relationship with the caller. You can do this by asking the
caller’s name and using it. Use appropriate open and closed questions to
keep control of the conversation.
• If you have to place the call on hold, keep the caller informed of what is
going on.
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Stage 2
•
•
•
•
•
Establish the reasons for the call.
Record the message by writing it down.
Read the message back.
Use open and closed questions to negotiate the message.
Show that you are listening by using phrases such as, ‘Oh yes’, ‘I see’ or
‘That’s right’.
Stage 3
• Solve the caller’s problem.
• If you cannot, say what you will do next and by when you will do it.
Stage 4
• End the call on a positive note, to establish and maintain goodwill.
Prepare a suitable message pad
When you need to take a telephone message, the following format may be
used to ensure that all relevant information is captured for future reference.
Prepare a message pad with headings such as the following:
TELEPHONE MESSAGE
Caller’s name:
Telephone number:
Company:
Call taken by:
Date:
Time:
Level of priority:
Details of call:
Action to be taken:
A telephone user’s rights
When people make or receive telephone calls, they have a right to:
• know with whom they are talking
• say that it is inconvenient to take the call at that moment
• state their needs
• have their needs properly listened and responded to
• ask a range of questions to prompt the caller or to find out how to
get information
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•
•
•
•
•
have their questions answered promptly, efficiently and courteously
be told why their requests will not be met
be told what the other person expects of them
offer to help the other person
refuse a request without feeling guilty.
Bad habits and how to avoid them
There are a number of bad habits that we should be aware of. These habits
can irritate the person on the phone or result in a poor impression of the
organisation (Erasmus-Kritzinger et al, 2005).
Try to avoid the following bad habits:
• Telephones should not ring more than three times before being answered.
• Do not simply say ‘Hello’. Greet the caller appropriately.
• Make sure to get the time of day correct. A receiver who says ‘Good
morning’ when it is already afternoon and vice versa can irritate a caller.
• Do not assume that you will not be able to help.
• Try and avoid asking weak and submissive questions such as, ‘I don’t
suppose I can be of any help?’ This question risks an immediate ‘No!’
• Do not simply offer to take a message, rather try and offer some sort of
assistance.
• Make sure to record the details of the phone call correctly and repeat the
name and the number before ending the call.
• A receiver who does not identify him- or herself on the telephone can leave
callers feeling frustrated as they do not know to whom they are speaking.
• If the caller is angry, do not respond in an angry or rude manner. Remain
calm in an attempt to remedy the situation.
• A person who uses informal expressions may come across as
unprofessional.
• If transferring a call to someone else, be sure to explain why, to whom and
to where you are transferring the caller.
• Do not let the call end with the caller dissatisfied.
• If a return phone call is promised, be sure to return the call at the
agreed time.
• Avoid the temptation to do other things, such as reading emails on your
computer when you need to listen to a customer. The customer will hear
that you are distracted and will be offended by this behaviour.
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Conclusion
The importance of customer service cannot be emphasised enough. Think
about a time when you entered a store or phoned a service provider and
got a rude, unhelpful or uninformed response. It is important to keep in
mind that customers talk to others about their experience and that just one
unsatisfied customer could become many if bad behaviour continues. Web
sites like hellopeter.com are a good example of what can happen to a business
if customer service turns ugly. By following the guidelines in this chapter, you
should be able to offer professional, calm and informed customer service to
all customers.
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CHAPTER
17
MASS COMMUNICATION
IN THE ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT
Introduction
Mass communication is the communication that reaches the largest and
widest variety of audiences. Mass communication is made up of two main
types of mass media, namely traditional mass media and what has become
known as new media, both of which will be discussed in this chapter.
Traditional mass communication is transmitted through traditional mass
media that includes press releases, advertisements, newspapers, radio, film
and television. Even though new media now also exists, traditional mass
media still plays a large role in messages that leave an organisation.
New media has become the new interface of organisations and also serves
a wider audience with a far better feedback system because it is immediate
and has an interactive quality. It includes but is not limited to the Internet,
short messages (SMSs), social media (Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn), blogs,
wikis and podcasts.
While mass communication is a large scale way of sending messages and
therefore does not allow for the same personal relationships as interpersonal
communication, it is extremely powerful because it reaches so many people
at once.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• define the concept of mass communication
• explain the various functions of mass media
• describe with examples the various types of traditional media
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•
•
•
•
demonstrate applied knowledge of media/press releases and advertising
define the concept of new media
explain with examples various types of new media
list the advantages and disadvantages of new media
discuss the implications of mass communication for organisations.
What is mass communication?
Baran and Davis (2012:6) define mass communication as ‘when a source,
typically an organisation, employs a technology as a medium to communicate
with a large audience.’
As an example, let’s say the SABC, the organisation (source), employs
broadcasting techniques (the technology) to reach the South African
public (large audience) through television (medium) to give us news (mass
communication).
Using this definition for newsprint, we could say that The Sunday Times
(source/organisation) uses the printing press (technology) to print newspapers
(medium) to sell news (communication) to the South African public (mass
audience) on Sundays.
So it can be said that mass communication is the transmission of messages
to a wide audience. These messages are transmitted rapidly and at a relatively
low cost to the consumer.
These definitions cover five key points about mass communication.
1. The audiences are large, hence the term ‘mass’.
2. The audiences are undifferentiated, because it is difficult to know the
audience exactly.
3. Messages have to be reproduced.
4. Messages are distributed and delivered rapidly.
5. The cost is relatively low to the consumer.
Mass communication differs from interpersonal communication in that:
• mass communication messages are sent from the source to the receivers
by means of intermediary channels such as radio, television, newspapers,
tweets, Facebook pages, etc.
• feedback also has to be sent through an intermediary channel
• the source is not always accessible to the receiver
• traditional mass communication is virtually a one-way communication
since feedback is difficult to obtain and is usually limited and delayed.
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Characteristics of print and electronic media
The print and electronic media, such as newspapers, magazines and television,
share two unique characteristics:
1. They are able to overcome the barriers of time and space.
2. The messages that they send out are subject to gatekeeping.
Overcoming barriers of time and space
The mass media, particularly television and radio, enable people around the
world to share experiences. News of global events is quickly conveyed. The
result is that great distances are no longer such a barrier. This instant news
value is even more present with today’s technology, because people at the
scene of a major world event or any exciting situation can use smartphones
and other technologically advanced devices to record and transmit eye‑witness
accounts. News agencies in turn can broadcast these messages even if they did
not have a journalist there. This is known as ‘citizen journalism’.
Messages subject to gatekeeping
The term ‘gatekeeping’ refers to the control of messages through selection
and editing. Organisations that produce messages are able to decide what
the messages should contain and how they should be packaged as the final
product for its audience to see.
Gatekeeping will be done according to the organisation’s perceptions of
its audience’s needs, as well as the policies of the country where the message
comes from. For example if the New York Times wanted to run a scandalous
story on the President of the United States of America, it would be bound by
its own editorial policies and subject to the media laws that govern it in the
USA. Similarly, if the Sowetan newspaper wanted to run a scandalous story
about the President of South Africa, it would also be bound by its policies as an
organisation and the media laws in place in South Africa.
Because messages must be newsworthy and attract attention in order to
get people to buy the finished product, the boundaries of policy and law are
often pushed. Think of advertising campaigns that have run and then later
been banned because they have offended people or the country’s ruling party.
Functions of the mass media
The major functions of the mass media are to:
• inform
• persuade
• entertain.
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Inform
All media seeks to inform in some way. The spread of information depends on
the similarity of the receivers. The more similar they are in their beliefs, values,
education and social status, the more effective the spread of information will
be. The spread of information is often started by people called change agents
because they are often responsible for creating change. However, change
agents may not share the same values as their audience. For this reason, media
would normally work with an opinion leader who shares the values of a group
and who is respected by that group.
Persuade
All organisations need to persuade customers to use their services, buy their
products or make donations. This persuasion is done through a wide variety
of advertisements. These advertisements are designed to:
• attract people’s attention
• create particular attitudes that lead to action
• persuade people to buy and continue to buy.
These advertisements are based on careful audience analysis. This is called
demographic analysis. Every organisation has to analyse the needs of its
customers and then, once these needs are identified, its advertisements must
be targeted at the specific groups.
Entertain
The mass media also seeks to entertain. This function serves as a form of
escape or diversion. The entertainment function attracts an audience and
makes it worthwhile for advertisers to advertise.
Traditional mass media
This section will briefly describe the most widely used traditional mass media:
• newspapers and magazines
• radio
• film
• television.
Newspapers and magazines
Newspapers were originally written to inform but now their content
is designed to inform, entertain and persuade. Newspapers rely on the
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written word, pictures and graphics for their impact. They therefore need a
literate audience.
Circulation figures are very important for attracting advertising revenue.
Newspapers therefore rely on eye-catching headlines, sensational pictures
and newsworthy items to attract attention. Their readability also needs to
be excellent.
Magazines are targeted at audiences that are more specific than newspaper
audiences. Any organisation wishing to advertise in a magazine will therefore
have to understand its audience thoroughly.
Radio
Radio has been a popular and successful medium for many years. It is
especially effective for a non-literate audience. It is also very useful for
people who are busy doing work that stops them from viewing television
or reading.
As an advertising medium, radio is particularly useful for smaller, less
wealthy organisations because it is less expensive. Radio is most effective
for advertising in which the visual impact is not important, for example
advertisements offering sales and discounts.
Film
Film has become a major form of recreation and entertainment. The
combination of sound and visuals has a powerful attraction for viewers.
Films are stimulating and, creative and are shown in comfortable and
pleasant surroundings.
Used as a medium for advertising, films have reached such high standards
of technical and artistic quality that they are often treated as art forms in their
own right. For all these reasons, they are a significant means of advertising,
but are expensive and are also restricted to cinemas for the best viewing.
Television
Of all mass media, television has had the greatest impact. Its major advantage
is that it brings its messages into people’s homes.
For this reason, television has become a major medium for advertisers. It is
especially effective when spoken messages need to be combined with visuals.
However, as with films, which are expensive, companies have to ensure that
their audience research is as accurate as possible.
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Public relations
All organisations need to make the public aware of what they have to offer.
Apart from advertising their products, companies may undertake public
relations exercises. These exercises are aimed at creating a positive image
of the company. They are a form of advertising designed to influence the
attitudes towards and beliefs about the particular company.
Public relations exercises are designed to establish and maintain an
understanding between any organisation and its public. These exercises aim
to foster trust in the integrity of an organisation. Management knows that
a company’s reputation, built up over many years, can be destroyed very
quickly. Therefore public relations aims at creating and maintaining an image
for the company.
However, the public relations focus is not only outwards. Many large
companies now aim their public relations activities at their own staff as well.
These activities have become more important as companies have grown larger.
Senior management cannot hope to control or influence every individual in
such organisations. Public relations activities are therefore aimed at fostering
a good company spirit and a positive attitude towards its customers.
Public relations personnel are involved in a wide range of activities. They:
• explain an organisation’s policies
• deal with criticism and problems
• work with staff to create a positive attitude
• stress that the organisation is socially aware
• stress the company’s desire to serve the public and the customer.
These efforts have implications for the mass media. Public relations personnel
use a wide variety of media to convey their messages. They may, for example,
provide speakers at conferences. They could also sponsor a wide range of
activities aimed at maintaining and improving the company’s image.
These activities involve the use of a range of media. These could for
example include:
• brochures explaining the company’s policy towards the environment
• films showing the company’s contributions towards society
• advertorials in magazines showing how the company recycles all its
waste products
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
advertising on radio and television
press releases to local newspapers
letters to newspapers
meetings to consult and inform the public
exhibitions showing the company’s activities
conferences for people with special interests
posters showing what the company is doing for its staff.
Press/media release
The press release, also called a media release, is a basic communication
tool for organisations in their bid to get coverage. It is an important part
of public relations because it is the public relations practitioner’s way of
getting the organisation’s messages out into the public without paying for
advertising coverage. It is a written document that the organisation’s public
relations practitioner puts together about that organisation, its new products
or services, exciting news or any other information the organisation wants to
get out there.
The difficult thing about a press release is that it is not published by the
organisation. Unlike advertising campaigns, which organisations have to pay
for in order to be given coverage, press releases are sent to news agencies in the
hope they will publish them. The information is sent by the public relations
practitioner or company spokesperson to the journalist or editor in a specific
format that is aimed at the audience of the mass media, not the journalist. It is
therefore crucial that the press release is written in such a way that editors and
journalists will want to publish it without changing your wording.
Media releases usually consist of condensed information (most are less
than one side of A4 paper, less if sent by email) and aim to convey the essence
of the story in the hope of prompting coverage in the mass media that is
being approached (Baverstock, 2002:63)
The example on the next page is of a media release layout and paragraph
contents as explained and adapted from Nunes (2011). Note that there is a
‘slugline’ at the top of each page of the press release. A slugline is so called
because it is like a slug or a snail that leaves a trail everywhere it goes. This is
effectively what a slugline does; it leaves a ‘trail’ of the content of your press
release for those you have sent it to. The slugline contains a brief word or two
taken from the topic on each page and it also includes the page number of
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the press release. With electronic copies and online releases now being used,
sluglines are no longer frequently used.
Example
Media release layout and paragraph contents as explained and adapted from Nunes
(2011).
(The slugline at the top right of the release helps keep track of the press release
during the editorial process. It is a brief word or two used to identify the broad topic.
The number behind the slugline indicates the page number. With electronic copies
and online releases now being used, sluglines are not frequently used.)
How to write a press release/1 (Slugline)
Tuesday, December 10, 20__ (This is the date the press release is written)
RELEASE DATE/EMBARGO (You would normally state, ‘FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE’
but if you want to hold back the release until a specific date you would put
‘EMBARGO’ and the date you want it to be released).
HEADLINE (no more than six words and no more than 60 to 75 mm deep)
Introductory paragraph: This should include all the important information and
should always cover the five Ws and H (who, what, where, when, why and how).
Use the inverted pyramid or champagne glass formula (shown in Chapter 14 in
Figure 14.3 on page 282). Remember to set your margins to approximately
2.5 cm all around the page, with left and right sides aligned. This gives the
editor enough space to make his or her own editorial notes. Use double space
type on one side only of an A4 piece of plain white paper. Remember, each
paragraph should not be longer than approximately six lines.
The following paragraphs: These should go on to explain the five Ws and H in
more detail. They usually start with interesting facts, background information and
then finally something positive. Be careful not to repeat information as a press
release should be no longer than one and a half to two pages in length. Never
use all CAPS as it is difficult to read and often viewed as rude, rather use upper
and lower case type appropriately. The font size should not strain the eye, nor be
too large, try to stick between a point size of between 10 and 12.
When adding quotes, leave out jargon and any fluffy or boosting details. It
should be a true representation of the news of the organisation. Always add the
attribution to the quotes of the people mentioned in your story.
The last paragraph on the page: This should not be split. A new paragraph should
be started on the next page. Indicate the end of the page with the word ‘more’
so that the editor/journalist knows that there is another page to follow.
/more...
continued on following page >>
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Example
Last paragraph/2 (Slugline for page 2)
The last paragraph in your release: This should be a short synopsis of the
organisation. Remember, this is not to ‘sell’ your organisation, but rather just to
add to its credibility perspective. Remember to indicate the end of your press
release by using the word ENDS.
/ENDS
Contact details: Add contact details of the person who wrote the release and the
organisation for whom the author wrote the press release.
ISSUED BY: Name of the person who wrote and sent the release.
The job position that person holds, for example, Public Relations
Practitioner.
The company name.
The company address.
Relevant contact numbers (work line, cellphone, fax, etc).
CONTACT: Name of the person to be contacted if any further information is
required. (This may be the same as the person who issued the
release or somebody in the organisation who will be able to provide
relevant and accurate information.)
The job position that person holds.
The company name (if not the same as above).
The company address (if not the same as above).
Relevant contact numbers. (Please note that as much information as
possible must be provided, including email addresses, fax lines and
social media accounts, such as Facebook and Twitter.)
Once the media release has been written, use the Riversdale formula before
sending it to the relevant media. This formula consists of three Cs:
• Check: Check all facts and information as well as spelling and grammar.
• Clarify: Get rid of any words or sentences that could be misunderstood or
lead to misinterpretation of information.
• Condense: Replace big words with small ones or simpler ones and shorten
long sentences.
The following example of a media release is from SAA; you will note it is
for immediate release as there is no embargo. Some organisations would
state (FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE) others will only state an EMBARGO.
Example taken from: http://www.flysaa.com/za/en/flyingSAA/News/SAACargo-partnered-with-Toyota-South-Africa-Motors-for-the-Dakar-Rally.html.
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A media release from SAA
Business as usual at SAA
SAA Cargo partnered with Toyota South Africa Motors for the Dakar Rally
24 January 2013, Johannesburg.
South African Airways (SAA), through its reliable Cargo division, South African Airways Cargo
(SAA Cargo), partnered with Toyota South Africa Motors for the Dakar Rally, the world’s biggest
off-road motor racing extravaganza.
SAA Cargo, the national airline’s Cargo division, proudly carried the official team South Africa
vehicles participating in the Dakar Rally in South America.
‘We are very proud to be associated with an event of this magnitude. Not only does it have
a huge global following, it also strengthens SAA Cargo’s position as a global business,’ enthused
Tleli Makhetha, SAA Cargo’s General Manager.
The Dakar Rally is seen as the pinnacle in off-road motor racing and the ultimate test of
vehicle durability. When the Toyota Imperial SA team approached SAA Cargo with a proposal
for a partnership, Africa’s most awarded airline viewed this as an opportunity to showcase SAA
Cargo’s capability to transport all types of cargo while supporting team South Africa in the rally.
The Dakar Rally took place between 5th and 19th January 2013 in South America. Toyota
Imperial SA team performed exceptionally well and finished the 2013 event in second position
overall. Giniel de Villiers and co-driver Dirk von Zitzewitz achieved four podium positions in four
races and drove their Toyota Hilux 4x4 to its second podium position in two successive years.
SAA Cargo congratulates Toyota Imperial SA team for their achievements during the Dakar
Rally. ‘The SAA family is on Toyota Imperial SA’s side and wishes them all the best in future races.
They have certainly made South Africa proud!’ said Makhetha.
**ENDS**
About SAA
South African Airways (SAA) is the leading carrier in Africa, serving 26 destinations across
the continent, as well as major destinations within South Africa and internationally from its
Johannesburg hub. It is a member of the largest international airline network, Star Alliance.
SAA’s core business is the provision of passenger airline and cargo transport services together
with related services, which are provided through SAA and its four wholly-owned subsidiaries:
SAA Technical; Mango, its low cost carrier; Air Chefs, the catering entity of SAA and South
African Travel Centre (SATC). SAA is the winner of the ‘Best Airline in Africa’ Award in the regional
category for ten consecutive years and the winner of ‘Service Excellence Africa’ for three
consecutive years. Mango and SAA hold the number one and number two successive spots as
South Africa’s most on-time airlines.
For more information contact:
SAA Group Corporate Affairs
Kaiser Jacobs*
Head: Communication
Tel: +27 11 555 1234*
Mobile: +27 89 568 1578*
Email: KJacobs@flysaa.com*
Alice Kubeka*
Communication Manager (External)
Tel: +27 11 555 8768*
Mobile: +27 98 423 0546*
Email: AKubeka@flysaa.com*
Digital
Website: www.flysaa.com
Twitter: @flysaa
*Details have been altered
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Advertising
Companies, in order to be competitive, have to advertise. They have to let
people know who they are and what products and/or services they have to
offer. If consumers do not know about a given product, they are not going
to buy it. Advertising therefore fulfils a very important function. It informs
consumers of the product or service, persuades them to buy and reminds
them to keep buying after the first purchase. Advertising can be explained
as the act of communicating a message through a carefully chosen, paid-for
medium to a targeted public with the purpose of informing, persuading and
reminding the public to purchase a product or service.
The messages created to promote the company, product or service require
careful thought as there are numerous elements that need to be taken
into consideration. These decisions are based on research and expertise.
Advertisements have to be skilfully prepared if they are to attract the attention
of the public and companies should therefore discuss their advertising needs
and ideas with specialist advertising companies.
Members of companies would not ordinarily be expected to write their
companies’ advertisements. This section has therefore been written simply to
give you an understanding of the elements of advertising.
However, there are certain advertisements that the company might have to
write themselves:
• classified advertisements for newspapers or magazines
• advertisements for vacant posts
• unsolicited sales letters
• circulars.
Advertisements are designed to attract attention. Once the potential buyer has
noticed the advertisement, the company hopes to create an attitude that will
persuade him or her to take the desired action, buy the product or service and
ultimately become a returning customer. Advertisements are aimed at specific
groups in the population called target markets. The advertisements are
targeted at these groups of people because of market research that indicates
that they are the most likely to purchase the product or service. Their needs,
dreams, hopes, desires, concerns and fears are then established through
additional research. These factors are taken into account when developing
the advertising campaign so that the message will catch the attention of and
speak to the target market. Such an advertisement would be designed both to
inform and persuade. It should attract attention and set the mood for action.
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Advertising can be used to achieve certain objectives. Koekemoer (2004:83–86)
explains that advertising can be used to:
• Generate awareness of new products: If the product is relatively unknown,
advertising to the right market should help with making consumers aware
of the product’s existence.
• Inform the target audience: In short, advertising is a way of informing a
target audience about what a product does, what it is, how it can be used
and where it can be purchased.
• Overcome misconceptions: Research might indicate that consumers have
incorrect information about a company or product. Advertising can help
inform these consumers by giving them the correct information.
• Generate interest in a company, service, or product: Once awareness has been
created, the next step is to get the consumer interested in the product. It
is here that advertisers will try and appeal to the psychological needs of
the consumer.
• Support the sales force: More shelf space is often given to those products that
are advertised. Advertisements then give the sales force confidence in the
brand, helping them to obtain larger orders and to expand distribution.
• Generate leads: Advertising can be used to generate a direct enquiry from a
customer. A potential customer will see the advertisement and immediately
seek out more information about the product from the company.
• Position the product: Advertising a product that already has competitors in
the market will assist with positioning the product in such a way as to
differentiate the product in the minds of the target market. It will help
explain why and how this product is different from the rest.
• Build credibility: If a consumer sees a product advertised regularly and
consistently the product and the company that produces it begin to
become legitimised in the consumer’s mind.
• Build an image: A consistent message over a long period of time can help
create an image of the product in the mind of the consumer. When the
product is seen, the consumer will think of this image.
• Reassure and create trust: After purchasing a product, some consumers
could worry that they have made a bad decision. Advertisements can
help reassure consumers that they have indeed purchased a good and
trustworthy product.
• Remind consumers: Once a product is established in the market, it is
important to keep reminding consumers that the product is available for
purchase. This will ensure that sales continue after the awareness campaign
has come to an end.
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It is important to remember that there are certain things that advertising
cannot do. Koekemoer (2004:87) lists some of the problems that advertising
cannot solve. Advertising cannot:
• ‘sell’ a poorly designed or poor quality product
• reach everybody
• always lead to immediate increase in sales
• fight off better competition in the market place
• solve all the marketing problems
• save a dying brand.
Once the target market has been identified and the objectives for the
advertisement have been agreed on, a decision will have to be made as to
which medium will be the best to use to reach the desired market. Radio is
effective for advertisements that rely more on factual information. The visual
impact is not important. Television on the other hand is very effective when
the visual and the spoken word are important. The company could consider
using newspapers and magazines that rely on the visual impact of pictures
and the written word. While the Internet (online advertising) predominantly
makes use of the visual impact of pictures and the written word, on rare
occasions it can include audio. Out-of-home media makes use of visual
impact on billboards in the form of bold images and short catchy slogans
that will quickly convey a message.
The AIDA method in advertisements
Many advertisements are organised in four stages, called the AIDA approach
to constructing advertisements. These four stages are:
• Stage 1: Attention
• Stage 2: Interest
• Stage 3: Desire
• Stage 4: Action.
Stage 1:Attention – The first stage is to attract the attention of the reader,
listener or viewer. This is called a cognitive stage. The audience starts
thinking about the advertisement and its content.
Stage 2:Interest – At this stage the audience’s interest should be aroused. This
is a more emotional approach to the advertisement.
Stage 3:Desire – This stage should arouse a desire in the audience. This is also
an emotional approach to the advertisement.
Stage 4:Action – If the other three stages have been successful, then the audience
is stimulated to action, for example to purchase the product or use the
company’s service.
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Advertisers analyse people’s needs, attitudes and desires. They try to ‘teach’
people what they want. They do this by:
• selecting the media, such as newspapers, magazines, radio and television
• aiming advertisements at carefully analysed segments of the population
• using pictures, words, colours and shapes.
Advertisers base their appeals on people’s needs for:
• pleasure
• power
• security
• beauty
• a long life
• happiness
• health
• love
• social acceptance
• leisure and other needs.
Advertisers strive to communicate:
• the existence of products that will satisfy needs, wants and desires
• the qualities of products
• where products can be obtained.
More specifically, they strive to stimulate:
• the need for a category of product
• awareness of a specific brand
• an attitude towards a specific brand
• the intention to buy a specific brand.
Once they have achieved the above, advertisers try to make buying as easy
as possible.
Specific techniques used in advertising
The following is a brief list of some of the techniques used in advertising
to gain and hold attention. These techniques are especially relevant to the
writing of unsolicited sales letters and/or emails:
• attractive graphics
• an effective tone
• questions
• commands such as ‘Buy one now!’
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
challenging statements
quotations from famous people
something unexpected
appeals to people’s desire for health, leisure, success, comfort, wealth
emphasis on the qualities of the product compared with rival products
evidence based on scientific research
testimonials from authorities
headings
lists
capital letters
repetition of key ideas
slogans
offers of free samples
an invitation to action by filling in a reply-paid card.
People in organisations might have to prepare advertisements for local
newspapers. These would take the form of:
• classified advertisements
• public announcements
• notices of meetings
• vacant posts.
Classified advertisements are printed in newspaper columns under general
headings such as ‘Cars for Sale’ or ‘Businesses for Sale’. They have no special
layout. They have to give the facts as briefly as possible.
The following is an example of a classified advertisement. It appears under
the heading ‘Business Premises to Let’.
Example
JONESVILLE: Convenient premises on First Street comprising approx. 400 m2 of
Offices and Warehouse. Secure yard with loading bay and parking. Avail. Jan 2013
Ph. Mr Said 384568 (ah).
The example on the following page illustrates an advertisement for vacant
posts. Notice the stress on facts. The layout is simple and does not rely on any
special advertising techniques to attract attention. These types of advertisements
should, however, be well set out:
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Example
ACE CATERING COMPANY
We have vacancies for
SALES REPRESENTATIVES
Applicants should be between the ages of 21 and 40. They must have proven selling
ability. A background knowledge of the catering industry would be an advantage.
We offer:
• Good salary and commission
• A company car
• On-the-job training.
These posts offer outstanding opportunities for men and women in a competitive
and expanding field.
Written applications should be sent to:
The Personnel Manager
Ace Catering Company
28 Third Street
Townsville 4568
Checklist for classified advertisements and vacant posts
Have I:
◗
written a clear heading?
◗
given all the details so that readers know what they are buying or applying for?
◗
set out these details clearly so that readers can understand them?
◗
told readers where to telephone, email or get more information (website address)?
New media
What is new media?
There is no simple definition of new media and many people have different
views. Manovich (2011) explains that new media is about the shift in cultures
from traditional forms of media to computer-mediated ways of producing,
packaging and distributing messages, as well as a computer-mediated way of
communicating. It is the convergence of digital communication technologies.
New media gives us access to content any time via digital media, examples
of which are PCs, iPads and cellphones. There is interactive feedback with
new media because of the digital connectivity. This means that you can access
as many people as you want over various time zones and continents – it is
borderless communication.
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With new media you, as the user, are the maker of your own content and
the distributor of the content that you have created. There is therefore also
creative input because you can create your own messages and form online
communities. Most new media is digital in format and can include a number
of areas, such as videogames, Internet, computer multimedia and social
media, to name but a few.
The Wharton School (2009), the business school of the University of
Pennsylvania, lists the following as the top 30 innovations of the last 30 years.
Note how many of these are linked to new media.
1. Internet, broadband, WWW (browser and html)
2. PC/laptop computers
3. Cellphones
4. Email
5. DNA testing and sequencing/Human genome mapping
6. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
7. Microprocessors
8. Fibre optics
9. Office software (spread sheets, word processors)
10. Non-invasive laser/robotic surgery (laparoscopy)
11. Open source software and services (such as Linux, Wikipedia)
12. Light emitting diodes
13. Liquid crystal display (LCD)
14. Global positioning system (GPS)
15. Online shopping/ecommerce/auctions (such as eBay and Kalahari)
16. Media file compression (jpeg, mpeg, MP3)
17. Microfinance
18. Photovoltaic solar energy
19. Large scale wind turbines
20. Social networking via the Internet
21. Graphic user interface (GUI)
22. Digital photography/videography
23. Radio-frequency identification (RFID) and applications (such as EZ Pass)
24. Genetically modified plants
25. Biofuels
26. Barcodes and scanners
27. Automatic teller machines (ATMs)
28. Stents
29. Static random-access memory (SRAM)
30. Anti-retroviral treatment for AIDS
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Types of new media
There are literally hundreds of different types of new media networks and
devices. Below are some of the more widely used types.
Table 17.1 Types of new media
New media type
Definition and how it is used as a business communication tool
Internet
The Internet is a massive public web of interconnected computer
networks. It is a global communication network that consists of
numerous private, business, governmental, educational and other
networks, all passing large amounts of information and allowing
people to share information.
The Internet is used by organisations for various reasons
but mostly it is used to keep people connected and informed.
Education institutions for example connect to online libraries to
conduct research.
World Wide Web
The World Wide Web is accessed via the Internet. It is a
comprehensive information system that contains interlinked,
hyperlinked documents, images and videos. Many people think
the World Wide Web and the Internet are the same thing but
they are not. The World Wide Web provides a standard procedure
for people to access all the hyperlinked documents through the
Internet. The Internet provides the infrastructure.
When we click on a link, it will lead us to the page where the
information on that site will be. A company’s website for example
would be accessed on the Internet using the World Wide Web.
Search engines
A search engine will search for information on the World Wide
Web. Examples of search engines are Google (the largest), MSN,
Bing, Yahoo, Ask.com, Exalead, Ananzi and Look smart. YouTube
is also a search engine although only for videos.
Once you have clicked on to the web site of the search engine,
a page will open up on your screen. There will be an open space
on this page where you type in the words that describe the
information you are looking for. Once you have inserted this, you
click on ‘Search’ and all the options and combinations for your
search word/s will come up.
It is advisable to put your search phrase in inverted commas,
for example, ‘holiday accommodation in KwaZulu-Natal’. If you do
this, the search will deliver results for your exact search phrase.
If you do not use inverted commas, it will deliver all possible
combinations of the individual words you have put in. This type of
searching is referred to as boolean.
Search engines are useful for all business people or students
who need to find information or conduct research.
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Instant
messaging (IM)
Instant messaging is a web-based communication method of
exchanging typed messages between computers/devices via the
Internet. Instant messaging happens in real time. In other words
as you type and send the message, the receiver immediately
gets it and you can communicate straight away back and forth,
having a text-based conversation.
Examples include Yahoo messenger, Google messenger and
Microsoft® Windows Live. An example of an instant messenger
application is BlackBerry Messenger (BBM).
This is useful for people who need to be in contact with one
another all the time even if they are not in the same physical
space.
Short message
service (SMS)
A short message service (SMS) is a service that allows
cellphone users to send short text messages to other cellphone
users.
Social media
Social media is media that allows you to create, share and
exchange information via virtual networks and communities.
Social media depends on mobile and web-based technologies in
order to operate.
Social media is all about user-generated content, which is
content that is generated by users and then uploaded onto social
networking sites.
Today organisations need to have an active social media
footprint in order to connect with their target audiences.
Examples of social media platforms
Facebook
Facebook is a social networking site where people create
a profile of themselves, filling in various pieces of personal
information. They can upload images, pictures and messages
about themselves and express their thoughts and opinions.
They can also post messages on other people’s pages and join
online communities of like-minded people. Facebook is a virtual
community.
Twitter
Twitter is a microblogging site where a user registers, gets an
account and is then able to post short messages (of no more
than 140 characters at a time) and images. These messages are
called tweets.
Users are also able to follow other people’s tweets. Many
celebrities post tweets of their day-to-day activities and have
millions of followers.
LinkedIn
This is also a social networking site, similar to Facebook, but it
is for people to post their professional profiles and connect with
like-minded business people.
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Flickr
Flickr is an image and video-hosting website and is for people to
post images and videos.
YouTube
YouTube is a video-sharing website where users can upload
videos and share these with the world. Many people, such as
musicians Justin Bieber and PSY, have become famous through
uploaded YouTube video clips.
You can watch video clips on just about any topic on YouTube.
You can search for these on the YouTube site or through one of
the search engines.
Other web-based platforms for new media
Blogs
A blog (or web log) is a website published on the World Wide
Web. It is an opinion-based site where individuals or groups will
post their thoughts and opinions on topics. Blogs are frequently
updated like an online journal. People use it as a reflective and
expressive platform.
Wikis
Wikis are a page or a collection of pages filled with content
and hyperlinks that can be modified and edited if permitted to
do so by the administrator. For this reason they are not always
considered to be reliable sources of information.
Podcasts
Podcasts are multimedia digital files that are downloaded directly
from the Internet via a streaming digital source. They can then be
downloaded onto a digital media device such as an MP3 player,
iPod, iPad or a PC.
Smartphones
A smartphone is a hardware device that allows you to access
new media in your hand. It can be used for more than just phone
calls and SMS messages. They have very good connectivity and
computing abilities and are technologically advanced. Examples
of smartphone devices are BlackBerry, Samsung Galaxy and
Apple iPhone.
The advantages and disadvantages of new media for businesses
New media’s role in an organisation has many advantages and disadvantages.
Below are some examples, but there are many others.
Table 17.2 New media advantages and disadvantages for business
Advantages
Disadvatages
Direct connectivity with your target
audience.
New media engagement can be difficult
to manage, particularly if it goes viral.
It then immediately requires a lot of
attention and skill to respond to it.
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It is cost-effective because doing online
campaigns, using Facebook pages
and having Twitter accounts, is not
expensive.
While cost is low, the management
of new media as a business
communication tool is very high because
it is extremely time consuming.
New media is easily accessible.
Employees can leak information about
your business through new media very
quickly and widely.
Your target audience can have constant
on-demand information and data about
your business.
If you do not respond and your new
media spaces become inactive, you will
no longer have control of the information
and it may mean that other people will
start commenting on your organisation
in this space and they will then have
control over the information about your
organisation. It is very demanding to
keep being interactive and active within
new media spaces and organisations
need to consider this before embarking
on a new media strategy.
You can gain a lot of attention from
the effective use of new media in a
business. If your message goes viral,
you will have wide exposure very
quickly, as seen with some YouTube
hit sensations and Facebook or Twitter
campaigns.
Overuse of new media in the workplace
can negatively affect a business’s
bandwidth.
Easy accessibility anywhere, anytime.
The constant information overload
means that productivity can be
negatively influenced by employees
using a lot of new media tools during
working hours.
Good use of new media can build a
brand and give a business a good
corporate image.
New media, if not managed and
maintained properly, could negatively
impact on the image of a business. If
people post negative messages about
your business and/or if employees
do not manage these sites well, there
will be a negative perception of your
business in this very public space.
Implications of mass communication for organisations
All organisations need to be aware of the impact and potential of the mass
media. This is particularly relevant in today’s times where new media
thrives and opens organisations up to so much more scrutiny. Now anyone,
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anywhere and at any time can post anything about your organisation to a
wide audience – for free.
Because of mass media, organisations need to be aware of the following:
• The general public is now well informed about companies’ activities.
• They cannot make major decisions that affect people or the environment
without consulting the public and advertising their intentions.
• Mass media has enormous potential to reach specific audiences quickly.
• The needs and desires of their specific audiences must be understood and
catered for.
• Careful market research should be undertaken so that their advertisements
and other public relations exercises reach the right audience.
• The mass media can help to build up and to destroy an organisation.
• Simply using mass communication does not mean that it has been used
effectively. For example just having a Facebook page does not mean a
business is socially active in the social media space. A business would
need to gain momentum for this page and have people from both within
and outside the organisation engaging with this space. The same would
go for mainstream mass communication. In other words, just because
an organisation has a huge billboard campaign does not mean that its
message is encoded by everyone.
Conclusion
In today’s times, reaching the masses and engaging with mass media has
become even more complex because there are so many different options. From
traditional to new media, the choices are expansive and using a combination
of the correct mass communication media becomes increasingly important
to ensure successful business communication. For this reason, understanding
mass communication and mass media is vitally important. It will help
you to use the correct mass media and engage more effectively with mass
communication. This will keep you and your organisation successful and
ahead of the game.
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CHAPTER
18
BUSINESS PROPOSALS, BUSINESS PLANS AND
ACADEMIC PROPOSALS
Introduction
In order to progress in business and research or academic environments you
will need to be able to communicate your ideas, plans and objectives concisely
and professionally. The documents explained in this section will ensure that
your business and research plans are structured and communicated in a
professional and informed manner.
People tend to think that putting proposals and plans together is an easy
task and that it will not take up a lot of time because it is usually only a few
pages long. Nothing could be further from the truth. Proposals and plans can
be highly complex and they take a lot of time to complete.
Bezuidenhout (2011:289) states that completing a business plan can take
up to 400 hours. If you are going to spend this amount of time doing the
research, brainstorming ideas, constructing an argument and developing a
plan of action, you want to make sure that you are not penalised for a poorly
structured proposal or plan in the end.
Business plans and proposals are written forms of communication that
are crucial to a successful business. A well thought out business proposal that
eloquently and factually explains your business, its future and its potential
will help to entice and excite a potential client or investor. If you are able to
add to your client base, this will bring in financial assistance from investors
and ensure that your business continues to grow.
We will also be looking at academic proposals in this chapter. An academic
proposal based on facts and a well-structured argument is likely to ensure
acceptance into a postgraduate qualification and could even secure research
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This chapter includes the following:
• business proposals, including the layout of both a requested and nonrequested business proposal
• the structure of a business plan
• the layout of a basic academic proposal and academic requirements for
such a proposal.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• plan and create a professional business plan
• plan and develop a well-organised, well set out and clearly written
business proposal
• develop a well-structured and academically sound academic proposal.
The business plan
Business plans are similar to business proposals (which are discussed after
this section) but they have a very strong focus on raising money for a new
business or for expanding an existing business. Any investor, whether it is
a bank or a private investor, who is approached to invest in a business will
expect to be provided with a business plan. This is because ‘the effective use
of human and financial resources depends on a good business plan and its
successful implementation’ (Bezuidenhout, 2011:289). Furthermore, a good
business plan will assist and guide the business with appropriate objectives
that can be monitored and referred back to. If the objectives are not being
met, the plan can be re-worked and adjusted to guide the business back in
line with its initial objectives.
Suggested format
The suggested format below gives you a detailed menu of what can be
included in a business plan. If you need to draw up a business plan, select the
sections that you need for your specific business plan from this menu. The
business plan will need to be formulated with the business in mind and may
not require all of the below sections to be included.
• A title page that should include:
• Clear title
• Prepared for:
• Prepared by:
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Date:
• Index words or search words
• A summary (±450 words)
• The summary needs to be well written and it must incorporate the
entire plan as a short overview. Many people who read business plans
do not have the time to read them in their entirety. These people tend
to read the summary of all the plans they receive and create a short list
from these. The short-listed plans get read more thoroughly. However if
your summary does not capture the reader’s attention, your entire plan
may be dismissed.
• A contents page
• The body of the proposal
• An introduction, using one or more of the following sub-sections:
–– Explain the vision and mission statement of your company.
–– Explain your business concept.
–– Provide the purposes of your business plan.
–– State what your plan includes and excludes. (This is the scope of
your plan.)
–– Relate your business concept to any background information that
you have given.
–– Describe how your product or concept compares with your
competitors’ products.
–– Give a time-frame for the execution of your plan.
• A description of your proposed products or services:
–– Describe the products and services that your business concept
will generate.
–– Include information about the unique features of the product
or service.
–– Motivate why your proposed venture should be accepted.
–– Analyse the current business situation: how the product or service
will help you gain market share, how any competitive advantage
gained can be maintained after releasing the product or service.
–– State what the long-term possibilities for your project may be.
–– If possible, provide images or visual representations of the product.
• A description of your marketing and sales plans:
–– Describe your potential market. A target market analysis should be
provided indicating the demographics (average age, income, etc) of
the target market, why they would want to purchase the product or
service, how much they would be willing to spend, etc.
•
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
–– Describe your marketing strategies: whether you are going to
advertise, do in-store activations, have a launch event, which media
you are going to use (television, radio, digital media, magazines/
newspapers), etc.
–– Forecast your sales.
–– Describe potential competitors and what they are doing.
–– Give a time-frame for your plan if you have not already covered this.
A description of your proposed business organisation:
–– Describe what kind of organisation you propose to establish.
–– Define how you propose to manage and run your company.
–– Describe your staff: how many, who they are, their backgrounds
(qualifications, experience, etc)
–– Describe your administrative and record-keeping systems.
A description of any legal requirements:
–– Describe any legal requirements that your plan will have to meet.
A description of your proposed company’s location:
–– Supply maps and specific comments on the proposed location and
what the pros are of being located in this area.
Describe your company’s finances:
–– State your start-up costs and at what stages you will need the money.
–– Project your costs for the next five years.
–– Describe how profits and potential losses will be treated with regard
to investors.
–– Forecast your cash flow and project your likely profits.
–– Provide a break-even analysis.
–– Forecast your return on sales and return on investments.
–– State your legal costs.
–– State your costs for office equipment and stationery.
–– Describe your investors’ degree of liability for your company’s
operations and the terms of their financial participation in profits.
Describe current business areas affected:
–– Describe any of your current areas of business that would be affected
by this new project.
Describe potential risks:
–– State the business risks associated with the implementation of your
business plan.
Perform a SWOT analysis, describing the following for your plan:
–– Strengths
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–– Weaknesses
–– Opportunities
–– Threats
Re-state
what you want:
•
• Re-focus on exactly what you want.
• Re-stress the specifics of what you plan to offer and what return investors
are likely to get.
• Stress your likely competitive edge.
• Stress your keys to success.
• Stress why your business is likely to be financially attractive.
(Bezuidenhout, 2011:289); (English, 2012:113).
Proposals
What is a proposal?
A proposal is a persuasive message. It is written to persuade people to take
action and it can take on many forms. However a proposal should always be
based on facts and should suggest an action with appropriate justification
(English, 2012:93).
Let’s look at an example. Let’s say an event management company wants
to increase its client base. It hears of a large company that is launching a
new product and is looking for an events company to host this launch. In
order to be considered for the launch, the event management company will
have to put together a proposal to tender for the contract. In this proposal
to the potential client, it will need to outline what services can and should
be provided to meet the objectives for the event and how it can supply these
services. Also it will need to include the cost of implementing the actions
outlined, as well as justification as to why the proposed actions would be the
best options to meet the client’s objectives.
Each proposal will be different, as it needs to meet the client’s needs.
However each proposal will have the same basic outline (as explained below).
The uniqueness of each proposal will be determined by how the information
is discussed within that outline and how it is presented to the client.
Proposals should be:
• well organised so that the reader knows exactly what the proposed action is
• well set out in clear sections making use of a logical numbering system
and effective headings
• well written in a clear, formal and simple style.
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Proposals should give readers exact details of
Note
costs, timetables and dates. The facts should be
An important way of
so well set out that the reader will be convinced
distinguishing reports from
that the proposed action should be taken. The
proposals is that reports
deal with events that
justification section of a proposal must therefore
have already happened.
be highly persuasive. But it is important that
Proposals, as the word
you persuade your reader through evidence,
suggests, deal with future
facts and solid argumentation and not through
actions. Put simply, reports
tell us what has happened
manipulative techniques such as emotive and/or
while proposals tell us
flowery language.
what is going to happen.
A proposal is set out in a similar way to a
Proposals are therefore
report. Where relevant, it should be accompanied
written in the future tense.
by a letter of transmittal if it is sent outside the
organisation. Inside an organisation, it may be
accompanied by a memorandum of transmittal. A transmittal letter, or cover
letter as it is more commonly known, usually accompanies a document and
explains to the intended reader what the purpose of the document is, what
the intended reader is expected to do once he or she has read the document
and why the reader should read the document in the first place.
Format for business proposals
There are two types of business proposals:
1. requested proposals
2. non-requested proposals.
A requested proposal is one that a client asks for, for example a proposal on
what action you would take to solve the client’s problem and how much you
would charge to solve it.
A non-requested proposal is a proposal that is used in order to generate more
work for yourself. This type of proposal may be used inside a company where
you want to propose a possible new project. You may also send a non-requested
proposal to a potential client in an attempt to get business from them.
Requested proposal
A requested proposal should have these sections (English, 2012:96–100):
• Title page or title that should include:
• A full title
• Who the proposal has been prepared for
• Who prepared the proposal
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The date the proposal was requested
• The due date of the proposal
• When the proposal was submitted.
Terms of reference or brief
• With a requested proposal, a brief or terms of reference section is often
included outlining what the potential client’s needs and objectives are.
• The terms of reference should also include:
–– who gave the instruction
–– the date on which the instruction was given
–– why the instruction was given
–– details of the instruction
–– due date for the proposal.
Client’s objectives
A list of what objectives the client would like to achieve as a result of
the proposed action need to be listed here. All of the proposed actions
detailed in the proposal need to speak to these objectives.
Summary of the proposal
This should be so well written that if the reader is too busy to read the entire
proposal, he or she will have a very good idea of what the proposal entails.
It should include all the key proposed actions, costs and timelines. Some
writers hesitate to put the costs in the summary. They believe that readers
will then not read any further and that readers should be psychologically
prepared for the costs. There is however no fixed answer to this problem.
You need to decide for yourself where the costs should be included in
the summary.
Table of contents
As in books, the proposal needs to have a contents page so that the reader
can quickly refer to different sections when needed. Some proposals can
be many pages long, so a correctly laid out contents page will then save the
potential client and you a lot of time when looking for information in the
proposal. The headings for each section of the proposal are outlined with
the corresponding page number. The table of contents should only feature
headings up to second level and should be neat and easy to read. The table
of contents should also contain:
• Tables and figures
If the document has tables, graphs, figures or any other illustrations or
images that assist with the explanation of concepts these also need to
be listed.
•
•
•
•
•
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Glossary
A section that may be included below the tables and figures is a glossary.
The glossary should include the definitions of all technical terms, as
well as any difficult words that the reader may not know.
• List of symbols and acronyms
If there are any symbols and/or acronyms that the reader will need
in order to appropriately understand the proposal, they need to be
included in this section.
• The body of the proposal
The body of the proposal is the main section of the proposal. It is here
that all the hard work, research and creative ideas get explained in enough
detail to excite and persuade the client to accept the proposal. It must
follow the following structure:
• Introduction, which should include:
–– the purpose and need for the proposal
–– background information
–– a statement of the problem(s) to be solved
–– the need for a solution
–– purpose of the proposal
–– procedures that were used to set up the proposal
–– an outline of the remainder of the proposal.
• The detailed proposal, which should contain the following sub-sections
with numbered headings:
–– a description of exactly what the writer proposes to do
–– the scope of the proposed action
–– the boundaries of the proposed action
–– any limitations to or constraints on the proposal
–– methods to be used to put the proposal into action
–– a breakdown of tasks to be done and their deadlines
–– exact proposed timelines and work schedules
–– a detailed costing of the proposed action
–– method of payment.
• A justification of the proposal, which puts forward a persuasive
message that contains the following sub-sections under the following
sub-headings:
–– benefits of the specific proposed solution
–– feasibility of the solution
–– the likelihood of the proposed action succeeding
–– the feasibility of the financial plan.
•
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• Urge to action
This short section re-stresses the proposed action.
• References
List all references to other material here. If you did some research for your
proposal to support some of your claims, you need to include them in
a references list. This includes the references of information you have
gathered from journal articles, books, magazines, reports, interviews or
online sources, etc. (Referencing was discussed in Chapter 12.)
• Appendices or attachments
These should contain some or all of the following depending on the nature
of the proposal:
• detailed figures that will show how any proposed expenditure has
been calculated
• detailed calculations to back up any technical proposals
• detailed results of questionnaires or other surveys
• the company’s employment policies
• the company’s success with other projects
• a description of the company’s staff, their qualifications and experience
• the company’s financial statements.
Non-requested proposal
Non-requested proposals contain all of the above sections. However, note the
following differences:
• The proposers have to sell themselves as well.
• In the summary, writers should state briefly who they are.
• In the background to the proposal, the writers should state what they do
and include the following:
• a brief description of the organisation
• a brief description of their experience with projects
• a brief description of their staff’s experience and qualifications
• a brief statement of the company’s financial position
• a brief statement of the company’s employment practices.
• In the appendices, the writers should also include:
• references from previous clients
• references to an earlier association if relevant
• previous experience with projects
• descriptions of staff, their qualifications and experience
• the company’s organisational chart
• statement of the financial position of the company
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•
•
•
•
description of employment practices
physical location of the company
statement of the company’s environmental policy
descriptive and advertising literature.
Writing an academic proposal
If you want to build a house, you always need to have a plan from an architect
before you can start building. An academic proposal is similar to house
plans; it provides you with the basic guidelines to conduct your research and
it provides others with a clear picture of how you intend to conduct your
research. In some instances an academic proposal, better known as a research
proposal, can also be used to secure funding for your project.
However an academic proposal is very different to a business proposal. In
an academic proposal, the student sets out a plan for a research project. The
student must persuade the supervisor or potential funder that the proposed
project is academically sound and feasible, thus showing that the project is
realistic and can be carried out within a reasonable timeline.
The following is an outline for an academic research proposal:
• Title page
• Title of the proposed research
• Statement of the academic level of the research
• Prepared for:
• Prepared by:
• Date:
• Statement of the Degree Requirements.
• Brief summary of academic proposal (a maximum of one tenth of the
final proposal)
• Context of the study
• Purpose of the study: To explore, explain, describe, gain in-depth
knowledge of, etc a particular phenomenon.
• Background to the study: Present a brief background on the existing body
of knowledge in the field that informed your opinion.
• The rationale for your study, its relevance and significance: Motivate why
this study should be undertaken and what kind of contributions it will
make to your field of study.
• Delineation of your study: State clearly what you are not researching and
what areas, although closely related to your study, will fall outside the
scope of your study.
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• Brief literature review
• Conceptualisation: Make sure that you define all the key concepts that
appear in your title in order to promote sharing of meaning. You can
also define one or two technical terms or other concepts that will play
a major role in your study.
• Operationalisation: In a quantitative study you will need to operationalise
certain concepts and constructs. Operationalise means to explain how
you will measure the concepts in your study so that they can be tested
and proven. Therefore if you want to measure the effect of television
violence on the behaviour of children, you need to explain what
behaviour exactly you intend to measure, how you are going to measure
it and how it is related to television violence. You also need to explain
what you mean by television violence and what qualifies as television
violence for the purpose of your study. If you make use of measurement
instruments or experimental designs, you will also have to explain your
dependent and independent variables.
• Provide a theoretical framework for your study: You will need to refer to
and briefly explain any significant theories that informed your opinion
and that you will use as a foundation on which to build your research
and to which you would like to add. You will also need to justify the
significance of these theories for your particular study.
• Previous studies and existing body of knowledge: Mention some of the
previous studies that were conducted on the same or a similar topic and
use the arguments of other authors to serve as support for the argument
you wish to make. Similar to the background, you also have to provide a
very brief overview of the existing body of knowledge that you will use to
support the arguments in your own study.
Type
of study
•
• The research paradigm: Explain what paradigm or worldview you are
working from and explain what the epistemological, ontological,
axiological, methodological and meta-theoretical assumptions of that
paradigm are. Explain what the implication of these are for your own
study. These are very abstract and difficult concepts to deal with and
you will have to do a lot of reading to be able to understand their
exact meaning. Depending on the purpose of the research proposal and
the level of the proposal (undergraduate versus a Doctorate) you can
either include or exclude the research paradigm. However if you decide
to exclude the paradigm, then you at least need to include a section
that outlines some of the major assumptions you are making. These
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should include the assumptions you are making about what serves as
knowledge, what the purpose of knowledge or research is and your
assumptions about the nature of reality.
• The research design: For example cross-sectional, longitudinal, etc.
• The research approach: Quantitative, qualitative or mixed methods and a
justification for why you are using this approach.
• Whether the study will be basic, applied or both.
• Whether the study will be exploratory, explanatory, descriptive, etc.
• Formulation of the research problem
• Identify the main problem for which you are seeking a solution.
Research also entails the search for a solution to a problem and you
need to be able to explain what the problem is and why it is important
to find a solution to the problem.
• Out of the research problem you need to formulate a research question.
Again, in research we look for answers to questions, so you must clearly
state the main research question that speaks directly to the research
problem. You can also formulate sub-questions, but these questions
must all be related to the main question and research problem.
• If you are doing a quantitative study, you will need to formulate the
expected outcomes of your study or hypotheses that are related to
your research question. These hypotheses must help you to answer
the research question and sub-questions. Hypotheses usually take on
the form of tentative statements that predict a relationship between
certain variables. At the end of your research you will either accept or
reject your hypotheses and this will help you to answer your research
question and sub-questions.
• If you are doing a qualitative study, you will need to formulate a
research goal and, sometimes, sub-goals that are related to your research
problem. At the end of your study you will have to evaluate whether
you have reached these goals. Reaching these goals should also help
you to answer the research question.
• When you make use of mixed methods, you will need to include a
combination of hypotheses and goals.
• Methodology
• Describe your unit of analysis: usually individuals, groups, organisations
or social artefacts, such as newspaper articles, movies, books, etc.
• Describe your population and sampling method.
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Describe the method(s) you will use to collect data. The method you
choose will depend on your research approach. Some methods such as
experimental designs, are only suitable for qualitative research while
others, such as focus groups and in-depth interviews are only suitable
for qualitative research. Researchers can also use a mixed-methods
approach which makes use of methodological triangulation, meaning
a combination of methods. There are many methods to choose from
and you can combine these different methods in order to assist you
in answering your research question. However you need to be able to
justify why you chose a particular method(s) and what the pros and
cons of using that method(s) are.
• Describe the method(s) you will use to analyse your data. Again, this is
dependent on your approach. Data analysis methods include, among
many others, the t-test, chi-square test, content analysis, thematic
analysis, etc.
Feasibility of the study
• Provide a detailed and realistic research budget.
• Include proposed timelines.
• Stipulate the resources required.
• Address all significant ethical considerations.
• Address the validity and reliability of the study (using different
terminology such as trustworthiness, credibility, transferability and
dependability and confirmability).
Limitations of the study (for example time limitations, geographical area,
access, generalisability, resources, etc).
Outline of the study. A tentative outline of the thesis and proposed chapters
must be included.
Sources consulted and a preliminary bibliography.
•
•
•
•
•
Remember that you must use academic writing when you put together a
research proposal. Academic writing is a technical form of writing with its
own conventions. The language is usually formal and factual and you must
avoid making sweeping generalisations. Every claim you make or argument
you put forward should be backed up by evidence and citations. You also
need to revise your proposal several times to ensure that it is structured in a
logical way and that you are making a clear argument. You should also pay
attention to language details such as spelling, grammar and syntax.
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Checklists for proposals
Business proposal checklist
Have I:
◗
read and understood the brief?
◗
included a full title?
◗
summarised the proposal to give the reader a quick overview of the whole proposal?
◗
considered whether or not to state the costs in the summary?
◗
started the persuasive process in my introduction?
◗
given the proposal in detail, including all costs, all other figures and exact timelines?
◗
justified the proposal by using persuasive arguments?
◗
checked that the proposed actions meet the objectives given by the client?
◗
re-stressed the action at the end?
◗
set out the proposal so that it is highly readable?
◗
written the proposal in a clear, simple style?
◗
written the proposal in a personal or impersonal style based on the profile of my readers?
Business plan checklist
Have I:
◗
described my vision and mission statement?
◗
explained my business concept?
◗
described my proposed products or services?
◗
described my marketing and sales plans?
◗
described potential competitors?
◗
described my proposed business organisation?
◗
described my company’s finances?
◗
described potential risks?
◗
performed a SWOT analysis?
Academic proposal checklist
Have I:
◗
given the background to my proposed study?
◗
described any problems to be investigated?
◗
given the purposes of any proposed investigation?
◗
defined the key technical terms that I plan to use?
◗
described my proposed research methodology?
◗
described the theory on which my proposed research is based?
◗
outlined my proposed thesis?
◗
given my proposed research timeline?
◗
given my proposed research budget?
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Conclusion
It is extremely important to know that every time you write anything to
anyone, especially in a business context, you are also sending out messages
about yourself, such as your values, level of professionalism, intelligence
and others. In a business context, you are representing the organisation
or institution whose reputation and possible business may depend on the
image you present. Knowing how to put together professional documents
confidently and effectively will make you and your organisation look
competent and professional. Putting together a persuasive business plan
may also mean the difference between success and failure. If you want to
continue with post-graduate studies, you will also need to learn the skills to
put together a research proposal that will persuade your potential supervisor
that your study is worth doing. You may even use a well-written research
proposal to secure funding for your research.
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CHAPTER
19
REPORTS
Introduction
Although reports come in many different forms, such as school reports,
weather reports or even health reports, and serve many different functions,
they are all fixed-format documents. Business reports are similar to other
kinds of reports in that they convey information, but they are usually a result
of a need for information regarding sales, costs, investments, problems or
required action. In this chapter we will provide you with an overview of
the purposes, types, characteristics and structure of reports and will provide
practical examples for you to examine and use as a ‘template’ from which to
work on your own reports.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• identify the main purposes and different types of business reports
• list the main characteristics of business reports
• identify and explain the various elements of a business report
• identify and use appropriate style, tone and language in business reports
• write a summary report based on given information.
Purposes of business reports
There are five main purposes of a report in an organisation. They may:
1. assist with decision-making
2. inform
3. recommend action
4. record facts
5. persuade.
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An organisation may, for example, wish to explore the potential benefit of
buying another smaller company and so request that one of their employees
conducts a thorough investigation into the smaller company’s finances,
strengths and weaknesses. The employee’s report will then help management
decide whether or not to purchase the smaller company.
On the other hand, a company may be experiencing problems at one of its
branches while all of its other branches are performing well. Management may
request an investigative report to help identify the cause(s) of the problems
at that particular branch and then recommend a few viable solutions to
remedy the problem. Depending on the purpose, the company would select
an appropriate type of report.
Types of business reports
There are four main types of business reports used in organisations:
1. Informative report: This type of report conveys the facts of a situation
2. Investigative report: Here the report will recount the facts of an investigation,
as well as recommend action to be taken
3. Feasibility report: This report examines whether something can or should
reasonably be accomplished and then recommends action
4. Progress report: This explains how much progress has been made on
outstanding work.
These reports may be used in different combinations and classified as:
• Evaluative reports: These include investigative and feasibility reports which
evaluate the facts. The evaluation is written as a set of conclusions which
demonstrate the insights gained from the findings or implications of a study.
• Technical reports: Technical reports contain a large amount of detailed,
technical information which is often set out in the form of tables and
graphs of various kinds. They may be informative, investigative or feasibility
reports and may also include progress reports for projects.
• Interim reports: These reports are written to inform managers of the progress
of a project. A number of these reports could be written before the final
report is written.
Characteristics of business reports
Regardless of what type of business report an organisation decides to use,
all reports feature specific characteristics. It is important to remember that
reports are also widely used in organisations for making decisions.
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They should therefore be:
• based on careful, factual research
• well presented with high readability, especially when it includes detailed
technical information
• structured in a particular way and include all the appropriate sections
• set out in an appealing, readable way
• written with a specific audience in mind
• written clearly and logically in an objective, formal, impersonal
(third-person) style.
The audience for reports
Although you need to write for a specific audience, such as a board of directors,
when writing reports, you need to remember that there are a number of
individuals who make up that audience or board. Therefore, you should write
for both experts and non-experts in your reports. Some members of the board
will need detailed technical information and will understand the business
jargon, while others will need (and understand) only the conclusions and
recommendations. You should therefore be prepared to select information
and to set it out in clearly defined sections in a language that is understandable
to your least technically versed reader.
Traditional elements of reports
A full professional report contains the following sections in the order given
below. The report is divided into two major sections:
1. Preliminaries, with pages numbered with Roman numerals.
2. Body, with pages and each section of the report numbered with Arabic
numerals. Each major section must also start on a new page, like chapters
in a book.
The preliminaries make up the first part of the report and make use of Roman
numerals instead of page numbers. This differentiates them clearly from
items in the body of the report. The preliminaries include:
• Title page
• Acknowledgements
• Terms of reference (the brief )
• Summary or abstract
• Table of contents
• List of illustrations (if applicable)
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• Glossary (if applicable, difficult words may also be defined at the bottom
of each page)
• List of symbols and acronyms (if applicable).
The body includes:
• Introduction
• Procedure for gathering information
• Findings (the facts)
• Conclusions (insights or implications drawn from the findings)
• Recommendations (if necessary, these detail exact actions to be taken)
• List of references/bibliography
• Appendices (if relevant).
As you will have noticed, the list of items in the preliminaries and the body
of the report indicates the possible sections of a report, not all of which you
will necessarily need. You should select only the sections relevant to the
report’s terms of reference after including the essential components. For
example, an informative report would stress procedures and findings, while
an investigative and feasibility report would stress procedures and findings,
as well as conclusions and recommendations.
On the following pages we will make use of practical examples to
demonstrate the necessary sequence and content of each section of the report.
Although the order is not cast in stone, the order used in these examples
is strongly recommended. It moves the conclusions and recommendations
closer to the beginning of the report which is very helpful for decision-makers.
They do not usually need to read all the details of the findings before they
reach the conclusions and recommendations.
Content of the elements of the report
Each section of a report has specific content. The sections will now be
discussed individually, using a split-up sample report. Please read through
the sample content of the report and also pay attention to the comments
alongside the boxes in the section that follows.
The Preliminaries
Title page
A title page should contain the following information:
• a clear, informative title
• for whom the report has been prepared
• by whom the report has been written
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• the date of the report
• key words (also called index or search words).
This page should be well set out with good readability. As with all business
documents, it should provide the reader with an excellent first impression.
Example
Detailed heading
provides clear
indication of the
contents of the
report
INVESTIGATION INTO HIGH STAFF TURNOVER AT
LIBERTYTILES, HAZELWOOD, BETWEEN JANUARY 2012 AND
DECEMBER 2012
PREPARED FOR: Ms J. Hlongwane
Chief Executive Officer
LibertyTiles (Pty) Ltd
Sandton
PREPARED BY:
Mr F. Tladi
Human Resources Director
LibertyTiles (Pty) Ltd
28 February 2013
Selected key words
that highlight the main
issues of the report
Key words: lost trade, high staff turnover, mismanagement,
commission structures, motivation, team-building
Acknowledgements
This section is used to thank any individuals who assisted in the process of
collecting and compiling information during the investigation.
Example
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Impersonal style used
throughout (not ‘I’)
The writer wishes to thank the following for their assistance
during the investigation:
• Mr N. Zuma
• Ms K. Maloyi
• Ms P. Kincaid
• Ms Z. Pillay
Goodwill is
generated through
acknowledgements
The writer also wishes to record the invaluable help of
Mr P. Moodley who ensured that this investigation took
place quickly and openly.
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Terms of reference
Terms of reference refer to the instructions given to the investigator. They
are called terms of reference because everything in the report refers back to
these instructions. Without a clear set of instructions, no investigation or
report is possible. The terms of reference are
Note
sometimes called a brief, which simply refers
to a set of instructions.
Ensure that you have been
Terms of reference should always contain the
following five points:
1. who instructed the writer
2. when the instructions were given
3. why the instructions were given
4. a detailed list of exactly what the
investigator is supposed to do
5. the date by which the report has to be
handed in.
carefully briefed if you are ever
asked to write a report and
prepare to negotiate with the
briefer until you can both agree on
the exact instructions. Bad reports
are often caused by poor briefing
rather than by poor investigation or
writing. Therefore, make sure that
your brief always contains the five
points shown alongside and ask
for further clarity if your brief does
not include these details.
Example
1. Who gave the
instructions
2. When the
instructions
were given
3. Why the
instructions
were given
4. Exactly what
the investigator
has to do
5. Date for handing in
the report
TERMS OF REFERENCE
Ms J. Hlongwane, Chief Executive Officer of LibertyTiles (Pty)
Ltd commissioned this report on 21 January 2013. She
was anxious to uncover the cause of high staff turnover at
the Hazelwood, Durban, branch over the period of January
2012 to December 2012.
Mr Tladi’s specific instructions were to:
• investigate the extent of staff attrition at the Hazelwood
branch over the period January 2012 to December 2012
• investigate the cause/s of the staff turnover through
dialogue with employees and an audit of the branch’s
operations
• consult with a human resources specialist consultant to
establish potential solutions
• draw conclusions based on the findings and consultant’s
recommendations regarding a course of action
• recommend specific action/s on improving branch staff
retention, keeping in mind budget constraints
• report by 30 February 2013.
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Summary
The summary should be so well written that it can replace the actual report
should someone be too busy to read the entire report. It should be brief but
complete and written for a wide lay audience. A good summary should help
the reader decide whether or not to read the main report.
Summaries vary considerably in length. Some companies ask for 300
words or no more than one page. Other companies expect a longer summary.
We would recommend a summary of between five and ten per cent of the
length of the original report. An abstract or executive summary is no longer
than one typed page and may be published as a separate document.
A summary should contain the following elements in the order below:
• an opening sentence stating what the report is about
• a brief statement of the background to the report
• a statement of the main purposes of the report
• a brief statement of the procedure used to gather information
• the main conclusions reached
• the main recommendations
• the main findings.
Example
Opening sentence
tells reader exactly
what the report is
about
Reason the report
was necessary
Note the use of
sub-headings to
guide the reader
SUMMARY
This report describes the results of an investigation into the
causes of the high staff turnover at the LibertyTiles (Pty) Ltd
Hazelwood branch.
The writer was asked to investigate the causes of the high
staff attrition at the branch, which, in the 2012 financial
year, lost a considerable volume of its usual trade due to
insufficient and ill-trained staff. The cost to the LibertyTiles
Hazelwood branch (in comparison to 2011 figures)
amounted to R978 000 for the 2012 period. Management
wished to determine the problem and identify a solution
so that full profitability could be restored as quickly as
possible.
PURPOSE OF THIS SUMMARY
The purpose of this summary is to:
• describe the main procedures for gathering information
• provide the main conclusions
• give the main recommendations
• record the major findings.
continued on following page >>
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Example
PROCEDURE USED
The writer gathered information through:
• direct communication in private consultations with
employees at the branch
• anonymous surveys of employees
• an audit of the branch’s operations
• consultation with an industry HR specialist.
MAIN CONCLUSION
The main conclusions are that:
• the Branch Manager displays gross mismanagement
practices
• the commission structure used at the branch is a source
of dissatisfaction and perceived unfairness
• a major lack in motivation and work satisfaction is
evident in branch employees
• irregular accounting practices and possible
misappropriation of funds are taking place.
MAIN RECOMMENDATIONS
The writer recommends that:
• the Branch Manager be subject to disciplinary action and
criminal charges
• an interim Branch Manager be sourced from the branch
employees; a suitable candidate has been identified
• significant team-building exercises be implemented for
the branch as soon as possible
• a revision of the commission structure used at the
branch be undertaken.
RESULTS OF INVESTIGATION
The above conclusions and recommendations are based on
the following findings:
• that the major causes of staff attrition are identified and
discussed in Appendix I
• that a significant level of dissatisfaction exists with the
current commission structure used at the branch
• that staff exhibit low levels of job satisfaction, as
discussed in Appendix II
• that the Branch Manager be placed under performance
management in terms of Human Resources Policy
document in Appendix III.
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Table of contents
This lists all the major and minor headings in the report. It shows the reader:
• how the information has been organised
• on which page(s) each section may be found.
Example
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section
Note use of full
explanatory
heading
Note use of
sub-headings
indented to
third level
Page
Acknowledgements
i
Terms of Reference
ii
Summary
iii
List of Illustrations
v
Glossary
vi
1. INTRODUCTION
1
2. PROCEDURE FOR GATHERING INFORMATION
2
3. CONCLUSIONS
3
4. RECOMMENDATIONS
5
5. RESULTS OF INVESTIGATION INTO STAFF ATTRITION
7
5.1 Description of staff attrition numbers
7
5.2 Description of staff interview results
8
5.3 Description of anonymous surveys
12
5.4 Description of audit results
14
5.4.1 Financial audit
14
5.4.2 Human Resources audit
16
5.4.3 Policies audit
19
6. LIST OF REFERENCES
23
7.1. APPENDIX I: Staff attrition causes
24
7.2. APPENDIX II: Results of staff attrition
27
7.3. APPENDIX III: Human Resources Policy document 30
List of illustrations and/or figures
A list of illustrations gives the title and page number of every illustration in
the report. If there are tables and other types of illustrations, then the list of
illustrations is divided as follows:
• list of tables
• list of figures.
If there are only graphs, diagrams and other graphics, then the heading is List
of figures.
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Example
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Each illustration must
have a number, a full
caption and a page
number.
List of tables
1. National staff attrition by branch 2012
2. Reported causes of attrition
8
12
List of figures
1. Organogram – LibertyTiles (Pty) Ltd.
2. HR Flowchart – Recruitment process
3. HR Flowchart – Disciplinary procedures
1
2
19
Glossary
A glossary is a special dictionary for the report. All technical terms are listed
in alphabetical order and defined. Writers may also define difficult words at
the bottom of each page in a footnote.
Example
Please note that a
glossary will normally
include all words that
require clear definition,
as well as any jargon.
This is a short sample of
what it may include.
GLOSSARY
Loss of permanent staff due to resignation
Inspection of accounts and process
documents of the company
Financial year January–December
Organogram Organisation/hierarchy chart of the company
Attrition
Audit
List of symbols and acronyms
In a technical report, the writer might use special symbols with specific
meanings. These should be listed and defined.
Example
Please note that this is
an example. The sample
report (on staff attrition)
is not a technical report
and so will not require
this section.
LIST OF SYMBOLS
∞ Tensile strength
Ω Ohm
V Volt
Λ Wavelength
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Body of the report
Introduction
The introduction prepares the reader for the report. It ensures that the reader:
• understands why the report is necessary
• is prepared for the report.
An effective introduction contains the following sections:
• Background to the investigation: This tells the reader why the investigation
was necessary. It provides the essential historical background to the
problem investigated. It can also refer to previous research done in this
field if applicable.
• Purposes of the report: This section tells the reader what the writer plans to
achieve in the report.
• Scope: This section tells the reader about the depth to which the investigator
has gone. It gives the reader an idea of the areas covered and what is
included and excluded from the report.
• Limitations: Writers also note the limitations of the report in terms of the
instructions. They should for example record the fact that they were unable
to get all the information because of a limitation of time or money. Or
perhaps they were unable to interview all the people that they intended to
because some of them were absent from work on the day of the interviews.
A limitation in the sample report of staff attrition could, for example, be
an instruction to examine the causes of the high staff attrition only. In this
case the writer would not make any recommendations for addressing these
staff losses, but only report on the reasons why the company is losing staff.
• Plan of development: The writer uses this section to prepare the reader for
the organisation of the report. It tells the reader what the main sections are
and their order in the report.
• Procedure for gathering information: If the procedure can be described very
briefly, it may be put in the introduction. If however the procedure is more
detailed and has used extensive qualitative or quantitative research, then it
should be put in a separate section following the introduction.
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Chapter 19: Reports
Example
Note the use of decimal
numbering and logical
formatting
First sentence clearly
states the subject of
the report
Clear statement of
the key issues
Note the impersonal
style
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background to the investigation
This report outlines the results of an investigation
into the reasons for an unusually high staff turnover
at the LibertyTiles Hazelwood branch over the 2012
financial year.
The Management team of LibertyTiles (Pty) Ltd was
concerned about the diminishing profits because
of high staff attrition at the branch for the 2012
financial year and requested an urgent investigation
into the causes of and potential solutions to the
problems.
The writer therefore undertook this report
immediately.
1.2. Purposes of the report
The purposes of this report are to:
• describe the purpose and procedure for
gathering information
• describe the causes of the attrition as
established by the investigation
• describe the results of the audit
• make determinations regarding the causes of
the attrition
• recommend action.
1.3. Scope and limitations of the report
1.3.1. Scope
This report covers an in-depth study into the
causes for and potential solutions to the
unusual staff attrition rate at the LibertyTiles
(Pty) Ltd Hazelwood branch.
1.3.2. Limitations
This investigation is limited to the
LibertyTiles (Pty) Ltd Hazelwood branch. No
other branches are included in this study.
Because of time constraints and the urgency
of this report, three staff members, who
were on annual leave at the time of the
enquiry, were not interviewed.
1.4. Plan of development
This report has been divided into four main
sections. The Introduction is followed by the
conclusions and recommendations. These are
followed by the results of the investigation itself.
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Procedure for gathering information
Here the investigators record how they gathered the information for
the report.
Example
Note the consistent
use of numbered
sub-headings. These
focus on the key
actions undertaken.
2. PROCEDURE FOR GATHERING INFORMATION
The writer of this report gathered the necessary
information by:
2.1. REVIEW OF ANNUAL SALES REPORT
Thorough review of LibertyTiles Hazelwood branch’s
2012 sales figures.
2.2. ANONYMOUS STAFF SURVEYS
Surveying of 35 current staff members.
2.3. INTERVIEWS WITH EX- AND CURRENT STAFF
MEMBERS
Detailed interviewing of four ex- and seven current
LibertyTiles Hazelwood staff members.
2.4. COMPLETE AUDIT OF LIBERTYTILES’ HAZELWOOD
OPERATIONS
Thorough examination of accounting, process
and HR policies and operations at LibertyTiles
Hazelwood branch.
2.5. CONSULTATIONS WITH SENIOR HR SPECIALIST
Consulting with Dr F.G. Smith, leading HR and
Labour Law specialist.
Findings
These are the facts of the investigation. The writer should set out these facts in
a logical, coherent and highly readable way. The writer should use:
• a multiple decimal numbering system
• specific major and minor headings
• good coherence in paragraphs
• good links between paragraphs.
The writer should guide the reader step-by-step through each stage of the
findings. It is important to connect your paragraphs in a logical way and to let
your reader know when you are moving from one finding to the next.
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Chapter 19: Reports
Example
Please note that this
example has been
shortened. Actual
reports contain a
significant amount of
detail in the Findings
section. This example
provides a sample of the
format you could follow.
5. RESULTS OF INVESTIGATION INTO HIGH STAFF
ATTRITION AT LIBERTYTILES (PTY) LTD, HAZELWOOD.
5.1. EXTENT OF STAFF ATTRITION
Over the period 1 January 2012 to 31 December
2012, a total of seven staff members resigned
from their positions at the Hazelwood branch. A
further four were dismissed by the existing Branch
Manager, Ms M. Kuhn. Three of these dismissals
appear to be procedurally unsound and unfair
according to South African Labour Legislation.
Please see the detailed report in Appendix I.
5.2. OUTCOME OF STAFF SURVEYS
Of the 35 current staff who completed the
anonymous surveys, it was clear that the majority
of them (31) perceive the current problem at
the branch to be the Branch Manager’s inability
to manage ethically and effectively according to
the approved policies and procedures used by
LibertyTiles (Pty) Ltd.
5.3. DESCRIPTION OF RESULTS FROM INTERVIEWS
One-on-one interviews were conducted with four
current employees and seven ex-employees to
establish the more specific reasons for the current
high attrition rate at the branch. These interviews
yielded significant insight into the practices and
issues of the Branch Manager, specifically:
5.3.1. Unfair labour practices in terms of leave
requests
5.3.2. Staffing irregularities
5.3.3. Unprofessional emotional outbursts
5.3.4. Irregularities with commission payments
5.4. AUDIT RESULTS
A full audit was conducted on the Hazelwood
branch’s records. Gross irregularities were detected
in all three of the areas investigated, as specified
below.
5.4.1. Financial audit
5.4.2. Human resources audit
5.4.3. Policies audit
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Conclusions
The conclusions are based on the facts gathered. They are the implications
of the facts or the insights that the writer has gained from the investigation.
Since writers express opinions here, they may use some emotive language (for
example ‘the situation warrants our immediate attention’) and relative words
(for example ‘it is possible to deduce that…’). However it is still important that
the content does not become too emotive (for example ‘it will be disastrous
if the situation is not solved immediately’). At this stage the writer should
not introduce any new information. Please note the bridging sentence at the
beginning of the example.
Example
Bridging sentence
Use of headings that
focus on the key
conclusions.
At this stage, do not
introduce any new
information (it should all
be information available
in the Findings section)
3. CONCLUSIONS
The writer has drawn the following conclusions from the
findings:
3.1. EXTENSIVE STAFF DISSATISFACTION WITH BRANCH
MANAGER
A majority of staff at the branch indicated
unhappiness with the branch manager, Ms M.
Kuhn’s HR practices, citing unfair labour practice
and vindictive behaviour.
3.2. IRREGULAR ACCOUNTING PRACTICES DETECTED
A total of R306 000 was allocated to Petty Cash
instead of Sales over the period June 2012
to September 2012. The branch bookkeeper
interviewed indicated that this was under explicit
instruction of Ms Kuhn.
3.3. BRANCH HR PRACTICES FLAWED
Staff interviewed noted unfair labour practices
including refusal and/or forced leave, withholding
of commission earned and flouting of LibertyTiles’
recruitment policy.
3.4. CORRECTIVE MEASURES AVAILABLE FOR
IMPROVEMENT
Consultation regarding the findings with HR and
Labour Law specialist, Dr F.G. Smith, yielded a plan
of action that is expected to return LibertyTiles
Hazelwood to profitability and stabilised staffing
within a year from implementation.
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Recommendations
The recommendations are based on the conclusions. They are the actions that
should be taken as a result of the findings and conclusions. Recommendations
are expressed by means of action words in the headings, for example
‘Implement’, ‘Undertake’ or ‘Promote’. If possible, the writer should give
details here. Recommendations should be expressed at as low a level of
abstraction as possible. Please note the bridging sentence at the beginning of
the example.
Example
Bridging sentence
Note the use of action
headings – these are
very important (use an
imperative verb to start
each one)
Should this be required,
provide any diagrams
necessary in this section
to give the reader exact
information.
4. RECOMMENDATIONS
As a result of the findings and conclusions, the writer
recommends the following:
4.1. CONDUCT DISCIPLINARY ACTION OF MS M. KUHN
Hold disciplinary enquiry, with a recommendation
of termination of employment and instigation of
criminal charges against Ms Kuhn into:
• misappropriation of funds to the value of
R306 000
• gross managerial misconduct
• violations of SA Labour Legislation.
4.2. PROMOTE CURRENT HAZELWOOD SALES MANAGER
TO BRANCH MANAGERIAL POSITION
Mr P. Baloyi has been identified as a suitable,
ethical and respected replacement for the Branch
Manager position.
4.3. IMPLEMENT DR SMITH’S PLAN OF ACTION AT THE
BRANCH
This will include direct intervention from Group CEO,
team-building exercises, and audit and adjustment
of faulty staffing and remunerations.
List of references
Writers need to acknowledge any work written by others that they have used.
In the South African context, the Harvard method is usually acceptable, but
it is important to establish whether or not a different system of referencing is
required before you begin the report. If you have used a superscript number
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system, the list of references will appear in the order in which they appeared.
The list of references is placed at the end of the major section or at the end of
the report in alphabetical order by surname.
Example
Note the use of numbers
that correlate with the
superscript references.
Please note that this
should only be used
when superscript
numbers have been
used in the text. If no
superscript numbers
are used, a Bibliography
should be used instead.
6. LIST OF REFERENCES
1. Koutsatis, J.K. 2010. Ethical human resources
practices in South Africa. Johannesburg: PKL
Publishers.
2. Madden, F. 2009. Disciplinary hearings in the new
South Africa. Cape Town: Juta Inc.
3. Adams, T. 2012. Accounting for Ethics.
Johannesburg: Nersa Inc.
Bibliography
A bibliography is used with a list of references if the writer uses the Harvard intext referencing system. The entries in the bibliography appear in alphabetical
order of surname of the authors and not in the order of their appearance in
the report. See Chapter 12 for guidelines in this regard.
Example
Note the absence of
numbers or bullets and
the alphabetical order of
the sources used.
7. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Adams, T. 2012. Accounting for Ethics. Johannesburg:
Nersa Inc.
Koutsatis, J.K. 2010. Ethical human resources practices
in South Africa. Johannesburg: PKL Publishers.
Madden, F. 2009. Disciplinary hearings in the new South
Africa. Cape Town: Juta Inc.
Appendices
Material that is too detailed for the body of the report is placed in the
appendices. The writer should refer to this material in the body of the report.
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Appendices should contain the following:
• detailed tables
• detailed calculations
• computer printouts
• examples of questionnaires/surveys
• very detailed specifications
• transcriptions of interviews
• case histories.
Example
In this case, there are
three Appendices, so they
should appear here one
after the other. Only one
is demonstrated here.
8. APPENDIX I
Detailed analysis of Causes of Staff Attrition at the
LibertyTiles (Pty) Ltd Hazelwood branch.
(The full analysis would appear here)
Letter or memorandum of transmittal
The letter or memorandum of transmittal introduces the report to the reader.
The report is an impersonal and objective message. In contrast, the letter or
memorandum is personal and friendly and should create goodwill between
the writer and the reader. A letter should be written to a client outside the firm
while a memorandum should be used inside a company.
Each of these should:
• introduce the report to the reader
• state how successful or unsuccessful you
think the investigation has been
• state what limitations there were on
the investigation
• refer briefly to your main findings
• refer briefly to your conclusions
and recommendations
• state what personal insights you gained
through the investigation.
Note
The report illustrated
in Example 2 on page
361 in this section
should be accompanied
by a memorandum of
transmittal, as shown in
Example 1 on the next
page.
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Example 1
A memorandum of transmittal introduces the report and is used inside the company.
LIBERTYTILES (PTY) LTD
MEMORANDUM
Note the format
requirements
Clear subject-line
TO:
Ms J. Hlongwane
FROM: Mr F. Tladi
DATE: 28 February 2013
____________________________________________________
INVESTIGATION INTO HIGH STAFF TURNOVER AND POOR
BRANCH PERFORMANCE FOR THE PERIOD JANUARY TO
DECEMBER 2012
Introduce the report
State its success
State any limitation
I have pleasure in attaching my report on the above matter.
I believe that my investigation has been successful in spite
of the limited time in which I had to complete it.
Use of headings to
help the reader
CONCLUSION: RECOMMENDATION
I found that significant problems were evident in the
Hazelwood branch, most notably with the current Branch
Manager, Ms Kuhn, and her style of management. Evidence
of gross maladministration and misappropriation of
commission and sales income was found. It is recommended
that Mr Baloyi, the current Sales Manager, be promoted to fill
the position of Ms Kuhn, who should be criminally charged
and held to disciplinary hearings. A human resources
intervention is also recommended to restore healthy team
functionality.
Briefly refer to main
findings, conclusion and
recommendations
Personal insights
THANKS TO THOSE WHO HELPED
This investigation proved a stimulating and challenging
task. I found all the branch staff, although currently
rather bewildered and frightened, to be very friendly and
cooperative. I also found Dr Smith’s expertise very helpful.
I believe that my conclusions and recommendations are
realistic.
Goodwill
Thank you for this opportunity.
Typed name
F. TLADI
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Example 2
A letter of transmittal is written to a client outside the company and is formal and
impersonal. It contains the same elements as the memorandum.
LIBERTYTILES (PTY) LTD
236 West Street, Industria, Johannesburg
Note the format
requirements
Ref: LTHR0023
28 February 2013
Mr T. Surrey
23 Peach Street
Johannesburg
2000
Clear subject-line
INVESTIGATION INTO HIGH STAFF TURNOVER AND POOR
BRANCH PERFORMANCE FOR THE PERIOD JANUARY TO
DECEMBER 2012
Note the impersonal,
formal language
We have pleasure in attaching our report on the above
matter. We have followed your instructions with care, and
believe that our investigation and report will reflect this.
Use of headings to
help the reader
CONCLUSION: RECOMMENDATION
Significant problems were detected in the Hazelwood
branch, most notably with the current Branch Manager, Ms
Kuhn, and her style of management. Evidence of gross
maladministration and misappropriation of commission and
sales income was found. It is recommended that Mr Baloyi,
the current Sales Manager, be promoted to fill the position
of Ms Kuhn, who should be criminally charged and held to
disciplinary hearings. A human resources intervention is
also recommended to restore healthy team functionality.
THANKS TO THOSE WHO HELPED
Thank you for awarding us with this task and for making
your staff available. We found all the staff to be very friendly
and cooperative. We also found Dr Smith’s expertise very
helpful.
Goodwill
Please inform us should you require any further
explanation. We will be happy to provide it.
Yours sincerely.
K. TLADI
Human Resources Director
Encl. Report
F.N./jj.
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Conclusion
This chapter has introduced you to the basic purposes, types and formats
of a business report and you should now feel comfortable enough to write
a summary report based on the templates provided in this chapter. Please
remember that although not all elements of a report will always be used, it is
important that you understand which ones are essential and that you are able
to adapt the general structures to your specific purpose. In addition, never
underestimate the importance of a well-written report. Readers of your report
are likely to be impressed by your competence if the report is well set out and
well written and it could just give your career a boost if these skills are noted
by the right people.
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CHAPTER
20
INSTRUCTIONAL GRAPHICS
Introduction
Communicating information by using graphical images, also known as
instructional graphics, helps to explain data or text. However, while graphics
may be used to enhance the meaning of text elements, they should be
accompanied by explanatory text to ensure that the intended meaning or
interpretation is made clear. In this chapter, each graphical example will have
explanatory text where it is needed.
Technical devices, such as computers installed with a graphics creation
and manipulation software package, are usually used to create these graphics.
For example, Microsoft® Excel™ may be used to generate graphs from data
captured on spreadsheets.
In this chapter we will be looking at:
• what instructional graphics are
• the functions of instructional graphics
• types of instructional graphics
• the suitability of certain instructional graphics for a specific audience
• design techniques for graphics
• bias in the presentation of graphics.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• use a range of graphics, such as tables, pie charts, line graphs, diagrams
and cartoons to present information
• design graphics that your readers can understand
• place graphics in a text where they are functional and needed
• integrate graphics into a text, using a proper introduction above the graphic
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•
•
•
•
number each graphic and give each one a title or caption
use graphics to show relationships that are difficult to express verbally
use graphics to show trends and make relationships between numbers clear
use graphics to attract attention to key issues.
What are instructional graphics?
Instructional graphics are a form of communication that uses graphics, such
as tables, bar graphs, line graphs, cartoons, pictures and pictograms. These
graphics often combine numbers, shapes and words. Some people view
them as forms of non-verbal communication. However, this book defines
them as graphics and instructional graphics because words and numbers,
which form part of verbal communication, are often included. The term
‘non‑verbal’ communication, as explained earlier in this book, is reserved for
communication that excludes words.
The purpose and function of instructional graphics
Graphics help senders to communicate more effectively and instructional
graphics have the following characteristics:
• Descriptive to show what an object looks like, for example using a picture
of a rose to show someone what a rose looks like.
• Expressive to make an impact on the reader, for example using a picture of
a beaten, abused woman in a campaign against women abuse.
• Constructional to show how parts of something fit together into the whole,
for example showing how the parts of a motor-vehicle engine fit together
to form the engine.
• Functional to show a process in a simplified manner, for example using
graphics to show the process of applying for a driver’s license.
• Logico-mathematical to display mathematical concepts such as a curve
graph or Bell-curve. Some line graphs and charts with a scaled X and Y axis
also fall into this category.
• Algorithmic to show a holistic picture of a range of possibilities.
• Data display to illustrate textual data visually, for example using a pie chart
to display the demographics of customers of an organisation.
The purpose of instructional graphics can be summarised as follows:
• to show groups of numbers that would be difficult to explain in a
written message
• to show relationships that would take many sentences to explain
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• to provide a quick visual impression that enables a reader to compare
amounts quickly.
These graphics use elements that a writer cannot explain by using words only.
These elements include the use of:
• space, as in tables
• shapes, as in bar graphs, illustrations or pictograms
• colours, to make points stand out
• lines, as in line graphs and algorithms to show relationships and
stage‑by‑stage procedures
• more than one dimension, such as length, breadth and even depth.
Good visuals have a greater impact than just the spoken or written word. The
combination of a spoken and visual message can be twice as powerful as the
spoken message on its own. In the same way, graphics add visual appeal to
a written message. They also help to explain difficult ideas, show relationships,
simplify and summarise.
Types of instructional graphics
Instructional graphics can be classified into three main types:
1. representational graphics
2. analogical graphics
3. arbitrary graphics.
Representational graphics
Representational graphics vary in detail. They could be
a line drawing or a photograph. The aim of this graphic
is to closely resemble the object that it depicts. For
example, a stick figure can represent a human being.
Analogical graphics
aw 20.3.2-Love
An analogical graphic can show one thing but,
by anology, imply something completely different.
For example, a graphic of a heart might be shown
to illustrate the concept of love.
Arbitrary graphics
aw 20.3.1-Stick figure representing human being
aw 20.3.2-Love
aw 20.3.1-Stick figure representing human be
Arbitrary graphics include graphics that have no real live counterpart that
they are attempting to portray and therefore include things such as tables,
charts and cognitive or mind maps.
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In this chapter we will specifically look at the use of the following types
of graphics:
• tables
• area graphs (pie charts)
• bar graphs
• histograms
• the Gantt chart
• line graphs
• diagrams
• pictograms
• maps
• hierarchical flow charts
• flow charts
• cartoons.
Tables
A table is any grouping of numbers and other information into rows and
columns. Tables are very effective for presenting large amounts of information
in a small space. A table should include the sections shown below.
How to format a table
Table number and title of table, for example: Table 1 Formatting a table
STUB HEADING
COLUMN HEADING
Sub-heading
Sub-heading
Every table should be numbered above the table. Tables can be numbered
from the beginning to the end of a whole report. They can also be numbered
within each chapter.
Title of table:
Every table should have a clear title telling the reader exactly what the table
is about. This title appears above the table.
Stub heading:
This heading is at the top of the left-hand column. The items in this column
refer to information across the table.
Column heading: This heading is a general heading that describes the data running in the
columns.
Sub-headings:
Each sub-heading describes the data in that column.
Table number:
Note
If the table has been taken from another source, then a proper reference should be given below
the table.
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Examples
Table 20.1 Machine breakdowns by machine at XYZ factory
MONTHS
January
February
March
April
May
June
MACHINE BREAKDOWNS
Machine One
Machine Two
Machine Three
2
1
5
7
6
8
5
4
7
8
6
4
6
9
8
5
3
5
In the above table, the reader’s eye is guided downward. If it is important to guide
the reader’s eye across, then lines should be ruled horizontally rather than vertically.
The following example illustrates tables with lines drawn horizontally or vertically.
Table 20.2 Machine breakdowns by month at XYZ factory
MONTHS
MACHINE BREAKDOWNS
Machine One
Machine Two
Machine Three
January
2
5
6
February
1
4
9
March
5
7
8
April
7
8
5
May
6
6
3
June
8
4
5
The table above stresses the machines. The table below stresses the months. If a
fully ruled table is used, then it is a good technique to highlight key numbers. The
table below also illustrates this technique. Note that the table is not complete.
Table 20.3 Machine breakdowns by month at XYZ factory
MONTHS
MACHINE BREAKDOWNS
Machine One
Machine Two
Machine Three
January
2
5
6
February
1
4
9
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Note
In the previous table, the 9 has been highlighted because it is significant.
Tables are suited to a variety of audiences, from lay to expert, according to the
tables’ complexity. Very detailed tables are difficult for a lay audience.
Area graphs
These graphs, also called circle graphs and pie-charts, show how a total or
whole area is divided up. They usually display the percentages of overall
amounts in a similar way to big and small slices of a cake.
Area graphs are simple and well suited to a lay audience. Since it is difficult
to guess proportions accurately, these charts give a general impression and are
not suitable for showing exact amounts (unless accompanied by numerical
labels indicating percentages).
Figure 20.1 below shows an example of a pie chart or
Note
area graph. Note that the largest proportion is given first.
All graphic devices
The graph should be viewed clockwise. To have the best
other than tables
are called figures.
impact, area graphs should be divided into a maximum
The title is normally
of five or six sectors.
put below the figure.
Note that it is helpful to put in figures to guide
the audience.
Office expenses
10%
Repairs
15%
Salaries
40%
Pensions
35%
Figure 20.1 An example of a pie chart, showing budget allocations by percentage
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Various styles of pie charts are available, including edged and exploded views
of pie charts. These all show the same information but use a different visual
perspective of the chart itself. The expenses for the reporting period in the pie
chart in Figure 20.1 were three-quarter Human Resources related, with other
expenses accounting for the difference.
Bar graphs
Bar graphs are easy to read. They are good for showing discrete or separate
information and for comparing amounts. Bar graphs may be presented
horizontally or vertically. Most bar graphs are presented vertically. However,
if a sender wishes to show stopping times for motor cars, for example, then
horizontal bars would be effective (see Figure 20.6 on page 371). Bar graphs
are suitable for a lay audience.There are various types of bar graphs.
The most often used bar graphs are:
• single bar
• multiple bar
• cumulative bar.
Figures 20.2 to 20.5 illustrate these various types of bar graphs.
In Figure 20.2 three amounts are compared. Note the reference lines. They
are useful if the sender wishes to help the receiver read off exact amounts.
An exact amount could also be written at the top of each column if this
is important.
Sales in 1 000s
of Rands
R27 000
25
R22 000
20
15
R16 000
10
5
0
City
One
City
Two
City
Three
Figure 20.2 Example of a single bar chart showing a comparison of book sales by city
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Multiple bar charts as shown in Figure 20.3 are very useful for comparison.
Note the use of a key. There should always be a space between the clusters
of bars. This type of bar shows how a total can be broken into component
parts. Each bar in this illustration is divided into three components. Each
component shows the proportion of a total.
Sales in 1 000s
of Rands
KEY
25
Textbooks
20
Non-fiction
15
Novels
10
5
0
City
One
City
Two
City
Three
Figure 20.3 Comparison of sales of three types of books in three cities
Figure 20.3 could be presented in two other ways:
1. As a set of three cumulative bars with each bar showing a total. (See
Figure 20.4 below.)
Sales in 1 000s
of Rands
30
KEY
25
Textbooks
20
Non-fiction
15
Novels
10
5
0
City
One
City
Two
City
Three
Figure 20.4 Cumulative bars showing the amounts spent on three types of books in three cities
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2.
As a set of three bars showing proportions out of 100%. (See
Figure 20.5 below.)
Percentage of
total sold
KEY
100
Textbooks
75
Non-fiction
Novels
50
25
0
City
One
City
Three
City
Two
Figure 20.5 Cumulative bars showing the percentage of three types of books sold in three cities
Cumulative charts can be difficult to interpret by lay audiences, since the
relative sizes of the middle sections may be visually difficult to identify and
assess quickly. Such information may be better conveyed in tabular form.
Horizontal bar graph
The orientation of the graph in Figure 20.6 lends itself to easier interpretation
by lay audiences, since it refers to distances travelled in a horizontal direction
along the ground. The graph illustrates the stopping distance in a vehicle after
the driver has consumed alcohol.
Beer consumption
in ml
250
350
550
750
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Stopping distance in metres
Figure 20.6 Example of a horizontal bar graph illustrating stopping distances in a vehicle after
the drive has been drinking beer
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Bar graphs showing negative figures
Sometimes you may wish to show positive and negative figures on a bar
graph. Figure 20.7 shows you how to do this. This type of bar graph is called
a bilateral bar chart.
20
15
15
11
10
8
5
5
6
4
0
–3
–5
–5
–8
–10
Key:
Bookshop A
Bookshop B
Bookshop C
Figure 20.7 An example of a bilateral bar chart showing profits and losses made in
three bookshops
Negative amounts fall under the ‘0’ line, which represents the ‘break-even’
point for each shop. In this chart, the actual amounts of earnings and expense
are not shown, only the net profit or loss.
Histograms
Histograms are similar to bar graphs but they have a continuous base. They
show the distribution of something, such as rainfall, in terms of amounts or
frequencies. These amounts or frequencies are shown over equal intervals
such as months, weeks or days. Histograms are used when these intervals are
discrete rather than continuous. The area contained within the lines gives
definite information. (See Figure 20.8 on the following page.) Histograms are
aimed at an expert or technical audience.
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Petrol consumption
in litres
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep Oct
Nov
Dec
Figure 20.8 Histogram showing monthly consumption of petrol
Gantt chart
Gantt charts are a specialised type of bar chart. They are used in activity
planning to show when each stage in the process starts and finishes. (See
Figure 20.9 below.) Each bar shows the starting and finishing dates for
component tasks of a project. Note that some activities may commence
before others have been fully completed. Gantt charts may not be used in
day-to-day operations in a particular type of business, but they may become
useful for example when planning a move to new offices.
Weeks
1
Job 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Foundations
Job 2
Job 3
Job 4
Job 5
Piping
Brickwork
Plumbing
Roofing
Figure 20.9 Gantt chart to show job planning over ten weeks
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Line graphs
Line graphs are used to show a continuous relationship between two variables.
The independent variable is shown on the horizontal axis. The dependent
variable is shown on the vertical axis.
Line graphs are used by expert audiences. They are useful for showing
trends. If senders want amounts to be read off, they should provide a grid.
Line graphs are divided into three types:
• jagged-line graph
• curve graph
• cumulative jagged-line graph.
Each type of line graph is illustrated here.
Jagged-line graph: This type of graph is useful for showing trends. The
information could also be presented in the form of a bar graph. The jaggedline graph is used when the relationship between the two variables is suggested
rather than defined exactly. (See Figure 20.10 below.)
Numbers sold
in thousands
25
20
15
Cars
10
5
1997
Trucks
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
Figure 20.10 Jagged-line graph to compare sales of trucks and cars from 1997 to 2003
Curve graph: The curve graph shows a relationship between two variables
when the relationship between the two can be defined. (See Figure 20.11 on
the following page.) This type of graph is useful in company reports.
Note
The term ‘curve’ is also used to refer to an ordinary line graph. You therefore need to check the
wording of any instructions very carefully.
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Temperature
in degrees Celcius
25
20
15
10
5
Time in hours
Figure 20.11 Example of a curve graph to show the relationship between time and temperature
Cumulative jagged-line graph: This type of graph is
related to the cumulative bar graph but it shows
subdivisions in the dependent variable. The
dependent variable could, for example, be total
profits. The subdivisions could show that these
profits come from three sources – wines, brandy and
beer, for example. (See Figure 20.12 below.)
Note
In the graph below, the
total profit for each year
is shown by the top line.
The shaded sections
between the lines show
the amount of profit
contributed by each
category.
Profit in
1 000s of Rands
25
20
15
Wines
10
Brandy
5
Beer
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
Figure 20.12 Example of a cumulative jagged-line graph to show profits made from beer,
brandy and wines from 1997 to 2003
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Cumulative jagged-line charts can be difficult to interpret by lay audiences
since the relative sizes of the middle sections of such charts may be visually
difficult to identify and assess quickly. Such information may be better
conveyed in tabular form.
Diagrams and illustrations
diagrams and illustrations give information in a wide variety of messages.
They are very useful for simplifying complex material and ideas, show views
that a camera could not show and are useful for a wide audience.
Figure 20.13 is an illustration that is used to simplify a complex assembly.
Arrows are used to point to specific parts.
Note
Illustrations are often
used to show general
and specific points in
messages. If you use a
illustration for a specific
point, use an arrow to
show the reader where
to look. Do not let
readers guess what the
illustration shows.
Figure 20.13 Illustration showing how to assemble a motor car suspension system
The illustration depicts an exploded view of suspension components of a
motor vehicle. It has been created so that motor car assembly technicians
can better understand that, in order to ensure that the tyre maintains contact
with the road, these components should be kept as light as possible without
compromising their strength.
A diagram is more abstract than an illustration. Figure 20.14 illustrates the
communication process.
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FEEDBACK
Sender
MESSAGE
Receiver
NOISE
Figure 20.14 Diagram to show the communication process
Here a basic process of the communication of a message is shown. As noise
is inserted into the channel, the version of the message at the receiver’s end
may be modified from the original. The feedback loop helps to ensure that
the correct message has been communicated.
Pictograms
Pictograms use simplified figures to show statistical and other information.
They give general information only and are informal. They are very useful
for a lay audience, particularly if people speak different languages. (See
Figure 20.15 below.)
Figure 20.15
Examples of pictograms
Figure 20.15 Examples of pictograms
Pictograms should use easily recognisable pictorial representations of the
concepts they represent. Which of those in the above diagram are recognisable
and universal enough to convey meaning on their own?
From left to right, these could represent:
• a ballot box or voting station
• restrooms (often accompanied by a directional arrow)
• a charitable cause indicated by a wearable length of ribbon (a red ribbon is
often associated with HIV/Aids, while pink is associated with breast cancer).
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Do you recognise these pictograms easily? Would your intended audience
also recognise them and interpret them in the same way?
The information given in pictograms is often elementary. The pictograms
below, for example, give a very rough idea of the growth in the number of
women employed over three years.
2001
2002
KEY
2003
= 1 000 women
Figure 20.16 Pictograms to illustrate the growth in the number of women employed from
Figure 20.16
2001 to 2003
Pictograms to illustrate the growth in the number of women employed from 2001 to 2003
These pictograms were created by a recruitment agency to show the success of
its targeted recruitment strategy.
Maps
These vary from the very simple to the highly technical and appeal to a wide
audience. However, a key should always be provided.
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KEY
Tropical fruits
Citrus
Maize
Wheat
Figure 20.17 Map to show distribution of cropsFigure
in Africa
20.17
Map to show distribution of crops in Africa
This map has been used to show that maize is a common African staple and
also how it may be used for trade within African countries.
Hierarchical flow charts
These are very useful to show how groups of people work together in an
organisation. They show relationships in a hierarchy. They are sometimes
called an organisational chart or organogram.
Manager
Assistant
managers
Clerks
20.18
Figure 20.18 Hierarchical flow chart to show Figure
how managers
and clerks are organised
Hierarchical flow chart to show how managers and clerks are organised
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Organisational hierarchies increase in authority up the chart and decrease
down the chart as shown in the diagram. Clerks (those with the lowest
authority), report to assistant managers, who then report to a manager (with
the highest authority). It is important to note that this diagram depicts only
part of the overall organisational structure, since the managers will themselves
have to report activity and performance to a higher level of authority.
Flow charts
Flow charts help readers to understand each step in a process. Lines are used
to show the flow of information, goods or instructions. Readers are able to
follow a path and to decide what information is relevant to them.
Flow charts are aimed at educated lay audiences and also at specialists.
The simple chart in Figure 20.19 illustrates a set of stages in decision-making.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
Figure 20.19 Example of a flow chart to show the decision-making process
In the flowchart above, Figure A is a starting point, B is an action and C and E
are decision points. The flow has ended when D or G are reached.
Cartoons
Cartoons are generally used for a lay or non-specialist audience. They are
often used as a pictorial story instead of writing. They are used to entertain,
educate, advertise and make social comment. (See Figure 20.20 on the
following page.)
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Figure 20.20 A cartoon used as social commentary to make people think more critically
about feminist concerns
The interpretation of cartoons, especially those of a satirical nature, is generally
left up to the reader. In the cartoon above, it is intended that the reader
recognises that patriarchy and male domination can take on different forms,
depending on a person’s cultural perspective. From a feminist perspective, both
patriarchy and male domination are a form of oppression and exploitation.
This satirical, feminist cartoon is an attempt to sensitise women of all cultures
to this fact. It is also an indication that women – and often people in general
– are often oblivious to the fact that they are being oppressed or exploited in
their own culture, yet they can recognise it in an altered form in a different
culture.
Integration of graphics into a written message
Graphics should be placed in the text where they are referred to. They will have
the greatest impact in these positions. The most effective way of integrating a
graphic is to:
• refer to the graphic in the text above the graphic
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• place the graphic after the introduction
• analyse the graphic once the reader has been able to examine it.
The writer should never assume that a reader will understand exactly what
the graphic illustrates. Always provide an explanation. The example below
illustrates the technique.
Example
The table below illustrates the motor car sales figures for two types of cars for 2010
and 2011. The sales figures for Car A and Car B are compared.
Table 5.2 Motor car sales figures for 2010 and 2011
NUMBERS SOLD BY YEAR
TYPES OF MOTOR CAR
CAR A
CAR B
2010
15 000
10 000
2011
10 000
6 000
The figures above show that there has been a decline in sales for both types of
motor car. Please note the extreme drop in sales of Car B in 2011. The figure of
6 000 is a severe blow to the retail trade.
Designing graphics
Make sure that you establish why you are presenting a graphic. Then analyse
your audience. Once you have established your purpose and analysed your
audience, then you can design a suitable graphic. Pay special attention to:
• the size of the graphic
• the amount of material to be included
• the title of the graphic
• the wording of the captions
• the clarity of the graphic for the audience
• the accuracy of the graphic
• the integration of the graphic into your message.
Once you have the final product, do a thorough check by asking yourself the
questions in the checklist on the following page.
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Graphics checklist
Have I:
◗
provided good contrasts between adjacent sections by means of effective shading?
◗
used dark lines around bars to make each bar stand out?
◗
used shading to emphasise shapes and volumes?
◗
written horizontal labels?
◗
provided a key?
◗
written labels at the ends of lines rather than underneath them?
◗
provided a clear title?
Bias in instructional graphics
When you design a graphic try to avoid bias. If you are interpreting someone
else’s graphic, try to decide whether it is biased or not. Bias may be introduced
into graphics by:
• choosing a deceptive scale
• omitting the zero on a scale and starting with a higher number
• labelling ambiguously
• selecting data that is favourable and leaving out unfavourable data
• drawing deceptive pictograms that give a distorted view of trends, statistics
or numbers
• presenting diagrams or illustrations with the wrong perspective.
Conclusion
Graphics provide a visual accompaniment to text and, while the adage may
claim that ‘a picture is worth a thousand words’, words are an essential
accompaniment to graphical elements, providing explanation and context.
Graphics should be carefully chosen in order to ensure that they add weight
to an argument or point rather than detract from or dilute the point.
Graphics are powerful elements and can extend the accessibility of the
material beyond what is achievable when readers are faced with text-only
documents. Graphics help to explain complex concepts, relationships
between objects or people, trends over time and steps in a process.
Well-selected graphical elements in a document may help an organisation’s
ability to communicate effectively with its employees, customers and suppliers
and to ensure business success.
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CHAPTER
21
ORAL MESSAGES
Introduction
For some people, standing up in front of a group of people and talking is one
of the most terrifying things they could be asked to do. In fact, research shows
that some people fear public speaking more than death. This however does
not have to be the case. The anxiety of public speaking often comes from not
knowing what to expect: will the audience understand what I am saying, what
if I say the wrong thing, what if I forget what I need to say, what if I stumble
over my words, will I be able to keep them interested, will they judge me? All
of these are valid concerns, but the anxiety they produce can be reduced by
planning ahead: understanding what the expectations of the audience are,
having an appropriate presentation drafted, knowing which presentation
method would be best suited for the audience and practising the presentation
as much as possible.
This chapter covers the following aspects of oral messages:
• formats for a presentation and oral report
• preparing a presentation or oral report
• preparing a persuasive presentation
• presenting a speech or oral report
• the credibility of the speaker
• using a range of visual aids
• answering questions.
Objectives
Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• describe the differences in the formats for a presentation and an oral report
• prepare a presentation or an oral report
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• write a business report adhering to the principles and elements of a short
oral report
• evaluate a short oral report according to criteria for the principles and
elements of a short oral report
• prepare a persuasive presentation
• describe what is meant by the speaker’s credibility
• describe the advantages and disadvantages of using audio-visual aids
• discuss guidelines for controlling questions
• describe types of difficult questions and ways of answering them.
Formats for a presentation and an oral report
Both a presentation and an oral report are considered oral messages. Each of
these has a specific format.
Format for a presentation
A presentation has a simple structure:
• a beginning
• a middle
• an end.
Beginning of the presentation
The beginning of your presentation is very important and it is crucial that you
create a good first impression. Listeners make up their minds very quickly
about the speaker’s attitude towards them and towards his or her subject, as
well as his or her knowledge of the subject. These impressions will influence
whether or not they will see you, the speaker, as a credible presenter.
In the beginning of your presentation, you should tell your audience:
• what you are going to tell them
• why they should be listening to you
• what they will gain from listening to you and your presentation.
As a presenter, you want to capture your audience’s attention at the onset. You
can make use of one or more of the following techniques to do this:
• Ask an interesting question or a couple of interesting questions (but not
too many). In this way, you will get your audience involved by making
them think about your topic.
• Refer to current or recent events that link with your topic and give it
added interest.
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• Begin with an unusual, interesting statement or statistic that attracts interest.
• Refer to a specific problem that your audience can relate to and get them
thinking about their topic.
• Show a diagram, picture or object to attract interest. You can also use a
humorous cartoon related to your topic. However be careful with humour.
Do not alienate your audience through inappropriate or potentially
offensive humour.
• State the main points of the presentation.
Middle of the presentation
The middle is often the weakest part of the presentation and if speakers are
not well prepared they can easily lose their audience. To avoid this, you should
ensure that you:
• attract and maintain your audience’s attention with good non-verbal
communication, such as good eye contact
• organise your talk very well
• present the material coherently, with logical transitions so as not to
confuse the audience
• use audio-visual aids to back up key points and stimulate interest
• communicate with your audience through good eye contact and by
talking to them, not simply reading to them. You will lose your audience
very quickly if you read to them, sound as if you have memorised your
presentation or if you appear unnatural.
End of the presentation
You should always ensure that you end any presentation on a high note. The
end of the presentation should leave a lasting impression. Speakers should
not allow their presentation to fade out. You can select from the techniques
below to achieve the necessary impact.
• Summarise the main points and stress the most important point you want
to make.
• Do not introduce new material at the end of your presentation because it
will confuse your audience.
• End with an appeal for action.
• Ask a challenging question.
• Use a quotation, statistics or vivid illustration to sum up the main idea.
• Remind the audience why the key points are important to them.
• End your presentation with a memorable story related to your topic or
with an interesting analogy.
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Format for an oral report
An oral report is normally based on a written report. It will therefore follow
the format of a written report.
People normally present reports because they have been instructed to:
• investigate a problem
• report on the feasibility of a project
• report back on the progress of a project
• report on a situation.
An oral report therefore has a more rigid format than a general presentation.
The format is as follows.
Introduction
• A brief statement of the terms of reference (also called a brief) or
instructions given to the presenter. The terms of reference should include:
• the name of the person who gave the instructions
• the date on which the instructions were given
• the main instructions given.
• An overview or summary of the report. This summary should include:
• a statement of why the audience needs to listen to the report
• a statement of what the audience will gain from the report
• a brief description of the background to the report
• a brief statement of the purpose(s) of the report
• a brief summary of the key findings
• the main conclusions
• the main recommendations.
Body of the oral report
• A brief statement of the procedures that were used to gather the information.
These could for example include interviews, site inspections, the reading
of articles or the use of special equipment.
• Support your main findings with the use of visual aids, such as using
PowerPoint® presentation software or a flip chart.
Conclusions
• These are the insights gained from their facts and the implications.
• Again, do not introduce new information at this stage because it will only
confuse your audience.
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Recommendations
• These are the proposed actions to be taken as a result of the findings and
the conclusions.
Preparing a presentation or oral report
A good oral presentation results from careful preparation. The following
procedure is strongly recommended.
• Know your topic.
• Brainstorm the topic: try to establish what you already know about the
topic and what further information you need. Brainstorming will also
help you generate new and innovative ideas.
• Research the topic: it is unlikely that you will have enough knowledge
of the subject to begin with, so you will need to use your reading and
research skills to read up on the topic.
• Take notes: you must keep track of your research so while reading up on
the subject use your note-making skills to collect your data. Remember
to take down references as well, as you may need that information at a
later stage.
• Decide on your purposes. These could, for example, be (Cleary, 2003:99):
• to inform
• to persuade
• to entertain.
• Analyse the needs of your audience.
It is essential to consider your audience. Keep the following in mind when
you analyse the needs of your audience.
• Age: to some extent the age of your audience will determine the
formality of the presentation and the type of language you need to
use. Generally the older the audience, the more formally you should
speak and the more complex and sophisticated your language and
vocabulary can be.
• Situation: the environment and occasion can impact on language in
terms of the register and the delivery of the presentation. The style of
delivery and register may differ in more formal settings, where they
would need to be more proper. Your delivery may also involve different
visual aids depending on the situation.
• Culture: in our multicultural society we need to be aware of differences
in culture, because we do not want to offend anyone and need to be
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•
•
•
•
•
more inclusive of cultural differences. Therefore you must be aware of
the cultural diversity of an audience, so that when you deliver your
presentation you can include everyone while not offending anyone.
• Degree of sophistication of the audience: if your audience has specialised
knowledge of the topic, this may influence your language, content and
delivery. Your language could include more specialised terminology and
your content may not have to include so many in-depth explanations.
This is because your audience should understand both the language and
the concepts under discussion. Your delivery could then include more
specialised visual aids. However if the audience consists of mostly lay
people, your terminology would be limited, your explanations would
have to be more developed and your delivery would need to include
either simpler visual aids or longer explanations of the visual aids.
Decide what your audience needs to know or what they should do at the
end of your presentation. Knowing this will assist you in keeping your
presentation focused.
Prepare a mind map of your ideas.
Prepare a topic outline of your selected key and supporting ideas. This will
give you the body of your talk or report.
Add the Introduction and Conclusion to your plan.
Once you are satisfied with your plan, prepare postcard-size cue cards as
your notes. Ensure that you:
• number each card
• write down only the key points in large letters for easy reading
• write on one side only
• tie the cards together so that you can work your way through them
without dropping them or getting them mixed up.
Preparing a persuasive presentation
A persuasive presentation needs a special approach. Speakers would find it
easier if they could base all persuasion purely on facts. However this is often
not possible. In reality they have to use a combination of facts and personal
appeal based on the audience’s needs and goals in order to persuade them to
take a particular action.
Persuasion can be seen as an attempt by a person or group to change
the attitudes, beliefs or behaviour of another person or group. Defining
persuasion in this way stresses that persuaders have to take into account the
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beliefs, attitudes, needs and goals of others. Persuaders should also find out
at the start if the audience is likely to be positive or negative towards them
and their ideas. All of us are suspicious of people who try to persuade us to do
something, especially if it is something against our will. You should therefore
be cautious that you do not make your audience suspicious or hostile towards
you in your attempts to persuade them.
Approaches to persuasion
• The logical appeal as an approach to persuasion makes use of hard facts as
a basis. When you make use of fact you can use either an inductive or a
deductive approach.
Note
• The inductive approach uses specific
examples as a basis for making a
◗
Use both sides of an argument
to persuade people. Do not
general statement. This approach is
simply argue from one point
useful if your audience starts off against
of view.
your view. If you are a salesperson for
◗
If you feel that your audience
a pharmaceutical company, you could,
is hostile, start with points with
which they can agree. Then
for example show several specific
move to your point of view.
results of tests that support the benefits
◗
In order to be persuasive you
of the drug you need to sell and then
need to show that you have
move towards a general statement of
great knowledge of the facts.
◗
You can also persuade people
your product, such as how it benefits a
through your own attitudes
person’s overall health.
and enthusiasm.
• The deductive approach starts with
a general statement and moves to
specific statements to back it up. This approach is effective if you feel
that your audience is likely to accept your general statement as long as
you support it with specific examples. You will therefore start by saying
your product contributes significantly to a person’s overall health and
then you can provide specific examples in the form of test results to
support this claim.
• The personal appeal as an approach to persuasion is an approach where you
ask people to trust you based on your own reputation or credibility.
• You can also use a psychological appeal, which is based on an analysis of
the audience’s needs, desires and motives. It should stress the benefits to
the audience.
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Plan for a persuasive message
The outline plan for a persuasive presentation is suggested below:
• Introduction
• Gain the audience’s attention.
• Establish common ground with the audience.
• Work on points of agreement with the audience.
• Stress the advantages for the audience.
• The middle
• Develop the argument in terms of its advantages and disadvantages.
• Work from the problem to the solution.
• Keep stressing the advantages to the audience.
• The end
• Stress the desired action you want the audience to take and how they
will benefit from taking that action.
Presenting the speech or report
Once you have prepared your speech or report, you should rehearse it in front of
an audience. Encourage your audience to discuss any shortcoming or problems
with you. Check your timing. If you have been allocated 40 minutes, make sure
you stay within that time limit. Ensure that you can use your audio-visual aids
effectively and within the time limit. Check the balance of your presentation so
that you allocate the correct time to each stage and, depending on the type of
presentation, leave a few minutes at the end for answering questions.
When you present your speech or oral report pay special attention to:
• non-verbal communication, particularly paralanguage, eye contact, hand
movements and the way you stand (stand evenly on both feet, do not cross
your arms and legs or twist your back, use natural gestures to emphasise
points and keep eye contact with the audience)
• your dress and general appearance
• your level of enthusiasm
• your style
• the quality of your audio-visual aids and the way in which you use them.
For example, it will not create a favourable impression if your presentation
is full of spelling mistakes, your slides contain too much information or
you use too many different types of fonts in different sizes.
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• showing genuine concern for your audience
• making immediate eye contact with your audience and not reading too
much from your cards or slides.
Make sure that you:
• speak with a lively voice, using a personal style
• speak clearly
• speak at a speed that allows your audience to tune into your voice
• vary your speed
• use your voice to emphasise key points
• use pauses for impact.
The speaker’s credibility
A speaker’s credibility is vital. If a message is to have any impact, the audience
must believe in the speaker. You may be perceived as a credible speaker when
your audience finds you trustworthy, convincing or believable and when you
have a certain level of authority. Your intentions towards the audience may
also influence your credibility. However, credibility is not a characteristic
of the presenter; it is a perception of the receiver. Credibility is therefore
conferred on a sender by the receiver.
Credibility is also dynamic in that it changes all the time and may change
from the beginning of a presentation to the end. For example, you may be a
credible source when it comes to communication but not when it comes to
quantum physics. Also, for example if you are young, your audience may first
think that you cannot be a credible source due to a lack of experience given
your age. However if you are very knowledgeable, their perception of you will
change during your presentation and they will then perceive you as a credible
source based on your knowledge.
In presentations, three kinds of credibility are recognised:
• Initial credibility is conferred on the speaker before he or she starts. This is
based on what the audience believes about the speaker. In the example
above, they may believe you cannot know much because of your young age.
• Derived credibility is conferred on a speaker during the presentation. It is
based on:
• the way the speaker puts across the message
• the impact of the message
• the quality of the speaker’s delivery.
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• Terminal credibility is conferred on a speaker at the end of the presentation.
For example, after proving to be knowledgeable about the topic despite
your age, the audience will conclude at the end of your presentation that
you are indeed a credible source.
Since your audience’s perception of your credibility can change during a
presentation, it is vital that you pay attention to every stage of a presentation.
Achieving credibility
Speakers can make themselves credible by:
• paying very careful attention to the beginning of the message to make a
good first impression
• ensuring that they are introduced by someone who the audience respects
• paying close attention to their appearance
• selecting their ideas carefully and supporting what the audience likes or
can identify with
• using facts to back up general statements
• ensuring their delivery is excellent
• establishing common ground with the audience
• appearing open-minded and sincere
• ending on a powerful note.
Using audio-visual aids
Audio-visual aids are essential if you want your audience to remember points.
The advantage of using audio-visual aids is that they:
• create an immediate impact
• make ideas more concrete
• emphasise and reinforce key points
• give variety to a presentation
• help to convey ideas if time is limited
• create an aura of professional competence if well presented
• guide the speaker and the audience
• help to keep the attention of the audience.
Audio-visual aids should support the presentation or report. They should
never replace it. Keep in mind that audio-visual aids should:
• not be over-used because they could destroy the balance of the presentation
or report
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• be audible, visible, simple and immediately understandable
• be well-planned
• be kept on long enough for the audience to listen, look at and absorb
the material
• work efficiently
• look professional.
Let’s briefly look at the advantages and disadvantages of the following
audio‑visual aids:
• digital presentations such as PowerPoint®-based presentations
• video and audio aids
• flip charts
• white boards
• posters
• models.
Table 21.1 Advantages and disadvantages of digital presentations
DIGITAL PRESENTATIONS
Advantages
Disadvantages
• The major advantage is that you
• Disadvantages are that the laptop
are able to create an interactive
presentation that can include:
• Microsoft®Word-based
presentations
• images (photographs, graphs,
cartoons, etc.)
• videos and clips
• audio material
• hyperlinks to websites
all of which may assist in creating
an all-inclusive and engaging
presentation.
Presentations
can be created that
•
use a wide range of point sizes,
fonts and styles, limited only by the
software you choose to use.
• The presentation can be stored on
numerous devices (discs, USB or
cloud drives) ensuring that you have
multiple back-ups.
and the data projector could be
incompatible. Always test the two
together in a rehearsal.
• The laptop may not be your own,
so you will have to ensure that the
software you have used is compatible
with the hardware provided.
• Not all presentation venues will have
the equipment required to show both
video and audio material – check
beforehand what equipment will be at
your disposal.
• Have a back-up plan in case of a
power failure.
• If you are going to use links to
websites or if you store your
presentation online in a cloud drive,
a lack of Internet connection will
prohibit access to these links.
continued on following page >>
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Suggestions:
• When you use colour combinations, ensure that your background colour is not
too dark.
• Provide a strong contrast between your background and the colour of your letters,
so that your slides are readable.
• Use a large font size of up to 32-point for your letters.
• Do not overload your screen. Keep your layout simple.
• Do not put the entire presentation on your slides; the presentation should guide
you, not present for you.
• Use the 6 x 8 rule: a maximum of six points per slide and a maximum of eight
words per point.
• When you are listing items, bring items on one at a time so that you build up
your list.
• Keep in mind that each screen of information must be read and understood in
only ten seconds.
• Try to use a range of diagrams and other illustrations, combined with words.
• When placing video, audio or website links in your presentation, make sure that
they work before you present.
• If you are going to place a YouTube link in the presentation, make sure that it
adds to the presentation and does not distract from the point you are trying
to make.
• Download a video file beforehand so that your audience does not have to wait
for the video to buffer during the presentation.
• Find out if the presentation will be shown on a television screen or through a
projector – the different formats could affect how the images and colours are
seen by the audience.
• Very important – ALWAYS save numerous copies of the presentation in case one
of your copies gets corrupted or lost.
Table 21.2 Advantages and disadvantages of video and audio aids
VIDEO AND AUDIO AIDS
Advantages
Disadvantages
Video:
• The advantage of a video is that it
vividly illustrates the spoken and the
visual together.
• It may be shown with the lights on so
that the speaker can maintain contact
with the audience.
Audio:
• Audio is very useful for illustrating
speech or other sound effects.
Video:
• It may draw attention away from
the speaker because of its strong
attraction.
Audio:
• Poor quality audio could confuse the
audience more than assist in making
your point.
continued on following page >>
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Suggestions:
When using a video, make sure that you:
• test the equipment and the film at the venue
• have everything ready for immediate playing.
When setting up your audio, make sure that:
• everything is ready for instant playing when you need it
• the audio is clear and loud enough for all to hear. You can play it through proper
speakers and do not depend on the speakers of your laptop because it will not
be loud enough.
Table 21.3 Advantages and disadvantages of a flip chart
FLIP CHART
Advantages
Disadvantages
• It is easily portable.
• The main disadvantage is that it is
not suitable for a large audience.
• It does not need power and so can be
used inside and outdoors.
• If your handwriting is not legible it will
be problematic.
• The speaker can prepare in advance
or write during the presentation.
Suggestions:
When you use a flip chart, make sure that you:
• write boldly using colours that stand out
• keep the letters about 5 cm high
• keep each sheet simple
• keep in mind that you can write notes in pencil on each page if you prepare in
advance. These notes will guide you during the presentation.
Table 21.4 Advantages and disadvantages of a white board
WHITE BOARD
Advantages
Disadvantages
• It is easy to use.
• It allows the speaker to create a
• Poor handwriting and bad drawing can
message and build it up during the
presentation.
• It allows the speaker to control the
pace at which the visual image is
built up.
• It can be used in a large venue or
small space.
destroy the visual impact.
• A white board can take on a glare if
the lighting is wrong.
continued on following page >>
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Chapter 21: Oral messages
Suggestions:
When using a white board, make sure that you:
• write boldly and carefully
• stop talking while you write, finish writing and then turn to talk to the audience
• do not talk to the audience with your back turned to them
• use a pointer and stand aside so that people can see what you have written
or drawn
• use strong colours – certain colours such as yellow can disappear on a white
board if the light shines directly on them
• practise in advance what you plan to write
• check beforehand to make sure that the white board markers are not dry
and unusable.
Table 21.5 Advantages and disadvantages of posters
POSTERS
Posters differ from writing on flip chart paper in that they are:
• designed to stand on their own
• prepared in advance
• professional in appearance.
Advantages
Disadvantages
• They can be prepared in advance
• They need specialist knowledge
and re-used.
• They can be left on permanent display
for added impact.
to prepare.
• They can be very costly.
• There is no guarantee that viewers
will understand the full impact of the
message without explanation.
Suggestions:
When designing a poster, ensure that:
• the poster can stand on its own
• the lettering is clear and legible
• all diagrams are properly annotated.
Table 21.6 Advantages and disadvantages of models
MODELS
Models are usually scaled-down models of large objects but can also be scaled-up
models of small objects.
Advantages
Disadvantages
• They turn a presentation into a visual
• They are accessible to a small
explanation by giving the audience a
physical object to look at.
audience only.
continued on following page >>
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Suggestions:
When using a model, ensure that you:
• tell the audience what the scale is
• display the model prominently during your presentation
• do not hand a model round during your presentation as it will distract
the audience.
Audience response and questions
Talking to a sluggish audience
If your audience is likely to be sluggish or you find them becoming sluggish
while you are talking, then try the following:
• Prepare some questions in advance so that you can use these to liven up
your audience or to start or end your talk.
• Build questions into your talk. Your questions should develop your
argument, stimulate the audience and encourage participation.
Handling questions
All your oral presentations give you the chance to involve your audience. The
most useful involvement is through questions. The most effective technique
is to set aside time for answering questions at the end. Keep in mind that if
you have a very large audience, you might have to repeat the questions so that
the rest of the audience, who may not have heard the question, know what
the question is.
Ensure that you control the situation so that your audience participation
does justice to the audience and to the content of your presentation and that
it does not interfere with the time-restrictions placed on your presentation.
Unreasonable numbers of questions and interruptions can ruin an otherwise
good presentation.
Guidelines for controlling questions
The following six guidelines will help you control questions:
1. Make sure that you know your audience, your purposes and your subject
very well.
2. Try to anticipate what areas of your subject are most open to questioning
and to predict what questions your specific audience will ask.
3. Try to answer each question or try to react to all questions.
4. Carefully consider the rest of the audience by trying to satisfy the
questioners and the rest of the audience.
5. Do not feel or act as if you know everything or have to win every argument.
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6.
Try to encourage good questions and audience participation. Even a
slightly overbearing attitude can discourage an audience and you do not
want to alienate people so that they decide to give you a hard time.
Difficult questions
This section has been designed to help you answer difficult questions.
What should you do if … ?
1. The question actually contains two questions.
Example: ‘Why do you make the goods like this and what do you think of the method?’
Action: Refer each part back to the questioner. Then answer each part separately. Some
questions become very complex. Do your best to analyse each section and answer it separately.
2. The question has a false inference in it.
Example: ‘How can you make your staff happier so that they can become more productive?’
Action: This question implies that happiness and productivity go together. Point this
implication out to the reader. Say that you cannot therefore give a fair answer. Ask the
questioner to rephrase the question.
3. The question is a leading question.
Example: ‘This job calls for a lot of work at night. You don’t seem to mind working late, do you?’
Action: Point out that this question forces you into answering ‘yes’ when you might not want
to. Ask the questioner to rephrase the question.
4. The question is emotionally loaded.
Example: ‘Would you be for or against sending our surplus fruit to the desperate people of …?’
Action: Point out that not everyone would agree that the people in question are ‘desperate’.
State politely that you would rather not answer the question as it has been phrased. Ask the
questioner to rephrase the question.
5. The question is off the point.
Action: Either ask the questioner to rephrase the question or ask if you can delay an answer
until after the presentation. Do not insult the questioner by pointing out that the question is
off the point.
6. The question is naïve and obvious and shows that the questioner has not been listening.
Action: Either ask whether you could delay an answer until after your presentation or answer
simply and carefully with no implied criticism of the questioner.
7. The question is used as an opportunity for the questioner to interrupt, take over and show off.
Action: Stop the questioner as firmly and as politely as you can. Say that there will be an
opportunity to ask questions at the end.
8. You think that you know what the question is going to be before the questioner has finished
speaking.
Action: Stop yourself from completing the question yourself. Hear the questioner out.
9. You do not know the answer.
Action: Do not be tempted to bluff your way through. Admit that you do not know. Ask if
anyone in the audience can help you.
10. For some reason, you prefer not to answer the question.
Action: State honestly that you would rather not answer the question. You do not have to
provide your audience with a reason.
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Conclusion
Even for the most confident of people, standing up and talking in front of
a group of people can be daunting. This chapter should, however, provide
guidelines as to how to combat some of the anxiety that comes with speaking
in public.
Keep certain key things in mind, such as testing your audio-visual aids
in advance, making sure they fit with the presentation, speaking clearly,
projecting confidence through your body language and breathing naturally.
In addition, know your topic, know your audience and prepare thoroughly
beforehand and the presentation itself will become less daunting and your
confidence levels will increase.
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INDEX
A
academic proposals 327
checklist 340
literature review 337
methodology 338–339
outline for 336–337
referencing of 209
research issues 337–338
writing of 336–339
advertising and advertisements
AIDA method 317
and business communication 1
cartoons, use of 380
choice of words 155, 158
circulars 315
classified 315, 319–320
computer programmes and 269
consumers and, see consumers
corporate images 285, 290, 293
demographic analysis 308
design of 315
entertainment 308
external environment and 24
film 309
function of 315
informing 315
persuading 308, 315
re job applications 129–130
market research and 18
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marketing and 292
mass advertising 7, 305–306
mass communication see mass
communication
newspapers, magazines 308
objectives 316
problems with 317
public context 100
public relations see public relations
radio 309, 311
techniques 318
television and see mass media
advertorials 310
agendas
AGM 139
for meetings 143
formal 143–144
aggression
vs assertiveness 35
problems with 35
AGM see meetings
assertiveness 35
and clear statements 36
and self-esteem 35
attitudes
cultural differences 112
audiences and
advertisements 315–317
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body language 48–50
choice of words 155–162, 169
graphics 363–382
Internet sources 221
mass communication see mass
communication
messages 7, 91, 240–245
needs
of organisations 100
oral messages 384–400
oral presentations see oral
reports
writing letters 245
written reports 344–348
readability of 235, 238
silence 55
social media 323–326
speakers 50
tone 169
writing 229, 237
audio-visual aids
advantages/disadvantages of:
digital presentations 394
flip charts 396
models 397
posters 397
videos 395
white boards 396
use in oral presentations 393
authority
centralisation of 83
in conflict 78
credibility of speakers 392
delegation of 74
distribution of 63
formal 71
lines of 18, 83–86, 380
and power 61, 80
in small groups 63–64
B
behaviour
barrier to communication 21
leadership 70–71
perception of messages 31
beliefs
cultural differences 112
blogs see new media
body language and see kinesics
clothing see clothing
eyes 49 and see eye contact
facial expression 49
brain-storming 240
business communication and see
communication
letters 244
messages 244
business plans
checklist 340
format 328–330
vis-à-vis proposals 328
SWOT analysis 330
business proposals
checklist 340
defined 331
format 332
vis-à-vis plans 328
requirements 331
types of
non-requested 332, 335
requested 332–334
business reports
audience for 344
body of 352
appendices 358–359
bibliography 358
conclusions 356
findings 354–355
information gathering 354
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introduction 352–353
recommendations 357
references 357
characteristics of 343
elements of 344–345
acknowledgements 346
acronyms and symbols 351
glossary 351
illustrations 350
preliminaries 345
table of content 350
terms of reference 347
summary 348–349
title page 345–346
letter of transmittal and see
memorandum of
business proposals and 332
examples of 360–361
purposes of 342, 359
types of 343
C
cartoons
and advertising 380
in digital presentations 394
and graphics 364, 366
uses of 380, 386
case studies
approach to 6, 202
problem-solving 202
specific questions 203–207
described 201
cellphones see new media
chair (man or woman)
duties re meetings 140–148
channels of communication
advertising 34, 100
mass 7, 305–306
horizontal 97
Index
within organisations 17
two-way 9, 18, 42, 45, 73, 96, 136
skills importance 1
chronemics 44, 55
circumlocution 181
clothing
non-verbal clues 43, 44, 54
communication and see messages
of advertising 1, 303
barriers to 21–23
channels see channels of
communication
codes, coding 15–16
components of 17
conflict and 78
context, influence of 23
dyadic 23
group size 23, 24
culture and 110
defined 8–16
dynamics 10
effective skills in 1, 2
face-to-face 19
features of 10–12
feedback 18
formats 17–19
functions of 10–12
group see groups
importance of 1–2, 5
for identity and image 293
informal see grapevine
intercultural see intercultural
communication
interpersonal see interpersonal
communication
intrapersonal see interpersonal
communication
mass see mass communication
models of 12–25
407
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Effective business communication in organisations
linear 13
convergence 13–24
networks see networks
non-verbal see non-verbal
communication
open 81
within an organisation 79 ff
outward 100
participants, effect on 15–16
needs and goals of 22
perceptions of 22
pressures on 22
as receivers 16, 18, 22
as senders 15, 18, 22
process 8
with public 24
advertising 34, 100
two-way 18, 42
written 19 and see writing
conflict
avoidance 77
business success and 2
causes of 8, 11, 16, 21, 55, 59, 98,
112–114
cultural differences and 104–105
dealing with 77–78
deception and 56
within groups 64, 65, 75
leadership and 68, 71
management and 65, 77, 82–86, 110
in meetings 138
reduction, norming stage 62
storming stage 61
types of 75–77
consumers and see customers
needs re advertising 315–318
services to 295
copyright 212 and see plagiarism
electronic sources and 218, 222
corporate
advertising and 285, 290
identity see identity
image see image
creativity and ideas
academic proposals and 327,
333–334
audio-visual aids and 393
Bendinger’s stages 241
explanation and portrayal of 365,
376–378
mindmaps 242, 389
persuasion and 389, 393
oral presentations and 388–389
stimulation of 240
culture and cultural
assumptions 112
background 21
behaviour 106
climate vs 107–109
context: high vs low 106, 112
defined 105
differences, effect of
attitudes, values, beliefs 112
verbal vs non-verbal 111
frame of reference 21
importance of 6
individualism vs collectivism 6
intercultural see intercultural
masculinity vs femininity 106
mores and norms 106, 107
within organisations 107
relativity 112
ways of thinking 112
worldviews 105
curriculum vitae
job application 132–135
customer/s – persuasion of
advertisements 308
408
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2013/12/03 10:30 AM

relations 295
described 296
achieving good 296
causing poor 297–298
service to 295
touchpoints with 296
telephone see Telephone
D
deception
detection of 56
decision-making
in formal groups 67
in small groups 63
décor see Identity and see image
defensive behaviour 111
diagrams 376 and see illustrations
hierarchical flow charts 379
flow charts 380
digital media see new media
dogma/tic 31
dyad and dyadic 33
behavioural rules 35
communication 23, 33
interpersonal skills in 35
workplace roles 34–35
E
electronic mail and email
checklist for 284
citizen journalism 307
communication and
horizontal channels of 98
informal 162
outward 100
construction of 279–282
effects on organisations 275
as electronic information 222
etiquette 6, 56, 278–279
Index
functional literacy and 95
international readers and 284
legal status of 277–278
as messages 17, 239
ownership of 277
planning and typing 279
privacy 277
retention and storage 277
special demands 283
vis-à-vis print 307
electronic office
advantages of 268
data storage see information
described 268
desktop publishing 269
email 273–274 see email
facsimile (fax) 272
networks
local area see LAN
workstations 269
electronic sources
Internet information 221–222
referencing of 218, 221
emotions and emotional
of audience 245
conveying of 157
in emails 275
emotive language 157
listening for 300
and telephones 298
entertainment
for advertising 308
environment
business 108, 184
clean 54
cultural and intercultural 104–107
environmental concerns 291, 310
expression of ideas/complaints 79,
136
409
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Effective business communication in organisations
of projects 86, 93
unstable 81
working 54, 80, 93, 240
essays and essay writing
characteristics of 194
completion 198
planning 195–196
structure of 195
types of 196
ethnocentrism 111
EXCO see meetings
exit interview 120, 136
external environment and see public
advertising and 24
eye and eye contact and see kinesics
audience attention and 386, 391
culture and 20
deception and 57
importance of 49, 56
intercultural communication and
116, 190
interpretation of behaviour 20
interviews and 207
listening and 40–43
non-verbal communication 44, 49
seating arrangements 53
F
Facebook see new media
faxing 272–273
feedback see communication, two-way
film
for advertising 309
copyright and 212
traditional mass media and 305–310
Flikr see new media
fonts
technique in writing 230
frame of reference
defined 27, 31
functional literacy 95
G
gatekeeping 307
grammar and see words
active vs passive 166–167
adjectives 153
adverbs 153
articles 153
concordance 170–173
conjunctions 153, 176
emotive 157
gerunds 173
meaning see words
nouns 152, 173
rules re case 173
participles 173
parts of speech 152
policy 117
prepositions 153, 173
pronouns 153, 173
possessive
its vs it’s 176
relative 174
punctuation 170
marks, use of 178–181
rules for 178–181
redundancy 182
referential 156
relative clauses 174
rules 170–177
sentence structure 170–178
changes re case 173
simple 177
compound 177–178
split infinitive 177
410
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tautology 183
verbs 153, 171–173, 176
sequence 176
use of auxiliaries 174–176
writing, guidance re see writing
grapevine
informal communication 98
graphics and see illustrations
algorithmic 364
analogical 365
arbitrary 365
area 368
bar 369–370
bias, avoidance of 383
constructional 364
data display 364
descriptive 364
design of 382–383
expressive 364
functional 364
Gantt chart 373
histograms 372
horizontal bar 371
instructional 363–364
purposes of 364
types of 365
integration with text 381–382
line 374–375
logico-mathematical 364
representational 365
tables see tables
graphs and see graphics
as codes 16
as symbols 11
group/s
authority within 63
casual 65
cohesion 64
Index
conflict in 75 and see conflict
management of 77–78
types of 75–76
decision-making 67
dynamics 63
formal 66–57
groupthink 59
informal 65–66
large, effect of 24
leadership see leadership
norms 64
policy-making 67
problem-solving 67
roles within 64
small, effect of 23
social 65
types of 65
task or project 66
tension-releasing 66
training or learning 66
groupspeak 59, 63
Gunning’s Fog Index
calculation of 236–237
H
halo and horn effect 32–33
haptics 44, 50
I
identity
business communication
importance of 293
colours 288
corporate 287
merchandise 288
correspondence material 288
described 285, 286
importance of 6
411
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2013/12/03 10:30 AM
Effective business communication in organisations
logo 287
slogans 288
typeface 288
illustrations 376 and see diagrams
maps 378
pictograms 377
IM (instant messaging) see new media
image
business communication
importance of 293
described 285
distinguished from identity 289
improvement of 310
use of media see media
public perceptions of
conduct/behaviour 291
facilities 291
influences on 290
labour relations 292
management 292
marketing practices 292
products quality of 292
public relations 293
services 292
share earnings 293
size of organisation 291
social responsibility 291
staff 292
standing 291
value for money 293
reputation and 290
information and see messages
digital 272
storage of 271
cloud 272
discs 272
online 272
hard-copy 271–272
over- and underload 90
intercultural communication
barriers to 111–112
defined 103, 104
how to improve 114–117
negotiation of meaning 113
sensitivity 117–118
Internet
defined 322
search engines 322
sources, reputation of 221
world wide web (www) 322
interpersonal communication
compared with mass
communication 306
guidelines for good 190
importance of 26, 29
listening skill and 26, 27
vs intrapersonal 26, 29
interview/s
application 130
curriculum vitae 132–135
exit 121
information-seeking 121, 135
job 121–124
nature of 120
within organisations:
types of 121
panels 124
performance appraisal 121, 136
phases 129
purpose of 119
questions in 127
closed 128
open 127
role of selection committees
125–126
intrapersonal communication
active listening for 38
defined 29
412
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dyadic 33 and see dyads
implications of 31
importance of 33
process of 30
perception 29–31
and self-image 29
skills for 35
instructional graphics see graphics
iPads see new media
J
jargon
academic 214
audiences and 344
cause of conflict 98
described 162, 169
emails and 280
excessive use of 85
and semantic noise 20
Johari window 27, 36-37
K
kinesics and see non-verbal
communication
described 47
echo posture 48
L
LAN (local area network) 269
control of access 270
information storage 270–271
language and see words
behaviour 69
in groups 64, 68
situational variables and 72
styles 68–69, 73
theories of 69
traits 69–70
transformative 74
Index
types of 71–72
layout
bulleted lists 232
techniques 230–231
leadership
behaviour and traits 69
conflict and see conflict
grid 70
groups and 59
role differentiation 64, 68
styles 68–69, 71
theories 69
transformative 74
letters
for advertising 262
unsolicited 262–263
attention line 249
bad–news 252
cultural effects of 252
business 244
checklist for 265
claims and complaints 257–258
responses to 259–261
enquiries and requests 253–256
format, choice of 247
block 248
invitations 263–264
job applications 130–131
different kinds of 253–265
planning to write 245, 250–251
purposes of 244
enhancing readability 247
style, choice of 246
tone, choice of 246
of transmittal see business reports
and memorandum
levelling 38
LinkedIn see new media
listening
413
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Effective business communication in organisations
active 27, 38
vs hearing 39
techniques 40, 41
barriers to 39
characteristics of 40
and interpersonal communication
27
skill of 27
logos see identity and see image
defined 287
reasons for changing 287
M
MANCO, management committees see
meetings
marketing
advertising and 292
market research
and advertising 18
mass communication 7, 305–309
advertising see advertising
defined 306
described generally 305
interpersonal compared 306
media see media
new media and, see new media
mass media and see media
change agent 308
conferences 310
functions of 307–308
entertaining 308
informing 308
persuasion see advertising
newspapers and magazines
advertisements 308
circulation 309
opinion leader 308
press release see press release
radio 309
and see advertising
slugline 311–312
television 307, 309
traditional 308
media and see mass media
electronic see electronic media
advertorials 310
brochures 310
conferences 311
exhibitions 311
films 310
gatekeeping 307
letters to the press 311
new see new media
posters 311
print vs electronic 307
traditional 302
radio 311
meetings
agendas 139 and see agendas
AGM 60
aspects of 140
chair 139–143
duties of 140–141,148
conducting of, see guidelines
formal 138–140
vs policy–making 139
guidelines and duties
chairing 148–149
speakers 149
hierarchies for 138
AGM 139
Exco 138
Manco 138
minutes see minutes
motions
proposing 149
414
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types 150
notice of 138 and see notices
secretary
duties 139, 141–143
small policy–making 139
vs formal 139
treasurer 139
duties of 143
memorandum/a
checklist 268
conventions in writing 266–267
format 266
memorandum of transmittal see
business reports
messages
area of overlap 24
business 244
channels for 17–18
checklist for 243
coding of 15
control of 307
decoding of 15
electronic see electronic office
encoding of 15
faxing 272–273
format of 17
generating ideas 240–241
medium for 17, 242, 277
email vs telephone 277
good relationships 89
informing 89
instructing 89
re values, ethics 90
oral see oral reports
organising information 241–242
planning of 240
readability of see readability
choice of style 242
Index
telephone 302
tone of 168
value of 81
writer’s requirements 229
minutes
of meetings 143, 145–148
motivation
group dynamics 65
N
networks
centralised 91
decentralised 91
described 91
downward communication 93–95
individual roles in 92
types of 93
upward communication 96
vertical flow 93
new media 305
advantages vs disadvantages 324–
325
audiences 305
cellphones 17, 43, 313, 320– 323
defined 320
digital 320
implications for businesses 325
instant messaging (IM) 323
recent innovations 321
social 323
Blogs 324
Flickr 324
LinkedIn 323
Facebook 323
podcasts 324
smartphones 324
Twitter 323
Wikis 324
415
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2013/12/03 10:30 AM
Effective business communication in organisations
YouTube 324
SMS (short text message) 323
types of 322
noise
aspect of communication 19
external 19
internal 20
semantic 20
non-verbal communication
compared with verbal 17, 19
cues of 43
deception, detection of 56–57
do’s and don’ts 56
importance of 27, 42
interpretation of 43, 44
range of: 44–56
clothing and accessories 54
chronemics 55
facial expression 49–50
haptics 50
kinesics 47–48
objects and environment 54
paralanguage 45–46
proxemics 51
territoriality 52
seating 53
silence 45
norms
and group unity 64
vs verbal 43–44
notices
meetings 138–140, 143–144
numbering systems
multiple decimal 231
O
opinions
distinguished from facts 157
oral reports, presentations, talks:
audience responses
sluggishness 398
questions 398–399
use of audio-visuals 393
format of a talk 385
format of an oral report 387
body of 387
conclusion 387
introduction 387
persuasive presentations 389
approaches to 390
outline 391
preparation for 388
presentations 385
beginning of 385
end of 385
middle of 385
speaker credibility 392
achievement of 393
derived 392
initial 392
terminal 392
speeches 391
organisations
charts 17
communication in 79, 87–102
departments 82
described 80
effective communication 100
implications for 101
external environment 24
flow of information in 88
message types 89
structure 82
functional 85
hierarchical 83
line and staff 83, 84
matrix 86–87
organogram 17
416
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P
paralanguage 44–46
paraphrasing
changing word forms 216
procedure for 214–215
re-ordering main ideas 217
use of synonyms 215–215
parts of speech see grammar
patterns
of communication 63
of decision-making 63
PCs (person computers) see new media
perception
communication and 27, 29
implications of 31
problems with 32–33
selective 30–31
skills
improvement of 33
performance-appraisal
interview 120–121, 136
plagiarism
avoidance of 210–216, 226
podcasts 305, 325 and see new media
policy-making and problem-solving
groups 59, 65, 67
meetings 139
presentations see oral reports
press releases
described 311
example of 314
layout 312
mass communication 7, 305
outward communication 100
public relations and 293
Riversdale formula 313
productivity and group dynamics 65
proposals see business proposals and see
academic proposals
Index
proxemics and see territoriality and
personal space 44, 51
public context and see environment
communication with 24
public relations
aimed at staff 310
campaigns 1, 24, 285
conferences 310
market research and 326
practices 293
role of advertising 310
punctuation see grammar
R
racism
defined 112
radio
advertising medium 309, 311
readability
checklist for 238
defined 228
indices 233–237
Flesch indexes 233–235
Gunning Fog 236
layout techniques 229
reader’s needs 229–233
summaries 228
vocabulary techniques 229
writer’s requirements for 229
reader and see readability
needs of 228
reading skills
critical reading 3
scanning 5
skimming 4
study reading 4
references/referencing 209–213
abbreviations used in 227
academic proposals 209, 327
417
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Effective business communication in organisations
alphabetising of 225–226
of books 217
business reports 357–358
citations 209
direct quotes 212–213
of electronic sources 218, 221
Harvard system of 219
of journals 218
need for 210
numbering systems 218
paraphrasing see paraphrasing
plagiarism 210–216, 226
relations
customer see customers
reports
business see business reports
oral see oral reports
Riversdale formula see media
role differentiation see group/s
in small groups 64
S
seating 53
secretaries and see meetings
duties re meetings 141–142
search engines see new media
self and self-image
Johari window 36
quadrants of 37–38
positive 30
and self-esteem 32
vs aggression 35
sentence structure see grammar
silence
non-verbal communication 45
skills
communication 1
reading 2–5
writing see language and see writing
slogans see identity and see image
slugline see mass media
small group communication
characteristics 60
dynamics of 63–64
groupthink 59
rationale 60
stages of development 61
team work 58
Tuckman’s five stages 61
SMSs see new media
social media see new media
software programmes for
graphics and 363
plagiarism 212
presentations 387, 394
use in workstations 269, 321
smartphones see new media
stationery 248, 285, 330
status, attitudes to 34, 49, 117
stereotyping
cultural 111
effect on communication 32
ethnocentricism 111
and on non-verbal 43
style
for summaries 189
summaries and see writing
to enhance readability 229
requirements for 188
stages in writing 191, 192
style 189
SWOT analysis see business plans
symbols see image and see identity
T
tables
format of 366–368
talks see oral reports
418
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teams 58, 77
telephone
bad habits 303
etiquette 298–299
listening failure 300
message pad, use of 302
non-verbal clues 299
procedure 299–300
answering a call 301–302
making a call 301
user’s rights 302
territoriality
and personal space 51
seating 53
tone in messages 168–169
touch see haptics
traditional media see media
treasurers see meetings
Tuckman five-stage model 61–63
Twitter see new media
V
values
cultural differences 112
vocabulary see words
W
Wikis see new media
words and vocabulary
abstract 160, 161, 168
advertising context 155, 158
changing the form 216
choices to avoid
pre-judgement 162
concrete 160, 161, 167, 168
in context 154
conveying facts 156
fact vs opinion 157
fact vs emotions 159
Index
discourse 162
emotions and emotive
expression of 157
vis-à-vis facts 159
familiar vs unfamiliar 159
formal vs informal 161–165
functions of 156–158
generic vs specific 160
jargon 169–170
meaning:
connotation 155
conveying of 154
denotation 155
neutral vs judgemental 161
personal vs impersonal 166
to persuade 157
referential language 156, 159
relative 160, 161
social purposes 158
synonyms 156, 215
styles see writing
technical terms 159
tone 162, 168
synonyms 156
worldviews 105
collectivist 105
individualistic 105
world wide web see new media
writing and see readability
abstracts 187
case studies 201–208
catering for reader 229
circumlocution 181
clearly and concisely 181–183
essays 194–199 see essays
layout see Layout
modification 182
practical suggestions 237
précises 187
419
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Effective business communication in organisations
readability techniques 229–230
redundancy 182
structure see grammar
style
active vs passive 166
checklist for 170
concise vs wordy 167
concrete vs abstract 168
and discourse 162
formality, level of 163–165
personal/impersonal 167
summaries 185–195
synopses 187
tautology 183
420
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