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Paper 1 : Socialization and Identity + Theories and Methods
Describe two types of questionnaire. (4)
• Open questions
• Closed questions
• Postal questionnaire
• Self-completion questionnaire
• Internet questionnaire
• Researcher administered / structured interview / telephone administered questionnaire.
Explain two ways that research might be affected by how it is funded. (8)
Funding can significantly impact the way research is conducted in sociology. Here are two ways
in which research might be affected by how it is funded:
Research agenda : Funding agencies may have specific areas of interest and research
priorities, which can shape the research agenda. For example, a funding agency that prioritizes
research on health issues may be more likely to fund studies that focus on the health effects of
social factors, such as poverty or discrimination. As a result, sociologists seeking funding may
be more likely to focus on these topics, even if they have other interests or priorities. This can
lead to a narrowing of the research agenda, as certain topics or approaches may be more likely
to receive funding than others.
Research design and methodology : Funding can also impact the design and methodology of
research. For example, research that is funded by industry may be more likely to use
experimental methods to test the effectiveness of a particular product or intervention, while
research funded by government agencies may be more likely to use survey or interview
methods to gather data about social attitudes or behaviors. Additionally, funding agencies may
require certain methodological standards or criteria, such as randomized controlled trials or
large sample sizes, which can influence the design and implementation of research projects.
This can lead to a bias towards certain research methods and approaches, which may not be
appropriate or feasible for all research questions or topics.
Mark scheme
• The amount of money available will influence the scale of the research and types of method
• The funding body may require the use of certain methods - for example, much research comes
from the government which often requires quantitative data (gatekeeper effect).
• Choice of topic - whether the research is of current interest might affect its commission e.g.
government sponsored research often linked to social problems.
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• Funder’s interest may affect the objectivity of the research process - interpretation/presentation
of results.
• Sample selection - funder’s interest may affect the type of group subject to research – some
more or less likely to be deemed worthy of study (powerful and less powerful groups).
Explain one strength and one limitation of using qualitative secondary data in
sociological research. (6)
One strength of using qualitative secondary data in sociological research is that it can provide a
rich and nuanced understanding of social phenomena. This is because qualitative data is often
collected using open-ended questions or observations, which allow researchers to gather
detailed accounts of individuals' experiences, attitudes, and behaviors. According to A-level
sociology material, qualitative data has a greater depth of meaning than quantitative data, as it
allows researchers to explore the subjective experiences and perspectives of research
participants. For example, sociologists studying youth culture might use qualitative secondary
data such as interviews with young people to understand their experiences of identity formation,
peer pressure, and cultural practices.
One limitation of using qualitative secondary data in sociological research is that it may lack
representativeness. This is because the data was collected for a different purpose than the one
for which it is being used, and thus may not have been collected in a way that is representative
of the population or phenomenon being studied. A-level sociology material suggests that
qualitative data is often collected through non-random methods such as purposive or snowball
sampling, which may not provide a representative sample of the population. Additionally, the
data may be limited to the context in which it was collected, which may not be generalizable to
other contexts. For example, a sociologist studying social class might use qualitative secondary
data such as ethnographies of working-class communities, but these data may not represent the
experiences of all working-class people, particularly those in different regions or countries.
Mark scheme
Strengths:
• Obtain material otherwise not available e.g. historical records.
• Practical – access to material that would otherwise involve great cost, time and effort.
• Documentary evidence can be in great depth and detail, hence high in validity (e.g. diaries
such as Frank/Pepys).
• Facilitate comparison between past and present (e.g. Pearson on hooligan behavior).
• Facilitate semiological analysis.
Limitations:
• Difficult to authenticate; not always easy to know if the sources are genuine (Scott). • Is the
material credible; to what extent is it biased or exaggerated (Scott); is it in a complete form?
• Unrepresentative – (historical) diaries written by individuals may not be typical e.g. literate v
illiterate, thus making the data ungeneralizable.
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• Subjective –open to different interpretation, particularly if the meaning is unclear; does the data
have the same meaning now as when first produced? • Reliability – cannot be repeated • Any
other appropriate limitation.
The existence of subcultures best explains deviant behavior. Explain this view. (10)
The view that the existence of subcultures best explains deviant behaviour is an important
perspective within sociology. This view suggests that deviant behaviour is not solely the result of
individual psychological factors, but also arises from cultural and social factors, such as
subcultures. Subcultures can be defined as groups of individuals who share distinctive values,
norms, beliefs, and behaviours that distinguish them from the wider culture in which they exist.
One theorist who explored this idea was Paul Willis, who conducted research on working-class
youth in the UK during the 1970s. In his book "Learning to Labour," Willis argued that
working-class youths formed their own subculture that rejected mainstream educational and
career opportunities. These youths saw themselves as having little chance of success in
mainstream society and instead formed their own subculture that valued toughness, rebellion,
and anti-authoritarianism. Willis argued that this subculture helped explain the deviant behaviour
of these youths, including truancy, delinquency, and substance abuse.
Another example of a deviant subculture is the punk rock subculture, which emerged in the UK
and the US in the 1970s. Punks rejected mainstream values and instead embraced an ethos of
rebellion and non-conformity. Punks often engaged in deviant behaviours, such as drug use,
vandalism, and violent confrontations with police and other authorities. Some theorists, such as
Stanley Cohen, have argued that punk subculture provided a space for young people to express
their anger and frustration with mainstream society, and that deviant behaviour was a form of
resistance against dominant cultural norms.
Other theorists who have explored the role of subcultures in explaining deviant behaviour
include Howard Becker, who developed the concept of "labeling theory," which suggests that
individuals who are labeled as deviant by society may internalize that identity and engage in
further deviant behaviour. Edwin Lemert developed the concept of "secondary deviance," which
refers to the process by which individuals who have been labeled as deviant may become
further isolated from mainstream society and engage in more deviant behaviour as a result.
In conclusion, the existence of subcultures can provide important insights into the causes of
deviant behaviour. Subcultures can offer alternative values and norms that reject mainstream
cultural expectations, and these alternative values can lead to deviant behaviour. The examples
of deviant subcultures, such as working-class youth and punk rockers, illustrate the important
role that subcultures can play in shaping deviant behaviour.
Mark scheme
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• Subcultures develop norms and values different from wider society ( not necessarily at odds)
• Youth subcultures in particular may be linked to status frustration (links to structure and
agency) and the difficulties some individuals/groups have establishing identity obtaining status
• Research examples: religious sects, mods and rockers, skinheads, punks, goths, etc.
• Range of education-related subcultures typically linked to class (e.g. delinquent subcultures),
gender and ethnicity
‘The existence of subcultures best explains deviant behaviour.’ Using sociological
material, give one argument against this view. (6)
One argument against this view is that it fails to account for the role of social inequality and
structural factors in deviance. Sociologists such as Robert Merton have argued that social
structure can create strain and pressure for individuals to engage in deviant behavior. For
example, individuals from low-income backgrounds may face limited opportunities for social and
economic mobility, which can lead to frustration and a sense of hopelessness. In response to
these pressures, individuals may turn to deviant behavior as a means of coping or as a way to
attain their goals.
Moreover, labeling theory suggests that the societal reaction to deviance plays a critical role in
shaping individuals' behavior. When individuals are labeled as deviant, they may internalize this
label and become more likely to engage in further deviant behavior. This process can create a
self-fulfilling prophecy, in which individuals who are labeled as deviant become more deviant
over time.
Examples of these factors can be seen in the criminal justice system. The disproportionate
number of individuals from disadvantaged backgrounds in the prison system reflects how
structural factors such as poverty and inequality contribute to deviance. Additionally, the labeling
of individuals as criminals can lead to further criminal behavior, as they are stigmatized and
excluded from mainstream society.
In conclusion, while the existence of subcultures can play a role in explaining deviant behavior,
it is essential to consider the broader social and structural factors that contribute to deviance. By
examining these factors, sociologists can gain a more nuanced understanding of why
individuals engage in deviant behavior and develop more effective strategies to address it.
Mark scheme
• Subcultural deviance tends to be focused on youth and therefore does not offer a generalized
account of deviance / non-conformity.
• Most deviant subcultures are short lived and so do not explain long term deviant behavior.
• The extent to which subcultures engage in deviant behavior has been exaggerated; although
they have some different norms it is misleading to call this deviant behavior and many
subcultures are more conformist than is often assumed.
• Subcultures are one amongst many other explanations for deviant behavior e.g. cultural
deprivation, under-socialization, marginalization, social resistance and labelling theory.
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Evaluate the view that socialisation is the most significant factor in shaping human
behaviour. (26)
Socialization refers to the process by which individuals learn and internalize the values, beliefs,
and norms of their society. It is a fundamental aspect of human development and plays a crucial
role in shaping human behavior. In this essay, I will evaluate the view that socialization is the
most significant factor in shaping human behavior by discussing various theories and theorists
such as Durkheim, Mead, Parsons, and Wilsons, and how socialization affects a person's
gender, class, ethnicity, and age.
One of the key theorists in the field of sociology is Emile Durkheim. He believed that
socialization is the most significant factor in shaping human behavior. Durkheim argued that
socialization is essential in creating social order and solidarity. He believed that through
socialization, individuals learn to conform to the norms and values of their society, which helps
to maintain social order.
Another key theorist in the field of sociology is George Herbert Mead. Mead emphasized the
importance of social interaction in shaping human behavior. He believed that individuals learn
through social interaction and that the development of the self is a product of socialization.
Mead's theory of the self suggests that individuals develop their sense of self through social
interaction with others.
Talcott Parsons, another sociologist, believed that socialization is essential in shaping human
behavior. He argued that socialization helps individuals to develop a sense of social norms and
values, which guides their behavior. Parsons believed that socialization is important in the
development of individuals as members of society. However, Parsons also held the belief that
men and women were biologically programmed into being expressive and instrumental.
Similarly, Wilsons argued that genetics play a more significant role than socialization in shaping
human behavior. Wilsons believed that genetic factors determine an individual's behavior,
including their intelligence, personality, and temperament. He argued that socialization only
plays a minor role in shaping human behavior.
Feral children provide an interesting case study in the role of socialization in shaping human
behavior. Feral children are those who have been isolated from human contact during their early
years. An example of a feral child was Genie, who was found aged 13 after being
undersocialized and neglected her entire life. Feral children such as Genie often display severe
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social and behavioral problems, including a lack of social skills, language, and emotional
attachment. Feral children highlight the importance of socialization in shaping human behavior.
Socialization also affects a person's gender, class, ethnicity, and age. Gender socialization
refers to the process by which individuals learn the norms and values associated with their
gender. Class socialization refers to the process by which individuals learn the norms and
values associated with their social class. Ethnic socialization refers to the process by which
individuals learn the norms and values associated with their ethnicity. Age socialization refers to
the process by which individuals learn the norms and values associated with their age group.
In conclusion, socialization is a crucial factor in shaping human behavior. Various theories and
theorists such as Durkheim, Mead, Parsons, and Wilsons, provide insight into the importance of
socialization. Feral children provide an interesting case study, highlighting the importance of
socialization in shaping human behavior. Furthermore, socialization affects a person's gender,
class, ethnicity, and age, emphasizing its significance in shaping human behavior.
Mark scheme
(Yes)
• Human behaviour is overwhelmingly learned via the process of socialisation e.g. language.
• Accounts of examples of feral children raised in the absence of human socialisation. (Genie)
• Evidence of the importance of socialisation upon behaviour linked to different identities such
as class, gender, ethnicity, age.
• Socialisation is a lifelong process with secondary socialisation reinforcing primary socialisation.
• Evidence of socialisation through different agents of socialisation.
• Studies that demonstrate the impact of social forces on human behaviour e.g. Durkheim
on suicide or crosscultural variations in gender roles. (Gender socialisation in Islamic vs West)
• Mead's concept of the 'social self' as created through social interaction.
• Structural functionalist emphasis on societal determinism.
(No)
• Biological arguments that people are born with uncontrollable instincts and desires e.g.
maternal instinct, male aggression etc
• These are often expressed in strong (fixed traits) and weak (capabilities that are realised
through environmental experience) terms.
• Sociobiology - Wilson on the strong influence of ‘biogrammers’.
• Explanations of deviant behaviour as evidence that factors other than socialisation influence
behaviour, e.g. marginalisation, poverty, subcultures, labelling.
• Ideology, power, and economic forces as other influences upon behaviour.
• Parsons’ view of family roles as strongly linked to biology.
• Social agency: arguments that point toward individuals resisting the influence of socialisation.
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Evaluate the view that the research methods of the natural sciences should not be used
in sociological research (26)
The use of natural science research methods in sociological research is a matter of significant
debate. Positivists argue that social phenomena can be studied using the same quantitative
methods used in natural sciences, such as lab experiments and statistical analysis.
Interpretivists however, argue that social phenomena are too complex and subjective to be
studied using the same methods as the natural sciences, preferring qualitative methods.
Emile Durkheim's study of suicide is often cited as an example of the use of positivist methods
in sociology. Durkheim used government statistics (a form of quantitative research) to identify
patterns in suicide rates, which he believed could be used to understand social phenomena. He
argued that suicide was not simply a result of individual behavior but also of broader social
forces - such as the result of anomie and low levels of integration into society. He was however
criticized by Douglas, who argued that sensitive topics such as suicide are better understood
using qualitative methods - such as studying suicide letters, diaries and interviewing family and
friends. Although Douglas himself was criticized as his work was theoretical.
Opposing Durkheim, the creator of interpretivism Max Weber argued that social phenomena
could only be understood through the concept of Verstehen or empathy. He believed that the
subjective experiences of individuals were essential to understanding social phenomena, and
that this could not be achieved through quantitative research alone. Instead, he believed that it
could only be through qualitative research such as participant observations and unstructured
interviews could we discover the true meaning behind the behavior of individuals. To understand
the reasons behind individual actions we must empathize with the individual, which is not
possible when using quantitative methods alone.
Thomas Kuhn's theory of paradigm shifts is also relevant to the debate on the use of natural
science research methods in sociology. Kuhn argued that science progresses through periods of
normal science, where scientists work within a shared paradigm, and revolutionary science,
where new paradigms are established. Scientific theories and ideas that go against the
dominant paradigm are disregarded, until there is sufficient evidence to cause a paradigm shift.
He believed that sociology was not capable of being a science because it lacked a dominant
paradigm - there are too many different perspectives. Therefore the research methods of the
natural sciences could not be applied to sociological research.
Karl Popper also had strong views on the use of scientific methods in sociology. He argued that
the natural sciences and social sciences were fundamentally different, and that the methods
used in the natural sciences could not be applied to sociology. In natural sciences such as
Biology and Chemistry, experiments and theories are subject to falsification - where in order to
prove a theory to be correct the scientists attempt to prove it as false. Popper believed that
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sociology should focus on falsification rather than verification, and that theories should be tested
by attempting to prove them wrong rather than attempting to prove them right. However, this is
an incredibly hard thing to do in sociology, as it is not as objective as the natural sciences.
Sayer viewed sociology similar to meteorology - an open system of science as opposed to a
closed one like biology and chemistry. Predictions can be made using statistical and quantitative
data, however, the outcome cannot be truly guaranteed as human behavior, like meteors, are
never 100% predictable.
In conclusion, there is a significant debate on whether the research methods of the natural
sciences should be used in sociological research. While some sociologists argue that these
methods are useful for studying social phenomena, others argue that social phenomena are too
complex and subjective to be studied using the same methods. Ultimately, the use of natural
science research methods in sociology will continue to be a matter of debate, and sociologists
will need to consider the strengths and limitations of these methods when conducting research.
Mark scheme
(Yes)
• Interpretivist view: methods unsuitable for study of human behaviour i.e. not a case of should
not be used rather of ‘cannot’.
• Humans have free will, act unpredictably on unobserved meanings which cannot be
measured. • Scientific methods are not as objective/value free as claimed.
• Some sociologists would argue value freedom is neither possible nor desirable in the study of
humans. • Resulting data lacks validity. • Variables in the social world cannot be controlled.
• Practical problems.
• Issue may depend on how you define a scientific subject. • Some scientific methods may have
particular ethical implications, e.g. experiments.
• Gouldner - scientists give up morals for pleasant academic life. Confuse moral neutrality with
moral indifference
(No)
• Positivist view: objective, value-free and reliable.
• Produce numerical data enabling identification of patterns/trends/ comparisons.
• Large scale and representative samples.
• Generalisable.
• Examples of the use of scientific methods in sociology: experiments, surveys/questionnaire,
structured interviews, content analysis, official statistics.
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Describe two examples of social norms. (4)
●​ Greetings, e.g. bowing, bumping noses, shaking hands.
●​ Dress / clothing, e.g. school uniform, business clothes.
●​ Cuisine / diet, e.g.
●​ Queuing.
●​ Any other example of a norm.
Explain two ways sociological research may be affected by bias (8)
Sociological research may be affected by bias in various ways. Here are two examples:
Researcher bias : This type of bias occurs when the researcher's own beliefs, values, or
experiences influence the research findings, potentially leading to inaccurate conclusions. For
instance, a researcher studying the effect of race on job interviews may be biased if they hold
preconceived notions about certain races or believe that one race is superior to others. Their
biases may unconsciously influence how they interpret the data or design the study, leading to
skewed results.
Sampling bias : This type of bias occurs when the sample used in the research is not
representative of the population being studied, leading to results that cannot be generalized to
the broader population. For instance, a researcher studying the attitudes of young people
towards climate change may only recruit participants from a particular school or university,
leading to results that cannot be extrapolated to young people in general. Similarly, if a
researcher studying income inequality only samples people in a certain income bracket, they will
not be able to generalize their findings to the entire population.
In conclusion, these biases can have significant implications for the accuracy and
generalizability of sociological research findings. Therefore, researchers need to be aware of
potential biases and take steps to minimize their impact on their research.
Mark scheme
●​ Personal values of the sociologist – choice of topic, methods and interpretation,
researcher imposition, theoretical stance.
●​ Collection of data – e.g. choice of questions to ask in an interview.
●​ The effect of the researcher on the respondent – Hawthorne effect, social desirability –
the responses of an interviewer may affect the answers given etc.
●​ Funding and/or other institutional support for research.
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●​ Interpretation and presentation of findings may be influenced by beliefs – researcher
imposition.
●​ Selection of samples
Explain 1 strength and 1 limitation of unstructured interviews as a research method. (6)
Unstructured interviews are a qualitative research method used in sociology to gather in-depth
data about people's experiences, perceptions, and behaviors. Here is one strength and one
limitation of unstructured interviews :
Strength: Flexibility and depth of data. One of the strengths of unstructured interviews is that
they offer a high level of flexibility, allowing the interviewer to follow up on interesting responses
or ask probing questions to gain more detailed information. This flexibility allows the interviewee
to expand on their thoughts and experiences, leading to a more in-depth understanding of their
views and behaviors. For example, if an interviewer is conducting an unstructured interview on
the topic of eating disorders, they may be able to gain a deep understanding of the complex
issues related to the interviewee's experience and how it impacts their life.
Limitation: Time and resources. A limitation of unstructured interviews is that they can be
time-consuming and resource-intensive. Due to the open-ended nature of the questions,
interviews can take a long time to conduct, transcribe, and analyze. Additionally, unstructured
interviews can require skilled interviewers who are able to navigate the conversation and ask
probing questions. This can limit the sample size and representativeness of the data collected.
For example, if an interviewer is conducting an unstructured interview study with a large sample
size, it can be difficult and costly to ensure that each participant receives an interview of equal
quality and depth.
Mark scheme
(Strengths)
●​ Flexibility: can probe and clarify.
●​ Establishing a trusting relationship with interviewee may promote validity (interpretivist).
●​ Depth and detail – enables researchers to understand what people really think and feel.
●​ Questions/issues not originally thought of may emerge, reducing researcher imposition.
●​ Suited more to some topics particularly those with sensitive issues (build rapport).
●​ High response rate.
(Limitations)
●​ Practical issues: costly and time consuming.
●​ Their lack of reliability/replicability (positivist critique).
●​ Sample size, lack of representativeness.
●​ The interviewer effect.
●​ Social desirability.
●​ Researcher imposition. (bias)
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‘The family is the main influence on gender identity’. Explain this view. (10)
The family is considered one of the most significant social institutions that contribute to shaping
a child's gender identity. Gender identity refers to an individual's understanding of themselves as
male or female or somewhere in between. Sociologists argue that the family plays a crucial role
in the development of an individual's gender identity through various means.
Role models within the family play an important part in shaping gender identity. Children learn
how to behave and identify with gender roles by observing their parents and older siblings. For
example, a boy might observe his father engaging in stereotypically masculine behaviors, such
as fixing cars, playing sports, or being the primary breadwinner. Likewise, a girl might observe
her mother engaging in stereotypically feminine behaviors, such as cooking, cleaning, or caring
for children. By observing these behaviors, children learn what is expected of them in terms of
gender roles and behaviors.
Language used for boys and girls also shapes gender identity. Parents tend to use different
language when talking to boys and girls, which reinforces gender stereotypes. For instance,
boys are often praised for being "strong," "brave," and "smart," while girls are praised for being
"cute," "pretty," and "sweet." These types of language reinforce gender stereotypes and teach
children what is expected of them based on their gender.
Dress codes also play a role in shaping gender identity. Parents often dress their children in
gender-specific clothing, such as dresses for girls and pants for boys. These clothing choices
reinforce gender stereotypes and teach children what is expected of them in terms of gender
identity.
Toys are another significant factor that contributes to shaping gender identity. Boys are typically
given toys such as trucks, action figures, and sports equipment, which reinforces stereotypical
masculine behaviors. On the other hand, girls are often given dolls, kitchen sets, and makeup
kits, which reinforces stereotypical feminine behaviors.
Feminist theorists support the view that the family is the main influence on gender identity. They
argue that the family perpetuates gender inequality by reinforcing traditional gender roles and
behaviors. For instance, feminist sociologists such as Ann Oakley argue that the family
socializes children into gender roles that reinforce patriarchal norms and values. Feminist
theorists also argue that gender roles are socially constructed and vary across cultures and
historical periods. They are not fixed or the result of biology - which goes against the beliefs of
certain sociologists such as Parsons and sociobiologists such as Wilsons.
In conclusion, the family plays a significant role in shaping an individual's gender identity
through various means such as role models, language, dress codes, toys, and treatment of
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sons and daughters. Feminist theorists support this view and argue that the family perpetuates
gender inequality by reinforcing traditional gender roles and behaviors. Therefore, it is important
for parents to recognize their influence on their children's gender identity and to challenge
traditional gender norms and stereotypes.
Mark scheme
●​ Play and early learning
●​ Role-models within the family
●​ Differential treatment/rules for girls and boys by parents and other family members
●​ Dress codes for boys and girls
●​ Differentiated toys, games and activities
●​ Different language used to speak to/describe boys and girls
●​ Other relevant symbolic influences
‘The family is the main influence on gender identity’. Using sociological material, give
one argument against this view. (6)
(4 main arguments to make according to mark scheme)
(1) One argument against the view that the family is the main influence on gender identity is the
biological argument, which suggests that biological factors play a crucial role in shaping
gender identity.
Edward O. Wilson, a sociobiologist, argues that biological factors such as genes and physiology
interact with cultural factors such as social norms, institutions, and beliefs, to shape individuals'
behavior, including gender identity. Wilson suggests that certain biological factors, such as
hormones and brain structure, influence individuals' gender identity and behavior.
Talcott Parsons, a functionalist sociologist, also acknowledges the role of biology in shaping
gender identity. Parsons argues that the biological differences between men and women lead to
the division of labor in the family, which in turn reinforces traditional gender roles and behaviors.
For example, men are more physically suited for tasks that require strength and endurance,
such as hunting and farming, while women are more suited for tasks that require nurturing and
caregiving, such as childcare and housework. Parsons argues that this division of labor creates
gender role socialization within the family, which reinforces traditional gender roles and
expectations.
In conclusion, the biological argument suggests that biological factors play a crucial role in
shaping gender identity, alongside cultural factors such as family, education, and media.
Sociologists such as Wilson and Parsons acknowledge the role of biology in shaping gender
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identity, suggesting that it is not only the family but also biological factors that influence
individuals' gender identity and behavior.
(2) One argument against the view that the family is the main influence on gender identity is that
peer groups can be more influential in shaping individuals' gender identity. Peer groups are
defined as individuals who are of the same age and social status and who share similar
interests and activities. They can include friends, classmates, teammates, and others in similar
social contexts.
Sociologists such as Judith Butler argue that individuals' gender identity is not fixed but rather
fluid and constantly negotiated through interactions with others, including peers. Peers can
provide alternative models of gender identity that challenge traditional gender norms and
expectations. For example, subcultures such as goth, punk, and LGBTQ+ communities can
provide alternative models of gender identity that challenge traditional gender roles and
expectations. These subcultures can provide support and validation for individuals who may not
fit traditional gender norms and may feel marginalized by mainstream society.
Research supports the influence of peer groups on gender identity. For example, a study by
Connell and Messerschmidt found that working-class boys often engage in hypermasculine
behaviors and attitudes to gain approval and respect from their peers. Similarly, a study by
Connell and Pearse found that young women often negotiate and resist traditional gender roles
and expectations through peer interactions. These studies suggest that peer groups can be a
more influential factor than the family in shaping individuals' gender identity.
Subcultures, in particular, can be influential in shaping individuals' gender identity. For example,
the punk subculture challenges traditional gender roles and expectations through androgynous
fashion, DIY culture, and queer identity. Similarly, the goth subculture challenges traditional
gender norms through dark and non-gendered fashion, and a rejection of mainstream beauty
standards. These subcultures can provide support and validation for individuals who do not fit
traditional gender norms.
In conclusion, peer groups, and subcultures in particular, can be more influential in shaping
individuals' gender identity than the family. Subcultures can provide alternative models of
gender identity that challenge traditional gender norms and expectations, and peers can provide
support and validation for individuals who may not fit traditional gender norms.
(3) One argument against the view that "the family is the main influence on gender identity" is
that the media can be more influential in shaping individuals' gender identity. Sociological
research has shown that media portrayals of gender can significantly influence individuals'
attitudes and behaviors towards gender roles and identities (Gauntlett, 2002).
Media representations of gender often reinforce traditional gender roles and stereotypes, such
as the idea that men are assertive and dominant, while women are passive and nurturing.
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These stereotypes can limit individuals' understanding of what it means to be a man or a
woman, and can lead to the internalization of gender roles and expectations.
For example, the way that men and women are depicted in advertising can perpetuate gender
stereotypes and influence individuals' perceptions of gender roles. Ads that portray women as
sexual objects and men as strong and powerful can reinforce traditional gender norms and limit
individuals' understanding of what it means to be masculine or feminine (Gunter & Furnham,
1992).
Moreover, the lack of parental monitoring of media consumption can exacerbate the influence of
media on gender identity. Studies have shown that children who are exposed to high levels of
media violence, sex, and gender stereotypes are more likely to internalize these messages and
adopt traditional gender roles and behaviors (Fanti & Heinrichs, 2010). When parents fail to
monitor their children's media consumption, they are allowing these harmful messages to
influence their children's perceptions of gender roles and identities.
In conclusion, while the family can play a role in shaping individuals' gender identity, the media
can be a more influential factor. Media representations of gender can reinforce traditional
gender roles and stereotypes, which can limit individuals' understanding of gender and lead to
the internalization of gender expectations. The lack of parental monitoring of media
consumption can further exacerbate this influence. Therefore, it is crucial to critically analyze
and challenge gender representations in media and to promote parental monitoring of media
consumption to foster a healthy and inclusive understanding of gender identity.
(4) One argument against the view that the family is the main influence on gender identity is the
concept of agency against gender socialization. Agency refers to the capacity of individuals to
act independently and make choices that shape their lives. This suggests that individuals have
the power to resist or reinterpret gender norms and expectations, regardless of family influence.
Research has shown that children are exposed to a wide range of gendered messages and
influences outside of their family, including peers, media, and institutions such as schools and
religious organizations. These influences can sometimes conflict with or challenge the gender
norms and expectations taught by the family.
For example, a child raised in a family that reinforces traditional gender roles may still encounter
peers or media that challenge those roles, or may have personal experiences that shape their
gender identity in unexpected ways. Additionally, the influence of family on gender identity may
be exaggerated, as children are exposed to a wide range of socializing agents outside of family.
Furthermore, sociological theories such as social constructionism and feminist theory suggest
that gender is not simply a product of individual or familial influence, but rather a socially
constructed concept that is shaped by broader social and cultural forces. These theories argue
14
that gender identity is not determined solely by biological or familial factors, but rather by social
norms and cultural expectations.
In conclusion, the argument of agency against gender socialization suggests that the family is
not the sole or primary influence on gender identity. Rather, individuals have the capacity to
resist or reinterpret gender norms and expectations, and are exposed to a wide range of
socializing agents beyond the family that can shape their gender identity in unexpected ways.
Evaluate the view that age is the main influence on a person's identity. (26)
The question of whether age is the main influence on a person's identity is complex and
multifaceted. While age is certainly an important factor in shaping a person's identity, it is not the
only influence, and its importance can vary depending on a range of other factors, including
peer pressure, cultural norms, and postmodern shifts in attitudes towards identity.
One way in which age can influence identity is through peer pressure. During adolescence, for
example, young people often feel intense pressure to conform to the norms and values of their
peer group. This can include everything from fashion choices and musical preferences to
attitudes towards school and relationships. In some cases, peer pressure can be so strong that
it overrides other influences on a person's identity, including family, religion, or personal beliefs.
Another factor that can influence a person's identity across different age groups is ageism.
Ageism refers to the discrimination or stereotyping of individuals based on their age, and can
affect people at all stages of life. For example, older adults may face discrimination in the
workplace or in social settings based on negative stereotypes about aging, while younger
people may be dismissed or patronized due to assumptions about their immaturity..
Cultural norms and role expectations can also play a significant role in shaping identity across
different age groups and cultures. In some societies, for example, there may be strict
expectations about what it means to be a "mature" or "responsible" adult, while in others, youth
may be celebrated and encouraged to express themselves in unconventional ways. These
cultural norms can influence everything from career choices and family dynamics to personal
values and beliefs.
From a postmodern perspective, the idea that age is the main influence on identity is
increasingly being challenged. Postmodernists argue that identities are increasingly fluid and
constantly in flux, shaped not just by age but by a range of other factors, including gender,
sexuality, race, and class. In this view, identity is not fixed but constantly evolving, and
individuals have more freedom than ever before to shape and redefine their identities
throughout their lives.
15
Sociologist Anthony Giddens also argues that identity is not solely determined by age, but is
instead shaped by a complex interplay of individual agency and social structure. According to
Giddens, individuals have a degree of agency in shaping their own identities, but this agency is
always constrained by larger social structures and cultural norms.
Finally, Neil Postman's concept of the "death of childhood" suggests that age may not be as
important a factor in shaping identity as it once was. Postman argues that advances in
technology and mass media have eroded the traditional boundaries between childhood and
adulthood, blurring the lines between different age groups and creating new cultural norms
around identity and behavior.
Thornton's work on youth culture and identity is also relevant to this discussion. Thornton
argues that young people have their own unique cultural practices and forms of identity that are
distinct from those of older adults. She suggests that youth culture is not simply a reflection of
broader cultural trends, but is instead a distinct and powerful force that shapes identity in many
ways.
In conclusion, while age is an important factor in shaping identity, it is not the only influence, and
its importance can vary depending on a range of other factors, including peer pressure, cultural
norms, and postmodern shifts in attitudes towards identity. Sociologists such as Giddens and
Postman emphasize the complex interplay between individual agency and social structure in
shaping identity, while Thornton highlights the distinct cultural practices and forms of identity
associated with youth culture.
Mark scheme
(yes)
●​ References to different stages of the life course i.e. childhood / youth, middle age, old
age with associated cultural characteristics.
●​ Role expectations are very strong when it comes to age. Many formal and informal
signposts of the significance of age.
●​ All of the agents of socialisation create/reinforce the idea of age as a real category e.g.
in education children are divided into chronological age groups.
●​ Focus may be on one or two age groups – peer pressure is very influential on youth; the
old face ageism.
●​ Evidence of a generation gap e.g. over values (religion) over technology (‘digital natives’)
Declining involvement in family
(no)
●​ Age boundaries weakening: in modern society age ‘just a number’ with expectations
blurring e.g. the ‘third age’ (Giddens) older people healthier and playing a more active
role in society. Delayed adulthood as young people stay in education and at home for
longer
●​ The ‘death of childhood’ (Postman) as children are exposed to an adult world through
the media.
16
●​ Postmodernists argue we can create our own identities or pay money to look younger for
longer
●​ Other groups as/more important e.g. gender, class, ethnicity overlap with age identity.
Evaluate the use of experiments in sociological research. (26)
Experiments are a common method used in sociological research to study cause-and-effect
relationships between variables. In this essay, we will evaluate the use of experiments in
sociological research from both positivist and interpretivist perspectives.
Positivist sociologists argue that experiments provide the most reliable method for
understanding social behavior because they allow researchers to control variables and
manipulate independent variables to observe the effect on the dependent variable. The concept
of Verstehen (understanding) created by Weber is not considered significant in positivist
research as it emphasizes objective and quantitative data collection methods. Interpretivist
sociologists, on the other hand, criticize experiments because they often overlook the subjective
experiences of individuals and the social context in which behaviors occur. They argue that
sociological research should be based on empathetic understanding of human experience
rather than objective scientific methods. To understand individuals we must empathize with
them.
One advantage of experiments is that they can be conducted in a laboratory setting or in the
field, which allows researchers to study a variety of social phenomena. Field experiments are
conducted in natural settings, while laboratory experiments are conducted in a controlled
setting, such as a laboratory. An example of a field experiment is the Hawthorne studies, where
researchers studied the impact of lighting on worker productivity. The researchers observed that
worker productivity increased not only when the lighting was increased but also when it was
decreased, demonstrating the Hawthorne effect, where individuals change their behavior when
they know they are being observed.
In contrast, a laboratory experiment is a controlled environment where independent variables
are manipulated to observe their effect on the dependent variable. Laboratory experiments tend
to be more reliable than field experiments, as they are well structured and thus easier to
replicate. An example of a laboratory experiment is the Stanford Prison Experiment, where
participants were randomly assigned the roles of prisoners or guards and observed for two
weeks in a simulated prison environment. It was intended to measure the effect of role-playing,
labeling, and social expectations on behavior over a period of two weeks.The study was
however halted after six days due to the severe and unethical behavior of the guards.
One disadvantage of experiments is that they can be artificial and lack ecological validity, as the
behavior of individuals in a laboratory setting may not reflect their behavior in real-life settings.
Also, participants may change their behavior due to the aforementioned Hawthorne effect. The
concept of rapport is essential in building trust and cooperation between participants and the
17
researcher to reduce the impact of the Hawthorne effect. Rapport can be built between one on
one interactions in qualitative methods such as unstructured interviews.
In conclusion, experiments are a useful method in sociological research, as they allow
researchers to study cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, they have
limitations and may overlook the subjective experiences of individuals and the social context in
which behaviors occur, which can be a disadvantage for interpretivist sociologists. Nevertheless,
experiments can provide valuable data when used appropriately, and researchers must consider
the advantages and disadvantages when selecting this research method.
Mark scheme
(experiment strengths)
●​ Experiments are objective and value free.
●​ Allow researchers to control variables to establish cause and effect relationships. \Can
generate numerical data to test hypotheses.
●​ Research questions can be tested and retested to produce reliable data that can be
generalised, particularly lab experiments.
●​ More likely to gain natural behaviour in field experiments (ecological validity) / less
hawthorne effect than lab experiments
(experiment limitations)
●​ The difficulty of isolating variables for testing and identifying causes, particularly in field
experiments.
●​ Problems of validity arising from the artificial setting in laboratory experiments [ecological
validity];
●​ The influence of the presence of the observer.
●​ Possible ethical issues arising from treating individuals differently; of consent etc.
Small-scale experiments likely to be unrepresentative.
●​ Interpretivist objections on the grounds that a scientific approach is inappropriate.
(References to sociological theories other than positivism and interpretivism may be present but are not necessary
even for full marks.)
Describe two examples of social identities. (4)
●​ Class; socioeconomic class
●​ Gender; social construct identity
●​ age;
●​ ethnicity;
●​ religion;
●​ subcultures;
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Explain two features of the interpretivist approach to research. (8)
The interpretivist approach to research is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the
importance of understanding the subjective meanings that people attach to their social world.
Two key features of the interpretivist approach are Verstehen and qualitative methods of
research.
Verstehen: Verstehen is a German term that means "understanding" or "comprehension". In the
interpretivist approach, researchers use Verstehen to understand and interpret social
phenomena by putting themselves in the shoes of the people they are studying. This means that
researchers must try to see the world from the perspective of their subjects, in order to
understand the meanings that they attach to their actions, beliefs, and values. For example, a
researcher studying a religious community might use Verstehen to understand the significance
of certain rituals or practices from the perspective of the community members themselves.
Qualitative methods of research: Qualitative research methods are designed to gather in-depth,
subjective data about a particular phenomenon. In the interpretivist approach, researchers
prefer qualitative methods because they allow for a deeper understanding of the subjective
meanings that people attach to their social world. For example, a researcher studying the
experience of living with a chronic illness might conduct interviews with individuals who have the
condition in order to gather detailed, first-person accounts of their experiences.
Mark scheme
●​ A concern with the subjective meanings and interpretations individuals put on actions.
●​ Rejection of the scientific method and its use of quantitative data.
●​ A recognition that people exercise free will and are unpredictable.
●​ Skepticism about objectivity/value freedom.
●​ Using qualitative methods to understand the complexity of the social world.
●​ An attempt to achieve verstehen (empathetic understanding).
●​ Building a rapport/connection with subject of study
●​ Studying the way of life of the study group by observing them in their natural
environment (participant observation)
●​ Focus on gaining data that is high in validity
●​ Subjective approach to research
●​ Focus on agency over structure
19
Explain one strength and one limitation of questionnaires as a research method. (6)
Strength : Questionnaires as a research method in sociology is their ability to gather large
amounts of data from a large number of respondents relatively quickly and inexpensively.
Questionnaires can be distributed through various channels, such as email, postal mail, or
online platforms, allowing researchers to reach a diverse and geographically dispersed sample.
The fact that they can gather large amounts of data can allow for generalizations and patterns to
be identified.
However, a limitation of questionnaires is that they rely on respondents' ability and willingness to
accurately and honestly answer questions. Respondents may not fully understand the
questions, may provide socially desirable responses, or may not respond at all, leading to
non-response bias. Moreover, questionnaires may not capture the complexity and nuance of
social phenomena, as respondents may not be able to fully express their thoughts or feelings
through predetermined response options. Therefore, questionnaires should be used in
conjunction with other research methods, such as interviews or observations, to ensure the
validity and reliability of the data collected.
Mark scheme :
(Strengths)
●​ Less researcher bias / more objective / no interviewer effect.
●​ High in reliability /easily replicable as each person answers exactly the same questions.
●​ Ease of codifying / quantifying answers.
●​ Can make use of large samples –representative
●​ Allows for easy comparisons to be made, patterns and trends to be identified.
●​ Easy to analyze data–often with the use of computer software (if closed).
●​ Quick / cheap to administer - does not require a trained interviewer.
●​ Open ended questionnaires may be higher in validity.
(Limitations)
●​ Less likely to give in-depth data (if closed ended).
●​ Categories / questions are decided by the researcher rather than respondent.
●​ Absence of researcher means you are unable to clarify questions or check participant
understanding.
●​ May not be certain who has filled them out if they are postal/internet.
●​ Likely to be lower in validity
●​ Respondents may give answers that are not true/not understand the question
●​ Low response rate (postal) if there is lack of incentive to answer (or specific group more
likely to answer - such as elderly - so lack representativeness /diversity in responses)
20
1 mark for identifying strength, 1 mark for explaining why it has this strength, 1 mark explaining
why this is a strength.
‘Under-socialisation is the main cause of deviance.’ Explain this view. (10)
The view that under-socialization is the main cause of deviance suggests that individuals who
have not been properly socialized within society are more likely to engage in deviant behavior.
In sociology, socialization refers to the process by which individuals acquire the norms, values,
and beliefs of their society. Without proper socialization, individuals may not understand or
adhere to societal norms, leading them to engage in deviant behavior.
One theorist who has contributed to this view is Charles Murray. Murray argues that the
breakdown of the traditional family structure and the rise of single-parent households has
resulted in a lack of proper socialization for many children, particularly those in lower-income
communities. According to Murray, these children are not taught the norms and values
necessary to become productive members of society, leading to an increased likelihood of
engaging in deviant behavior. Murray believes this increase in single-parent households can be
in part linked to overgenerous welfare systems - which encourages a rise in single mothers.
Murray's perspective is often associated with the broader sociological perspective of
functionalism. Functionalists such as Durkheim argue that deviance is the result of a breakdown
in social norms and value, leading to anomie. From this perspective, deviance is seen as a
threat to the stability of society, and the solution is to reinforce social norms/values through
socialization.
Another theoretical perspective that supports the idea that under-socialization is the main cause
of deviance is Mead’s theory of symbolic interactionism. Symbolic interactionists argue that
individuals develop their sense of self through interactions with others, particularly during
childhood. Without proper socialization, individuals may not develop a strong sense of self,
leading them to seek validation through deviant behaviour. This can be exemplified in deviant
subcultures in school where students act out in order to gain respect from their peers.
Overall, the view that under-socialization is the main cause of deviance emphasizes the
importance of proper socialization in shaping individuals' behavior. Theorists such as Murray
and perspectives such as functionalism and symbolic interactionism support this view by
highlighting the role of socialization in preventing deviant behavior.
Mark scheme
●​ Under-socialisation is the idea that some groups experience inadequate socialisation
which can negatively impact on their behaviour. (note that when talking about under
socialisation - don’t mention feral children - feral children have NO socialization)
●​ Failings in early socialisation and family background mean that many young people are
raised without appropriate norms/values/attitudes so they are likely to behave deviantly
21
●​ Some sociologists argue that there is a growing underclass who account for a great deal
of criminal behaviour. This concept is often linked to the idea of an overgenerous welfare
system which they argue makes it easier for young women to be single mothers and for
men to reject the idea that it is important to have a job. (New Right - Murray)
‘Under-socialisation is the main cause of deviance.’ Using sociological material, give one
argument against this view. (6)
●​ The statement "Under-socialization is the main cause of deviance" suggests that
individuals who have not been adequately socialized are more likely to engage in
deviant behavior. However, sociological research has identified several factors that
contribute to deviant behavior, which are not necessarily linked to under-socialization.
Here are five arguments against this view : (according to mark scheme)
●​ Biological and psychological explanations for deviant behavior: There is growing
evidence that biological and psychological factors can also contribute to deviant
behavior. For example, research on psychopathy has shown that individuals with this
disorder are more likely to engage in criminal activities, even if they have been
adequately socialized. Additionally, some researchers have suggested that there may be
a genetic component to deviant behavior, which would suggest that under-socialization
is not the only cause.
●​ Subcultural explanations: Subcultural explanations suggest that certain groups of people
develop their own norms and values, which can be at odds with mainstream society. For
example, some youth subcultures may place a higher value on risk-taking and
rule-breaking behavior, which can lead to deviance, even among individuals who have
been adequately socialized. This suggests that the problem of deviance is not simply a
matter of inadequate socialization, but also involves cultural factors.
●​ Deviant behavior from those adequately socialized: Some people who have been
adequately socialized still engage in deviant behavior. For example, white-collar crime is
often committed by individuals who have been well-educated and hold high-status
positions in society. This suggests that socialization is not always a sufficient explanation
for deviant behavior.
●​ Socioeconomic factors that lead to deviant behavior: Studies have shown that
individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds are more likely to engage in deviant
behavior. This may be due to factors such as poverty, unemployment, and lack of
opportunities. This suggests that socialization is not the only factor that contributes to
deviant behavior, but that socioeconomic factors also play a role.
●​ Marginalization: Some individuals who engage in deviant behavior may feel marginalized
or excluded from mainstream society. For example, some young people who have been
22
excluded from school or have experienced discrimination may be more likely to engage
in deviant behavior as a way of expressing their frustration. This suggests that deviance
can be a response to social exclusion, rather than simply a result of under-socialization.
Describe two features of globalisation. (4)
●​ Interdependent societies - importing/exporting goods
●​ Similar social cultural characteristics/products/identities.
●​ Similar consumer goods.
●​ Global economic interests.
Explain two problems a researcher may face in gaining access to a study group. (8)
(1) One problem a researcher may face in gaining access to a study group is institutional
barriers. For example, schools, prisons, and hospitals may have strict rules and regulations
about who is allowed to enter their premises and conduct research. These institutions may
require researchers to go through a lengthy and complicated approval process, which may
involve obtaining permission from multiple authorities, completing background checks, and
providing detailed research proposals. Such barriers can be a problem because they can delay
or even prevent researchers from gaining access to their study group, limiting the quality and
depth of their research.
(2) Another problem a researcher may face is geographical distance. For example, if the
researcher is interested in studying a rural community, they may face logistical challenges in
traveling to the location and establishing connections with the local population. Additionally, if
the researcher is studying a group that is spread across a large geographical area, such as a
national sports team, they may have difficulty coordinating with members who live in different
cities or even countries. This can be a problem because it can make it more difficult for
researchers to build rapport with their study group and may limit the amount of time they can
spend collecting data and conducting interviews.
Mark scheme
●​ Making contact with the group.
●​ Being accepted by the group.
●​ Blending into the group if the sociologist is from a different social
●​ background.
●​ Explaining your presence in the group without arousing suspicion.
●​ Legal/ethical issues may constrain
1 mark for making a point/giving a reason (making contact with the group in the first place).
1 mark for explaining that point (e.g. depending on who the target group are researchers may
not have a direct means of making contact).
23
1 mark for selecting relevant sociological material (e.g. may have to rely on a gatekeeper).
1 mark for explaining how the material supports the point ( i.e if wishing to research in a
school, a sociologist will need permission from the head teacher).
Explain two limitations of longitudinal studies. (8)
One limitation of longitudinal studies is the issue of attrition. Attrition occurs when participants
drop out of the study over time, which can affect the validity and reliability of the findings. This
limitation arises because longitudinal studies typically take place over an extended period,
ranging from several months to years, and participants may experience changes in their
personal circumstances or lose interest in the study. Attrition can lead to biased results and
affect the generalizability of the findings to the population being studied. For instance, a
longitudinal study that examines the effects of a new educational program on academic
achievement may experience attrition if some students drop out of school or transfer to another
institution. This would result in a biased sample, limiting the generalizability of the findings to the
original population.
Another limitation of longitudinal studies is the effect of testing on participants. Testing can refer
to any type of assessment or measurement used in the study, such as questionnaires or
cognitive tests, which may influence participants' subsequent behavior or responses in future
assessments. This limitation arises because longitudinal studies require participants to be
assessed multiple times over an extended period, and repeated testing can lead to participants
becoming more familiar with the study measures and changing their behavior or responses. For
example, a longitudinal study examining the effects of a new exercise program on physical
health outcomes may be limited by the effect of testing. Participants may become more aware of
their physical health status and make lifestyle changes outside of the study that affect their
outcomes, or they may improve their performance on the study measures due to practice effects
rather than the effects of the intervention being studied. This limitation can lead to
overestimating or underestimating the intervention's effects, making it challenging to draw valid
conclusions.
Mark scheme
●​ Sample attrition – likely to reduce representativeness.
●​ Hawthorne effect – knowledge that respondents are to be repeatedly reviewed may
affect behaviour. this can affect the study’s validity.
●​ Money – an expensive technique; few agencies willing to commit. This can affect the
type of groups researched and the nature of the study.
●​ Possibility that researchers ‘go native’ and become too involved with their study group (a
criticism levelled at Skeggs).
●​ Maintaining the research team over time can present practical problems.
24
‘Religion is the most important factor shaping ethnic identity.’ Explain this view (10)
The relationship between religion and ethnicity has been a subject of academic debate for many
years. Some scholars argue that religion is the most important factor shaping ethnic identity,
while others argue that other factors such as language, culture, and geography are more
important. In this essay, I will discuss the view that religion is the most important factor shaping
ethnic identity, with a focus on the reasons why ethnic minorities, such as Muslims, show high
levels of religiosity.
Religion plays a significant role in shaping ethnic identity because it provides a sense of
belonging and community to individuals who share a common faith. Ethnic minorities often face
discrimination and marginalization in societies where they are the minority. Religion, therefore,
becomes a way for them to create a separate identity and establish a sense of solidarity with
other members of their ethnic group who share the same faith. This is particularly evident in the
case of Muslims, who often face discrimination and prejudice in non-Muslim majority countries.
Furthermore, religion also provides a way for ethnic minorities to defend their cultural identity in
the face of cultural assimilation. According to the cultural defense theory proposed by Bruce
(2002), religion can be used as a tool to resist cultural assimilation by maintaining cultural
traditions and practices. Muslims, for example, may use their religion to preserve their cultural
practices, such as dress, food, and customs, which may be threatened by the dominant culture.
In addition to cultural defense, religion can also facilitate cultural transition, as proposed by Bird
(2003). In this context, religion serves as a bridge between the ethnic minority culture and the
dominant culture, allowing for the integration of new cultural practices while maintaining a sense
of ethnic identity. For example, Muslims in non-Muslim majority countries may adopt certain
cultural practices of the dominant culture while still adhering to their religious beliefs.
Another reason why ethnic minorities, such as Muslims, show high levels of religiosity is the
social support provided by religious communities. Religion provides a sense of community and
belonging, which is particularly important for individuals who feel marginalized in society.
Religious communities can provide emotional support, financial assistance, and other forms of
aid to individuals and families in need.
In conclusion, religion plays a significant role in shaping ethnic identity, particularly for ethnic
minorities such as Muslims who face discrimination and marginalization. Religion provides a
sense of belonging and community, serves as a tool for cultural defense and transition, and
provides social support to individuals and families. The theories of cultural defense and cultural
transition proposed by Bruce and Bird provide a useful framework for understanding the role of
religion in shaping ethnic identity.
25
‘Religion is the most important factor shaping ethnic identity.’ Using sociological
material, give one argument against this view. (6)
One argument against the view that religion is the most important factor in shaping ethnic
identity is that the influence of religion on ethnic identity may be exaggerated. In contemporary
society, the importance of religion is dwindling, and those who claim to be religious are
oftentimes not genuinely religious due to social and cultural pressures.
According to sociologist Robert J. Young, ethnicity is not solely determined by religion but rather
a complex interplay between religion, culture, history, language, and geography. Young argues
that ethnicity is not a fixed or static entity, but rather it is a fluid and dynamic process that
evolves over time.
Young's theory suggests that religion may be an important factor in shaping ethnic identity in
certain contexts and at certain times, but it is not the most important or exclusive factor. Young
posits that ethnic identity is shaped by a variety of factors, including historical and social
contexts, cultural traditions and practices, and economic and political factors.
Moreover, recent sociological research has shown that the influence of religion on ethnic identity
is declining in many parts of the world. This is particularly true in Western societies, where
secularization and the rise of individualism have led to a decline in religious affiliation and the
importance of religion in shaping ethnic identity.
Furthermore, people who claim to be religious may not actually be religious due to social and
cultural pressures. For example, some individuals may claim to be religious to conform to the
expectations of their community or to gain social status. In such cases, religion may not be the
most important factor in shaping their ethnic identity, but rather it is a means of social and
cultural conformity.
In conclusion, the view that religion is the most important factor in shaping ethnic identity is not
entirely accurate. While religion may be an important factor in certain contexts and at certain
times, it is just one of many factors that shape ethnic identity.
Mark scheme
●​ The influence of the religion on ethnic identity may be exaggerated, e.g. many
individuals do not necessarily conform and this varies greatly between groups.
●​ The role of the religion in influencing ethnic identity may be stronger for some age
groups (e.g. youth) than it is for others.
●​ The role of other agents of socialization relative to the influence of religion.
26
●​ Note: With these arguments responses need to explain why an agent is a more
important influence than the religion, e.g. peer group may be a more important influence
as children form influential subcultures; the media may be more important as children
are exposed to influence that may not be subject to parental/community monitoring.
Education may introduce countervailing ideas and experiences.
Evaluate the view that social class has little influence on identity today. (26)
The debate over the influence of social class on identity is ongoing, and the view that social
class has little influence on identity today has gained momentum. This essay will evaluate this
view, first by considering the arguments that support it, and then by exploring
counterarguments.
One of the main reasons why some argue that social class has little influence on identity is due
to social changes that have taken place in recent years, particularly in relation to work and
migration. These changes have led to a blurring of boundaries, with identity becoming much
more individualistic. As a result, people are less likely to identify with a particular social class,
and instead, they focus on their unique characteristics and experiences.
Moreover, some sociologists, such as Clarke and Saunders, argue that "we're all middle class
now," suggesting that the traditional working-class identity has become increasingly outdated.
Class is viewed as a dated and over deterministic concept that does not fully capture the
complexities of modern identities. Instead, identity is now linked to consumption, leisure, and
lifestyle choices, which are seen as more fluid and flexible.
Postmodern arguments about the decline of traditional identities also support the view that
social class has little influence on identity. According to this perspective, identity is no longer
anchored in fixed social categories, such as class, gender, or race. Instead, identity is seen as
fluid and constantly changing, depending on context and individual preferences.
However, these arguments against the importance of social class in shaping identity are not
universally accepted. Many sociologists, including Savage, argue that social class remains a
critical influence on attitudes, values, and behavior. Class differences persist in areas such as
education, politics (voting), workplace, peer groups, cultural consumption, and more. Moreover,
survey evidence suggests that people still identify themselves in class terms.
While it is true that social changes have led to a blurring of boundaries between social classes,
evidence suggests that diverse social characteristics still exist between different class groups.
Additionally, class identity can still be linked to different socialization experiences for each. For
example, working-class individuals may have different cultural experiences and values than their
middle-class counterparts.
27
Structural differences between class groups also persist, as life chances remain class-based.
Even those rejecting class labels recognize that class is an important 'structural' force in their
lives and others.
In conclusion, while it is true that social changes have led to a blurring of boundaries between
social classes, it is not accurate to say that social class has little influence on identity today.
Social class remains a critical influence on attitudes, values, and behavior, as well as a predictor
of life chances, and many people continue to identify themselves in class terms. Therefore, it is
crucial to acknowledge the significance of social class in shaping our identities, and not to
underestimate its impact.
Evaluate the view that qualitative interviews have little value in sociological research (26)
Qualitative interviews have been a vital tool in sociological research, providing rich and in-depth
data that allows for a deeper understanding of social phenomena. However, some positivist
perspectives argue that qualitative interviews have little value due to their lack of reliability and
representativeness. This essay will evaluate the view that qualitative interviews have little value
in sociological research by considering the strengths and critiques of using qualitative
interviews.
One strength of qualitative interviews is their high validity, allowing subjective meanings and
interpretations to emerge. This is particularly relevant to interpretivist perspectives, which
emphasize the importance of understanding the meanings individuals attach to social
phenomena. Unstructured and semi-structured interviews, in particular, allow participants to
express themselves freely, providing valuable insights into their experiences and perspectives.
Group interviews also have the advantage of enabling participants to interact with one another,
leading to a better understanding of social dynamics and group processes.
However, one critique of qualitative interviews is their lack of reliability and replicability. This is a
concern for positivist perspectives that prioritize objective and measurable data. Semi-structured
interviews provide a degree of reliability as they have some predetermined questions, but
unstructured and group interviews are less reliable as they rely heavily on the interviewer's skill
and the participants' responses. This lack of reliability makes it difficult to generalize findings to
larger populations and to compare results across different studies.
Another critique of qualitative interviews is their lack of representativeness. The small sample
sizes used in qualitative research limit the generalizability of findings to larger populations.
Additionally, the interviewer effect can influence the responses of participants, leading to biased
results. Social desirability bias is also a concern, as participants may alter their responses to
present themselves in a more positive light. Researcher imposition, whereby the researcher's
presence and questions may influence the participants' responses, is another potential issue.
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However, interpretivist perspectives argue that qualitative research is not concerned with
achieving reliable outcomes, but rather with generating rich and meaningful data. The
fit-for-purpose argument supports the use of qualitative interviews in specific research contexts,
where in-depth exploration of social phenomena is necessary. Qualitative interviews can be
particularly useful in areas such as health, education, and social policy, where an understanding
of individual experiences and perspectives is vital.
In conclusion, while qualitative interviews have some limitations, they are a valuable tool in
sociological research. The strengths of high validity, interpretivist perspectives, and reduced
researcher imposition, alongside the fit-for-purpose argument, support their use. The critiques of
their lack of reliability, representativeness, and potential biases must also be considered.
Overall, the value of qualitative interviews in sociological research depends on the research
question, context, and methodology employed.
Describe two secondary sources of qualitative data. (4)
• letters
• diaries (personal documents also accepted but if they use this as an explanation of diaries only
credit one)
• historical documents
• previous sociological studies
• newspapers
• novels/literature
• art
• photographs
• autobiographies
• parish records
• visual/audio media/TV programmes
Explain 2 practical factors that may influence a sociologist’s choice of research topic (8)
There are several practical factors that can influence a sociologist's choice of research topic.
Two of these factors are funding availability and access to research participants.
(1) Funding availability can heavily influence a sociologist's choice of research topic. Research
projects can be costly, and without funding, it may be difficult or impossible to carry out research
in a specific area. Sociologists may need to consider funding opportunities and apply for grants
to conduct research in their chosen area.
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Additionally, if a sociologist is interested in studying the effects of social media on mental health,
they may seek funding from organizations that prioritize mental health research. However, if
funding is scarce for this particular topic, the sociologist may shift their research focus to a topic
that is currently receiving more funding, such as the social determinants of health or racial
disparities in education.
(2) Access to research participants is also an important practical factor that can influence a
sociologist's choice of research topic. Sociologists may need to consider the availability and
willingness of research participants to take part in their research. For example, in the case of a
sociologist wanting to do research amongst students, it may be difficult to access students as
research participants due to the ethical and legal considerations involved.
For instance, researchers may need to obtain informed consent from students or their parents,
and this can involve a complex and time-consuming process. Moreover, researchers may need
to obtain approval from school authorities, which can also take time and involve negotiation and
compromise.
Mark scheme
• Time available for the research
• Ease of access to study group
• Funding and sponsorship
• Issues that are considered fashionable/newsworthy
• Good fortune: an opportunity presented itself
• Topic suited the knowledge base/skill set of the researcher
• Enhance researcher’s career prospects
• Cost of studying particular topics
Explain one strength and one limitation of semi-structured interviews. (6)
One strength of semi-structured interviews is their flexibility. Unlike structured interviews,
semi-structured interviews allow the interviewer to ask follow-up questions or probe deeper into
the respondent's answers. This flexibility enables researchers to obtain more detailed
information and a richer understanding of the topic being studied. For instance, in a study
examining the experiences of LGBTQ youth in schools, a researcher might ask a
semi-structured question such as "Can you tell me about a time when you felt unsupported at
school?" and follow up with additional questions to explore the student's experience in more
depth.
One limitation of semi-structured interviews is that they can be time-consuming and
resource-intensive. The open-ended nature of the questions means that respondents may take
longer to answer, and the interviewer may need to spend more time transcribing and analyzing
the data. Additionally, the need for well-trained interviewers to conduct the interviews can add to
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the cost and time required. For example, a researcher conducting a semi-structured interview
study on the impact of COVID-19 on small businesses may find that each interview takes 45
minutes to an hour, and with a sample size of 30 participants, it would require a significant
amount of time and resources to complete the study.
Mark scheme
(Strengths)
• Allows you to collect both quantitative and qualitative data through one method.
• Gives researchers a degree of control over proceedings.
• Enables some measure of comparability.
• Allows for unpredictable responses and the possibility of follow up questions, in other words
they are flexible.
• Less researcher bias as less structure imposed.
• Respondent control may lead to greater depth and validity.
• Allows the interviewer to generate a rapport.
(Limitations)
• Practical: costly and time consuming.
• Unreliable: SSI can lack reliability depending on the degree of structure e.g. the nature of the
interview schedule used.
• Researcher imposition.
• Dependent upon skill of the interviewer, ability to build rapport.
• Dependent upon the articulacy of the respondent.
• Primarily a qualitative method and therefore subject to many of the objections levelled at
unstructured interviews e.g. problems associated with analysing and interpreting data.
• Sample size may be small due to time taken, reducing generalisability.
• Can be difficult/time consuming to analyse if there is a lot of qualitiative data generated
‘Socialisation controls the way people behave.’ Explain this view. (10)
This explanation explores the role of socialization in shaping individuals' behaviors and beliefs.
The process of socialization begins in the family during primary socialization, where children
learn values, beliefs, and norms through observation and reinforcement. Secondary
socialization, through social institutions like schools, peer groups, and the media, reinforces this
learning process. For example, norms such as respecting authority usually are taught first within
the family, and then reinforced at school. Positive and negative sanctions are used in the
process of socialization to reinforce behaviors that are deemed acceptable or unacceptable.
The feminist perspective highlights the role of gender socialization in shaping gender roles and
expectations. Girls are socialized to be nurturing and emotional, while boys are socialized to be
strong and competitive, putting girls at a disadvantage in advancing independently through
society. Marxists argue that socialization serves to reinforce the dominant ideology and maintain
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the status quo to benefit the bourgeoisie. Socialization reproduces the class structure and
prepares individuals for their roles in the capitalist system - to be docile, submissive workers.
From a functionalist perspective, socialization is viewed positively as a means of promoting
social cohesion and order. Socialization instills a sense of collective identity and morality,
preparing children for their adult roles. Functionalists believe that socialization controls the way
people behave, but this allows society to function smoothly.
In conclusion, socialization plays a critical role in shaping individuals' behaviors and beliefs. The
process of socialization is reinforced through positive and negative sanctions and influenced by
various social, cultural, and economic factors. Different theoretical perspectives such as
Marxism, feminism, and functionalism all agree that socialization controls the way people
behave but disagree on whether this is a positive or negative thing.
Mark scheme
• Older members of society impart cultural knowledge and understanding to younger members
(internalisation).
• Family has crucial effect on social learning, personal development and the acquisition of social
roles; children imitate parents who provide blueprints for action.
• Agents of secondary socialisation reinforce this early experience.
• The process is concerned with social control and conformity via positive and negative
sanctions.
• Structural perspectives support this approach e.g. functionalist view on value consensus and
roles (Parsons); Marxists and feminists they focus on the ideological nature of socialisation.
‘Socialisation controls the way people behave.’ Using sociological material, give one
argument against this view. (6)
The statement that 'socialisation controls the way people behave' is a deterministic view that
overlooks the role of individual agency and the power of human interaction. Interactionist
theories in sociology argue that individuals actively create and shape their social reality through
communication and symbolic interaction with others.
The interactionist perspective, exemplified by the works of George Herbert Mead and Charles
Horton Cooley, emphasizes the importance of social interaction and language in the
development of the self. According to Mead, the self is not a fixed entity but rather emerges
through the process of interaction with others. Cooley's concept of the 'looking-glass self'
similarly argues that our self-concept is shaped by the feedback we receive from others.
Interactionists contend that individuals are not merely passive recipients of socialization but
rather active agents who negotiate and interpret the meanings of social roles and norms. For
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example, individuals may resist or reinterpret cultural norms that are seen as oppressive or
unjust. This agency is demonstrated in the way that individuals appropriate and transform
cultural symbols and practices to suit their own needs and desires. Socialisation is not a one
way process.
Moreover, the influence of socialization is not necessarily deterministic or absolute. The
meanings and values that individuals internalize through socialization may be contested or
transformed in different social contexts. For example, individuals may experience
'resocialization' when they are exposed to new cultural norms and values that challenge their
existing beliefs and behaviors.
Mark scheme
• People actively participate in learning culture and don’t simply accept what they are told.
• Explanations for deviant behaviour, e.g. subcultures, undersocialisation, resistance.
• The existence of formal and informal sanctions highlights that socialisation alone is not enough
to control behaviour.
• Different agents of socialisation reinforce different and sometimes conflicting values, e.g.
religion and some forms of media.
• Interactionists, in particular, reject the view that socialisation is simply a one way process:
individuals are active in making sense of the world and in shaping their own identity and are not
passive actors e.g. Mead’s concept of the ‘social self’ as created through social interaction,
looking glass self.
• Interactionists views on how individuals are shaped by the agents of secondary socialisation
e.g. media messages can be interpreted in an active way i.e. they are not simply absorbed and
accepted.
• Non-sociological arguments e.g. biological accounts of the differences
in the ways people behave
Evaluate the view that ethical issues make covert participant observation unsuitable for
sociological research. (26)
Covert participant observation (CPO) is a type of sociological research in which the researcher
poses as a member of a group being studied without the knowledge or consent of that group.
This approach is often criticized for its ethical issues, which make it unsuitable for sociological
research. However, there are also arguments in favor of CPO that highlight its advantages. In
this essay, I will evaluate the view that ethical issues make CPO unsuitable for sociological
research by considering both positive and negative aspects of this approach.
On the negative side, CPO involves deception by the researcher, who gains access to the group
under false pretenses. This deception can lead to a lack of informed consent, as the group
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members are not aware that they are being studied. This lack of consent can have a negative
psychological impact on the group who find out that they have been studied without permission.
Feelings of betrayal and distrust may arise amongst the unwilling participants, leading to a
development of paranoia surrounding future relationships throughout their life.
Moreover, researchers who use CPO may find themselves involved in dubious activities, which
poses an ethical dilemma about reporting any illegal activities observed. For example, in the
case of a researcher who is covertly observing a group of law-breaking deviants, in order to “fit
in” and remain undetected they may have to engage in illegal activity in order to gain the trust of
the unknowing participants.
For example, Howard Becker's study of marijuana smokers in Chicago jazz bars involved
deception as he infiltrated the group and began to participate in their activities. Becker’s aim
was to study the affect of labeling on deviant behaviour. He would play piano in these bars and
interact with the marijuana smokers in an informal way - gaining their trust.
Similarly, Erving Goffman's study of mental institutions involved deception as he posed as a
patient to observe the interactions between staff and patients. These examples show how CPO
can involve unethical behavior and deception, yet while also obtaining valuable data.
On the other hand, there are also arguments in favor of CPO. One key advantage is the ability
to experience the way of life of the study group in a natural setting without imposing the
researcher's views. This approach allows for the natural elicitation of responses and the ability
to gain a deeper understanding of the group being studied. This is particularly useful for
studying deviant groups that may not be willing to allow researchers to observe them.
For example, Margaret Mead's study of Samoan culture involved CPO, as she lived among the
Samoans and participated in their daily activities to gain a deeper understanding of their way of
life. This study highlights the importance of CPO in gaining an in-depth understanding of a
culture that may be difficult to study in any other way.
Furthermore, interpretivist theorists argue that CPO is justified because it allows for the
observation of interaction and the understanding of meanings. This is important for gaining
insight into the social world and the way people interact with one another. The interpretivist
perspective emphasizes the importance of verstehen, or understanding, which can be facilitated
through CPO. In opposition to this, positivist accuse participant observations in general to be
unreliable, as they are very unique and thus cannot be replicated. Additionally, they tend to be
small scale and do not allow for generalizations.
It is important to note that all research methods have the potential for ethical issues, and the
issue is whether these are justified. Any form of research on children for example risks issues of
unethical outcomes. Ethical dilemmas can be countered by debriefing and counseling, which
can help to mitigate any negative psychological impact on the group being studied, and prevent
any long term harm.
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In conclusion, while ethical issues make CPO unsuitable for sociological research, there are
also arguments in favor of this approach. CPO allows for a natural understanding of a group's
way of life, which can be difficult to achieve in any other way. However, it is important to weigh
the benefits against the potential ethical issues and to take steps to mitigate any negative
impact on the group being studied. Therefore, CPO can be a valuable method for sociological
research, but it should be used judiciously and with great care.
Evaluate the view that the media is the most important influence on identity. (26)
The influence of media on identity has been widely debated in the field of sociology. This essay
aims to evaluate the view that the media is the most important influence on identity. While the
media has undoubtedly played a significant role in shaping the identity of individuals, it is too
simplistic to isolate its impact as the most significant. Other agents such as the peer group,
family, and education also play a crucial role in shaping identity.
The media plays a vital role in socially constructing and reinforcing hegemonic representations
of youth identity. This is evident in the way in which the media portrays youth as passive
recipients of ideological messages, particularly in the context of consumer culture. The media is
instrumental in shaping what is considered desirable and attractive, perpetuating the notion that
certain products or lifestyles are essential for a fulfilled life. For example, advertisements for
beauty products reinforce narrow and stereotypical ideas about femininity and masculinity,
which are then internalized by individuals to encourage them to purchase said items in order to
‘fit in’.
The media is also a significant source of information and role models for individuals. Role
models, in particular, have a significant impact on identity, as they provide a template for
individuals to follow. The media portrays certain individuals as role models, and these
individuals are often celebrities, who have a significant impact on the identity of individuals. For
example, the influence of pop stars such as Beyoncé and Taylor Swift on the identity of young
girls cannot be overstated. These role models provide young girls with an image of what they
should aspire to be like - often perpetuating images of beauty, success and confidence.
However, the media's influence on identity is not uniform, and it is more influential on some
subcultural groups than others. For example, the media's influence on the identity of
working-class youth is limited, as these individuals are more likely to be influenced by their peer
groups and family. This is evident in Paul Willis's study, where working-class youth rejected the
values and norms of the education system, which was perceived as a middle-class institution,
and instead formed their own subcultural identities. It should be noted that Willis’s study was
done in the 70s, where the media was nowhere near as influential as it is today.
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It is also worth noting that the media's representations of gender and ethnicity are not the same
as before, and there are fewer stereotypical representations. Feminists such as Ann Oakley
argue that the media has played a significant role in challenging gender stereotypes, and this is
evident in the representation of women in positions of power in the media. Similarly, the media's
representation of ethnic minorities has improved, with more positive representations of these
groups.
In addition, the media's influence on identity is not limited to providing role models and shaping
desirable products or lifestyles. The media also influences what people consume and buy,
particularly in the context of popular culture and advertising. This has led to concerns about the
impact of the media on youth culture, with some arguing that the media is leading to deviance
within the youth. This is particularly evident in the case of violent media such as video games,
which have been accused of leading to an increase in violent behavior among young people.
However, others argue that this view is exaggerated and that the media's impact on behavior is
limited - it is the family environment and socioeconomic class that most affects deviance in
youth.
The media has also been accused of demonizing youth, particularly in the context of moral
panics. Stanley Cohen's study on Mods and Rockers illustrates how the media can create folk
devils, who are then demonized by the media and the wider society. This can lead to a negative
impact on the identity of young people, as they are stigmatized and marginalized by society and perhaps even leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy. Once they are labeled as deviant, they
internalise this and become deviant as a result.
From a functionalist perspective, the media plays a crucial role in socializing individuals and
reinforcing social norms and values. Parsons argues that the media is a crucial agent of
socialization, and it is instrumental in transmitting cultural values and norms from one
generation to another. From a Marxist perspective, the media serves the interests of the ruling
class and reinforces the dominant ideology. Althusser argues that the media is an ideological
state apparatus, which works to reproduce the ideology of the ruling class and maintain the
status quo. Both marxism and functionalism are however, accused of being outdated and no
longer as relevant to today’s, more complex, society.
In conclusion, the media's influence on identity is complex and multifaceted. While it
undoubtedly plays a significant role in shaping the identity of individuals, its impact cannot be
isolated as the most important influence. Other agents such as the peer group, family, and
education also play a crucial role in shaping identity. The media's impact on identity is also not
uniform, and it is more influential on some subcultural groups than others. Nonetheless, the
media's role in socializing individuals, providing role models, and shaping desirable products
and lifestyles cannot be ignored. It is important to critically evaluate the media's representations
and impact on identity and to recognize the media's power in shaping our perceptions of
ourselves and the world around us.
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Describe two formal social sanctions. (4)
Enforcement of legal rules through negative sanctions:
• Fines
• Imprisonment
• Criminal record
• Community service
Enforcement of non-legal rules through negative sanctions:
• Formal reprimand at work
• Dismissal from work
• Expulsion from school
Also positive formal sanctions:
• School certificates
• Awards
• Medals
• Promotion
Explain two ways the values of a sociologist may influence the research process. (8)
Researchers' values can significantly influence the research process in various ways. The two
examples I have chosen to explain are interview bias and the selection of research topics.
(1) Interviewer bias occurs when a researcher's personal beliefs, opinions, and biases affect the
way they conduct an interview. This bias can influence the data collected from the interview,
leading to unreliable or biased results. For example, if a researcher holds the belief that women
are less competent than men in leadership roles, they may ask different questions or give more
negative feedback to female participants during an interview, leading to inaccurate data
collection. The influence of interviewer bias can result in inaccurate research outcomes, leading
to skewed or biased results. Inaccurate data can affect the overall findings of the research,
leading to inappropriate conclusions and recommendations. In the above example, the biased
interviewer's findings may suggest that women are not as competent in leadership roles as men,
which may lead to incorrect assumptions and potentially harmful policies and practices.
(2) Researchers' personal values, interests, and beliefs can influence the choice of research
topics. For example, a researcher who has a strong interest in environmental issues may
choose to research the effects of plastic waste on marine life. This selection of research topics
may lead to a limited or biased scope of research, as the researcher may only focus on specific
aspects of the issue that align with their values and interests. The influence of personal values
on the selection of research topics can lead to limitations and bias in the research process. The
limited scope of the research may overlook critical factors, leading to incomplete conclusions
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and recommendations. For example, the researcher in the above example may fail to explore
other environmental issues, such as air pollution or deforestation, leading to a lack of
comprehensive solutions.
Mark scheme
• Interviewer bias – the responses of an interviewer may influence the interviewee.
• Collection of data – e.g. construction of question in an interview – those posed/excluded.
• Theoretical position of researcher e.g. Positivist or Interpretivist.
• Ethical considerations –would want to get the consent of participants in the research
• Choice of research topic e.g. sympathy for the poor may lead to an interest in researching
poverty and the way the research is conducted.
• Processing of data - Interpretation and presentation of findings may be influenced by beliefs –
researcher imposition.
• Sociologists may sometimes be influenced by the common-sense ideas of their time, and this
may then have a distorting influence on their research (Kuhn’s paradigms).
Explain two limitations of laboratory experiments. (6)
(1) Lack of ecological validity
One of the primary limitations of laboratory experiments is their artificiality. Researchers create a
controlled environment in which they manipulate one or more variables to examine their effect
on a dependent variable. However, this type of experiment often fails to replicate real-life
situations accurately. Participants are aware that they are part of an experiment, which may
affect their behavior and the results obtained (Hawthorne effect). In this way, laboratory
experiments do not reflect the natural behaviors that people would display in everyday life.
(2) Limited Generalizability
Another significant limitation of laboratory experiments is their limited generalizability.
Researchers use a sample of participants that may not be representative of the larger
population. As a result, the findings of the study may not be applicable to other groups of people
or situations outside of the laboratory setting. Moreover, laboratory experiments are often
conducted in a controlled environment that does not necessarily reflect the complexity of
real-world scenarios, making it difficult to generalize the findings.
Mark scheme
• Ecological validity – a laboratory is an artificial setting.
• The difficulty of isolating variables for testing and identifying causes when studying people.
• Possible ethical issues arising from treating individuals differently; of consent, etc.
• Small-scale experiments likely to be unrepresentative.
• Human behaviour is too complex to be studied in a laboratory.
• The Hawthorne effect – people behave differently when they know they are being studied.
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‘The peer group is the most influential agent of socialisation in shaping gender identity.’
Explain this view. (10)
The peer group has been identified as a powerful agent of socialization in shaping gender
identity. Peer groups refer to individuals of similar age and status who interact with each other
regularly, and they have been found to exert significant pressure on young people to conform to
their expectations, values, and norms. This influence is often referred to as "peer pressure." For
example, gender subcultures can form within peer groups, and members may engage in
activities and adopt behaviors that are seen as appropriate for their gender. Such subcultures
may reinforce stereotypical gender roles and identities, such as girls being expected to be
interested in fashion, while boys are encouraged to participate in sports. Failure to conform to
these expectations may lead to ridicule or outright exclusion.
Schools are important settings for the formation of peer groups, and they often provide an
environment in which gender identity is shaped. McRobbie (1991) and Francis (2000) found that
schools are important in the formation of gender identity, with peer groups in school often
reinforcing gendered identities. They found that girls are more likely to be concerned with
appearance, while boys are encouraged to be tough and avoid anything perceived as feminine.
Individuals may also hide alternative identities to fit in with their peer groups. Willis (1977) found
that boys who excelled academically often hid their abilities to avoid being labeled as "geeks" or
"nerds" and to fit in with the rest of the group. This suggests that peer groups can discourage
behaviors that do not fit within their gendered norms.
Finally, "bedroom culture" has been identified as an important aspect of peer influence. Hughes
et al. (2006) found that girls often engage in activities in their bedrooms, such as reading
magazines or listening to music, that are highly gendered and reinforce stereotypical gender
roles.
In conclusion, the peer group is a highly influential agent of socialization in shaping gender
identity. Peer pressure, gender subcultures, school settings, informal social sanctions, the need
to fit in, and bedroom culture all play important roles in the formation of gendered identities.
Researchers such as Willis, McRobbie, Francis, and Hughes et al. have contributed significantly
to our understanding of the powerful influence of peer groups on gender identity.
Mark scheme
●​ Additional concepts: Bedroom culture; Social control, conformity, positive/negative
sanctions
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‘The peer group is the most influential agent of socialisation in shaping gender identity.
Using sociological material, give one argument against this view. (6)
(1) The biological argument suggests that individuals are biologically programmed into gender
roles, which undermines the notion that peer groups are the most influential agent of
socialization in shaping gender identity.
Functionalist Talcott Parsons suggested that men are biologically suited for instrumental roles,
such as working outside the home, while women are biologically suited for expressive roles,
such as caring for children and maintaining the household. Sociobiologist Wilsons also
supported this idea, arguing that males and females have inherent differences that make them
better suited for different roles in society.
This biological argument suggests that gender identity is predetermined by biology rather than
shaped by socialization, therefore the peer group cannot be the most influential agent shaping
gender identity, as gender identity has already been pre-shaped by biological factors.
(2) The deterministic explanation provided by the idea that peer groups are the most influential
agent of socialization in shaping gender identity is not accurate for all individuals. Many people
do not conform to the gender expectations set by their peer group. For example, subcultures
such as the LGBT+ community or the punk subculture often challenge traditional gender roles
and expectations. Furthermore, individuals may also resist these expectations by choosing to
present themselves in a way that does not align with their assigned gender, such as through
gender-neutral clothing or androgynous hairstyles.
(3) The family is another influential agent of socialization that plays a crucial role in shaping
gender identity. For example, Michael Lamb's study of same-sex toys found that children look to
their mother and father as role models and copy their gendered behaviors and expectations.
This suggests that family members, particularly parents, play a significant role in shaping an
individual's gender identity. Additionally, gendered expectations at home, such as boys being
expected to be tough and girls being expected to be nurturing, can have a significant impact on
an individual's understanding of gender.
(4) Education is another influential agent of socialization that plays a crucial role in shaping
gender identity. Evidence of gendered curriculum, such as textbooks that portray men as
leaders and women as passive, or extracurricular activities that reinforce traditional gender
roles, can shape an individual's understanding of gender. For example, Reynolds' study of the
identities expected of boys in a school setting found that boys are often expected to be
competitive, aggressive, and dominant, which reinforces traditional masculine stereotypes. This
suggests that education can have a significant impact on an individual's gender identity, and
may be more influential than peer groups in some cases.
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