LEADERSHIP
Chapter 9
9-1 Leading
Groups
Leadership
Guiding others in pursuit of individual and
collective goals. An individual can lead others
by directing, coordinating, supporting,
motivating, and unifying efforts.
What do leaders do?
According to the Two-Factor Model of
Leadership, leadership behaviors can be
either relationship maintenance or
performance maintenance.
Leadership Defined
1. Leadership is an influence process.
2. Leadership is a cooperative, reciprocal
relationship.
3. Leadership is a goal oriented process.
Two-Factor Model of Leadership
Task Leadership (Work and Goals). In order to reach a goal, the
leader provides the structure of the group, assign roles, delegates
work, provides feedback, and monitor the compliance to the
procedures.
Relationship Leadership (Interpersonal Relations). In order to reach
a socioemotional satisfaction and teamwork, the leader builds rapport
among the members to reduce tension within the group.
Leadership Substitutes Theory
A conceptual analysis of the factors that
reduce or eliminate the need for a leader
(substitutes) or prevent the leader from
dispatching
his
or
her
responsibilities
(neutralizers).
Sex Differences in Leadership
Men
Women
Agentic
Communal
Engages more in relationship
maintenance.
Sex difference is a tendency: these traits do not manifest in all groups and situation.
9-2
Leadership
Emergence
Great Leader Theory
Zeitgeist Theory
Thomas Carlyle
Leo Tolstoy
Trait Approach
Situational Approach
Determined by characteristics and
contributions.
Determined by “spirit of the
times”.
Longitudinal and rotational studies
have provided stronger evidence
for the connection between
personality and leadership.
Qualities of a leader are heritable,
influenced by the environments,
and has a genetic marker
(rs4950).
The Dark Triad
Machiavellianism
Machiavellians endorse
using manipulative tactics
in dealing with other
people and espouse a
cynical view of human
nature.
Narcissism
Psychopathy
Narcissists have inflated
views of their self-worth;
they tend to exaggerate
their achievements, block
criticism, refuse to
compromise, and seek out
attention and recognition
from others.
Psychopaths lack concern
for both other people as
well as for social
regulatory mechanisms, so
they tend to act
impulsively without full
consideration of the
consequences of their
choices.
General Mental Ability and
Emotional Intelligence
Leaders tend to have higher intellectual prowess
compared to their followers. However, discrepancy in
their intellectual prowess may cause a breakdown in
communication. Emotional intelligence is equally
important as it allows leaders to understand emotions,
manage their own feelings, and effectively navigate social
situations.
Practical, Creative Intelligence, and
Expertise
Practical intelligence involves problem-solving skills, the
ability to apply knowledge in real-world situations, and the
capacity to persuade others. Creative intelligence allows
leaders to envision future goals and develop innovative
strategies to achieve them. Additionally, leaders with
expertise in task-relevant skills are more likely to gain
followers' trust and successfully lead groups.
Physical Appearance. Leaders are often seen as taller, healthier, and older
than their peers, with height and physical fitness being positively linked to
leadership emergence. Age is often associated with wisdom and experience,
making older individuals more likely to be viewed as leaders.
Diversity. Leadership remains limited, with ethnic and racial minorities
significantly underrepresented in leadership roles. Although leadership is
valued across all cultural and ethnic groups, individuals from minority
backgrounds are less likely to be recognized as leaders, even when qualified.
Sex. Gender inequality persists in leadership roles, despite evidence
suggesting that women possess qualities that predict effective leadership.
Women remain underrepresented in high-level leadership positions and face
bias in evaluations, promotions, and group dynamics.
ICE BREAKER
Instructions:
1.Group yourselves into four and choose a leader.
2.Leader should always be in front and will
decide the answer.
3.The members may or may not agree with the
leader’s answer and may switch teams.
YELLOW
WHITE
RED
9-3
Theories of
Leadership
Emergence
Implicit Leadership
Theories
Social Identity Theory
Social Role Theory
Group members’
taken for-granted
assumptions about the
traits, characteristics,
and qualities that
distinguish leaders from
the people they lead; also
known as leader
prototypes.
Leadership is
fundamentally a grouplevel process where
individuals categorize
themselves as members
of a group and adopt a
shared social identity.
Over time, members
develop an idealized
image of the prototypical
group member, similar to
an Implicit Leadership
Theory (ILT).
A conceptual analysis of
sex differ ences that
recognizes men and
women take on different
types of roles in many
societies and that these
role expec tations
generate gender
stereotypes and
differences in the
behavior of women and
men (proposed by Alice
Eagly).
Prototype
Matching
Hypothesis
Prototypical Leader
Atypical Leader
Neutral Leader
Prototypical leaders are
more likely to gain
support and be seen as
effective when followers
strongly identify with the
group and value their
group membership.
Men have instrumental
traits while women have
expressive traits which
goes against the
traditional leadership
stereotype.
Terror Management
Theory
Evolutionary Theory
A conceptual analysis of
the implicit psychological
processes thought to
defend individuals from
the emotionally terrifying
knowledge that they are
mortal and will someday
die
Leadership is an
adaptation — a heritable
trait that evolved over
time because it
enhanced survival and
reproduction.
Leadership emerged as
a beneficial trait that
improved group
coordination, decisionmaking, and conflict
resolution, ultimately
increasing the group's
chances of success.
Leadership is not about
overpowering others
through force but is a
cooperative role that
benefits both leaders
and followers.
Implicit Leadership
Theories
Social Identity Theory
Social Role Theory
ILTs can distort
leadership evaluations,
favoring individuals who
match ingrained
stereotypes rather than
those with genuine
leadership ability.
Leaders in intergroup
situations balance
reinforcing their group’s
identity with promoting a
desirable future vision,
while avoiding actions
that may appear too
accommodating to rival
groups.
Role Incongruity
Women must
outperfrom men to be
valued equally.
Task oriented leader
Relationship oriented
leader
Charismatic leader
Avoiding leadership
roles.
Underperforming due
to stereotype
pressure.
Challenging
stereotypes and
actively working to
defy negative
expectations.
When reminded of their
mortality, people showed
a stronger preference
for:
Leaders from their
own group.
Male leaders over
female leaders,
aligning with social
role theory's findings.
GLOBE Project
Diplomatic
Integrity
Inspirational
Team oriented
Visionary
Terror Management
Theory
Evolutionary Theory
Leadership is based on
service to the village
rather than hereditary
status or physical
strength.
9-4
Leadership
Effectiveness
Leader Effectiveness
Styles and Situations
Leadership Grid (Managerial Grid)
Proposed by Blake and Mouton (1982)
A theory of management and leadership assuming that people
vary in their concern for results and their concern for people and
that individuals who are high on both dimensions (9,9) are the
best leaders
Situation Leadership Theory
Styles and Situations
Management experts Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard (1976) also
described leadership in terms of the relationship and task dimensions
suggests that effective leaders combine supportive behaviors with
directive behaviors depending on the performance readiness of the
group or subordinate
Contingency Theory
Styles and Situations
Suggests that leadership effectiveness is determined by the leader’s
motivational style and the favorability of the situation.
The leader’s motivational style can be either task-motivated or relationshipmotivated, as measured by the Least Preferred Coworker Scale.
People with high scores on the LPC Scale are assumed to be relationshiporiented; while low LPC scorers are assumed to be task-oriented.
Leader-member Exchange Theory (LMX)
Focuses on the dyadic relationship linking the leader to each member of the
group
In many cases, two subgroups of linkages exist (the inner group and the outer
group):
Ingroup or inner group - includes individuals w/ positive linkages to the leader;
less likely to leave the group
Outgroup or outer group - less satisfying linkages to the leader; express less
loyalty and support for the leader
Autocratic vs. Democratic Leadership
Participation Theories
Participation theories suggest that leadership should be distributed throughout the
group rather than concentrated on a single individual.
Three Leadership Styles
Authoritarian or autocratic leader - took no input from the
members in making decisions about group activities
Democratic leader - made certain that all activities were first
discusses by the entire group
Laissez-faire - rarely intervened in the group activities
F I G U R E 9.6 The results of
Lewin, Lippitt, and White’s
1939 study of authoritarian,
democratic, and laissez-faire
leaders. The investigators
identified four different
“leadership climates” in the
groups they studied: autocracy
with aggression, autocracy with
submissiveness, democratic,
and laissez-faire. The
autocratic and democratic
leaders were more productive
than the laissez-faire groups,
but the autocratic groups were
less productive when the leader
left the room. Other findings
suggest that the democratic
groups were more cohesive.
Shared Leadership
•Shared leadership models, such as co- leadership,
collective leadership, and peer leadership, encourage
member-centered leadership methods.
•Shared methods of leadership are also more effective in
smaller groups and are well-suited to organizations that rely
on small, self-directed teams or networks of distributed,
relatively independent employees (Vroom & Mann, 1960).
Followership Theory
•Kelley’s (2004) theory of followership suggests that
followers vary along two dimensions: active/passive and
independent/dependent. He identifies five types of
followers: conformist, passive, pragmatic, alienated, and
exemplary.
Followership Theory
Five types of followers:
Conformist followers - active and energized; devoted to the leader
Passive followers (sheep) - follow the lead of others, but w/o great
enthusiasm or commitment
Pragmatic followers - rank-and-file members of the group
Alienated followers - not committed to the group or its goals; refuse to
invest in the group or its activities until they are accorded their rightful
position
Exemplary followers (stars) - actively engaged, but do not simply do what
they are told
Transformational Leadership
Charismatic Leader and Change
•Charismatic leaders inspire others, often by expressing
ideas that are both appealing and easily understood. They
tend to act in ways that provide their group members with
a model that they can emulate (Conger, 2011).
Charismatic Leader and Change
Transactional leadership - occurs when one person takes the initiative in
making contact with others for the purpose of an exchange of valued
things” (Burns, 1978, p. 19).
Transformational leadership - “occurs when one or more persons engage
with others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to
high levels of motivation and morality”
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