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1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................ 3
Concept of electric current.......................................................................................................... 3
Concept of voltage (or electric potential difference)................................................................................. 5
Basic laws in the electrical industry: ..................................................................................... 5
Semiconductor Basics .............................................................................................................. 6
Basic concepts of semiconductors.......................................................................................... 6
The nature of electric current in semiconductors .............................................................................. 7
2. Battery power for arduino students need to note. ..........................................................
8
Batteries are classified as follows:.......................................................................................... 9
Batteries have the following basic types: ........................................................................................ 10
Zinc carbon battery (Zn-C): .............................................................................................. 10
Alkaline batteries :................................................................................................... 11
Pin NiCD (pin Nickel Cadimi):................................................................................ 11
Pin NiMH (pin Nickel Metal Hidride) .................................................................... 12
Silver oxide battery :................................................................................................ 13
Battery:.......................................................................................................................... 13
.....................................................................................................................................
14
Pin Li-ion (Lithium-lon): ......................................................................................... 14
LiPo battery swelling maintenance and troubleshooting ..........................................................
16
How much power does an Arduino project need? ..........................................................
16
3. Basic electronic components ........................................................................................ 17
3.1. What is a Breadboard? ................................................................................................ 17
a. Introduction to breadboard.......................................................................................... 17
b. Why do we need a breadboard?...................................................................... 17
c. Breadboard structure: ................................................................................................
3.2. Resistors ................................................................................................................. 19
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a. What is resistance?.......................................................................................................... 19
b. How to connect resistors in an electric circuit:.................................................................. 20
c. Classification of resistors: ................................................................................................ 22
d. Read the value of the resistor:.......................................................................................... 26
3.3 LED Lights................................................................................................................. 30
a. Introduction to LED lights:.......................................................................................... 30
b. Structure of LED lights:................................................................................................ 30
c. Common types of LEDs: ...................................................................................... 31
d. How to use LED:................................................................................................ 34
3.4 Capacitors...................................................................................................................... 35
Overview of capacitors: ...................................................................................................... 35
Capacitor specifications:.......................................................................................... 36
Capacitor classification: ........................................................................................................ 37
3.5 Transistor.................................................................................................................. 39
Transistor classification: ................................................................................................... 39
Structure of transistor:................................................................................................. 40
Transistor symbol in electric circuit: ............................................................................ 40
Understanding the operation of transistors: .............................................................................. 3.6. utton - N t 40
press................................................................................................. 42
42
About the button: ..............................................................................................
Button is g ................................................................................................................ 42
Button types:.......................................................................................................................... 42
45
3.7 What is an inductor? How does it work? ..........................................................
What is an Inductor? .......................................................................................................... 45
Uses of inductors.......................................................................................................... 46
Structure of the inductor. .................................................................................................
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1. INTRODUCTION
To start with the concept related to the field of electronics, we go back to the
Basic concepts of the field of electricity before mentioning electronics and applied components. For
the convenience of summarizing those concepts, the following section will list a series of basic
concepts related to the field of electricity and electronics.
They include:
Concept of electric current
An electric current is a directional flow of charged particles. It is a flow of
the movement of electrons through wires and electronic components. We can
Imagine the movement of these electrons as similar to the flow of a current.
water through water pipes. Water is the process of moving water molecules
In the water pipes under the action of the water pump, the electric current moves in
The conductors are made under the action of the battery source. So how does the battery source act
to create an electric current? As we know, particles of the same sign repel each other, and particles of
opposite signs attract each other. Specifically, particles with the same positive or negative charge
repel each other, while particles with opposite charges attract each other. For that reason, a battery source
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There will be two poles. The negative pole will push the electrons into the wire and the positive pole will attract
the electrons towards it. Therefore, if a closed loop is formed, the electrons will move in a certain direction and
that is the electric current. This current has a constant direction so it is called direct current.
In the case, the two poles of the battery source sequentially change polarity from positive to negative and from
negative to positive, this current in the wire also changes direction accordingly.
with the polarity of the electrodes changing. This current is alternating current.
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Concept of voltage (or electric potential)
Voltage or potential difference is the value of the electric potential difference between two points. Similarly
Like current, voltage has two types: direct voltage and alternating voltage. Direct voltage
Direction is the potential difference between two points at which the potential difference creates
direct current.
The alternating voltage corresponds to the case of continuous change.
about the polarity between two corresponding points and this is what causes the change.
direction of current and we have alternating current.
In electronic circuits, the basic components known are resistors, capacitors and inductors.
Inductor. These are the 3 basic and indispensable components in any circuit.
any electronics. Each component has its own characteristics.
For example, resistance is a physical concept that characterizes the property of a conductor to
hinder the flow of electric current, so resistors in circuits are often used to limit the flow of electric
current in the circuit.
Basic laws in the electrical industry:
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One of the most basic laws in electricity is Ohm's law and it is
represented by the formula U=IR where U is the voltage between the two ends of the resistor measured in
Volt (symbol V), I is the current intensity passing through the resistor (measured in Ampere (symbol A) and
R is the resistance installed in the circuit (measured in Ohms, symbol ÿ). In the case where the current is
In alternating current, the concept of resistance is generally called total impedance, in
The resistance is called pure impedance, the capacitance of the capacitor is called capacitive reactance.
and the inductance of the inductor is called reactance.
Semiconductor Basics
Basic concepts of semiconductors
In the process of classifying materials for the conduction process, people divide materials into
divided into three categories. These are conductive materials (such as metals) and non-conductive materials.
conductive/insulating materials and the third type is semiconductor materials.
Conductors are materials that allow electric current to pass through them, while insulators or non-conductors
are materials that do not allow electric current to pass through them.
Semiconductors are mainly made up of atoms with 4 outer electrons in the structure.
their atomic structure.
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So, in essence, semiconductors have 4 electrons in the outermost layer, which are typical of the two
semiconductors Ge and Si. In solid form, the atoms that make up semiconductors are arranged in
an ordered structure that we call a crystal. Each atom shares its electrons with its neighbors to form
a stable structure with 8 electrons in the outer layer for the atom located at the center. Thus, each
atom surrounding the central atom will share 1 electron with the central atom to form a stable
structure with 8 electrons in the outer layer (for the central atom). Thus, it is possible to
In other words, the bond between the central atom and the four surrounding atoms will be based mainly on
four covalent bonds.
Under the influence of heat, atoms will create oscillations around the equilibrium position.
At a certain value, temperature can break covalent bonds and create
free electrons. At the position of the free electrons just released, there will be 1 electron missing and
become holes.
The nature of electric current in semiconductors
As mentioned above, in the material structure of the semiconductor itself, under the influence of
Environmental temperature also always has two forms of electric charge. One is negative charge due to electrons.
and the second is the positive charge created by holes. Under the influence of the electric field, the electrons
tend to move towards the side of higher electric energy.
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Therefore, in this case, in the nature of semiconductors, there will be two balanced components. One is the free
electron that is released from the covalent bond and the other is the hole created by the released electron. The
electron released from the crystal structure will move towards the electric field with a large potential. At the same time, the hole
The void also tends to attract electrons around it to fill it up and move towards the electric field with a
smaller potential.
Thus, the nature of electric current in semiconductors is generated by 2
transfer current: transfer current of free electrons and transfer current of holes
vacancies. Electrons and holes are often referred to together as carriers.
Electricity is the movement of electrical energy from one point to another.
2. Battery power for arduino students need to note.
Batteries come in many different types and there are many ways to classify batteries, and these are important.
in Arduino projects .
Note: First, pay attention to the negative pole (-) and positive pole (+) to connect them correctly.
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Batteries are classified as follows:
Batteries are divided into 2 types:
1. Battery is not charging.
2. Rechargeable battery.
Battery not charging
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Rechargeable battery
Batteries have the following basic types:
Each type of battery has the following basic parameters:
• Rated voltage (circumference of water can lid)
• Battery capacity (water tank capacity)
• Battery size (water can size)
• Rated current intensity (water discharge rate of the can)
Zinc carbon battery (Zn-C):
•
o This type of battery has a small rated current and low voltage of only 1.5V, low battery
capacity, and many types of battery sizes (small, medium, large).
the
You can buy this type of battery at all grocery stores.
o This type of battery is the oldest type of battery, this is the first solid-state battery.
gender.
o This type is not rechargeable.
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Alkaline batteries:
•
o Like zinc-carbon batteries, alkaline batteries also have the same voltage and size as
above, however, alkaline batteries have larger battery capacity and much higher
discharge current (rated current).
o This type of battery can be found in grocery stores at a higher price, around 5 to 45
thousand VND/battery.
o This type is not rechargeable and Vietnam has not produced it yet. I use this type for
super power saving circuits because it is cheap and can use small voltage batteries
when the battery runs out!
Pin NiCD (pin Nickel Cadimi):
•
o This type has a voltage of 1.2V, actually when fully charged it is higher and when almost
empty/empty it decreases and is not fixed at 1.2V.
o This type is rechargeable, and can be recharged up to 1000 times, Chinese toy cars
often use this type of battery so don't ask me why the battery gets worn out after playing
for a long time, hehe
o The weakness of this type is that the power drops very quickly when the battery is almost
out, so when playing with toy cars, the car runs very fast at first but then it slows down.
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floating! Through that you can see its discharge capacity, fast, strong discharge and extremely weak
discharge when the battery runs out!
o This type is a little smaller than a AA battery and is usually sold in packets.
(many pills connected in series)
o Price ranges from 30k - 250k (depending on type).
the
You use a specialized charger to charge, this type gets faster and faster when charged, so it is
very suitable for cheap products that can be used for 1 - 3 months (then buy another product).
Pin NiMH (pin Nickel Metal Hidride)
•
o In terms of size, voltage and shape, it is similar to NiCD batteries.
o However, the discharge current of this type is weaker but can be used longer. In addition, you can
charge this battery whenever you want, unlike NiCD, which can only be charged when it is used up.
the
The battery can still be damaged if you use it continuously (then charge it and use it again,..).
o With this type of battery, if you charge it for a long time, it can be damaged and explode. So, unlike
NiCD (the longer it is charged, the hotter it gets), NiMH needs a separate charger (usually included)
so that when it is full, it will automatically cut off the power!
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Silver oxide battery:
•
o This type can be considered "promini", because it is not very strong, and very small. It
is strong in voltage, and battery capacity, very suitable for extremely small projects
such as clocks, infrared remote controls. The voltage of this type is very diverse,
there are 1.5V, 3V types, in addition there are 6V and 12V types.
o The characteristic of this type is that it is small, so if you see people selling silver
batteries that look like AA batteries with high voltage (12 - 36V), it is because they
connect many batteries in series!
Battery:
•
o Batteries have 2 types: liquid and solid. Usually, my initial projects all use this type
because of high capacity, high energy, high capacity, most of them
everything is tall! The only downside to this type is the "weight" and size.
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o This type is rechargeable, and the easiest to charge is the solid battery. Solid or liquid depends on the
electrolyte inside the battery. In general, this type is a bit complicated so I won't talk about it here.
This type is produced a lot in Vietnam, good quality, I have used it for 2 years now and it is still durable.
o Solid batteries are also made up of many cells, each cell has a voltage of 2V, so if you buy solid batteries with
large capacity and voltage, the size of the battery block increases exponentially!
Pin Li-ion (Lithium-lon):
the
Li-ion batteries will be damaged when you use them continuously (of course).
Damage here is the ability to use your battery, think about your laptop and its
ability to use it without charging, and laptops use Li-ion batteries.
o This type of battery has a high discharge current and is less prone to loss (self-discharge) over time.
the
This battery has 2 types: rechargeable and non-rechargeable. The rechargeable
type has a low battery capacity of 5Ah or less, while the non-rechargeable type
can be up to 100Ah. The rechargeable type is cheaper and you can easily buy it
in electronics stores, but the non-rechargeable type is very dangerous and I
think you can hardly afford it, and currently the non-rechargeable Li-ion type has
been banned from being transported by air, so it is very rare and expensive. Do
you know why it is banned? Imagine your battery explodes, then you take a
hand sprayer and spray it for a few minutes and it turns off, but Li-ion... no matter
how much water is poured on it, it will still run hot...!
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Li-po (Lithium-Polymer) pin:
•
o This type is identical to Li-ion batteries in every way. But it can last longer, overcoming most of
the disadvantages of rechargeable Li-ion batteries. However, the price and dangers are similar
to non-rechargeable Li-ion batteries!
o With this type, the discharge current is extremely strong. Depending on the battery capacity and
its discharge capacity, we can calculate the maximum current intensity when the Li-Po battery
discharges. For example, we have a LiPo battery with a capacity of 3000mAh with a discharge
capacity of 20C. You will get 3000*20 mA = 3*20 A = 60 A!!!.
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Preservation and repair of LiPo battery swelling
Everyone knows that LiPo batteries swell for many different reasons. Once swollen, the next step is to
lose voltage and there is no way to charge the battery back to 4.2V/cell. Another problem is that when
you first buy a new battery and charge it a few times, it will still go up to 4.2V/cell, but then return to 4.2V/cell.
After charging, it only reaches 4.15-4.18V/cell.
An Arduino project How much energy is needed?
No need to explain much, you also know that, Arduino operates at 5V or 3.3V. Alternatively, you can
supply a 'bigger' source to port VIN, which ranges from 6 - 20V. And recommended at 7 - 12V (depending
on the circuit). If you read through the above section, you will see that different types of batteries have
different voltages, initially high voltage and then gradually decreasing and dropping. So we need to have
a solution to use energy reasonably, and the first thing to do is to calculate the energy for the whole
circuit.
Normally, for projects that require large capacity, we will use batteries with higher total voltage and then
reduce the voltage. Choosing a voltage-reducing circuit (stable voltage) is very important for each project.
The circuit has a different output current capability, depending on your project.
Choose the appropriate step-down circuit. For example, in the case above, I would use a 14.8 or 11.1 V
LiPo package and then step it down to 5V using a step-down circuit with an output current of up to 1.5A
or 2A,...
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3. Basic electronic components
As mentioned in the previous section, the basic electronic components in an electronic circuit
including: resistors, capacitors, inductors. Because these are basic components, the first thing to do is
When getting familiar with these components it is important to recognize the different types of components,
simultaneously read the values of different components.
3.1. What is a Breadboard?
a. Introduction to breadboard
This concept is not too difficult, but to help new learners avoid having to search, I
will write it briefly to help new learners approach Arduino. can shorten the time tm
search?
b. Why do we need a breadboard?
When working with Arduino, To assemble the circuit, it will be very inconvenient to have to
solder components without knowing whether the soldering is correct or not. The birth of the
breadboard test circuit can solve the above problem and moreover, it is easy to use for
beginners. Helps users develop the products created, connect components between Arduino
circuits and other components without the need for a soldering iron.
Breadboard
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c. Breadboard structure:
What do we see?
First, our eyes will see small squares. No need to be a professional to know that these
are wire holes. Its edge size is 2.54mm (0.1 inch), and they are also spaced a similar
distance apart. Next are the numbers, which don't need to be observant to realize that
they are written on the breadboard so that we can easily identify the position of a cell. In
addition, there are 2 red and blue bars on both sides showing where you should attach
the negative and positive poles. Note : the breadboard does not have a power source,
these are just 2 marking bars for you to easily recognize.
readboard gi pcc you learn arduino easier
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With the breadboard above, it has a break between the green and red lines. That means that the green/
red segment on one side will not connect to the green/red segment on the other side. Meanwhile, on
the breadboard below, they are connected together. That shows that they are disconnected to each
other on each red/green wire.
The breadboard circuit can be expanded by connecting multiple breadboards together via the side
connectors of the breadboard.
Hidden behind the plastic of the breadboard:
Underneath the plastic layer are rows of wires connected together according to a certain rule that is
almost the same for all types of breadboards. To use a breadboard, you must understand this rule.
Looking at the picture, you will surely have an impressive impression, right?
It's clear that it matches your breadboard. The horizontal and vertical orange lines are the shortcuts on
that breadboard.
3.2. Resistor
a. What is resistance?
Resistance is a physical quantity that represents the property of an object that is capable of allowing electric
current to flow through it to obstruct the flow of electricity. The better an object conducts electricity, the
smaller its resistance and vice versa. In engineering, there is a type of passive electronic component that is also
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is called a resistor whose ability to impede the flow of electric current has been determined
(clearly quantified).
Passive electronic components are those that do not require a power source to maintain
their own functionality. There are four types of passive components:
• Resistance
• Capacitor
• Inductor
• Diode
Thus, in communication, it is necessary to clearly distinguish the concept of resistance as a
physical quantity or the name of an electronic component to avoid misunderstanding. I will
introduce to you the concept of resistance as an electronic component.
Resistance symbol in electric circuit:
b. How to connect resistors in an electric circuit:
Series connection:
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Connect two resistors in series
The equivalent resistance of this system is: R = R1 + R2.
If many resistors are connected in series: R = R1 + R2 +
... + Rn.
Connect 2 resistors in parallel:
Connect two resistors in parallel
Mixed resistors:
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The equivalent resistance of this system is: R = R1 + (R2 x R3) / (R2 + R3).
c. Classification of resistors:
Here I will mention 3 types of resistors that you will encounter when studying Arduino, in addition
there are many other types of resistors used in industry or civil electricity.
Normal resistance:
It is the most commonly used type of resistor. Its characteristics are:
• Low operating power (heat dissipation): 0.125W to 0.5W.
• Low accuracy: error usually fluctuates around +/- 5% or more.
• Low cost.
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Some types of resistors are often specially designed to withstand currents up to
several amps, with a capacity of 1W or more, and are called power resistors.
They are usually larger in size than other resistors. Can you see it?
on the picture?
Paste resistor:
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It is a type of resistor with extremely small size, often used in circuits that require compactness. Its
characteristics are:
• Extremely low operating power (heat dissipation): below 0.125W (easy to burn if not used
carefully).
• Extremely high accuracy: error is only +/- 1% or less.
• High resistance: about 20% higher than normal resistors.
Variable resistor (potentiometer):
This is essentially just a type of resistor whose value can be changed. Potentiometers usually come
in the following types: 1K Ohm, 10K Ohm, 100K Ohm,...
Structure of resistor:
Potentiometers usually have 3 pins 1,2,3 as shown in the following figure:
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The orange part is a resistor layer. The blue needle is pressed down on this resistor layer. Suppose
there is a current flowing from 1 to 3, it will have to pass through the yellow part (colored in red) and
that is the current resistance of the potentiometer. You just need to turn the needle to increase or
decrease the length of the red area, thereby increasing or decreasing the resistance value.
Voltage divider bridge:
The p-divider has a structure similar to a resistor, also consisting of a system of 2
resistors connected in series to divide the p-voltage from the power source into p-voltage
according to the user's wishes.
The output voltage p U' will be calculated by the formula: U' = U / (R1 + R2) x R2. In
which I = U / (R1 + R2) is the current intensity in the circuit.
So:
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• If R1 = 0 ohm, the output voltage is equal to the source voltage.
• If R2 = 0 ohm, the output voltage is always 0V.
• If R1 = R2, the output voltage is half of the source voltage.
Note:
In motor control, it is theoretically possible to control the motor speed by adjusting the potentiometer to
change the current intensity in the circuit. In practice, if this method is applied, the potentiometer will
burn immediately because it cannot withstand the large current intensity passing through it (usually
hundreds of milliamps or more).
Instead, people use a potentiometer to change the operating voltage p of the motor and use a transistor
(or equivalent component) to supply current through the motor at this voltage p level. Thus, the
potentiometer has acted as a p-divider as shown above.
above.
d. Read the value of the resistor:
Normal resistance:
On normal resistors, people use colored rings to represent numbers corresponding to the resistor
parameters.
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In this type of resistor there are 4 color rings:
• The first 3 color rings are the resistance value. •
The remaining color ring is the resistance error (usually gold foil +/- 5%).
R1 has the value: 45 (yellow - green) x 102 (red) = 4500 ohm = 4.5K Ohm. Error +/- 5% (gold/gold). In
the type of resistor with 5 color
rings:
• The first 4 turns are the resistance value. • The
remaining turn is the resistance error.
R2 has the value: 380 (orange - gray - black) x 103 (orange) = 380,000 Ohm = 380K Ohm.
Error +/- 1% (red). In
resistor type there are 6 color rings:
• The first 4 laps are the resistance value. • The
next lap is the resistance error. • The last lap is the
resistance value error according to temperature.
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R3 has the value: 527 (green - red - purple) x 104 (yellow) = 5,270,000 Ohm = 5.27M Ohm.
Error +/- 0.25% (blue). Change according to temperature 10 PPM/oC (blue).
Paste resistor:
Note:
Resistors with values of several tens of ohms usually have only 2 digits, the third digit is already written.
omitted
Resistors with values of several ohms usually have the letter "R" after them. For example: 3R =
3 ohm.
Application
Here are some applications of resistors in DC circuits:
• Make a p-divider to get a desired p level from the p electrode.
initial.
• Adjust the current intensity passing through electrical devices.
o For a simple example: a pin on Arduino only allows a maximum current of 40mA
to flow through. Therefore, when using this pin, we must connect a resistor in
series with a value so that the current through this pin does not exceed 40mA.
• Generate heat in required applications.
• Creates a voltage drop on the circuit when connected in series.
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... and some other applications.
And in the Arduino self-learning kit also use input resistor for current limiting purpose
for led lights
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3.3 LED Lights
a. Introduction to LED lights:
LEDs have negative (short leg) and positive (long leg) polarity. This means you need to supply power to the
positive terminal and connect the negative terminal to the negative terminal of the power supply. LEDs also come
, blue,
in many colors, for example: white, red, yellow, blue,
etc. purple, orange, pink,...
b. Structure of LED lights:
LED (Light-emitting diode)
The nature of LED is a diode, it contains a semiconductor chip doped with impurities to create a
PN junction, P channel contains holes, N channel contains electrons, current flows from Anode (P
channel) to K-node (N channel), when electrons fill the gap it generates light radiation, the emitted
wavelengths have different colors depending on the impurities in the semiconductor chip. LEDs are
divided into three main types according to power range: small size, medium size, large size.
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c. Common types of LEDs:
Regular LED (3mm or 5mm):
It is a type of LED whose outer shell color matches the light it emits, such as
or:
This type of LED is quite large and the light is quite weak, so it is often used in energy
saving circuits or as status LEDs. You will see the line marked 3mm or 5mm, that is
is the diameter of the LED.
Super bright LED (3mm and 5mm)
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In fact, super bright LEDs are not much different from regular LEDs, they are the same size,
but they are brighter and the outer shell is transparent. This type is almost twice as expensive
as regular LEDs, but it is clearly visible, has beautiful light and is "transparent". Here are
some examples of super bright LEDs, you see it has a colorless shell but emits different light.
LED dán (SMD)
This type of LED may be a bit strange to you, but don't worry, you can notice the extremely
small LEDs in your Arduino circuit, it is called dn LED, it also has 2 positive and negative
poles. This type also has many sizes, but its common feature is that it is extremely small and
soldered on the copper surface of the circuit. So, this type of LED is only used for doublesided copper circuits (this type is not expensive) or printed circuits. I don't like to use this type
and should only be used for the printed circuit industry, and if your soldering skills are not
high, it is best not to touch dn LEDs, because they are very small and take a lot of effort to
make (not as easy as the 2 types above).
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LED RGB (5mm)
It is a super bright LED but has 3 colors in a single LED (R = red; G = Green; = lue = Blue).
That means you can make the LED light with any color you like. However, it is a bit complicated,
you can see the following picture to see
It will have 4 pins, including one common positive pin and 3 RG pins.
Determine the pins of LED RG.
You will have to use PWM pulses to control the GR LED to light up in many colors as you like.
GR also has SMD LED type (used in LED TV).
LED matrix
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And there are many other types of LEDs.
d. How to use LED:
LED has a low operating voltage, depending on the type of LED, the voltage fluctuates at (1.9 - 3.2
Volts). So, when you run at 5V, you need to use a resistor to reduce the voltage to the LED. Actually,
calculating the resistor will be very time consuming, so I will share some of my little secrets. With
LEDs with low voltage, you connect a resistor with a value of about 560 - 560 V in series at the
positive leg of the LED.
1000 Ohm, and for LEDs with larger voltage, you can connect them with smaller resistors.
limit from 220 - 560 Ohm.
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3.4 Capacitors
Overview of capacitors:
Capacitors are one of the most common passive electronic components. Passive electronic components
Active components are components that do not require a power source to maintain their own operation.
There are four types of passive components: resistors, capacitors, inductors and diodes.
Inside a capacitor are two conductive surfaces (two capacitor plates) placed electrically isolated from
each other, the medium between these two capacitor plates is called the dielectric (non-conductive
medium). The dielectric can be: air, paper, mica, lubricating oil, plastic, rubber, ceramic, glass...
Capacitors have the ability to store energy in the form of electric field energy by storing electrons
(negative charge). When the voltage p applied to the two capacitor plates is alternating voltage p or has
a harmonic change, the accumulation of this charge is behind the phase of the voltage p, creating
impedance of the capacitor in the alternating current circuit as well as the oscillating circuit.
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Thanks to this property, capacitors are used in oscillating circuits, radio wave transmission,...
As mentioned above, capacitors have the ability to store negative charges, so they can also
release these charges to form electric current. So, we can consider capacitors as a power source.
The energy in the capacitor is electric field energy, the electric field force acts as a strange force
as in a normal power source.
Capacitor specifications:
Capacitance
Characterizes the energy storage capacity of a capacitor. The unit of capacitance of a capacitor
is Farad (F). 1 Farad is defined as the capacitance of a capacitor that can be fully charged by a
current of 1V and 1A in 1 second.
Conversion in terms of capacity: 1 F = 1 A x 1 V x 1 second = 1A x 1V x 1/3600 hour = 0.278
mWh.
A battery of current smartphone lines has a capacity of about 5-10 Wh, of
Tablets are about 15 - 30 Wh and laptops are about 40-100 Wh.
In fact, capacitors with capacitance in the Farad range are often classified as supercapacitors.
Most capacitors only have capacitance in the range of picofarads (pF), nanofarads (nF) to
microfarads (µF), minifarads (mF).
Attention:
1 F = 103 mF = 106 µF = 109 nF = 1012 pF.
Breakdown voltage of capacitor (working voltage):
Is the maximum working voltage of the capacitor. When the voltage exceeds this limit, the electric
field force in the capacitor will be strong enough to cause electrons from one plate to be emitted,
flying through the dielectric layer to the other plate. This process makes the dielectric between the
two plates become a conductor, and people call that process dielectric breakdown.
or capacitor is punctured.
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In practice, the breakdown voltage of a capacitor should be greater than the voltage it has to withstand during operation,
preferably 1.5 times or more to ensure safety.
Common values of breakdown voltage: 5V, 10V, 12V, 16V, 24V, 25V, 35V,
42V, 47V, 56V, 100V, 110V, 160V, 180V, 250V, 280V, 300V, 400V,...
It is a fact that although the capacitance level is the same, the breakdown voltage is proportional.
proportional to the size of the capacitor.
Classification of capacitors:
Above are the 3 basic types of capacitors that an Arduino researcher should know how to classify according to physical and
chemical properties. In addition, people also classify capacitors according to structure, dielectric properties, working voltage,
working frequency, ...
Polarized capacitor:
These are types of capacitors that have clearly distinguished positive and negative poles that determine the direction of current in/out of the capacitor.
Be careful because if you connect the wrong polarity, you can blow the capacitor. Polarized capacitors are often called
electrolytic capacitors or tantalum capacitors - the operating principle is based on chemical reactions.
Electrolytic capacitors usually have large capacitance of µF or more, working in circuits with low frequency or high current
intensity, technical parameters are printed directly on the capacitor body. We can find this type of capacitor in power filter
circuits, rectifier circuits.
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How to determine the polarity of a capacitor: when you first buy it, the short leg is the negative leg, the long
leg is the positive leg and you can distinguish it by some other signs.
Non-polarized capacitors:
Hearing the name like this, there is no need to explain, you can connect the capacitor however you want, just
pay attention to the capacitor's breakdown voltage. This type of capacitor is usually paper, ceramic, mica,...
and has a small capacitance, from a few microfarads to picofarads.
Non-polarized capacitors are often used in high frequency circuits (high frequency circuits), noise filters,...
or circuits with small current intensity. The parameters written on the capacitor are usually abbreviated
according to a predetermined convention.
How to read the parameters of non-polar capacitors:
A capacitor is marked: 333K - 100V - the capacitance of the capacitor is C = 33 x 103 pF = 33 nF, the
breakdown voltage is Umax - 100V. The letter "K" represents the error of the capacitor (+/- 10%).
A capacitor is marked: .022 K - 100V - the capacitance of the capacitor is C = 0.022 µF = 22 nF (error +/10%), breakdown voltage Umax = 100V
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A capacitor is marked: 104 - the capacitance of the capacitor is C = 10 x 104 pF = 100 nF, the letter "j" (with lc
being "J") indicates the capacitance error is +/- 5%
A capacitor is labeled: 2A104j - the capacitance of the capacitor is C = 10 x 104 pF = 100 nF, capacitance error
+/- 5%, the letter "A" indicates the voltage Umax = 100V
3.5 Transistor
In electronics, a transistor (transfer-resistor) is a conductive component. When operating in an
electrical circuit, a transistor acts as an isolating valve or regulating current, voltage, or current.
in the circuit. From this role, transistors are widely used.
Transistor classification:
Transistors come in many different types with a variety of specialized functions.
• Bipolar junction transistor (JT)
• Field-effect transistor
• Unijunction transistor UJT (Unijunction transistor)
•
...
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Among them, JT bipolar transistor is the most popular. Many people often consider the concept of transistor as JT
bipolar transistor. Therefore, you should pay attention to that to avoid confusion for yourself.
Structure of transistor:
Transistor consists of 3 layers of P-type and N-type conductors joined together. Therefore, there are 2 types of
transistors, NPN and PNP, corresponding to the 2 ways of arranging the 3 layers of conductors above.
As shown in the figure, a transistor has 3 terminals (ase), C (Collector) and E (Emitter) corresponding to 3 conductive
layers. The differentiation into 3 terminals is due to the different physical properties of the 3 conductive layers.
each other
Transistor symbol in electric circuit:
Learn how transistors work:
Some conventions about symbols:
• IB: (intensity) current through the ase terminal of the transistor.
• IC: (intensity) current through the Collector terminal of the transistor.
• IE: (intensity) current through the Emitter terminal of the transistor.
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• IR: (intensity) current through resistor R.
• VBE: (magnitude) voltage between the 2 ase and emitter terminals of the transistor. Similar parameters also
use similar symbols.
• UB: voltage p at the ase pole. Similar parameters also use similar symbols.
Transistor NPN:
Consider the following circuit:
Observing and measuring the transistor we get:
• When the key K is open, there is no current through the ase pole, the resistor R does not generate heat,
proving that there is no current through it.
• When the key K is closed, the resistor R radiates heat, proving that there is current through it, at the same time
There is also current through the base of the transistor.
o There is current through R, which proves that there is current entering the transistor.
Collector. This confirms that there must be a current flowing from the Emitter to the negative
terminal of the source.
o There can be no current coming out of the ase pole, it can only be in the opposite direction
to this extreme.
o In terms of magnitude, if we measure IB, IC (IR = IC), IE , we see that IB is much smaller than
IC and IE, while IE is always slightly larger than IC . It can be concluded that the current in
the circuit is mainly the current from the Collector to the Emitter of the transistor. This
explains why in the transistor symbol, an arrow is used to indicate the direction of the current.
o If we calculate a little bit from the magnitude of IB, IC, IE, we see that IE is almost equal to IB + IC.
Try reducing the 2 resistors in the circuit a little bit (replace the resistors)
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c) to increase the current, you will see IE closer to IB + IC .
Thus, when the transistor is operating, the current out of the Emitter is the current
going in from Collector to Emitter and the current going in from ase to Emitter.
Brief conclusion on the operation of NPN transistor:
• When the IB current appears , the transistor allows current to flow from the Collector to the Emitter.
• In the case of current IB, the transistor opens with:
o IC increases and decreases proportionally to IB.
o IE = IB + IC.
o UB is always close to UE. The difference between UB and UE is larger when the current
through the transistor is larger.
3.6. Button - Button
About the button:
Perhaps we are familiar with all kinds of buttons and push buttons. However, maybe, just maybe,
you still don't know all about the popular types of push buttons. So today, I will summarize for you
the popular types of buttons and how to use them.
What is a button?
utton is a button, you can find it in everything in life, such as ci
nt in your keyboard .
Button types:
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There are many types of utton, and each type has its own application. So, just operate
Use buttons wisely and creatively, and you will create amazing projects.
Button (regular) (6mm or 2mm)
This is a very popular type of button, like LEDs, this type of button also has a glass cc.
6mm or 12m ruler. The 6mm type is often used in small projects and the other type is
used for larger projects that need to be bolder.
6mm push button
This type has 4 legs, but in fact it only has 2 legs, see the picture below.
clear now
Button dán (button smd):
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This type is not small, only 2-3mm, so it is very suitable for circuits that require size, you
can find it on the Promini, it is the reset message for the Arduino Promini!
PLC push button:
These types of push buttons are often used to make industrial items, or large machines
that need to be pressed a lot and need status lights. Simply put, a PLC push button is a
large push button with a light underneath the button. This type sometimes has a light, sometimes
When not. The type without light also has 2 legs like the types above, but the type with
light has up to 4 legs (2 legs of the button, 1 positive leg and 1 negative leg of the LED).
Here is a picture of it.
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3.7 What is an Inductor? How does it work?
Inductors, along with resistors and capacitors, are the most widely used electronic
components in electrical devices. Their functions seem different but they have many
similarities. In today's electrical device learning section, we will go deeper to gain more
understanding of this device.
What is an inductor?
An inductor is known as a passive electronic component used to contain a magnetic field
and is an electrical device made of a coil of wire wound into many turns. The core of the
inductor can be a magnetic material or a technical steel core.
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Although the inductor is not a familiar component in electronic circuits. But it is one of the most complicated and
useful components in electrical circuits.
Uses of inductors
In electronic circuits, an inductor is a device used to conduct direct current. Paired or paralleled with a capacitor to
form a resonant circuit. In an electrical circuit, an inductor has the effect of blocking high-frequency current.
Based on structure and scope of application, inductors are divided into the following main types: audio frequency
inductors, intermediate frequency inductors and high frequency inductors.
Structure of inductor.
High frequency and audio frequency inductors consist of a number of turns of wire wound into many turns, the
winding wire is painted with insulating enamel, the coil core can be air, or a magnetic conductive material such as
Ferrite or technical steel core.
Characteristic quantities of inductors
Self-inductance coefficient: this is a quantity that characterizes the induced electromotive force of the coil when a
varying current flows through it.
The self-inductance coefficient is calculated by the formula:
L = ( µr.4.3,14.n2.S.10-7 ) / l
Explanation of symbols in the formula:
L: is the self-inductance coefficient of the coil, calculated in units of Henrry (H).
µr: is the permeability coefficient of the core material.
n: is the number of turns of the coil.
l: is the length of the coil and is measured in meters (m).
S: is the cross section of the core, in m2.
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Inductive reactance: is one of the quantities that characterizes the resistance of the coil to alternating current.
Inductance is calculated by the formula:
ZL = 2.3,14.f.L
In there:
ZL: is the inductance of the current, measured in ohms (ÿ).
f: is the frequency of the current, unit is Hz.
L: is the self-inductance coefficient ,
The unit is Henry.
Pure resistance of coil: is resistance which the user can measure through a multimeter. If the coil is of good quality,
the pure resistance will be relatively small compared to the inductance. Pure resistance is a loss resistance and
during operation, this resistance generates heat, causing the coil to heat up. When a current is passed through the
coil, the coil is charged with energy in the form of a magnetic field and is calculated according to the formula:
W = L.I2 / 2
In which: W: is the energy of the coil, measured in June units.
L: is the inductance coefficient, unit Henry(H).
I: is electric current.
3.8 Diode
a. What is a diode?
A diode is a specialized electronic component with two electrodes called an anode and a cathode. Most diodes
are made from semiconductor materials such as silicon, germanium, or selenium. Diodes can be used as
rectifiers, signal limiters, voltage regulators, switches, signal modulators, signal mixers, signal demodulators, and
oscillators. The basic characteristic of a diode is that it tends to direct current in only one direction.
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Breakdown Voltage : If a sufficiently negative charge is applied to the diode, it will allow
current to flow in the reverse direction. This negative charge is called the breakdown voltage.
b. Types of Diodes
Today, many different types of diodes are used in the electronics industry. Each type has
its own special uses. Here are some common types of diodes.
Rectifier Diode: This diode is used to rectify the input AC source into a power supply. A
rectifier diode or power diode is a standard diode with a much higher maximum current rating.
Signal diode: A signal diode is a small non-linear semiconductor commonly used in electronic
circuits where high frequencies and low currents are involved, in television circuits, radio
transmitters, and in digital logic circuits.
Schottky Diode: The characteristic of these diodes is that they have lower voltage drop.
compared to conventional PN junction diodes. The voltage drop is around 0.15 -0.4 V for low
currents, compared to 0.6 V for Silicon diodes.
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Zener diodes (also known as voltage limiting diodes , voltage regulator diodes): Zener
diodes are different from regular diodes. They are often used to control reverse currents.
Zeners are designed to have a very precise breakdown voltage, called the zener
breakdown or zener voltage. When a large enough reverse current flows through the
zener, the voltage drop across it is pinned at a fixed breakdown voltage. Taking advantage
of the breakdown voltage property, Zener diodes are often used to create a precise
reference voltage as the Zener voltage. They can be used as a voltage regulator for
small loads, but they do not actually stabilize circuits and will dissipate a large amount of
current.
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs): Like regular diodes, LEDs only allow current to flow in one
direction..
Photodiode (optical diode): Photodiode is used to detect light, width boundary,
transparency.
Laser Diode: This is a different type of light emitting diode – LED, but it produces a
coherent beam of light. These diodes are used as reading eyes in DVD and CD drives,
laser pointers, etc. Laser diodes are more expensive than LEDs. However, they are
cheaper than laser pointers. Also, laser diodes have a short lifespan.
4. Tools to prepare
A basic set of tools for an electrician includes a toolbox, soldering iron, digital multimeter,
needle multimeter, km, screwdriver, rosin, tin, ammeter, electrical tester, and all kinds of
hexagons. Depending on your budget, choose the appropriate tools. The more expensive
the multimeter, the more durable and accurate it is. The better the soldering iron, the better
the soldering and the longer it will last.
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