FIGURES OF COMBINATION (STYLISTIC FUNCTIONS)
FIGURES OF IDENTITY
FIGURES OF OPPOSITION
Antithesis:
Simile:
• Emphasizing their partial
• It performs various stylistic
identity gives new
functions: stressing the contrast
characteristics to the referent. and rhythmically organising the
• Simile is one of the most
utterance. Due to the last
frequent and effective means of quality antithesis is widely used
making speech expressive. The in poetry in combination with
epiphora,
and
more unexpected the confron- anaphora,
alliteration
tation of two objects is, the
Oxymoron
more expressive sounds simile.
• The simile is one component • Oxymoron reveals the
of imagery. This is the process contradictory sides of one and
of evoking ideas, people,
the same phenomenon. One of
places, feelings and various
its elements discloses some
other connections in a vivid
objectively existing feature
while the other serves to
and effective way
Synonyms-substitutes convey the author's personal
attitude
towards
this
• supplement new additional
quality
(pleasantly
ugly,
details, which helps to avoid
crowded). Such semantic
monotonous repetitions
incompatibility does not only
• Substituting synonyms are
create
unexpected
characterized by contextual
combinations
of
words,
similarity giving rise to
violating the existing norms of
emotive-evaluative meaning.
compatibility, but reveals
Synonyms-specifiers
• These synonyms specify the
utterance, adding some new
information. Though the given
synonyms are very close in
their meaning, they are
different in stylistic colouring.
• Synonymic variations specify
the utterance, intensifying its
emotional value. Such
synonyms are widely used in
fiction and the publicistic
style. In scientific prose and
official style, their usage is
limited.
some unexpected qualities of
the denotatum as well.
•As soon as an oxymoron gets
into circulation, it loses its
stylistic value, becoming
trite: pretty bad, awfully nice,
terribly good.
•Original oxymorons are
created by the authors to make
the utterance emotionally
charged, vivid, and fresh,
e.g. Oh brawling love! Oh
loving hate! Oh heavy
lightness! Serious vanity!
Feather of lead, bright smoke,
cold fire, sick health!
FIGURES OF
INEQUALITY
Climax
• it increases significance,
importance or emotional
tension of
narration.Gradation is
widely used in fiction and
the publicistic style. It is
one of the main means of
emotional and logical
influence of a text upon the
reader and listener.
Anticlimax
• Anticlimax is mostly
used as a means of
achieving a humorous
effect
• emotive and logical
importance is accumulated
only to be unexpectedly
brought up to a sudden
break
Pan
• is used for satirical
and
humorous
purposes. Many jokes
are based on puns.
Zeugma:
combines
syntactical
and
lexical
characteristics.
Syntactically, it is based
on similar structures,
semantically
it
comprises
different
meanings, which leads
to logical and semantic
incompatibility.
Zeugma is mainly a
means of creating a
humorous effec
4. FIGURES OF COMBINATION
Figures of combination are SD of semasiology. They are stylistically relevant semantic means
of combining lexical, syntactical and other units (including EM) belonging to the same or
different language levels. So, the realization of the figures of combination is possible only in
context. Frequently, these figures of speech are the result of the interaction of word meanings or
the meanings of word-combinations, seldom – of paragraphs or larger text fragments. There are
three basic types of semantic relations between words, phrases, and utterances:
1) those involving similar (synonymous) meanings of such units. The speaker combines within
an utterance or text the units whose meaning he/she considers similar, thus figures of identity are
formed;
2) those based on opposite (antonymous) meanings of the units. The speaker combines within an
utterance or text two semantically contrasting units. As a result, figures of opposition are formed;
3) those comprising somewhat different meanings of the units. The speaker combines within an
utterance or text lexical units denoting different but close notions. As a result, the figures of
unequality are formed.
FIGURES OF COMBINATION
FIGURES OF IDENTITY FIGURES OF OPPOSITION FIGURES OF INEQUALITY
Climax
Simile
Antithesis
Anticlimax
Synonyms-substitutes
Oxymoron
Pun
Synonyms-specifiers
Zeugma
5. FIGURES OF IDENTITY
Relations of identity are realized in context where close or synonymous units referring to the
same object, or phenomenon are used. Here we refer simile and two kinds of synonyms –
specifying and substituting ones.
Simile (Latin: simile - similar) is a partial identification of two objects belonging to different
spheres or bringing together some of their qualities. The objects compared are not identical,
though they have some resemblance, some common features. Emphasizing their partial identity
gives new characteristics to the referent.
Simile is a structure consisting of two components: the subject of comparison, and the object
of comparison which are united by formal markers: as, as … as, like, as though, as if, such
as etc., e.g. Unhappiness was like a hungry animal waiting beside the track for any victim
/G.Greene/.
If formal markers are missing but the relations between the two objects are those of similarity
and identity, we have implied simile. In such similes notional or seminotional words (verbs,
nouns etc.) substitute formal markers (Cf: to resemble, to remind, to seem, resemblance etc.:
e.g. H.G.Wells reminded her of the nice paddies in her native California (A.Huxley).
We should distinguish simile which is stylistically charged from logical comparison which is
not. The latter deals with the notions belonging to the same sphere and it states the degree of
their similarity and difference. In case of comparison, all qualities of the two objects are taken
into consideration, but only one is brought to the foreground, e.g. He was a big man, as big as
Simon, but with sandy hair and blue eyes (D.G-arett).
Both simile and metaphor are based on comparison. Metaphor is often called a compressed
simile which differs from simile proper structurally. However, the difference between the two is
not only structural but semantic as well. Simile and metaphor are different in their linguistic
nature:
1) metaphor aims at identifying the objects; simile aims at finding some point of resemblance by
keeping the objects apart;
2) metaphor only implies the feature which serves as the ground for comparison, simile, more
often than not, indicates this feature, so it is semantically more definite.
Synonyms-substitutes (substituting synonyms) are words used to denote objects or action,
supplementing new additional details, which helps to avoid monotonous repetitions, e.g. But he
had no words to express his feelings and to relieve them would utter an obscene jest; it was as
though his emotion was so violent that he needed vulgarity to break the tension. Mackintosh
observed this sentiment with an icy disdain /W.S.Maugham/.
Substituting synonyms are characterized by contextual similarity giving rise to emotiveevaluative meaning. That is why some synonyms can be treated as such only in context.
Synonyms-substitutes are widely used in publicist style. They are also regarded as situational
synonyms.
Synonyms-specifiers (specifying synonyms) are used as a chain of words which express
similar meanings. Such synonyms are used for a better and more detailed description of an object
or person, when every other synonym adds new information about it. There are two ways of
using specifying synonyms: 1) as paired synonyms, and 2) as synonymic variations, e.g. …the
intent of which perjury being to rob a poor native widow and her helpless family of a plantationpatch, their only stay and support in their bereavement and desolation /M.Twain/.
These synonyms specify the utterance, adding some new information. Though the given
synonyms are very close in their meaning, they are different in stylistic colouring. Synonymic
variations specify the utterance, intensifying its emotional value. Such synonyms are widely used
in fiction and the publicistic style. In scientific prose and official style, their usage is limited.
6. FIGURES OF OPPOSITION
This group of semasiological SD is characterized by the combination in context of two or
more words or word-groups with opposite meanings. Their relations are either objectively
opposite or are interpreted as such by the speaker. Here we refer antithesis and oxymoron.
Antithesis (Greek - opposition) is a stylistic device which presents two contrasting ideas in
close proximity in order to stress the contrast. There are several variants of antithesis based on
different relations of the ideas expressed:
1) opposition of features possessed by the same referent, e.g. Some people have much to live on,
and little to live for (O.Wilde);
2) opposition of two or more different referents having contrasting features, e.g. Their pre-money
wives did not go together with their post-money daughters /E.Hemingway/;
3) opposition of referents having not only contrasting feature but embracing a wider range of
features, e.g. New England had a native literature, while Virginia had none; numerous
industries, while Virginia was all agricultural /Th.Dreiser/.
Antithesis often goes along with other stylistic features: anaphoric repetition, parallelism,
chiasmus, in particular. It is widely used in all kinds of speech: fiction, publicistic, scientific, and
colloquial English. It performs various stylistic functions: stressing the contrast and rhythmically
organizing the utterance. Due to the last quality antithesis is widely used in poetry in
combination with anaphora, epiphora, and alliteration.
Oxymoron – (Greek: oxymoron – witty – foolish) is also a combination of opposite meanings
which exclude each other. But in this case, the two semantically contrasting ideas are expressed
by syntactically interdependent words (in predicative, attributive or adverbial phrases), e.g. He
was certain the whites could easily detect his adoring hatred to them /R.Wright/.
Oxymoron reveals the contradictory sides of one and the same phenomenon. One of its
elements discloses some objectively existing feature while the other serves to convey the
author’s personal attitude towards this quality (pleasantly ugly, crowded loneliness,
unanswerable reply). Such semantic incompatibility does not only create unexpected
combinations of words, violating the existing norms of compatibility, but reveals some
unexpected qualities of the denotate as well.
As soon as an oxymoron gets into circulation, it loses its stylistic value, becoming trite: pretty
bad, awfully nice, terribly good.
Original oxymorons are created by the authors to make the utterance emotionally charged,
vivid, and fresh, e.g. Oh brawling love! Oh loving hate! Oh heavy lightness! Serious vanity!
Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health! /W. Shakespeare/.
7. FIGURES OF UNEQUALITY
Relations of unequality are the relations of meanings of words and word-combinations with
differ in their emotive intensiveness or logical importance. To this group we refer:
1) figures based on actualizing the emotional power of the utterance (climax or anticlimax);
2) figures based on two different meanings of words and word-combinations (pun, zeugma).
Climax, or gradation, (Latin: gradatio – gradualness; Greek: climax – a ladder) is a structure
in which every successive word, phrase, or sentence is emotionally stronger or logically more
important than the preceding one, e.g. Like a well, like a vault, like a tomb, the prison had no
knowledge of the brightness outside /Ch.Dickens/.
There are three types of climax:
1) the arrangement of some lexical units characterizing the object in the same emotional
direction, e.g. As he wondered and wondered what to do, he first rejected a stop as impossible,
then as improbable, then as quite dreadful. /W.S.Gilbert/;
2) the arrangement of lexical units with logical widening of notions, e.g. For that one instant
there was no one else in the room, in the house, in the world, besides themselves. /M.Wilson/;
3) emphatic repetition and enumeration, e.g. Of course it is important. Incredibly, urgently,
desperately important /D.Sayers/.
Gradation is widely used in fiction and the publicistic style. It is one of the main means of
emotional and logical influence of a text upon the reader and listener.
Anticlimax presents a structure in which every successive word, phrase, or sentence is
emotionally or logically less strong than the preceding one, e.g. Fledgeby hasn’t heard anything.
"No, there’s not a word of news,” says Lammle. "Not a particle,” adds Boots. "Not an atom,”
chimes in Brewer /Ch.Dickens/.
We can distinguish two types of anticlimax:
1) gradual drop in intensity;
2) sudden break in emotive power. In this case, emotive and logical importance is accumulated
only to be unexpectedly brought up to a sudden break, e.g. He was unconsolable – for an
afternoon /J.Galsworthy/.
Anticlimax is mostly used as a means of achieving a humorous effect.
Pun is a device based on polisemy, homonymy, or phonetic similarity to achieve a humorous
effect.
There are several kinds of pun:
1) puns based on polysemy. They had the appearance of men to whom life had appeared as a
reversible coat – seamy on both sides. /O.Henry/;
2) puns based on complete or partial homonymy:
Diner: Is it customary to tip a waiter in this restaurant?
Waiter: Why-ah-yes, sir.
Diner: Then hand me a tip. I’ve waited three quarters of an hour.
3) puns based on phonetic similarity:
-I’ve spent last summer in a very pretty city of Switzerland.
-Bern?
-No, I almost froze.
Pun is used for satirical and humorous purposes. Many jokes are based on puns.
Zeugma (Greek: zeugyana – to join, to combine) are parallel constructions with unparallel
meaning. It is such a structural arrangement of an utterance in which the basic component is both
a part of a phraseological unit and a free word-combination. So, zeugma is a simultaneous
realization within the same short context of two meanings of a polysemantic unit, e.g. If the
country doesn’t go to the dogs or the Radicals, we shall have you Prime Minister some day
/O.Wilde/. The verb "to go” here realizes two meanings: to go to the dogs (to perish) and to go to
the Radicals (to become politically radical).
Zeugma combines syntactical and lexical characteristics. Syntactically, it is based on similar
structures, semantically it comprises different meanings, which leads to logical and semantic
incompatibility. Zeugma is mainly a means of creating a humorous effect.