Level 5 Session –
Critical thinking and creating an argument
Academic Skills Team
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Learning Objectives
In this workshop we will:
1) Examine the importance, definition, and process of
critical thinking.
2) Analyse arguments and opinions.
3) Demonstrate techniques for creating an argument
using critical thinking.
How will this workshop help?
• Explore critical thinking importance, definition, and
process
• Explore arguments and opinions
• Discuss techniques to create an argument using critical
thinking
Warmup: What do you already know?
Check knowledge (True/False):
• Critical thinking is about finding faults.
• Critical thinking is only relevant in academic contexts.
• Opinions should not exist in academic contexts.
• There is only one way to construct an argument.
What is critical thinking?
What is critical thinking?
“Critical thinking is a desire to seek, patience to doubt, fondness
to meditate, slowness to assert, readiness to consider,
carefulness to dispose and set in order; and hatred for every kind
of imposture” (Bacon, 1605).
Critical thinking is a process and method involving careful
consideration of one’s own ideas as well as the ideas of others
(Cottrell, 2005).
A critical approach is a mindset you need for life and work, and
very much part of the wider picture of having a methodological
and thoughtful approach to your studies (Williams, 2014, p. viii).
What is critical thinking?
It does not refer to a simple evaluation or merely
finding fault
Criticality
is…
1. Interpretation and evaluation (Fischer and
Schriven, 1997).
2. Moore and Parker (2012) suggest it helps us
determine whether a claim should be accepted
and, if so, to what extent.
Critical thinking as a process involves:
 Identifying other people’s positions, arguments and conclusions.
 Evaluating the evidence for alternative points of view and weighing
up opposing arguments and evidence fairly.
 Reading between the lines, seeing below surfaces and identifying false
or unfair assumptions.
 Recognising techniques used to make certain positions more
appealing to others, such as false logic and persuasive devices.
 Reflecting on issues in a structured way, using logic and insight.
 Drawing conclusions about whether arguments are valid and
justifiable, based on good evidence and sensible assumptions.
 Synthesising information by drawing together your judgements of the
evidence and using these to form your own position.
 Presenting a view in a structured, well-reasoned way that convinces
others.
(Cottrell,2011, p. 2)
Critical questioning to develop understanding
• Who/ What?
Description • When?
• Where?
Analysis
• Why?
• How?
Evaluation
(Cottrell,2009)
• So what?
• How important/
effective?
• What next?
• What if?
Example question
You have been tasked with designing
a mobile banking app for a major
bank. As part of your design process,
you must discuss the development of
the app using an appropriate
Software Development Life Cycle
(SDLC) model.
How would you
approach this
question?
Descriptive questions
Who/What? Who will be involved in the development of the mobile
banking app and what are their roles and responsibilities? What are
the key features and requirements of the app? What are the available
SDLC models?
E.g., The app should include features such as account balance checking, fund
transfers, bill payments, and mobile check deposits. There are several SDLC models
such as Agile, Waterfall models etc.
When? When will the development of the app begin and when is the
Image by astel design(opens in a new
expected completion date? Are there any time constraints or
tab) from (opens in a new tab)Shutterstock
deadlines that need to be considered?
E.g., App development should commence promptly and continue until the submission
deadline.
Where? Where will the development of the app take place? Will it be
done in-house or outsourced to a third-party developer?
E.g., The development of the app will take place in-house, as it is an individual
assignment
Analysis questions
Why? Why is the Agile model (or your selected SDLC) a suitable
choice for the development of the mobile banking app? What are the
benefits of using this model over other SDLC models?
E.g., Agile in comparison to other SDLC such as Waterfall, Lean, Iterative, Spiral and
V-Shaped models. Briefly summarize one or some of these other models, compare
and contrast it/them with the Agile model to justify their choice (e.g. allows to break
down the project into smaller, manageable parts and work on them in cycles or
“sprints.” with regular feedback and testing.) . It is also important to support this
evaluation with evidence from the components of the app or the design brief to justify
the choice. The various stages in Agile model should also be adequately evaluated and
supported with evidence and facts from the app and design brief.
How? How will the Agile model be implemented in the development
of the mobile banking app? What are the specific steps and processes
involved?
E.g., through iterative development cycles, or “sprints,” where each sprint focuses on
developing a specific set of features
Evaluation questions
So what? So what are the implications of choosing the Agile model
for the development of the mobile banking app? How will it impact
the development process and the final product?
E.g., more successful project outcome because it allows for continuous improvement
and adaptation throughout the development process
How important/effective? How important is it to choose the right
SDLC model for the development of the mobile banking app? How
effective is the Agile model in achieving the desired outcomes?
E.g. Selecting the appropriate SDLC model is essential for ensuring the success of a
project, both in terms of delivering a high-quality product and meeting project
deadlines
What next? What are the next steps in the development process
once the Agile model has been chosen? How will progress be
monitored and evaluated?
E.g. plan for the first sprint by breaking down the project into smaller parts in an initial
order.
What if? What if challenges or obstacles arise during the
development process? How will they be addressed using the Agile
model? E.g. It will be detected early in Agile regular testing and feedbacks.
Critical reading and Writing
Critical reading
In order to be good critical thinkers, we have to learn how to read
critically. This means that we take an active role in our reading,
rather than passively allow the text to wash over us.
A frame of critical questions.
Bring these questions to each text you read –
1. Who does this text benefit?
2. What perspective is being advanced here?
3. What assumptions does the author make?
Example question
Critically outline the foundation and
early history of a computer company
of your choice, and evaluate three
critical incidents in this time
2000 words
100 marks
How would you
approach this
question?
Example: Amazon
Amazon was founded in a garage in Seattle in 1994
(Amazon, 2020).
What is Amazon’s
purpose in describing
its history in this way?
What’s problematic
about this?
Example: Amazon
Why does
Amazon not
include this
information in
their account of
their early
history?
What is the real story?
It’s much easier to
relate to this…
(I would need to paste
this image 240 times to
show the amount of
money Bezos got from
his parents!)
…than to this!
The 3 P’s
Your job as a critical writer is to seek the whole truth.
To do this, you may find it helpful to consider the following…
Provenance – We can learn a lot about a text by considering where it comes
from. Think about who wrote the text, and how this might influence it.
Perspective – What viewpoint does the text present? What do they choose to
focus on, and what do they choose to leave out?
Purpose – Why does the text exist? What does the writer hope to achieve in
writing it?
Let’s look at an example
Amazon was founded in a garage in Seattle in 1994
(Amazon 2020)
Provenance
This source was written by amazon itself, and
functions as marketing materials. As such, this
source has a vested interest in portraying the
company in a positive light
Perspective
This source takes an individualist approach. It
emphasises Amazon’s humble beginnings and
omits other factors such as the financial backing
Bezos received from his parents to start the
company
Purpose
This source exists to promote Amazon and uses a
relatable ‘rags to riches’ story to do so. The source
is designed to portray Amazon positively
Descriptive versus critical writing
As you progress through your degree programme, your writing should become less
descriptive (describing or summarising) and more critical (evaluating, analysing and
contributing to the field).
Part of being more analytical is using critical thinking to evaluate an issue in the
academic field.
Description-analysis line (Gimenez, 2011, p .25)
Assignments need to be critical rather than
descriptive. What does that mean?
Descriptive writing:
defines a particular person, place, term
recounts what happened
only explains a theory.
Critical writing:
evaluates strengths and weaknesses
makes reasoned judgments
draws conclusions.
(adapted from Moon, cited in Cottrell, 2011)
Which is descriptive and which is critical?
A. According to the trait theory of leadership, some people are better suited to
leadership because they are born with particular qualities and characteristics. This
theory is likely to have stemmed from the work of Galton (1869) who argued that
the qualities necessary for effective leadership are naturally endowed, and
therefore only passed on through genetics. This idea was popular until the 1950s
when it was thought to be too limited in its explanation of what makes a good
leader (Zaccaro, 2007).
Description
B. The trait theory of leadership indicates that some people are better suited to
leadership because they are born with particular personality traits. Although it is
unlikely that genetic factors alone influence leadership ability, this theory is
nonetheless a useful tool for predicting whether someone will emerge to be a
leader, and how effective their leadership will be (Judge et al., 2002). While
application of the theory is useful for assessing the relationship between
personality and leadership, it does have limitations.
Critical
(texts adapted from https://www.monash.edu/rlo/assignmentsamples/assignment-types/writing-an-essay/analysis-vs-description)
Argumentation
What is an argument?
…an exchange of diverging
…a reason or set of reasons
or opposite views, typically
given in support of an idea,
a heated or angry one
action or theory
In academic writing and study, an argument is
usually a main idea, claim, theory, or thesis
statement, supported by evidence from
reliable sources (Argument is constructed
based on the available evidence).
While it is true that the work of an academic writer
must be objective, it does not mean they should
not have opinions
All opinions must be logically argued
Use reason, examples, research to support our claims
All opinions should acknowledge weaknesses
Advantages and disadvantages
Limitations
Dissenting opinions
All opinions should relate to the wider field
Secondary research
Key theories, frameworks, models, hypotheses
Discussion of questions being asked in the field
Some Argumentation Models
• Classic argument: Used in persuasive writing (essays,
theses) to present and defend a specific viewpoint
coherently.
• Toulmin argument: Versatile for constructing and
analysing arguments, offers a systematic framework for
addressing counter-arguments.
• Rogerian Argument: Seeks common ground between
parties with opposing views, ideal for sensitive or
emotional topics, fosters understanding and
collaboration.
Classic argumentation model
Consider John's citizenship, which is tied
to his place of birth.
• Introduction
• Background/Statement of the Facts
• Thesis Statement
• Support and Counter-arguments
• Conclusion
(Chisholm, 2018)
John was born in Bermuda.
Therefore, it can be argued that John is a
British citizen.
Support: Birth in Bermuda generally implies
British citizenship.
Counter-argument: Exceptions exist, e.g., if
parents are Dutch or nationality changes.
In conclusion, while John is
presumably a British citizen
due to his birth in Bermuda,
it's essential to recognize
the legal exceptions that
may apply.
Toulmin argumentation model
Consists of six components, three fundamental components
and three complementary components.
Fundamental components:
• The Conclusion/Claim: The statement the author aims
to prove.
• The Grounds/Premise/Evidence: Supporting evidence
and facts.
• The warrant: The underlying reasoning linking evidence
to the claim.
(Bougie & Sekaran, 2019)
Example: Toulmin Argument fundamental components
A person born in
Bermuda will
Warrant generally be a British
citizen
Grounds
John was born in
Bermuda
Claim
John is a British
citizen
Toulmin Argument complementary components
• A backing: Additional evidence or reasoning that strengthens
the warrant, providing further support for the connection
between the grounds and the claim.
• Qualifiers: Linguistic expressions used to indicate the level of
certainty or probability associated with a claim, acknowledging
variations in the claim's validity or exceptions in different
contexts.
• The Rebuttal/Counter-argument(s): An acknowledgement
of potential objections to the claim and/or restrictions to the
claim.
(Bougie & Sekaran, 2019)
Example: Toulmin Argument
Grounds
John was born in
Bermuda
Backing
The British Parliament
Acts explicitly state that…
Warrant
A person born in
Bermuda will generally
be a British citizen
Qualifier
John is presumably a
British citizen
Claim
John is a British citizen
Rebuttal
A Person born in Bermuda
will legally be British,
unless his parents are
Dutch or he has changed
his nationality
Example: Toulmin Argument
Grounds
The algorithm used in
the software is highly
efficient at sorting large
datasets.
Backing
Extensive benchmarking
tests have demonstrated
that this algorithm
outperforms other sorting
methods.
Warrant
Highly efficient sorting
algorithms are essential
for improving data
processing speed.
Qualifier
Under typical
circumstances, this
algorithm significantly
improves sorting speed.
Claim
This software is an
excellent choice for
organizations that deal
with large datasets and
need to optimize data
processing.
Rebuttal
However, in cases where data
structures are highly specialized and
unique, the algorithm may not provide
the same level of efficiency.
Today we have:
Explored critical thinking: importance, definition,
and process.
Analysed arguments and opinions.
Demonstrated techniques for creating arguments
using critical thinking.
Take a moment to reflect: What's one thing you'll
do differently after this session?
1 What is one advantage of critical thinking?
A. It’s a process that helps us make only large,
important decisions
B. It’s a process that helps us make only small,
unimportant decisions
C. It’s a process that helps us create hidden
issues, bias and manipulation
D. It’s a process that helps us reveal hidden
issues, bias and manipulation
Revised from Agoos (2016)
1 What is one advantage of critical thinking?
A. It’s a process that helps us make only large,
important decisions
B. It’s a process that helps us make only small,
unimportant decisions
C. It’s a process that helps us create hidden
issues, bias and manipulation
D. It’s a process that helps us reveal hidden
issues, bias and manipulation
Revised from Agoos (2016)
2 When making a decision, what is the main
purpose of gathering facts and information?
A. To make sure your assumptions are illogical
B. To weigh up various options or choices
C. To ignore the implications of your choices
D. To explore your own perspective and point of
view
Revised from Agoos (2016)
2 When making a decision, what is the main
purpose of gathering facts and information?
A. To make sure your assumptions are illogical
B. To weigh up various options or choices
C. To ignore the implications of your choices
D. To explore your own perspective and point of
view
Revised from Agoos (2016)
3 Considering the implications of a decision means..
A. Examining its potential outcomes and effects
B. Asking questions to determine your goal
C. Gathering information to weigh up options
D. Determining whether information is logical
Revised from Agoos (2016)
3 Considering the implications of a decision means..
A. Examining its potential outcomes and effects
B. Asking questions to determine your goal
C. Gathering information to weigh up options
D. Determining whether information is logical
Revised from Agoos (2016)
4 How can critical thinking improve your chances
of making better choices ?
A. Critical thinking helps you pick the correct and
best choice for all situations
B. Critical thinking helps you explore only your
own perspective and no others
C. Critical thinking helps you examine information
and make unreasonable choices
D. Critical thinking provides you the tools to sift
through complex information logically
Revised from: Agoos, 2016
4 How can critical thinking improve your chances
of making better choices ?
A. Critical thinking helps you pick the correct and
best choice for all situations
B. Critical thinking helps you explore only your
own perspective and no others
C. Critical thinking helps you examine information
and make unreasonable choices
D. Critical thinking provides you the tools to sift
through complex information logically
Revised from: Agoos, 2016
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