BDS NOTES FINAL TERM 24-25 2c The establishment and consolidation of Muslim In 1204, the first Muslim ruler, Bakhtiyar, a Turk, captured Nadia and established Muslim rule. After his death, the Sultan of Delhi extended his authority into Bengal. However, it was a period of instability and there was in-fighting amongst rivals for the Delhi Sultanate, so the Turkish rulers of Bengal were almost independent. The spread of Islam in Bengal was also enabled by Muslim saints called Sufis. Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji and the Turkish conquest The political influence of Islam began to spread in Bengal with the conquest of Nadia, the capital city of the Sena ruler Lakshmana, by Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji in 1204 AD. Muslim rule in northern India Bakhtiyar Khalji's arrival in the Bengal frontier was part of the same Turkish advance that saw the expansion of Islam into India. Towards the end of the twelfth century, Muhammad Ghuri had captured Delhi and established Muslim rule in northern India. He was succeeded by his General, Kutubuddin Aibak. During the time of Kutubuddin, Bakhtiyar was granted a small territory near Bihar, from where he started invading surrounding areas. At one point, he thought of capturing Bengal and in 1204 he attacked the Sena capital, Nadia. The conquest of Nadia in Bengal- An unusual way of capture Bakhtiyar captured Nadia in a unique way. Sensing the presence of a strong army of Lakshmana Sena on the main route to Nadia, Bakhtiyar proceeded instead through the jungle of Jharkhand. He divided his army into several groups, and he himself led a group of horsemen and advanced towards Nadia in the guise of horse-traders. In this manner, Bakhtiyar had no problem in entering through the gates of the royal palace. Shortly afterwards, Bakhtiyar's main army also joined him and within a short while Nadia was captured. The Sufis and the spread of Islam in Bengal Sufis were Muslim saints who were considered to possess the blessing of God and spiritual power. Sufis derive their inspiration from Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH) who forms the source of spiritual knowledge and teachings in Islam. Sufis led a very simple life and preached Islam through their words and deeds. When in danger, the Sufi leader (Pir) and his disciples (Murids) took up arms as well. Most Sultans of Bengal tried to keep good relations with the Sufis. In Bengal, the Sufis were numerous, and they played a prominent role in delivering the Islamic message of equality and social justice and thus drew people of different religions towards Islam. Sufis arrival in Bengal Sufis arrived in Bengal from the Middle East or Central Asia as early as the time of the arrival of Bakhtiyar Khalji. One of the earliest and most revered Sufis of Bengal was Shah Jalal (died 1346), who arrived and settled in Sylhet with his 313 disciples. It is said that his simple life, love of ordinary people of different religions and castes and his Keramati (power of making miracles) attracted the people of Sylhet to Islam. Wider influence of Sufism Sufism not only helped the spread of Islam in Bengal, but it also influenced the local religions. The ideal of Sufism, attaining the love of God through love of His creation, has influenced the devotional doctrines of Vaishnavism as well as the mysticism of the Bauls. At times, Sufism in Bengal has been transformed into a folk religion with many of the Sufis being regarded as saints or folk deities. During a maritime journey, for example, especially if a storm arises, sailors pray to Pir Badar, repeating his name, 'Badar Badar.’ The names of different Sufi saints are inscribed on the bodies of buses, trucks, launchers, and steamers to ensure safe journeys. 3a Aurangzeb’s succession of power Emperor Shah Jahan fell seriously ill at the end of September 1657. This was a signal for a struggle of succession to break out among his four sons, Dara, Shiko, Suja, Aurangzeb, and Murad. Suja had proved himself an efficient administrator as Viceroy of Bengal. Murad, the youngest son, did not have the qualities needed either. The main contest, therefore, was between Dara, the eldest son, and Aurangzeb. Dara fled and Aurangzeb occupied Agra and, as his brother Dara had done, imprisoned his father in the Agra fort. He also imprisoned his brother Murad. The armies of Aurangzeb and Suja confronted each other at Khajwa, in modern Uttar Pradesh (north India). A defeated Suja fled towards Bengal in January 1659. Aurangzeb sent the Governor of Khandesh, Moazzam Khan alias Mir Jumla in pursuit of Suja. He then returned to the capital and had Dara imprisoned and beheaded. In the meantime, Suja took refuge in Tanda near Gaur. Mir Jumla occupied Rajmahal in April 1659 and defeated Suja early in 1660. Suja fled to Dhaka with his family and finally sought asylum in Arakan. The Arakan ruler had Suja, and his family members mercilessly killed. 3b There were many reasons for the decline of the Mughal Empire, beginning with succession disputes and ending with the arrival of the British, who took advantage of the lack of central control, the discontent and factionalism. Some of the specific reasons were Struggle for succession After the death of Aurangzeb, a war of succession broke out among his three sons, Muazzam (Governor of Kabul), Muhammad Azam (Governor of Gujrat) and Muhammad Kam Baksh (Governor of Bijapur). In his will, Aurangzeb had directed his sons to divide the Empire peacefully among them. But at his death, there rose a bitter struggle for the throne of Delhi. A series of such conflicts arising out of battles for succession, resulting in the absence of a longlasting central authority, weakened the Mughal Empire. Religious Policy Aurangzeb was brave and untiring in carrying out his duties. He was also a great soldier and general, but he failed to be a good ruler because of his religious conservatism. In 1679, he re-imposed the Jizya on the non-believers. He denounced the idea of joining hands with the Hindus for the integrity of the Empire. He focused on the Muslims only. He also banned sati, the Hindu sacrifice of widows. These and other of his religious policies insulted the non-Muslims and caused discontent and unrest. Aurangzeb’s Deccan Policy Aurangzeb's determination to crush the Marathas was also responsible for the decline of the empire. The emperor went to Deccan to annex Golcunda in 1686 and Bijapur in 1687. These two states were not only Shia states but also supportive to the Marathas by providing employment and even military training. A friendly policy towards these two states could have made them his allies against the Maratha but Aurangzeb could not see this possibility. The Mughal Empire, by this time, had become too vast to be controlled efficiently by a centralized administration, especially Karnataka. Communication and transport were poor and the frequent Maratha raids made it difficult for the nobles to collect the taxes. This was a serious setback to the prestige of the Empire. Aurangzeb's Rajput policy Aurangzeb did not attach enough importance to the Rajput alliance. In December 1678, he introduced a change of policy towards the Rajputs who had contributed much to the growth of the Mughal Empire in India. When he annexed Marwar, Aurangzeb's aggressive policy drove the Rajputs to gather forces, and the Rajput War turned into a national uprising. The war continued till Bahadur Shah I, Aurangzeb's son and successor, recognized Ajit Singh as the Rana of Marwar in 1709. Maratha Revival By 1691, the Marathas (under the Peshwas) had become strong enough to rise in rebellion under Raja Ram and other Maratha chiefs. They consolidated their positions in western India, dreaming of a greater Maharashtra Empire. The Marathas grew into the strongest power in northern India and took up the role of defenders of Hindustan against foreign invaders like Ahmed Shah Abdali. The Maratha conquests in the north accelerated the disintegration of the Empire. The weak nobles and party factions The weak characters of the nobility hastened the downfall of the Mughal Empire. The nobility was only interested in increasing their power and influence. The country was often broken apart by civil wars due to the quarrelsome nobles. The nobility was divided into two broad factions: o The Hindustani or Indo-Muslim party, who were the Afghan nobles, the Sayyids of Barha and Khan-I-Dawran whose ancestors had come to India from Badakhsha. These Indian Muslims were mostly aligned with the Hindus. o The foreign nobles were called Mughals but were divided into two groups. Those who came from Trans-oxania and other parts of Central Asia were mostly Sunni (The Turrani Party). The Irani nobles who were from Persia were mostly Shias. Administrative Weaknesses Corrupt Administration o Corruption spread in the Mughal administration even before Aurangzeb’s death. o Officials at all levels accepted bribes. o High taxation ruined the economy and reduced people's interest in production. o Shah Jahan increased state demands for half of agricultural produce and spent heavily on buildings, worsening finances. o Provincial governors ruled tyrannically, and people had no means of seeking justice. The Mansabdari System o Mansab referred to a rank and income-based post, requiring officers to supply troops. o Mansabdars formed the state nobility, directly managed by the emperor. o The system weakened under inefficient and corrupt rulers. Condition of the People o Taxes rose steadily from Akbar’s time, worsening under later rulers. o Nobles were deprived of land rights, leading them to act cruelly and unlawfully. o Post-Aurangzeb, peasants suffered severely, often abandoning their lands. o Discontent among peasants led to uprisings (e.g., by Satnamis, Jats, Sikhs). o Many peasants turned to banditry, destabilizing law, and order. The demoralized army o o o Mughal army became demoralized due to luxury, wealth, and indulgence. Failed repeatedly to capture Kandahar. In 1739, Nader Shah easily plundered Delhi and massacred civilians, shaking faith in Mughal authority. Misuse of Revenue o Nobles used military funds (revenue assignments) for personal gain due to weakened central control Lack of Discipline o Military discipline collapsed; no consistent punishment for treason, cowardice, or neglect. o Soldiers trained independently with no standard drills. Outdated Weapons o The army relied on old-fashioned artillery and heavy cavalry. o Accompanied by large, disorganized camps including non-combatants and animals. o Lagged other armies using muskets; vulnerable to fast, agile forces like the Maratha cavalry. Not a National Army o Army was a mix of different groups fighting in their own ways. o It became too large and unmanageable as the empire expanded. o Internal rivalries among commanders undermined military success. The Persian's invasions of Ahmed Shah Abdali The invasions of Ahmed Shah Abdali, the invader from Persia and the son of Nadir Shah, hastened the downfall of the Mughal Empire. These frequent invasions revealed the weakness of the Empire and brought chaos and confusion. The third battle of Panipat in 1761, fought between Ahmed Shah Abdali and the Marathas, ended in a disastrous defeat for the Marathas. It also weakened the Marathas and the Muslim rulers, paving the way for the British Rule in India. The Arrival of British The arrival of the British was to prove fatal to the Mughal Empire. Britain was the most technologically advanced country in the world and the British brought with them weapons far in advance of those used by the Mughals. The British also brought a unity and sense of determination which the divided Mughals lacked. 3c The Impact of the Mughal decline Mughal rule in Bengal was at its greatest height during the Viceroyalty of Shaista Khan (16641688). The end of Shaista Khan’s rule, however, marked the beginning of the end of the Mughals in Bengal. Several Mughal governors were sent to deal with problems in Bengal, but they could not stop the overwhelming decline that set in all around. Regional independence of Bengal under the Nawabs The influence of the Diwan, Murshid Quli Khan, began to increase. The Mughal Viceroy was mostly away from Bengal and in 1707, Aurangzeb died. The emperor's death was followed by a succession of wars in Delhi. It was not long before the Diwan, Murshid Quli Khan, took over the powers of both the Diwan and the Nazim (Subhadhar). Nawabs The term ‘Nawabs of Bengal’ refers to the hereditary rulers of Bengal whose only connection with the Mughal Emperor was to follow his Firman and to pay a tribute to him regularly. The Nawabs were responsible for their subah (province or provinces). The Nawabi era in Bengal was started by Murshid Quli Khan. Nazim and Diwan Towards the later part of the Mughal rule in the Indian Subcontinent, the central government appointed two officers, who enjoyed equal political status but were independent of each other, to administer a subah. One of them was the subahdar or nazim (general administrator including justice and defense) and the other was the diwan (revenue administrator). Changes in administration, politics, and society Since 1705, during the reign of Aurangzeb, Murshid Quli Khan had been a diwan of Bengal. However, it was only in 1713 that the emperor (Jahandar Shah) appointed Murshid Quli Khan as the diwan as well as the subahdar of Bengal. From Murshid Quli Khan’s time onwards, the subahdari was no longer an office under the central government but a hereditary office with a masnad (throne). After this, all the successors (Nawabs) to the masnad of Bengal regarded themselves as independent Nawabs, though they always received the sanad (vice regal patent) from the emperor on payment. The decline of the Mughal Empire after the death of Aurangzeb further alienated the provinces from the central government. Taking advantage of this situation, the Nawabs of Bengal strengthened their position and continued to rule independently. Changes in administration, politics, and society The emperors had to remain content with gifts and tributes that the Nawabs used to send regularly. Even though the Nawabs could not issue a Firman, they could issue parwanas, dastaks etc. They could even refuse to accept a Firman, as done by Murshid Quli Khan in 1717 when Emperor Farukh Sheyyar issued a Firman granting special trading privileges to the English traders in Bengal. Conspiracy against Siraj-ud-doula Siraj-ud-Doula ruled Bengal from April 1756 to June 1757—a little over one year. His rule was challenged both internally (from family) and externally. His nomination as Nawab caused jealousy and opposition from: o Ghaseti Begum (his great-aunt) o Raja Rajballabh o Mir Jafar Ali Khan o Shawkat Jang (his cousin) Ghaseti Begum had considerable wealth and influence; Siraj confiscated her wealth from Motijheel Palace and confined her. Siraj replaced key officials with his own supporters: o Mir Mardan became Bakshi (army paymaster), replacing Mir Jafar. o Mohanlal was promoted to peshkar and became influential in administration. Siraj suppressed Shawkat Jang, who was eventually killed in a conflict. His accession threatened the dominant elite in Murshidabad who had grown wealthy under previous Nawabs. Siraj attempted to empower a new group to weaken the old elite. He opposed British misuse of dastaks (trade permits) and illegal private trade. This anti-British stance alarmed the British, especially during a time when their private trade was already in trouble. THE GRIEVANCES OF Siraj against the east India company Siraj had some genuine grievances against the East India Company: He accused the company of strengthening the fortification of Fort William in Calcutta without his permission. He also accused them of misusing the trade privileges given to them by the Mughals, causing heavy losses in the province's revenue. Moreover, under the pretext of trade, they were interfering in the internal politics of the province since Siraj felt sure that the English were heavily involved in the conspiracy against him. Conflict with the British The British also gave shelter to his officers like Krisnadas, son of Rajballav, who appropriated government funds. The British governor, Roger Drake, did not pay the Nawab any nazrana or peshkash as was the custom of the day. The British had no intention of showing any respect to the Nawab. When Nawab expressed a wish to visit their factory in Kasimbazar, Governor Drake insulted the Nawab’s special envoy. The very first thing he did was to capture the factory in Kasimbazar, march to Calcutta, drive the British out and capture the city. Following these actions of the Nawab, the Treaty of Alinagar was signed between the British and the Nawab by which Siraj agreed to compensate for the British losses at Calcutta. But the British could not forget this incident easily and there were only two courses open to them. One was to ask the Nawab to forgive them, and the other was to avenge the defeat by force. The British decided to under the pretext of a peace treaty prepared for war. Siraj was defeated in the Battle of Palashi. 4a Timeline showing the main events in the history of the East India Company 1600 Company formed 1615 Diplomatic agreement between Sir Thomas Roe and Mughal Emperor Jahangir 1633 Foothold in Bengal. 1670 King Charles II granted the company a series of Charters. 1757 Battle of Plassey 1764 Battle of Baxur 1784 India Act: British government takes control Foundation of the British East India Company The British East India Company (EIC) was founded in December 1600 as The Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies by a group of businessmen, who obtained the Crown's charter from Queen Elizabeth I for exclusive permission to trade in the East Indies for a period of fifteen years. Attention shifts from East Indies to India The Company initially had 125 shareholders, and a capital of £72,000. At first it made little impression on the Dutch control of the spice trade and could not establish a lasting outpost in the East Indies (modern-day Indonesia and Malaysia). Eventually, ships belonging to the EIC arrived in India, docking at Surat, which was established as a trade transit point in 1608. Establishment of the first factory in India By 1610, the company built its first factory in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast in the Bay of Bengal. The high profits (some as high as 200%) reported by the Company after landing in India, initially prompted King James I to grant subsidiary licenses to other trading companies in Britain, such as the Scottish East India Company. In 1609, he renewed the charter given to the Company for an indefinite period but warned that poor profits would lead to the cancellation of the charter. Agreements with Mughal Emperor Jahangir The company asked the British government to open diplomatic relations with the Mughal Empire to have an ally against the Dutch. In 1615, James I sent Sir Thomas Roe to the court of the Mughal Emperor, Jahangir, and he gained for the British the right to establish a factory at Surat. In return, the Company offered to provide European goods to the Imperial Court. Gradually the EIC flourished under the good graces of the Mughal Empire, trading in silk, indigo, cotton and saltpeter. Trade in Bengal In 1633, the East India Company set foot in Bengal by establishing a factory at Hariharpur on the Mahanadi delta. On 2 February, the English obtained a Firman from Emperor Shajahan permitting them to pursue trade and commerce in Bengal. The most important privilege was obtained from the Bengal governor, Shah Suja, who permitted the English to carry out trade in Bengal without any customs duties, in lieu of an annual lump sum of just Rs. 3000. In 1668, a new factory was opened at Dhaka, the capital of Bengal. The founding of Calcutta by Job Charnock in 1690 completed the process of factory settlement and began the process of establishing political dominance by the company in Bengal. They also built a fort around Kolkata known as Fort William. Rule by the East Indian Company in Bengal After the battle of Palashi, the EIC ruled Bengal through a series of puppet rulers, such as MirJafar. The Diwani Treaty, negotiated by Clive in 1765, allowed the region to be governed by collaborators including Mir-Jafar and Mir-Kaseem in return for surplus revenues channeled to the company. The company made huge profits by operating a monopoly on trade, and company merchants became accustomed to receiving personal ‘gifts’ which increased their wealth. Events leading up to British annexation of the sub-continent and Reasons of Conflict between the Nawab and the British Struggles with France The Seven Years’ War (1756) brought British and French forces into conflict in India. French commander Dupleix initially won key victories. British fortunes reversed under Robert Clive. Treaty of Paris (1763) limited French presence to small territories (Pondicherry, Mahe, Chandernagar). Collapse of the Mughal Empire The weakening of the Mughal Empire led to the rise of independent states (Marathas, Sikhs, Nizam of Hyderabad). These rival states created instability but also gave the British opportunities for territorial expansion. Internal Divisions in Bengal Nawab Siraj-ud-doula of Bengal, who supported the French, faced internal opposition from relatives and officials. The British exploited these divisions to weaken the Nawab. Conflict Between Nawab and the Britis Trade disputes: The British abused trade privileges, angering Siraj-ud-doula. Unauthorized fortification: The British and French fortified settlements without the Nawab’s permission. While the French complied with the Nawab’s orders to stop, the British refused. Diplomatic insults: The British sheltered Krishnadas (one of the Nawab’s officers) and insulted the Nawab’s envoy to Fort William. British Retaliation and Battle of Plassey Siraj-ud-doula attacked and captured Calcutta, renaming it Alinagar. British reinforcements under Robert Clive recaptured Calcutta (2 January 1757) and attacked Hooghly. Clive made a secret pact with factions in Murshidabad, especially Mir Jafar, promising to make him the next Nawab. British forces defeated Siraj-ud-doula at the Battle of Plassey on 23 June 1757, marking a key step in British control of Bengal. Battle of Palashi The battle began around 8 AM. Loyal commanders like Mir Mardan, Mohanlal, Khwaja Abdul Hadi Khan, and Naba Singh Hazari resisted the British. Mir Jafar, Yar Latif, and Ray Durlabh avoided serious fighting, betraying Siraj-ud-doula. At one point, Clive considered retreating due to unexpected resistance. Around 3 PM, Mir Mardan was killed by a cannonball, weakening the Nawab’s forces. Siraj sought advice from Mir Jafar, who deceived him by suggesting a pause in fighting, but also informed Clive. Clive used the opportunity to launch a final assault, leading to the Nawab’s defeat by 5 PM. Clive then advanced towards Murshidabad, Siraj-ud-doula’s capital. Siraj tried to resist with French support and loyalists but failed. He was captured, brutally murdered, and his body was found in a river. His death marked the end of independent rule in Bengal and the start of British dominance. Battle of Buxar The Battle of Buxar, fought on October 22, 1764, was between the combined army of Mir Qasim, the Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and the East India Company, it was commanded by Major Hector Munro. His army consisted of provincial soldiers from Oudh. This battle has been seen as an important moment in Indian history as it ushered in an era of direct colonization by European under British Raj. All three provinces were taken over by Britain via treaty after this battle. Battle of Plassey and Battle of Buxar: Differences The Battle of Plassey was fought between the East India Company and the Mughal Army. The Battle of Buxar was fought between East India Company’s army and the Nawab Mir Kasim. The two battles are said to be “incidental allies.” Battle of Plassey was fought at the close of a long period of Mughal weakening and decay in Bengal. The battle took place in 1757, When the Mughal empire had been weakened by a series of unsuccessful battles in 1756 and 1757. The Battle of Buxar was fought in 1764, during the decline of the Mughal Empire. Mir Kasim had made a treaty with the British in 1765. and Both the Parties agreed to protect each other’s commercial interests and to make no alliances against each other. At time of Battle of Plassey, Bengal was said to be n “eternal” part of the Mughal Empire. The Nawab Mir Kasim had promise protection to British merchants under a treaty. In contrast, at the time of Buxar, there was no treaty between the British East India Company and Nawab Mir Kasim. The roles of diwans and nawabs in Bengal Diwani provincial revenue administration system under the Mughals and an early mechanism of the establishment of Company rule in Bengal. The Mughal provincial administration had ad two main branches-nizamat and diwani. The provincial Subahdar was in charge of nizamat (he was also called nazim) and the diwan was in charge of revenue administration. The Mughal emperor used to appoint these two key officers directly. They were normally appointed by, and responsible to, the emperor. But the separation of power between the nazim and the diwan for the sake of checks and balanced disappeared during the nawabi period when the autonomous nawabs ruled the subah without any power sharing with the diwan. Nawabs of Bengal In the early 18th century, the Nawab of Bengal was the independent ruler of the three regions of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. The Nawabs were based in Murshidabad which was centrally located within Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. Their chief, the former prime minister, became the first Nawab. The Nawab continued to issue coins in the name of the Mughal Emperor, but the Nawab governed as independent monarchs. The Nawabs, backed by the bankers became the financial backbone of the Mughal court. They were the wealthiest rulers in the world. The Nawabs, especially Nawab Alivardi Khan, were heavily engaged in various wars against Marathas. Towards the end of his 16 years rule, he turned his attention to rebuilding and restoring Bengal. The Nawabs of Bengal oversaw a period of industrialization. The Bengal-Bihar-Orissa triangle was a major production center for cotton muslin cloth, Silk cloth, shipbuilding, gunpowder, saltpetre and metalwork. Factories were set up in Murshidabad, Dhaka, Chittagong, Rajshahi, Cossimbazar and Hugli among other cities, towns, and ports. The Region became a base for the East India Company of the British, the French, the Danish, the Australian and the Dutch. The British company eventually rivaled the authority of the Nawabs. Robert Clive defeated the last independent Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah in the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Mir Jafar was installed as a puppet Nawab. His successor Mir Qasim attempted in vain to remove British. The defeat of Mir Qasim of Bengal, Nawab Siraj-ud-Doula of Oudh and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II paved the way for British Expansion across India. The Nawabs had lost all independent authority since 1757. The Nawab profited from the revenue generated by the worldwide demand of Muslin trade in Bengal, which was centered in Dhaka and Sonargaon. Murshidabad was the major center of muslin production, centered in Dhaka and Sonargaon. Shipbuilding in Chittagong enjoyed Ottoman and European demand. Bengal attracted traders across Eurasia. The second Nawab Shuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan developed Murshidabad’s royal palace, military base, city gates, revenue office, public audience hall (durbar), and mosques in an extensive compound called Farrabagh (Garden of Joy) which includes canals, fountains, flowers, and fruit trees. The second Nawab’s reign saw a period of economic and political consolidation. Bengali cities were full of bankers, workers, peons, naibs, wakils, and ordinary traders. The Nawabs were patrons of the arts, including the Murshidabad style of Mughal painting, Hindustani classical music, the Baul tradition and local craftsmanship. The third Nawab Sarfaraz khan was preoccupied with military engagements, including Nader Shah’s invasion of India. He was Killed in a Battle of Giria by his deputy Alivardi Khan. After becoming Nawab, Alivardi Khan endured brutal raids by the Maratha Empire and signed peace with Marathas. The Marathas demanded an annual tribute payment. The Marathas also promised never to cross the boundary of the Nawab’s territory. European trading companies also grew more influential in Bengal. His successor, Nawab Siraj-ud-Doula grew increasingly wary of the British presence in Bengal. The battle of Plassey ended for the Nawabs of Bengal. Dual Administration The revenue administration of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa was acquired in 1765. From 1765 to 1772, the company shared revenues from Bengal but took no responsibility in administering it. This system came to be known as ‘dual administration.’ The Period of Dual administration was characterized by: o Rampant corruption among the servants of the Company, who made full use of private trading to enrich themselves. o Excessive revenue collection and oppression of peasantry. o The company went into loss where the servants were flourishing. o The dual government in Bengal failed miserably. It destroyed the trade, industry, and agriculture of Bengal. Impact of the dual administration: Economic and Social o o o o o o o First, owing to this system of administration, law and order virtually broke down. The company’s officials developed the habit of disowning all responsibilities for anything that happened afterwards. Second, the dual system almost crippled the judicial system. The Nawabs were powerless, and the company officials were irresponsible. Thieves’ dacoits and robbers held away. Third, this added to the woes of the farmers. The fertile land of Bengal turned barren and at places was deserted. Revenue collection becomes arbitrary and the work of collection of land tax was assigned to the highest bidder. Fourth, this system adversely affected trade and commerce. The company held a monopoly over trade. The company officials carried out their own personal trade and made massive amounts of money causing a lot of damage to the Indian trade. This enriched the individual officials but impoverished the company. Fifth, it had a negative impact on the trade and industry of Bengal. The silk industry of Bengal was severely affected. Now instead of taking silk cloth the British preferred raw silk. Many Indian weavers were ruined, and they were made to undergo physical torture. Sixth, when the devastating famine of Bengal occurred in 1770, the Government did not offer any help. Therefore, one-third of the population of Bengal was wiped out due to hunger and diseases. Seventh, now the enormous flow of Indian money towards England begun by an estimate, an amount of 59 lakh pounds were drained by the company from Bengal within 4 years of Diwani. This viscous circle was such that it continued until the British left India. British government takes direct control in 1784, the British government passed the India Act and took direct control of the Indian possessions. It appointed a Governor-General, who would have control of the three presidencies. There would also be provincial governors and a Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. The EIC continued to trade but lost most of its administrative powers. Robert Clive’s opponents in Britain carried out an investigation into his behavior in India. He was accused at the charge of ‘plundering India,’ The disgrace, coupled with his addiction to opium, caused him to take his own life in 1773. The Indian subcontinent under direct rule from Britain Period of direct British rule over the Indian subcontinent from 1858 until the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947. The British raj succeeded the management of the subcontinent by the British East India Company, after general distrust and dissatisfaction with company leadership resultant in a widespread mutiny of sepoy troops in 1857, causing the British to reconsider the structure of the governance in India. The British government took possession of the company’s assets and imposed direct rule. The Raj was intended to increase Indian participation in governance, but the powerlessness of Indians to determine their own future without the consent of the British led to an increasingly adamant national independence movement. Life, Work and Culture like in Bengal 1204 -1784 Organs of government (BD Administration) Executive Legislature Judiciary Divisional level- Divisional Commissioner District level- Deputy Commissioner (DC) Upazila level- UNO Union The Organization of society in Sultanate Period The Delhi Sultanate society was broadly divided into four major groups: Nobles (Aristocrats), Priests, Town people and Peasants. Nobles includes Sultan and his relatives, courtiers, and holders of Iqta, Hindu and Muslim chieftains, merchants, and Bankers. All the wealth and power were concentrated in his group. They lived in luxury and style. Priests included Brahmins and Ulemas and were given tax free land grants. Also, rich, and powerful. Influences of Ulema was so much that often influenced the policies of the Sultans. Town people included wealthy merchants, traders, and artisans. Colonies for artisans, Sufi saints. Towns gradually became the centers of administration and military. International trade was flourishing. Peasants Lived in village, paid taxes to state as land revenue. Hindus and Muslims influenced each other customs and traditions and a composite culture of India was born. The Organization of society in Mughal Period The Mughal society was like a pyramid on the top of which was the emperor and the nobility, followed by the middle class (imams, Muslims with their own order and brahims, hindus with their own order) and the last was the poor class(adivarsi). The society in the Mughal time was organized on a feudal basis and head of the social system was the emperor. He enjoyed an unparalleled status and was the ultimate authority in everything. Next in rank were the nobility (Iranian nobles) along with the zamindars (Baro Bhuiyans). They monopolized most of the jobs and socially and economically formed a privileged class. It was also the most beneficiary class of the state who enjoyed privileges and led extravagant life. The middle class consisted of professionals, traders, and merchants. They were the skillful class which led a successful if not luxurious life. The lowest and the most deprived class of the social pyramid was the poor class. They were socially marginalized and had very scarce facility of life. The Mughals also kept slaves taken from the locals or brought from the slave traders. Early customs: religion and food, Dress, and the role of women Sultanate Period Religion: By early sultanate era, Hinduism was India’s main religion. It had degenerated to a great extent due to superstitions, rituals, sacrifices and Brahmanic dominance. On the other hand, Islam talked about equality, brotherhood, and monotheism. Turk Muslims were large in number and more influential as they enjoyed the confidence of the rulers. Ulema, being the second most important class of society, their influence on the state and interference in political and administration were proved injurious. Third class of the Muslim society was slave who had acquired important position during slave dynasty and later during Firoz Tughlaq. Lowest class of the Muslims were Indian Muslims. They were converters. Mughal Period Religion: Ruling class was Muslim although most of the subject were Hindu. Akbar promoted the new religion Din-I-Ilahi. During Akbar’s reign religious policies were formulated and later Mughals followed him. But violation of this policy remains unrated and leading to the downfall of the theory during the reign of Aurangzeb. Akbar was the emperor with most tolerance for Hindus and abolished all types of discriminatory taxes on Hindus and included non-Muslims in his advisory group. The growing concern for revival of Islam was witnessed in the Emperor Shahjahan’s preference of the showing the Islam as a dominant religion, which led to establishment of some grand mosques. Example: Jama Masjid in Delhi and Taj mahal at Agra. Mughal Emperors also tried to convert Hindus by getting married off to Hindus by Muslims. Aurangzeb demolished the religious tolerance policy. He did not allow Hindu community to live under their own laws and customs but imposed Sharia law over the whole Empire. Status of Women Sultanate Period In general, status women deteriorated in the society, and they suffered from many social evils. Normally, monogamy was in practice but among the rich, polygamy was prevalent. The nobles and rich Muslims kept several wives. The birth of a girl child was a disgrace for the father. ‘Sati’ practice among Hindu continued and widow re-marriage was rare. In the age of violence, women were liable to be treated as prizes of war. It became the symbol of high-class society. Very little attention paid to the education of women. ‘Purdah’ system among Muslim women were strictly observed and became a fear for Hindu women. Mughal Period Mughal Women had access to education and were encouraged to learn. They also had their own and inherited property. They could also participate in trade and commerce. Men in the government always relied on their wives for political advice. Many rich and aristocratic women learn to read and write, they worked sometimes and received salaries and was allowed to own land. They had the right to choose their own spouses and were given the option of divorce. Child marriage and polygamy were common. Purdah was strictly enforced for the upper class. Food Sultanate Period In general, Hindus were vegetarian and Muslims were non-vegetarian. Among Muslims, ‘Sufis’ and people under their influence avoided meat-eating. The Quran prohibits the use of liquor. Yet it was consumed by the wealthy class. Mughal Period Rulers worked to spread Muslim culture through India They invited scholars and artists from rest of the Muslim world to introduce new culture by blending Muslim, Indian elements. They introduced new Arabic style of foods which later blended with Indian tradition like Biryani, Kabab, dry fruits. These were authentic Mughal dishes. Fish Types of Fisheries Inland Fishing: Accounts for approximately 70% of total fish production. Marine Fishing: Contributes about 30%. Brackish Water: Found between freshwater and seawater regions, often used for aquaculture. Inland Fishing Locations There were rivers, ponds, lakes, and closed water bodies. Contributes around 30% to total fish production. Fishing Methods Rafts: Local names include bhela, bhera, chali, bhura. Traditional methods: Bare hands or crude tools like ek kata, tekata, anchra, koch. Other techniques: Line fishing, bamboo traps (chai, bega, chandi bair), and various types of nets. Common Inland Fish Species Silver Carp, Grass Carp, Common Carp, Tilapia, Catfish, Thai Pangas, Sor Puti. 267 species exist, with a few being commercially viable. Polyculture Cultivation of more than one compatible aquatic species together, such as fish and aquatic plants or rice. Example: Integrated rice-fish farming. Aquaculture in Bangladesh Key Regions Southwestern tidal areas: Bagerhat, Khulna, Satkhira. Mangrove areas: Chakoria, Teknaf. Chittagong: Seasonal alternation of shrimp and salt production. Method: Bheri/Gher Culture In high salinity areas, marine shrimp and finfish are cultivated. In lower salinity, the same area is used for paddy cultivation. Importance Ensures greater availability and affordability of fish. Improves national protein intake. Generates employment and increases exports (shrimp exports earn around $270 million annually). Environmentally sustainable and compatible with agriculture. Scope for Expansion Use of unused water bodies such as derelict ponds, roadside ditches, and seasonal floodplains. Improvement of breeding techniques and adoption of genetically enhanced fish species. Development of low-cost, nutritious fish feed. Innovation in aquaculture practices and integrated farming systems. Marine Fishing (Geographic scope) Bangladesh has a 480 km (about 298.26 mi) coastline along the Bay of Bengal. Territorial waters extend up to 20 nautical miles. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) spans up to 200 nautical miles. Reasons for large numbers of fish in the Bay of Bengal Due to the absence of ocean current in the Bay of Bengal, there is no nutrient recycling process. The mixing of fresh and marine waters creates one of the world's biggest brackish-water zones, huge mass of organic and inorganic nutrients, is added to the Bay of Bengal annually by the combined flow of the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the Meghna which produces an environment for the fish to thrive. Main fishing methods (Marine) There are three types of fishing craft made traditionally in Bangladesh: o Balams for marine water, dinghies and chandies for brackish waters. For fishing in the open seas, fishing vessels (such as side trawlers, stern trawlers, beam trawlers, wet fish trawlers and freezer trawlers) with powerful engines are constructed, equipped with machinery for bringing in large catches. Types of marine fish caught Although the Bay of Bengal has about 442 species of marine fish, only about 20 species are harvested commercially. Some 24 species of shark are found in the marine waters of Bangladesh. Pelagic fish: Habitat: Upper zone of sea Examples: Mackerel, Dogfish, Shark (small variety) Demersal fish: Habitat: On/near bottom of sea Examples: Jawfish, Catfish, Goatfish Marine Shrimp Fishing The warm tropical climate, with nutrient-rich saline water along the continental shelf, provides favorable conditions for the rapid growth and development of shrimps. In Bangladesh about 125,000 hectares of coastal area are now under shrimp cultivation. Marine shrimps provide a livelihood to thousands of people, and the country earns about 270 million US dollars a year from shrimp export. Banana shrimps, White shrimps, Green Tiger shrimps, Brown shrimps and Tiger shrimps are of commercial importance. They are caught along the coast of Cox’s Bazar and Khulna, with Tiger shrimps in particular abundance to the southwest of St. Martin's Island. Why has it been difficult to increase the number of fish caught in the marine fishing industry? It has been difficult to increase the number of fish caught in the marine fishing industry in Bangladesh due to the following reasons: 1. Traditional and Inefficient Methods: Marine fishing is still largely traditional, with limited adoption of modern technologies and fishing techniques. 2. Limited Fishing Zones: Most fishing is restricted to coastal and shallow seas, with little access to deep-sea resources. 3. Over-Exploitation: A small number of species are repeatedly targeted, leading to depletion of those fish stocks and unsustainable practices. 4. Lack of Skilled Workforce: Most marine fishermen are unskilled and illiterate (about 80%), limiting the use of modern fishing equipment and methods. 5. Short Fishing Season: The marine fishing season lasts only from October to March. For the rest of the year, the sea conditions are too rough, forcing fishermen to turn to inland fishing. 6. Demographic Pressure: The number of fishermen has more than doubled in two decades due to population pressure and unemployment, spreading limited marine resources thinly. 7. Economic Exploitation: Fishermen often rely on loans from businesses at extremely highinterest rates (over 120% annually), preventing investment in better equipment or techniques. 8. Poor Infrastructure and Support: Inadequate investment in ports, storage, refrigeration, and marketing facilities limits the efficiency and profitability of marine fishing. Drought Drought describes a prolonged period of dry weather and insufficient rainfall. It occurs when evaporation and transpiration exceed precipitation for a while. In Bangladesh, droughts occur mostly in the north-western regions. Rainfall is comparatively less in these regions than in other parts of the country, and so they ar e known as the drought-prone area of the country. Causes Most of the rivers that flow through Bangladesh come from India and Myanmar. Barrages have been constructed upstream to hold the water back during the dry seasons, preventing their flow to the sea through Bangladesh. There is also the withdrawal of water upstream for human use. This not only creates a scarcity of surface water in the north-west and south-west regions of the country, but it also prevents the groundwater level from refilling properly. As an effect, there is an overall reduction in the moisture in a vast region, and this contributes significantly to the drought. Deforestation results in a reduction of the water-holding capacity of the earth and leads to a lack of rainfall, leading to drought. Some of the factors that lead to soil erosion are also major causes for drought in Bangladesh. Effects Lack of water is the main effect of drought, and so all the processes where the supply of water plays an important part are hampered. Bangladesh is a country based on agriculture and when its crops fail it means that the economy is going to suffer greatly. The price of food increases as it becomes scarce. In a vicious cycle this leads to deforestation, which kills trees and plants. Some of the major droughts that have occurred in Bangladesh The 1973 drought was one of the most severe droughts in the country and was responsible for the 1974 famine in northern Bangladesh. The 1975 drought affected 47% of the entire country and 53% of the total population. The 1978-79 drought was one of the most severe. It resulted in a loss of 2 million tons of rice and directly affected 42% of the cultivated land and 44% of the population. Solutions for Drought Water Conservation Rainwater Harvesting Spreading Awareness Planting Trees Forest Natural Resources The people of Bangladesh are dependent on the natural resources of the country. In every aspect of life, we find various uses of these resources. However, many of these resources are non-renewable -- that is, once they are depleted, they are lost to us forever. Thus, it is important that our resources are used carefully and in ways that prolong their availability. This is why we need the sustainable development of resources. Forest The tropical climate and fertile soil provide favorable conditions for the growth of natural vegetation in Bangladesh. Forestry is one of the main, non-renewable resources in Bangladesh, which contributes to the economic and ecological stability. Forests are vital for maintaining the earth's ecological balance. They are essential for the stabilization of the global climate and the management of land and water. Forests shelter innumerable species of organisms, all of which have roles in the ecological system. Forests also provide products for consumption by humans and animals. Many lives are dependent on the availability of this resource, as they provide a valuable source of income. Most of the forest products are used as biomass (organic matter) energy However, today, with the increasing population, the forest resources have shrunk at an alarming rate. They are being removed to make room for homes and crops, and for fuel and industrial products. Thus, forests are a resource that is being constantly depleted. An ecosystem dominated by trees and other woody vegetation growing more and less closely together its related flora and fauna and the values attributed to it. Flora is the plant life occurring in a particular region or time, the naturally occurring or indigenous native plant life. Fauna is all the animal life of any region or time. Types Tropical Wet Evergreen Evergreen plants dominate with rich biodiversity; few semi-evergreen and deciduous species also occur but do not change or alter the evergreen nature of the forests. Semi evergreen and deciduous Hilly areas of Chittagong, hill tracts, Coxe’s bazar SE Moulovibazar NE. Top canopy trees reach height about 45 to 63 meters 700 species Trees-ebony, mahogany, rosewood They have trees that stay green all year and do not shed trees at once Topical semi-evergreen forest Evergreen in character but deciduous plants also dominate. Evergreen and deciduous trees. Hilly areas of Sylhet through Chittagong hill tracts, Coxe’s bazar SE, some part of Dinajpur NW. Over 800 species The top canopy trees are 25 to 57 meters tall. Topical moist deciduous forest Commonly known as sal forest, sal being the dominant species. Dhaka, Mymensingh, Dinajpur, Comilla Tidal forest The most productive forest type in Bangladesh, are situated in Khulna, Patuakhali, Noakhali and Chittagong regions along the coastal region and constitute about 520,000 ha. Khulna, Patuakhali & Chittagong areas. Sundarbans tidal forest (Most productive forest) Evergreen in nature, rise above the ground or water. Forests are flooded by seawater during high tides. Salt tolerant trees-Sundari, Keora, Gewa, etc. Rich in wildlife-Royal Bengal tiger, crocodile, deer, birds, fish. Protect the coast-Helps prevent erosion and protects the land from storms and tidal waves. River meets sea. Tidal forests, like mangroves, protect land from soil erosion and storms by: Roots hold soil – Their thick roots trap and hold the soil together, stopping it from washing away. Block waves – The trees break the force of tidal waves and storm surges, reducing damage. Slow water – They slow down water flow, which helps reduce erosion. So, they act like natural barriers against storms and water. Planted Forest Planted State Forest: Teak (Shagun)-Kaptai in the CHT using seeds from Myanmar in 1871. Planted Private Forest: traditionally homesteads grow trees and many other crops in an effective way. Importance Taking in CO2 and releasing O2 Preventing erosion Harboring a diversity of wildlife Reservoir of watershed Acting as windbreak Providing us with shade Helps happening adequate rainfall Climate stabilization Provides fuel Source of food Rubber products Paper and newsprint Wood-based panel products Uses of forest resources Through the ages, the people of Bangladesh have used the natural resources that they find in the forests. Over time, the needs of the people have changed, and they have found new ways to utilize the resources to satisfy their varying needs. Most of the forest's uses come from the biomass used in it. Sustainable Development Sustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable development means using natural resources in a way that meets our needs without harming the environment or using up resources for future generations. Importance To provide basic human needs A rising population will also use the essentials of life such as food, water, and shelter. The provision of these essentials is based entirely around having an infrastructure that can sustain them for the long term. How to maintain Preventing wastages and excess consumption of resources Preventing pollution Preserving the biological diversity on Earth Recycling reusable resources Examples Planting trees after cutting them down. Using solar or wind energy instead of polluting fuels. Recycling materials like paper, plastic, and glass. Saving water by turning off taps when not in use. Using public transport or bicycles to reduce pollution. Cyclone A cyclone is a tropical storm or atmospheric turbulence involving circular motion of winds. Technically, a cyclone is an area of low pressure where strong winds blow around a center in an anticlockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and a clockwise direction in the Southern Hemisphere. Location Cyclones occurring in the tropical regions are called tropical cyclones. The tropics can be regarded as the region lying between 30°N latitude and 30ºS latitude. Bangladesh is part of the humid tropics, with the Himalayas on the north and the funnel shaped coast touching the Bay of Bengal on the south. The Bay of Bengal is an ideal breeding ground for tropical cyclones. Formation Cyclones develop over the warm oceans when surface temperature is more than 27°C. The air above the sea gets heated, it expands and rises very rapidly. This creates an area of intense low pressure. The warm, moist air rises upwards, condensing to form clouds and rain. Air from the surrounding high-pressure area rushes inward in a spiraling manner to replace the rising warm air. This spinning air absorbs large amounts of moisture forming cumulonimbus clouds which results in heavy rain. The cold air then sinks. The center of the cyclone is calm and is known as the eye Causes Warm ocean water – usually 26°C or more. Moist air – which rises from the ocean surface. Low pressure – formed when warm air rises. Earth’s rotation – which causes the winds to spin (this is called the Coriolis effect). Effects Main effects of tropical cyclones include heavy rainfall with flooding, strong wind, large storm surges near landfall, and tornadoes. They cause a lot of harm to towns and villages, causing severe damage to kuccha houses. Coastal businesses like shipyards and oil wells are destroyed. They harm the ecosystem of the surrounding region. Civic facilities are disturbed. Agricultural land is severely affected, especially in terms of water supply and soil erosion. It causes harm to human, plant, and animal life. Communication systems are severely affected due to cyclones. Precautions Early warning to the people living in the coastal areas through different media. Taking the people living in low lying coastal areas to the cyclone shelters. Storing dry food and essential lifesaving medicines. Creating a belt of forest along the coast. Building high embankment along the coast to stop the storm surge. Cyclones in the Bay of Bengal From 1981 to 1985, 174 severe cyclones (with winds speeds of more than 54 km/hr) formed in the Bay of Bengal. Cyclone cause the maximum damage when they come into Bangladesh. This is because of: o The low flat terrain o High density of population o Poorly built houses. Most of the damage caused by the cyclones occur in the coastal regions of Khulna, Patuakhali, Barisal, Noakhali and Chittagong and the offshore islands of Bhola, Hatiya, Sandwip, Manpura, Kutubdia, Maheshkhali, Nijhum Dwip, Urir Char, and other newly formed islands. Water Consumptive needs are those in which the water is used for drinking or irrigating crops for example o Agriculture o Domestic consumption o Industrial processes Non-consumptive needs are those where water is needed but not consumed. o Fisheries o Salinity control o Navigation o Dilution of pollution o Ecological protection o Wetland preservation Demands of Water The greatest demand for water arises from the agricultural sector (58%). Then comes Navigation (41%) and Domestic and Industrial needs make 1% Water is a very scarce resource in Bangladesh during the dry months of the year (February to April), and the maximum water demand occurs in March. Lack of water in dry season Bangladesh has become increasingly dependent on groundwater sources for irrigation needs. Farmers must use groundwater in the winter to grow Boro rice when there is little rainfall and local water bodies dry up. Trans-boundary flows of rivers are also diminishing at an alarming rate due to increased demands from the countries neighboring Bangladesh. Irrigation Irrigation describes the artificial water supply to agricultural land through dams, channels, or other devices. At present, widespread use of both shallow and deep tube wells for irrigation takes place during the months of November to March. Groundwater- causes of arsenic pollution Both man-made and natural causes have been put forward for the arsenic contamination problems in Bangladesh. Some of these reasons, mostly man-made, are: o use of insecticides and pesticides o o o waste disposal use of arsenic-treated wooden poles for power grids Excessive lifting of groundwater for irrigation has gradually lowered the groundwater level, causing oxygen to move into the space created by the water's withdrawal. Oxygen causes changes in arsenic containing rocks that are present underneath; as a result, inorganic arsenic is released into the water. However, at an international conference in Dhaka in February 1998, it was agreed that the contamination was of a geological origin and not caused by man. Effects Arsenic contamination has become a big public health issue. It causes an illness called arsenicosis. The early manifestations of which are the appearance of dark and white patches on the skin. The skin hardens due to the accumulation of arsenic in the blood. However, a person can exhibit any one of these symptoms as well as all of them. Arsenicosis develops over a period of 5 to 15 years but always takes the form of a progressive and fatal disease. It can also lead to cancer of important organs, like the liver or the kidneys. Solution removal of arsenic in households: various filtration units, along with a passive sedimentation process, are used to filter contaminated water to make it fit for drinking. very shallow tubewells: it has been found that water is arsenic-free at shallow depths so such tubewells can provide arsenic-free water. pond sand filters: a sand filter is constructed near a pond to provide arsenic-free drinking water. rainwater storage: rainwater is considered a good arsenic-free water source and is stored in earthenware or ferro-cement jars to be used later for drinking and other purposes. deep groundwater: water deeper than 150 meters (about 492.13 ft) below the ground is considered mostly arsenic-free and a long-term source of arsenic-free water. treated surface water: surface water is mostly contaminated by bacteria, which can be treated to provide a safe source of drinking water. arsenic removal plant: large-scale removal of arsenic can be made possible by constructing plants in cities where a piped water supply exists.
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