BDS NOTES FINAL TERM 24-25
2c
The establishment and consolidation of Muslim
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In 1204, the first Muslim ruler, Bakhtiyar, a Turk, captured Nadia and established Muslim rule.
After his death, the Sultan of Delhi extended his authority into Bengal.
However, it was a period of instability and there was in-fighting amongst rivals for the Delhi
Sultanate, so the Turkish rulers of Bengal were almost independent.
The spread of Islam in Bengal was also enabled by Muslim saints called Sufis.
Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji and the Turkish conquest
The political influence of Islam began to spread in Bengal with the conquest of Nadia, the capital city of
the Sena ruler Lakshmana, by Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji in 1204 AD.
Muslim rule in northern India
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Bakhtiyar Khalji's arrival in the Bengal frontier was part of the same Turkish advance that saw
the expansion of Islam into India.
Towards the end of the twelfth century, Muhammad Ghuri had captured Delhi and established
Muslim rule in northern India.
He was succeeded by his General, Kutubuddin Aibak.
During the time of Kutubuddin, Bakhtiyar was granted a small territory near Bihar, from where
he started invading surrounding areas.
At one point, he thought of capturing Bengal and in 1204 he attacked the Sena capital, Nadia.
The conquest of Nadia in Bengal- An unusual way of capture
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Bakhtiyar captured Nadia in a unique way. Sensing the presence of a strong army of Lakshmana
Sena on the main route to Nadia, Bakhtiyar proceeded instead through the jungle of Jharkhand.
He divided his army into several groups, and he himself led a group of horsemen and advanced
towards Nadia in the guise of horse-traders. In this manner, Bakhtiyar had no problem in entering
through the gates of the royal palace.
Shortly afterwards, Bakhtiyar's main army also joined him and within a short while Nadia was
captured.
The Sufis and the spread of Islam in Bengal
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Sufis were Muslim saints who were considered to possess the blessing of God and spiritual
power.
Sufis derive their inspiration from Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH) who forms the source of spiritual
knowledge and teachings in Islam.
Sufis led a very simple life and preached Islam through their words and deeds.
When in danger, the Sufi leader (Pir) and his disciples (Murids) took up arms as well.
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Most Sultans of Bengal tried to keep good relations with the Sufis. In Bengal, the Sufis were
numerous, and they played a prominent role in delivering the Islamic message of equality and
social justice and thus drew people of different religions towards Islam.
Sufis arrival in Bengal
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Sufis arrived in Bengal from the Middle East or Central Asia as early as the time of the arrival of
Bakhtiyar Khalji.
One of the earliest and most revered Sufis of Bengal was Shah Jalal (died 1346), who arrived and
settled in Sylhet with his 313 disciples. It is said that his simple life, love of ordinary people of
different religions and castes and his Keramati (power of making miracles) attracted the people of
Sylhet to Islam.
Wider influence of Sufism
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Sufism not only helped the spread of Islam in Bengal, but it also influenced the local religions.
The ideal of Sufism, attaining the love of God through love of His creation, has influenced the
devotional doctrines of Vaishnavism as well as the mysticism of the Bauls.
At times, Sufism in Bengal has been transformed into a folk religion with many of the Sufis being
regarded as saints or folk deities.
During a maritime journey, for example, especially if a storm arises, sailors pray to Pir Badar,
repeating his name, 'Badar Badar.’
The names of different Sufi saints are inscribed on the bodies of buses, trucks, launchers, and
steamers to ensure safe journeys.
3a
Aurangzeb’s succession of power
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Emperor Shah Jahan fell seriously ill at the end of September 1657. This was a signal for a
struggle of succession to break out among his four sons, Dara, Shiko, Suja, Aurangzeb, and
Murad.
Suja had proved himself an efficient administrator as Viceroy of Bengal. Murad, the youngest
son, did not have the qualities needed either. The main contest, therefore, was between Dara, the
eldest son, and Aurangzeb.
Dara fled and Aurangzeb occupied Agra and, as his brother Dara had done, imprisoned his father
in the Agra fort. He also imprisoned his brother Murad.
The armies of Aurangzeb and Suja confronted each other at Khajwa, in modern Uttar Pradesh
(north India). A defeated Suja fled towards Bengal in January 1659.
Aurangzeb sent the Governor of Khandesh, Moazzam Khan alias Mir Jumla in pursuit of Suja.
He then returned to the capital and had Dara imprisoned and beheaded.
In the meantime, Suja took refuge in Tanda near Gaur. Mir Jumla occupied Rajmahal in April
1659 and defeated Suja early in 1660.
Suja fled to Dhaka with his family and finally sought asylum in Arakan. The Arakan ruler had
Suja, and his family members mercilessly killed.
3b
There were many reasons for the decline of the Mughal Empire, beginning with succession disputes and
ending with the arrival of the British, who took advantage of the lack of central control, the discontent and
factionalism. Some of the specific reasons were
Struggle for succession
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After the death of Aurangzeb, a war of succession broke out among his three sons, Muazzam
(Governor of Kabul), Muhammad Azam (Governor of Gujrat) and Muhammad Kam Baksh
(Governor of Bijapur). In his will, Aurangzeb had directed his sons to divide the Empire
peacefully among them. But at his death, there rose a bitter struggle for the throne of Delhi.
A series of such conflicts arising out of battles for succession, resulting in the absence of a longlasting central authority, weakened the Mughal Empire.
Religious Policy
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Aurangzeb was brave and untiring in carrying out his duties. He was also a great soldier and
general, but he failed to be a good ruler because of his religious conservatism.
In 1679, he re-imposed the Jizya on the non-believers. He denounced the idea of joining hands
with the Hindus for the integrity of the Empire. He focused on the Muslims only.
He also banned sati, the Hindu sacrifice of widows.
These and other of his religious policies insulted the non-Muslims and caused discontent and
unrest.
Aurangzeb’s Deccan Policy
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Aurangzeb's determination to crush the Marathas was also responsible for the decline of the
empire.
The emperor went to Deccan to annex Golcunda in 1686 and Bijapur in 1687.
These two states were not only Shia states but also supportive to the Marathas by providing
employment and even military training.
A friendly policy towards these two states could have made them his allies against the Maratha
but Aurangzeb could not see this possibility.
The Mughal Empire, by this time, had become too vast to be controlled efficiently by a
centralized administration, especially Karnataka. Communication and transport were poor and the
frequent Maratha raids made it difficult for the nobles to collect the taxes. This was a serious
setback to the prestige of the Empire.
Aurangzeb's Rajput policy
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Aurangzeb did not attach enough importance to the Rajput alliance. In December 1678, he
introduced a change of policy towards the Rajputs who had contributed much to the growth of the
Mughal Empire in India.
When he annexed Marwar, Aurangzeb's aggressive policy drove the Rajputs to gather forces, and
the Rajput War turned into a national uprising.
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The war continued till Bahadur Shah I, Aurangzeb's son and successor, recognized Ajit Singh as
the Rana of Marwar in 1709.
Maratha Revival
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By 1691, the Marathas (under the Peshwas) had become strong enough to rise in rebellion under
Raja Ram and other Maratha chiefs.
They consolidated their positions in western India, dreaming of a greater Maharashtra Empire.
The Marathas grew into the strongest power in northern India and took up the role of defenders of
Hindustan against foreign invaders like Ahmed Shah Abdali.
The Maratha conquests in the north accelerated the disintegration of the Empire.
The weak nobles and party factions
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The weak characters of the nobility hastened the downfall of the Mughal Empire. The nobility
was only interested in increasing their power and influence. The country was often broken apart
by civil wars due to the quarrelsome nobles.
The nobility was divided into two broad factions:
o The Hindustani or Indo-Muslim party, who were the Afghan nobles, the Sayyids of Barha
and Khan-I-Dawran whose ancestors had come to India from Badakhsha. These Indian
Muslims were mostly aligned with the Hindus.
o The foreign nobles were called Mughals but were divided into two groups. Those who
came from Trans-oxania and other parts of Central Asia were mostly Sunni (The Turrani
Party). The Irani nobles who were from Persia were mostly Shias.
Administrative Weaknesses
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Corrupt Administration
o Corruption spread in the Mughal administration even before Aurangzeb’s death.
o Officials at all levels accepted bribes.
o High taxation ruined the economy and reduced people's interest in production.
o Shah Jahan increased state demands for half of agricultural produce and spent heavily on
buildings, worsening finances.
o Provincial governors ruled tyrannically, and people had no means of seeking justice.
The Mansabdari System
o Mansab referred to a rank and income-based post, requiring officers to supply troops.
o Mansabdars formed the state nobility, directly managed by the emperor.
o The system weakened under inefficient and corrupt rulers.
Condition of the People
o Taxes rose steadily from Akbar’s time, worsening under later rulers.
o Nobles were deprived of land rights, leading them to act cruelly and unlawfully.
o Post-Aurangzeb, peasants suffered severely, often abandoning their lands.
o Discontent among peasants led to uprisings (e.g., by Satnamis, Jats, Sikhs).
o Many peasants turned to banditry, destabilizing law, and order.
The demoralized army
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Mughal army became demoralized due to luxury, wealth, and indulgence.
Failed repeatedly to capture Kandahar.
In 1739, Nader Shah easily plundered Delhi and massacred civilians, shaking faith in
Mughal authority.
Misuse of Revenue
o Nobles used military funds (revenue assignments) for personal gain due to weakened
central control
Lack of Discipline
o Military discipline collapsed; no consistent punishment for treason, cowardice, or
neglect.
o Soldiers trained independently with no standard drills.
Outdated Weapons
o The army relied on old-fashioned artillery and heavy cavalry.
o Accompanied by large, disorganized camps including non-combatants and animals.
o Lagged other armies using muskets; vulnerable to fast, agile forces like the Maratha
cavalry.
Not a National Army
o Army was a mix of different groups fighting in their own ways.
o It became too large and unmanageable as the empire expanded.
o Internal rivalries among commanders undermined military success.
The Persian's invasions of Ahmed Shah Abdali
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The invasions of Ahmed Shah Abdali, the invader from Persia and the son of Nadir Shah,
hastened the downfall of the Mughal Empire. These frequent invasions revealed the weakness of
the Empire and brought chaos and confusion.
The third battle of Panipat in 1761, fought between Ahmed Shah Abdali and the Marathas, ended
in a disastrous defeat for the Marathas. It also weakened the Marathas and the Muslim rulers,
paving the way for the British Rule in India.
The Arrival of British
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The arrival of the British was to prove fatal to the Mughal Empire. Britain was the most
technologically advanced country in the world and the British brought with them weapons far in
advance of those used by the Mughals.
The British also brought a unity and sense of determination which the divided Mughals lacked.
3c
The Impact of the Mughal decline
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Mughal rule in Bengal was at its greatest height during the Viceroyalty of Shaista Khan (16641688).
The end of Shaista Khan’s rule, however, marked the beginning of the end of the Mughals in
Bengal. Several Mughal governors were sent to deal with problems in Bengal, but they could not
stop the overwhelming decline that set in all around.
Regional independence of Bengal under the Nawabs
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The influence of the Diwan, Murshid Quli Khan, began to increase. The Mughal Viceroy was
mostly away from Bengal and in 1707, Aurangzeb died.
The emperor's death was followed by a succession of wars in Delhi. It was not long before the
Diwan, Murshid Quli Khan, took over the powers of both the Diwan and the Nazim (Subhadhar).
Nawabs
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The term ‘Nawabs of Bengal’ refers to the hereditary rulers of Bengal whose only connection
with the Mughal Emperor was to follow his Firman and to pay a tribute to him regularly.
The Nawabs were responsible for their subah (province or provinces).
The Nawabi era in Bengal was started by Murshid Quli Khan.
Nazim and Diwan
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Towards the later part of the Mughal rule in the Indian Subcontinent, the central government
appointed two officers, who enjoyed equal political status but were independent of each other, to
administer a subah.
One of them was the subahdar or nazim (general administrator including justice and defense) and
the other was the diwan (revenue administrator).
Changes in administration, politics, and society
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Since 1705, during the reign of Aurangzeb, Murshid Quli Khan had been a diwan of Bengal.
However, it was only in 1713 that the emperor (Jahandar Shah) appointed Murshid Quli Khan as
the diwan as well as the subahdar of Bengal. From Murshid Quli Khan’s time onwards, the
subahdari was no longer an office under the central government but a hereditary office with a
masnad (throne).
After this, all the successors (Nawabs) to the masnad of Bengal regarded themselves as
independent Nawabs, though they always received the sanad (vice regal patent) from the emperor
on payment.
The decline of the Mughal Empire after the death of Aurangzeb further alienated the provinces
from the central government. Taking advantage of this situation, the Nawabs of Bengal
strengthened their position and continued to rule independently.
Changes in administration, politics, and society
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The emperors had to remain content with gifts and tributes that the Nawabs used to send
regularly.
Even though the Nawabs could not issue a Firman, they could issue parwanas, dastaks etc.
They could even refuse to accept a Firman, as done by Murshid Quli Khan in 1717 when
Emperor Farukh Sheyyar issued a Firman granting special trading privileges to the English
traders in Bengal.
Conspiracy against Siraj-ud-doula
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Siraj-ud-Doula ruled Bengal from April 1756 to June 1757—a little over one year.
His rule was challenged both internally (from family) and externally.
His nomination as Nawab caused jealousy and opposition from:
o Ghaseti Begum (his great-aunt)
o Raja Rajballabh
o Mir Jafar Ali Khan
o Shawkat Jang (his cousin)
Ghaseti Begum had considerable wealth and influence; Siraj confiscated her wealth from
Motijheel Palace and confined her.
Siraj replaced key officials with his own supporters:
o Mir Mardan became Bakshi (army paymaster), replacing Mir Jafar.
o Mohanlal was promoted to peshkar and became influential in administration.
Siraj suppressed Shawkat Jang, who was eventually killed in a conflict.
His accession threatened the dominant elite in Murshidabad who had grown wealthy under
previous Nawabs.
Siraj attempted to empower a new group to weaken the old elite.
He opposed British misuse of dastaks (trade permits) and illegal private trade.
This anti-British stance alarmed the British, especially during a time when their private trade was
already in trouble.
THE GRIEVANCES OF Siraj against the east India company
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Siraj had some genuine grievances against the East India Company:
He accused the company of strengthening the fortification of Fort William in Calcutta without his
permission.
He also accused them of misusing the trade privileges given to them by the Mughals, causing
heavy losses in the province's revenue.
Moreover, under the pretext of trade, they were interfering in the internal politics of the province
since Siraj felt sure that the English were heavily involved in the conspiracy against him.
Conflict with the British
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The British also gave shelter to his officers like Krisnadas, son of Rajballav, who appropriated
government funds.
The British governor, Roger Drake, did not pay the Nawab any nazrana or peshkash as was the
custom of the day.
The British had no intention of showing any respect to the Nawab.
When Nawab expressed a wish to visit their factory in Kasimbazar, Governor Drake insulted the
Nawab’s special envoy.
The very first thing he did was to capture the factory in Kasimbazar, march to Calcutta, drive the
British out and capture the city.
Following these actions of the Nawab, the Treaty of Alinagar was signed between the British and
the Nawab by which Siraj agreed to compensate for the British losses at Calcutta.
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But the British could not forget this incident easily and there were only two courses open to them.
One was to ask the Nawab to forgive them, and the other was to avenge the defeat by force.
The British decided to under the pretext of a peace treaty prepared for war. Siraj was defeated in
the Battle of Palashi.
4a
Timeline showing the main events in the history of the East India Company
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1600 Company formed
1615 Diplomatic agreement between Sir Thomas Roe and Mughal Emperor Jahangir
1633 Foothold in Bengal.
1670 King Charles II granted the company a series of Charters.
1757 Battle of Plassey
1764 Battle of Baxur
1784 India Act: British government takes control
Foundation of the British East India Company
The British East India Company (EIC) was founded in December 1600 as The Governor and Company of
Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies by a group of businessmen, who obtained the Crown's
charter from Queen Elizabeth I for exclusive permission to trade in the East Indies for a period of fifteen
years.
Attention shifts from East Indies to India
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The Company initially had 125 shareholders, and a capital of £72,000. At first it made little
impression on the Dutch control of the spice trade and could not establish a lasting outpost in the
East Indies (modern-day Indonesia and Malaysia).
Eventually, ships belonging to the EIC arrived in India, docking at Surat, which was established
as a trade transit point in 1608.
Establishment of the first factory in India
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By 1610, the company built its first factory in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel
Coast in the Bay of Bengal. The high profits (some as high as 200%) reported by the Company
after landing in India, initially prompted King James I to grant subsidiary licenses to other trading
companies in Britain, such as the Scottish East India Company.
In 1609, he renewed the charter given to the Company for an indefinite period but warned that
poor profits would lead to the cancellation of the charter.
Agreements with Mughal Emperor Jahangir
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The company asked the British government to open diplomatic relations with the Mughal Empire
to have an ally against the Dutch. In 1615, James I sent Sir Thomas Roe to the court of the
Mughal Emperor, Jahangir, and he gained for the British the right to establish a factory at Surat.
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In return, the Company offered to provide European goods to the Imperial Court. Gradually the
EIC flourished under the good graces of the Mughal Empire, trading in silk, indigo, cotton and
saltpeter.
Trade in Bengal
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In 1633, the East India Company set foot in Bengal by establishing a factory at Hariharpur on the
Mahanadi delta. On 2 February, the English obtained a Firman from Emperor Shajahan
permitting them to pursue trade and commerce in Bengal.
The most important privilege was obtained from the Bengal governor, Shah Suja, who permitted
the English to carry out trade in Bengal without any customs duties, in lieu of an annual lump
sum of just Rs. 3000.
In 1668, a new factory was opened at Dhaka, the capital of Bengal. The founding of Calcutta by
Job Charnock in 1690 completed the process of factory settlement and began the process of
establishing political dominance by the company in Bengal. They also built a fort around Kolkata
known as Fort William.
Rule by the East Indian Company in Bengal
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After the battle of Palashi, the EIC ruled Bengal through a series of puppet rulers, such as MirJafar.
The Diwani Treaty, negotiated by Clive in 1765, allowed the region to be governed by
collaborators including Mir-Jafar and Mir-Kaseem in return for surplus revenues channeled to the
company.
The company made huge profits by operating a monopoly on trade, and company merchants
became accustomed to receiving personal ‘gifts’ which increased their wealth.
Events leading up to British annexation of the sub-continent and Reasons of Conflict between the
Nawab and the British
Struggles with France
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The Seven Years’ War (1756) brought British and French forces into conflict in India.
French commander Dupleix initially won key victories.
British fortunes reversed under Robert Clive.
Treaty of Paris (1763) limited French presence to small territories (Pondicherry, Mahe,
Chandernagar).
Collapse of the Mughal Empire
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The weakening of the Mughal Empire led to the rise of independent states (Marathas, Sikhs,
Nizam of Hyderabad).
These rival states created instability but also gave the British opportunities for territorial
expansion.
Internal Divisions in Bengal
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Nawab Siraj-ud-doula of Bengal, who supported the French, faced internal opposition from
relatives and officials.
The British exploited these divisions to weaken the Nawab.
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Conflict Between Nawab and the Britis
Trade disputes: The British abused trade
privileges, angering Siraj-ud-doula.
Unauthorized fortification: The British and French fortified settlements without the Nawab’s
permission. While the French complied with the Nawab’s orders to stop, the British refused.
Diplomatic insults: The British sheltered Krishnadas (one of the Nawab’s officers) and insulted
the Nawab’s envoy to Fort William.
British Retaliation and Battle of Plassey
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Siraj-ud-doula attacked and captured Calcutta, renaming it Alinagar.
British reinforcements under Robert Clive recaptured Calcutta (2 January 1757) and attacked
Hooghly.
Clive made a secret pact with factions in Murshidabad, especially Mir Jafar, promising to make
him the next Nawab.
British forces defeated Siraj-ud-doula at the Battle of Plassey on 23 June 1757, marking a key
step in British control of Bengal.
Battle of Palashi
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The battle began around 8 AM.
Loyal commanders like Mir Mardan, Mohanlal, Khwaja Abdul Hadi Khan, and Naba Singh
Hazari resisted the British.
Mir Jafar, Yar Latif, and Ray Durlabh avoided serious fighting, betraying Siraj-ud-doula.
At one point, Clive considered retreating due to unexpected resistance.
Around 3 PM, Mir Mardan was killed by a cannonball, weakening the Nawab’s forces.
Siraj sought advice from Mir Jafar, who deceived him by suggesting a pause in fighting, but also
informed Clive.
Clive used the opportunity to launch a final assault, leading to the Nawab’s defeat by 5 PM.
Clive then advanced towards Murshidabad, Siraj-ud-doula’s capital.
Siraj tried to resist with French support and loyalists but failed.
He was captured, brutally murdered, and his body was found in a river.
His death marked the end of independent rule in Bengal and the start of British dominance.
Battle of Buxar
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The Battle of Buxar, fought on October 22, 1764, was between the combined army of Mir Qasim,
the Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and the East India Company, it was commanded by Major
Hector Munro. His army consisted of provincial soldiers from Oudh.
This battle has been seen as an important moment in Indian history as it ushered in an era of
direct colonization by European under British Raj.
All three provinces were taken over by Britain via treaty after this battle.
Battle of Plassey and Battle of Buxar: Differences
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The Battle of Plassey was fought between the East India Company and the Mughal Army. The
Battle of Buxar was fought between East India Company’s army and the Nawab Mir Kasim. The
two battles are said to be “incidental allies.”
Battle of Plassey was fought at the close of a long period of Mughal weakening and decay in
Bengal. The battle took place in 1757, When the Mughal empire had been weakened by a series
of unsuccessful battles in 1756 and 1757.
The Battle of Buxar was fought in 1764, during the decline of the Mughal Empire. Mir Kasim
had made a treaty with the British in 1765. and Both the Parties agreed to protect each other’s
commercial interests and to make no alliances against each other.
At time of Battle of Plassey, Bengal was said to be n “eternal” part of the Mughal Empire. The
Nawab Mir Kasim had promise protection to British merchants under a treaty. In contrast, at the
time of Buxar, there was no treaty between the British East India Company and Nawab Mir
Kasim.
The roles of diwans and nawabs in Bengal
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Diwani provincial revenue administration system under the Mughals and an early mechanism of
the establishment of Company rule in Bengal. The Mughal provincial administration had ad two
main branches-nizamat and diwani. The provincial Subahdar was in charge of nizamat (he was
also called nazim) and the diwan was in charge of revenue administration.
The Mughal emperor used to appoint these two key officers directly. They were normally
appointed by, and responsible to, the emperor. But the separation of power between the nazim
and the diwan for the sake of checks and balanced disappeared during the nawabi period when the
autonomous nawabs ruled the subah without any power sharing with the diwan.
Nawabs of Bengal
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In the early 18th century, the Nawab of Bengal was the independent ruler of the three regions of
Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
The Nawabs were based in Murshidabad which was centrally located within Bengal, Bihar, and
Orissa. Their chief, the former prime minister, became the first Nawab.
The Nawab continued to issue coins in the name of the Mughal Emperor, but the Nawab
governed as independent monarchs.
The Nawabs, backed by the bankers became the financial backbone of the Mughal court. They
were the wealthiest rulers in the world.
The Nawabs, especially Nawab Alivardi Khan, were heavily engaged in various wars against
Marathas. Towards the end of his 16 years rule, he turned his attention to rebuilding and restoring
Bengal.
The Nawabs of Bengal oversaw a period of industrialization. The Bengal-Bihar-Orissa triangle
was a major production center for cotton muslin cloth, Silk cloth, shipbuilding, gunpowder,
saltpetre and metalwork.
Factories were set up in Murshidabad, Dhaka, Chittagong, Rajshahi, Cossimbazar and Hugli
among other cities, towns, and ports.
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The Region became a base for the East India Company of the British, the French, the Danish, the
Australian and the Dutch.
The British company eventually rivaled the authority of the Nawabs. Robert Clive defeated the
last independent Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah in the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Mir Jafar was installed
as a puppet Nawab.
His successor Mir Qasim attempted in vain to remove British. The defeat of Mir Qasim of
Bengal, Nawab Siraj-ud-Doula of Oudh and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II paved the way for
British Expansion across India.
The Nawabs had lost all independent authority since 1757.
The Nawab profited from the revenue generated by the worldwide demand of Muslin trade in
Bengal, which was centered in Dhaka and Sonargaon.
Murshidabad was the major center of muslin production, centered in Dhaka and Sonargaon.
Shipbuilding in Chittagong enjoyed Ottoman and European demand.
Bengal attracted traders across Eurasia.
The second Nawab Shuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan developed Murshidabad’s royal palace,
military base, city gates, revenue office, public audience hall (durbar), and mosques in an
extensive compound called Farrabagh (Garden of Joy) which includes canals, fountains, flowers,
and fruit trees.
The second Nawab’s reign saw a period of economic and political consolidation.
Bengali cities were full of bankers, workers, peons, naibs, wakils, and ordinary traders.
The Nawabs were patrons of the arts, including the Murshidabad style of Mughal painting,
Hindustani classical music, the Baul tradition and local craftsmanship.
The third Nawab Sarfaraz khan was preoccupied with military engagements, including Nader
Shah’s invasion of India. He was Killed in a Battle of Giria by his deputy Alivardi Khan.
After becoming Nawab, Alivardi Khan endured brutal raids by the Maratha Empire and signed
peace with Marathas. The Marathas demanded an annual tribute payment. The Marathas also
promised never to cross the boundary of the Nawab’s territory. European trading companies also
grew more influential in Bengal.
His successor, Nawab Siraj-ud-Doula grew increasingly wary of the British presence in Bengal.
The battle of Plassey ended for the Nawabs of Bengal.
Dual Administration
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The revenue administration of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa was acquired in 1765. From 1765 to
1772, the company shared revenues from Bengal but took no responsibility in administering it.
This system came to be known as ‘dual administration.’
The Period of Dual administration was characterized by:
o Rampant corruption among the servants of the Company, who made full use of private
trading to enrich themselves.
o Excessive revenue collection and oppression of peasantry.
o The company went into loss where the servants were flourishing.
o The dual government in Bengal failed miserably. It destroyed the trade, industry, and
agriculture of Bengal.
Impact of the dual administration: Economic and Social
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First, owing to this system of administration, law and order virtually broke down. The
company’s officials developed the habit of disowning all responsibilities for anything that
happened afterwards.
Second, the dual system almost crippled the judicial system. The Nawabs were
powerless, and the company officials were irresponsible. Thieves’ dacoits and robbers
held away.
Third, this added to the woes of the farmers. The fertile land of Bengal turned barren and
at places was deserted. Revenue collection becomes arbitrary and the work of collection
of land tax was assigned to the highest bidder.
Fourth, this system adversely affected trade and commerce. The company held a
monopoly over trade. The company officials carried out their own personal trade and
made massive amounts of money causing a lot of damage to the Indian trade. This
enriched the individual officials but impoverished the company.
Fifth, it had a negative impact on the trade and industry of Bengal. The silk industry of
Bengal was severely affected. Now instead of taking silk cloth the British preferred raw
silk. Many Indian weavers were ruined, and they were made to undergo physical torture.
Sixth, when the devastating famine of Bengal occurred in 1770, the Government did not
offer any help. Therefore, one-third of the population of Bengal was wiped out due to
hunger and diseases.
Seventh, now the enormous flow of Indian money towards England begun by an
estimate, an amount of 59 lakh pounds were drained by the company from Bengal within
4 years of Diwani. This viscous circle was such that it continued until the British left
India.
British government takes direct control
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in 1784, the British government passed the India Act and took direct control of the Indian
possessions.
It appointed a Governor-General, who would have control of the three presidencies. There would
also be provincial governors and a Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces.
The EIC continued to trade but lost most of its administrative powers.
Robert Clive’s opponents in Britain carried out an investigation into his behavior in India. He was
accused at the charge of ‘plundering India,’
The disgrace, coupled with his addiction to opium, caused him to take his own life in 1773.
The Indian subcontinent under direct rule from Britain
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Period of direct British rule over the Indian subcontinent from 1858 until the independence of
India and Pakistan in 1947.
The British raj succeeded the management of the subcontinent by the British East India
Company, after general distrust and dissatisfaction with company leadership resultant in a
widespread mutiny of sepoy troops in 1857, causing the British to reconsider the structure of the
governance in India.
The British government took possession of the company’s assets and imposed direct rule.
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The Raj was intended to increase Indian participation in governance, but the powerlessness of
Indians to determine their own future without the consent of the British led to an increasingly
adamant national independence movement.
Life, Work and Culture like in Bengal 1204 -1784
Organs of government (BD Administration)
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Executive
Legislature
Judiciary
Divisional level- Divisional Commissioner
District level- Deputy Commissioner (DC)
Upazila level- UNO
Union
The Organization of society in Sultanate Period
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The Delhi Sultanate society was broadly divided into four major groups: Nobles (Aristocrats),
Priests, Town people and Peasants.
Nobles includes Sultan and his relatives, courtiers, and holders of Iqta, Hindu and Muslim
chieftains, merchants, and Bankers.
All the wealth and power were concentrated in his group. They lived in luxury and style.
Priests included Brahmins and Ulemas and were given tax free land grants. Also, rich, and
powerful.
Influences of Ulema was so much that often influenced the policies of the Sultans.
Town people included wealthy merchants, traders, and artisans. Colonies for artisans, Sufi saints.
Towns gradually became the centers of administration and military. International trade was
flourishing.
Peasants Lived in village, paid taxes to state as land revenue. Hindus and Muslims influenced
each other customs and traditions and a composite culture of India was born.
The Organization of society in Mughal Period
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The Mughal society was like a pyramid on the top of which was the emperor and the nobility,
followed by the middle class (imams, Muslims with their own order and brahims, hindus with
their own order) and the last was the poor class(adivarsi).
The society in the Mughal time was organized on a feudal basis and head of the social system was
the emperor.
He enjoyed an unparalleled status and was the ultimate authority in everything.
Next in rank were the nobility (Iranian nobles) along with the zamindars (Baro Bhuiyans). They
monopolized most of the jobs and socially and economically formed a privileged class.
It was also the most beneficiary class of the state who enjoyed privileges and led extravagant life.
The middle class consisted of professionals, traders, and merchants. They were the skillful class
which led a successful if not luxurious life.
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The lowest and the most deprived class of the social pyramid was the poor class. They were
socially marginalized and had very scarce facility of life.
The Mughals also kept slaves taken from the locals or brought from the slave traders.
Early customs: religion and food, Dress, and the role of women
Sultanate Period
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Religion: By early sultanate era, Hinduism was India’s main religion. It had degenerated to a
great extent due to superstitions, rituals, sacrifices and Brahmanic dominance.
On the other hand, Islam talked about equality, brotherhood, and monotheism. Turk Muslims
were large in number and more influential as they enjoyed the confidence of the rulers. Ulema,
being the second most important class of society, their influence on the state and interference in
political and administration were proved injurious.
Third class of the Muslim society was slave who had acquired important position during slave
dynasty and later during Firoz Tughlaq. Lowest class of the Muslims were Indian Muslims. They
were converters.
Mughal Period
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Religion: Ruling class was Muslim although most of the subject were Hindu.
Akbar promoted the new religion Din-I-Ilahi. During Akbar’s reign religious policies were
formulated and later Mughals followed him.
But violation of this policy remains unrated and leading to the downfall of the theory during the
reign of Aurangzeb.
Akbar was the emperor with most tolerance for Hindus and abolished all types of discriminatory
taxes on Hindus and included non-Muslims in his advisory group.
The growing concern for revival of Islam was witnessed in the Emperor Shahjahan’s preference
of the showing the Islam as a dominant religion, which led to establishment of some grand
mosques. Example: Jama Masjid in Delhi and Taj mahal at Agra.
Mughal Emperors also tried to convert Hindus by getting married off to Hindus by Muslims.
Aurangzeb demolished the religious tolerance policy. He did not allow Hindu community to live
under their own laws and customs but imposed Sharia law over the whole Empire.
Status of Women
Sultanate Period
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In general, status women deteriorated in the society, and they suffered from many social evils.
Normally, monogamy was in practice but among the rich, polygamy was prevalent. The nobles
and rich Muslims kept several wives. The birth of a girl child was a disgrace for the father.
‘Sati’ practice among Hindu continued and widow re-marriage was rare. In the age of violence,
women were liable to be treated as prizes of war. It became the symbol of high-class society.
Very little attention paid to the education of women.
‘Purdah’ system among Muslim women were strictly observed and became a fear for Hindu
women.
Mughal Period
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Mughal Women had access to education and were encouraged to learn. They also had their own
and inherited property.
They could also participate in trade and commerce. Men in the government always relied on their
wives for political advice.
Many rich and aristocratic women learn to read and write, they worked sometimes and received
salaries and was allowed to own land.
They had the right to choose their own spouses and were given the option of divorce. Child
marriage and polygamy were common. Purdah was strictly enforced for the upper class.
Food
Sultanate Period
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In general, Hindus were vegetarian and Muslims were non-vegetarian.
Among Muslims, ‘Sufis’ and people under their influence avoided meat-eating. The Quran
prohibits the use of liquor. Yet it was consumed by the wealthy class.
Mughal Period
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Rulers worked to spread Muslim culture through India
They invited scholars and artists from rest of the Muslim world to introduce new culture by
blending Muslim, Indian elements.
They introduced new Arabic style of foods which later blended with Indian tradition like Biryani,
Kabab, dry fruits. These were authentic Mughal dishes.
Fish
Types of Fisheries
 Inland Fishing: Accounts for approximately 70% of total fish production.
 Marine Fishing: Contributes about 30%.
 Brackish Water: Found between freshwater and seawater regions, often used for aquaculture.
Inland Fishing
Locations
 There were rivers, ponds, lakes, and closed water bodies.
 Contributes around 30% to total fish production.
Fishing Methods
 Rafts: Local names include bhela, bhera, chali, bhura.
 Traditional methods: Bare hands or crude tools like ek kata, tekata, anchra, koch.
 Other techniques: Line fishing, bamboo traps (chai, bega, chandi bair), and various types of nets.
Common Inland Fish Species
 Silver Carp, Grass Carp, Common Carp, Tilapia, Catfish, Thai Pangas, Sor Puti.
 267 species exist, with a few being commercially viable.
Polyculture
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Cultivation of more than one compatible aquatic species together, such as fish and aquatic
plants or rice.
 Example: Integrated rice-fish farming.
Aquaculture in Bangladesh
Key Regions
 Southwestern tidal areas: Bagerhat, Khulna, Satkhira.
 Mangrove areas: Chakoria, Teknaf.
 Chittagong: Seasonal alternation of shrimp and salt production.
Method: Bheri/Gher Culture
 In high salinity areas, marine shrimp and finfish are cultivated.
 In lower salinity, the same area is used for paddy cultivation.
Importance
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Ensures greater availability and affordability of fish.
Improves national protein intake.
Generates employment and increases exports (shrimp exports earn around $270 million
annually).
 Environmentally sustainable and compatible with agriculture.
Scope for Expansion
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Use of unused water bodies such as derelict ponds, roadside ditches, and seasonal floodplains.
Improvement of breeding techniques and adoption of genetically enhanced fish species.
Development of low-cost, nutritious fish feed.
Innovation in aquaculture practices and integrated farming systems.
Marine Fishing (Geographic scope)
 Bangladesh has a 480 km (about 298.26 mi) coastline along the Bay of Bengal.
 Territorial waters extend up to 20 nautical miles.
 Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) spans up to 200 nautical miles.
Reasons for large numbers of fish in the Bay of Bengal
 Due to the absence of ocean current in the Bay of Bengal, there is no nutrient recycling process.
 The mixing of fresh and marine waters creates one of the world's biggest brackish-water zones,
huge mass of organic and inorganic nutrients, is added to the Bay of Bengal annually by the
combined flow of the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the Meghna which produces an environment
for the fish to thrive.
Main fishing methods (Marine)
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There are three types of fishing craft made traditionally in Bangladesh:
o Balams for marine water, dinghies and chandies for brackish waters.
For fishing in the open seas, fishing vessels (such as side trawlers, stern trawlers, beam trawlers,
wet fish trawlers and freezer trawlers) with powerful engines are constructed, equipped with
machinery for bringing in large catches.
Types of marine fish caught
Although the Bay of Bengal has about 442 species of marine fish, only about 20 species are harvested
commercially. Some 24 species of shark are found in the marine waters of Bangladesh.
Pelagic fish:
 Habitat: Upper zone of sea
 Examples: Mackerel, Dogfish, Shark (small variety)
Demersal fish:
 Habitat: On/near bottom of sea
 Examples: Jawfish, Catfish, Goatfish
Marine Shrimp Fishing
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The warm tropical climate, with nutrient-rich saline water along the continental shelf, provides
favorable conditions for the rapid growth and development of shrimps.
 In Bangladesh about 125,000 hectares of coastal area are now under shrimp cultivation. Marine
shrimps provide a livelihood to thousands of people, and the country earns about 270 million US
dollars a year from shrimp export.
 Banana shrimps, White shrimps, Green Tiger shrimps, Brown shrimps and Tiger shrimps are of
commercial importance. They are caught along the coast of Cox’s Bazar and Khulna, with Tiger
shrimps in particular abundance to the southwest of St. Martin's Island.
Why has it been difficult to increase the number of fish caught in the marine fishing industry?
It has been difficult to increase the number of fish caught in the marine fishing industry in Bangladesh
due to the following reasons:
1. Traditional and Inefficient Methods: Marine fishing is still largely traditional, with limited
adoption of modern technologies and fishing techniques.
2. Limited Fishing Zones: Most fishing is restricted to coastal and shallow seas, with little access to
deep-sea resources.
3. Over-Exploitation: A small number of species are repeatedly targeted, leading to depletion of
those fish stocks and unsustainable practices.
4. Lack of Skilled Workforce: Most marine fishermen are unskilled and illiterate (about 80%),
limiting the use of modern fishing equipment and methods.
5. Short Fishing Season: The marine fishing season lasts only from October to March. For the rest
of the year, the sea conditions are too rough, forcing fishermen to turn to inland fishing.
6. Demographic Pressure: The number of fishermen has more than doubled in two decades due to
population pressure and unemployment, spreading limited marine resources thinly.
7. Economic Exploitation: Fishermen often rely on loans from businesses at extremely highinterest rates (over 120% annually), preventing investment in better equipment or techniques.
8. Poor Infrastructure and Support: Inadequate investment in ports, storage, refrigeration, and
marketing facilities limits the efficiency and profitability of marine fishing.
Drought
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Drought describes a prolonged period of dry weather and insufficient rainfall. It occurs when
evaporation and transpiration exceed precipitation for a while.
In Bangladesh, droughts occur mostly in the north-western regions. Rainfall is comparatively less
in these regions than in other parts of the country, and so they ar e known as the drought-prone
area of the country.
Causes
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Most of the rivers that flow through Bangladesh come from India and Myanmar. Barrages have
been constructed upstream to hold the water back during the dry seasons, preventing their flow to
the sea through Bangladesh.
There is also the withdrawal of water upstream for human use. This not only creates a scarcity of
surface water in the north-west and south-west regions of the country, but it also prevents the
groundwater level from refilling properly. As an effect, there is an overall reduction in the
moisture in a vast region, and this contributes significantly to the drought.
Deforestation results in a reduction of the water-holding capacity of the earth and leads to a lack
of rainfall, leading to drought.
Some of the factors that lead to soil erosion are also major causes for drought in Bangladesh.
Effects
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Lack of water is the main effect of drought, and so all the processes where the supply of water
plays an important part are hampered.
Bangladesh is a country based on agriculture and when its crops fail it means that the economy is
going to suffer greatly.
The price of food increases as it becomes scarce. In a vicious cycle this leads to deforestation,
which kills trees and plants.
Some of the major droughts that have occurred in Bangladesh
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The 1973 drought was one of the most severe droughts in the country and was responsible for the
1974 famine in northern Bangladesh.
The 1975 drought affected 47% of the entire country and 53% of the total population.
The 1978-79 drought was one of the most severe. It resulted in a loss of 2 million tons of rice and
directly affected 42% of the cultivated land and 44% of the population.
Solutions for Drought
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Water Conservation
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Rainwater Harvesting
Spreading Awareness
Planting Trees
Forest
Natural Resources
The people of Bangladesh are dependent on the natural resources of the country. In every aspect of life,
we find various uses of these resources. However, many of these resources are non-renewable -- that is,
once they are depleted, they are lost to us forever. Thus, it is important that our resources are used
carefully and in ways that prolong their availability. This is why we need the sustainable development of
resources.
Forest
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The tropical climate and fertile soil provide favorable conditions for the growth of natural
vegetation in Bangladesh. Forestry is one of the main, non-renewable resources in Bangladesh,
which contributes to the economic and ecological stability.
Forests are vital for maintaining the earth's ecological balance. They are essential for the
stabilization of the global climate and the management of land and water. Forests shelter
innumerable species of organisms, all of which have roles in the ecological system.
Forests also provide products for consumption by humans and animals. Many lives are dependent
on the availability of this resource, as they provide a valuable source of income. Most of the
forest products are used as biomass (organic matter) energy
However, today, with the increasing population, the forest resources have shrunk at an alarming
rate. They are being removed to make room for homes and crops, and for fuel and industrial
products. Thus, forests are a resource that is being constantly depleted.
An ecosystem dominated by trees and other woody vegetation growing more and less closely
together its related flora and fauna and the values attributed to it.
Flora is the plant life occurring in a particular region or time, the naturally occurring or
indigenous native plant life.
Fauna is all the animal life of any region or time.
Types
Tropical Wet Evergreen
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Evergreen plants dominate with rich biodiversity; few semi-evergreen and deciduous species also
occur but do not change or alter the evergreen nature of the forests.
Semi evergreen and deciduous
Hilly areas of Chittagong, hill tracts, Coxe’s bazar SE Moulovibazar NE.
Top canopy trees reach height about 45 to 63 meters
700 species
Trees-ebony, mahogany, rosewood
They have trees that stay green all year and do not shed trees at once
Topical semi-evergreen forest
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Evergreen in character but deciduous plants also dominate.
Evergreen and deciduous trees.
Hilly areas of Sylhet through Chittagong hill tracts, Coxe’s bazar SE, some part of Dinajpur NW.
Over 800 species
The top canopy trees are 25 to 57 meters tall.
Topical moist deciduous forest
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Commonly known as sal forest, sal being the dominant species.
Dhaka, Mymensingh, Dinajpur, Comilla
Tidal forest
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The most productive forest type in Bangladesh, are situated in Khulna, Patuakhali, Noakhali and
Chittagong regions along the coastal region and constitute about 520,000 ha.
Khulna, Patuakhali & Chittagong areas.
Sundarbans tidal forest (Most productive forest)
Evergreen in nature, rise above the ground or water.
Forests are flooded by seawater during high tides.
Salt tolerant trees-Sundari, Keora, Gewa, etc.
Rich in wildlife-Royal Bengal tiger, crocodile, deer, birds, fish.
Protect the coast-Helps prevent erosion and protects the land from storms and tidal waves.
River meets sea.
Tidal forests, like mangroves, protect land from soil erosion and storms by:
Roots hold soil – Their thick roots trap and hold the soil together, stopping it from washing away.
Block waves – The trees break the force of tidal waves and storm surges, reducing damage.
Slow water – They slow down water flow, which helps reduce erosion.
So, they act like natural barriers against storms and water.
Planted Forest
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Planted State Forest: Teak (Shagun)-Kaptai in the CHT using seeds from Myanmar in 1871.
Planted Private Forest: traditionally homesteads grow trees and many other crops in an effective
way.
Importance
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Taking in CO2 and releasing O2 Preventing erosion
Harboring a diversity of wildlife
Reservoir of watershed
Acting as windbreak
Providing us with shade
Helps happening adequate rainfall
Climate stabilization
Provides fuel
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Source of food
Rubber products Paper and newsprint
Wood-based panel products
Uses of forest resources
Through the ages, the people of Bangladesh have used the natural resources that they find in the forests.
Over time, the needs of the people have changed, and they have found new ways to utilize the resources
to satisfy their varying needs. Most of the forest's uses come from the biomass used in it.
Sustainable Development
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Sustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Sustainable development means using natural resources in a way that meets our needs without
harming the environment or using up resources for future generations.
Importance
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To provide basic human needs
A rising population will also use the essentials of life such as food, water, and shelter. The
provision of these essentials is based entirely around having an infrastructure that can sustain
them for the long term.
How to maintain
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Preventing wastages and excess consumption of resources
Preventing pollution
Preserving the biological diversity on Earth
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Recycling reusable resources
Examples
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Planting trees after cutting them down.
Using solar or wind energy instead of polluting fuels.
Recycling materials like paper, plastic, and glass.
Saving water by turning off taps when not in use.
Using public transport or bicycles to reduce pollution.
Cyclone
A cyclone is a tropical storm or atmospheric turbulence involving circular motion of winds. Technically,
a cyclone is an area of low pressure where strong winds blow around a center in an anticlockwise
direction in the Northern Hemisphere and a clockwise direction in the Southern Hemisphere.
Location
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Cyclones occurring in the tropical regions are called tropical cyclones. The tropics can be
regarded as the region lying between 30°N latitude and 30ºS latitude.
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Bangladesh is part of the humid tropics, with the Himalayas on the north and the funnel shaped
coast touching the Bay of Bengal on the south. The Bay of Bengal is an ideal breeding ground for
tropical cyclones.
Formation
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Cyclones develop over the warm oceans when surface temperature is more than 27°C.
The air above the sea gets heated, it expands and rises very rapidly. This creates an area of intense
low pressure.
The warm, moist air rises upwards, condensing to form clouds and rain. Air from the surrounding
high-pressure area rushes inward in a spiraling manner to replace the rising warm air.
This spinning air absorbs large amounts of moisture forming cumulonimbus clouds which results
in heavy rain.
The cold air then sinks. The center of the cyclone is calm and is known as the eye
Causes
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Warm ocean water – usually 26°C or more.
Moist air – which rises from the ocean surface.
Low pressure – formed when warm air rises.
Earth’s rotation – which causes the winds to spin (this is called the Coriolis effect).
Effects
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Main effects of tropical cyclones include heavy rainfall with flooding, strong wind, large storm
surges near landfall, and tornadoes.
They cause a lot of harm to towns and villages, causing severe damage to kuccha houses.
Coastal businesses like shipyards and oil wells are destroyed.
They harm the ecosystem of the surrounding region.
Civic facilities are disturbed.
Agricultural land is severely affected, especially in terms of water supply and soil erosion.
It causes harm to human, plant, and animal life.
Communication systems are severely affected due to cyclones.
Precautions
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Early warning to the people living in the coastal areas through different media.
Taking the people living in low lying coastal areas to the cyclone shelters.
Storing dry food and essential lifesaving medicines.
Creating a belt of forest along the coast.
Building high embankment along the coast to stop the storm surge.
Cyclones in the Bay of Bengal
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From 1981 to 1985, 174 severe cyclones (with winds speeds of more than 54 km/hr) formed in
the Bay of Bengal. Cyclone cause the maximum damage when they come into Bangladesh.
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This is because of:
o The low flat terrain
o High density of population
o Poorly built houses.
Most of the damage caused by the cyclones occur in the coastal regions of Khulna, Patuakhali,
Barisal, Noakhali and Chittagong and the offshore islands of Bhola, Hatiya, Sandwip, Manpura,
Kutubdia, Maheshkhali, Nijhum Dwip, Urir Char, and other newly formed islands.
Water
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Consumptive needs are those in which the water is used for drinking or irrigating crops for
example
o Agriculture
o Domestic consumption
o Industrial processes
 Non-consumptive needs are those where water is needed but not consumed.
o Fisheries
o Salinity control
o Navigation
o Dilution of pollution
o Ecological protection
o Wetland preservation
Demands of Water
 The greatest demand for water arises from the agricultural sector (58%). Then comes Navigation
(41%) and Domestic and Industrial needs make 1%
 Water is a very scarce resource in Bangladesh during the dry months of the year (February to
April), and the maximum water demand occurs in March.
Lack of water in dry season
 Bangladesh has become increasingly dependent on groundwater sources for irrigation needs.
 Farmers must use groundwater in the winter to grow Boro rice when there is little rainfall and
local water bodies dry up.
 Trans-boundary flows of rivers are also diminishing at an alarming rate due to increased demands
from the countries neighboring Bangladesh.
Irrigation
Irrigation describes the artificial water supply to agricultural land through dams, channels, or other
devices. At present, widespread use of both shallow and deep tube wells for irrigation takes place during
the months of November to March.
Groundwater- causes of arsenic pollution
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Both man-made and natural causes have been put forward for the arsenic contamination
problems in Bangladesh. Some of these reasons, mostly man-made, are:
o use of insecticides and pesticides
o
o
o
waste disposal
use of arsenic-treated wooden poles for power grids
Excessive lifting of groundwater for irrigation has gradually lowered the groundwater
level, causing oxygen to move into the space created by the water's withdrawal. Oxygen
causes changes in arsenic containing rocks that are present underneath; as a result,
inorganic arsenic is released into the water. However, at an international conference in
Dhaka in February 1998, it was agreed that the contamination was of a geological origin
and not caused by man.
Effects
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Arsenic contamination has become a big public health issue. It causes an illness called
arsenicosis.
The early manifestations of which are the appearance of dark and white patches on the skin. The
skin hardens due to the accumulation of arsenic in the blood. However, a person can exhibit any
one of these symptoms as well as all of them.
Arsenicosis develops over a period of 5 to 15 years but always takes the form of a progressive
and fatal disease. It can also lead to cancer of important organs, like the liver or the kidneys.
Solution
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removal of arsenic in households: various filtration units, along with a passive sedimentation
process, are used to filter contaminated water to make it fit for drinking.
very shallow tubewells: it has been found that water is arsenic-free at shallow depths so such
tubewells can provide arsenic-free water.
pond sand filters: a sand filter is constructed near a pond to provide arsenic-free drinking water.
rainwater storage: rainwater is considered a good arsenic-free water source and is stored in
earthenware or ferro-cement jars to be used later for drinking and other purposes.
deep groundwater: water deeper than 150 meters (about 492.13 ft) below the ground is considered
mostly arsenic-free and a long-term source of arsenic-free water.
treated surface water: surface water is mostly contaminated by bacteria, which can be treated to
provide a safe source of drinking water.
arsenic removal plant: large-scale removal of arsenic can be made possible by constructing plants
in cities where a piped water supply exists.