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Edexcel GCSE (9–1) Psychology Notes
Early Brain Development
The brain and its connections are very complex.
While not everything is known, there is some understanding of how the brain
develops.
Development of the Midbrain, Forebrain, and Hindbrain
Around 3 to 4 weeks in a fetus, a long tube develops in the brain, divided into three
sections:
Forebrain
Midbrain
Hindbrain
The spinal cord is below the hindbrain.
By 5 weeks, the forebrain and hindbrain split into two cavities each, resulting in five
total cavities; the midbrain does not divide.
Development of the Cerebellum and Medulla
The cerebellum ("little brain") appears at around 6 weeks in the fetus.
It triples in size a year after birth.
Controls physical skills and is involved in responses such as fear and processing
sensory information.
The medulla oblongata (medulla) is located in the hindbrain in front of the cerebellum.
Controls involuntary responses like sneezing, breathing, heart rate, and blood
pressure.
It is formed by 20 weeks in the fetus and connects the brain to the spinal cord.
Building Neural Connections from Birth
A key part of a baby’s brain development is a large increase in neural connections from
birth to 3 years old, with 700–1000 new connections forming every second.
This allows for fast communication between different parts of the brain.
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The brain doubles in size in the first year and reaches 80% of its size by age 3. Early
connections are important and reinforced by use, so babies need plenty of stimulation.
Piaget’s Stages of Development and Their Role in Education
Piaget’s Four Stages of Development
Jean Piaget suggested that we go through distinct stages of development.
Thinking abilities do not change much during these stages.
A change in thinking indicates the next stage.
During transition, features of both stages are sometimes present.
Each stage involves consolidation of developing abilities in preparation for the next
stage.
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years)
Infants use their senses and movements to get information about the world.
They live in the present, learning by linking what they sense to objects.
They begin with reflex actions and learn to control movements.
Around 6 months, they develop object permanence.
By the end of the stage, children sense themselves as existing separately from the
world.
From around 4 months, children repeat actions.
Object Permanence: Knowing something exists even if it is out of sight.
Pre-operational Stage (2 to 7 Years)
There are two stages within the pre-operational stage:
Symbolic function stage
Intuitive thought stage
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Symbolic Function Stage (2 to 4 Years)
Children start imitating others and using objects as symbols.
Symbolic play involves using one object to represent different objects.
Children think in pictures and use symbols.
They start using words as symbols for objects, which is the beginning of language
development.
Children see the world through their own eyes (egocentrism).
Animism can be seen where children believe objects can behave as if they are alive.
Egocentrism: Unable to see the world from any other viewpoint but one's own.
Animism: Believing that objects that are not alive can behave as if they are alive.
Intuitive Thought Stage (4 to 7 Years)
This is the start of reasoning.
Children ask a lot of questions as they realize that they know a lot and want to know
more.
They can only consider one aspect when something is complex (centration).
Conservation is not yet achieved. There is
also irreversibility.
Centration: Focusing on one feature of a situation and ignoring other relevant
features.
Irreversibility: Not understanding that an action can be reversed to return to the
original state.
Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 12 Years)
Children begin to apply rules and strategies to help their thinking and use concrete
objects to aid their understanding.
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They have difficulty with abstract ideas such as morality. Abilities
in this stage include:
Seriation: sorting objects
Classification: naming and identifying objects
Reversibility: understanding that actions can be reversed
Conservation: knowing that length, quantity, or number are not related to how
things look
Decentration: the ability to take multiple views of a situation
Formal Operational Stage (12+ Years)
In this stage, there is control over thoughts themselves. Young
people can think about more than two things.
They can also understand that events have a sequence.
A young person can see that actions have consequences.
Using Piaget’s Stages in Education
Children’s actions and interactions affect their thinking.
They cannot do certain things until they reach the appropriate stage of development.
Implications for Teaching
Robert Slavin (2005) suggested the following implications for teaching:
Focus on the child’s thinking rather than what they can do.
Discovery learning is required, and children must engage freely with their
environment.
Teaching should acknowledge that children do not think like adults and develop
at different rates.
Classrooms must be managed to suit individual children.
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Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development and the Development
of Intelligence
Piaget’s Explanation of Understanding the World
Children develop through adaptation by adjusting to the world as they experience new
things.
They form ideas about how things are in the world (schemas).
They can often fit new things into their existing schemas (assimilation). However, as
they experience more, they need to change their schemas and create new ones
(accommodation).
Adaptation: Using assimilation and accommodation to make sense of the world.
Assimilation: Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas.
Accommodation: When a schema has to be changed to deal with a new experience.
Piaget’s Theory and the Development of Intelligence
The development of intelligence is about building knowledge and skills. Intelligence is
acquired through stages of development, such as developing object permanence and
formal reasoning.
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
Intelligence develops through building schemas via adaptation and through the four
stages of cognitive development.
Key Concepts
Schemas/Schemata:
Plans and patterns are formed about what we experience. Mental structures
that give us frameworks to understand the world.
Example: A student's classroom schema includes expectations of seeing a board,
chairs, tables, a desk, and fire safety instructions.
Assimilation:
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Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas.
Example: A young child with a schema for birds sees an airplane and calls it a bird.
Accommodation:
A schema no longer works and has to be changed to deal with a new
experience.
Example: The child learns that airplanes are not alive like birds, so they change
their schema that 'everything that flies is a bird.' Equilibrium:
When a child's schemas work for them and explain all that they experience; a
state of mental balance.
Example: The 'bird' schema is changed to include airplanes as metal objects
carrying passengers, moving from disequilibrium to equilibrium.
Piaget's Theory in a Table
Concept
Definition
Example
Plans and patterns are
A student expects to see a board, chairs,
formed about what we
Schemas/Schemata
Assimilation
tables, a desk and fire safety instructions
experience. Mental in a classroom.
structures.
Incorporating new
A young child develops a schema for
experiences into
birds flying and, seeing an aeroplane, existing
schemas.
calls it a bird.
A schema no longer The child will see that birds are alive works and
has to be
and aeroplanes are not, and so they will
Accommodation
changed to deal with a need to change their ‘everything that new
experience. flies is a bird’ schema.
The ‘bird’ schema is changed.
Schemas work and
Aeroplanes are included, and the child
explain experiences,
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Equilibrium
understands that they are metal and
leading to mental carry passengers, thus moving from
balance. disequilibrium into a state of equilibrium.
Strengths of Piaget's Theory
Practical Applications:
Discovery learning is based on Piaget's ideas, focusing on the individual child's
stage of development.
Children can build knowledge using schemas at their own pace.
Research Generation:
Extensive research supports the existence of stages and how children build
knowledge through schemas.
Research results often support his ideas (e.g., the 'three mountains' task).
Weaknesses of Piaget's Theory
Lack of Consideration for Social/Cultural Influences:
Piaget did not consider social interactions or cultural settings. Pierre
Dasen (1994) found that Aboriginal children developed conservation later
than Piaget’s Swiss sample.
Subjectivity and Bias:
Data came from interviews and observations, leading to subjective
interpretations.
Lack of Validity:
Studies in more realistic settings produced different findings.
Key Terms
Subjective:
Based on personal opinion or feelings.
Validity:
When the results of a study represent the situation they are testing
(in real life).
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Dweck's Mindset Theory and Development
Mindset is a set of beliefs that guides how someone responds to a situation.
Core Concepts of Mindset Theory
Mindset:
A set of beliefs someone has that guides how someone responds to or
interprets a situation.
Ability:
What someone can do (e.g., math ability). Dweck suggests ability can be
seen as either fixed and innate or as able to be improved.
Effort:
Trying to do better using determination.
Fixed Mindset:
Believing your abilities are fixed and unchangeable.
Growth Mindset:
Believing practice and effort can improve your abilities.
Fixed vs. Growth Mindset
Fixed Mindset:
Belief that abilities are fixed at birth.
Avoids challenges for fear of failure.
Can lead to depression and giving up.
Growth Mindset:
Belief that effort and practice can improve abilities. Sees
challenges as worthwhile.
Takes on board feedback and adjusts performance.
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The Role of Praise
Praising children for ability can lead to a fixed mindset.
Praising children for effort encourages a growth mindset.
Children should believe they can achieve through effort.
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Impact on Teachers
Teachers with a fixed mindset may see children as lacking ability. Teachers with a
growth mindset see that children can improve with perseverance.
Experimental Evidence
Mueller and Dweck (1998) found that praising ability led to a fixed mindset and
vulnerability to setbacks.
Praising effort or strategy taught a growth mindset and led to more perseverance.
Yeager and Dweck (2012) found that low-achieving students who learned to use a
growth mindset did better.
Strengths of Mindset Theory
Practical Applications:
Teachers and parents can focus on praising effort to encourage children.
Positive Outlook:
Shows that change is possible, benefiting society.
Empirical Support:
Yeager and Dweck (2012) found that adolescents with a growth mindset coped
better with not fitting in and had better school performance.
Weaknesses of Mindset Theory
Artificial Settings:
Experiments may not represent real life, lacking validity.
Gunderson et al. (2013) used a natural environment, giving findings validity.
Focus on the Child:
Studying mindset may shift focus from the quality of teaching.
Lack of Consideration for Praise:
Studies tend to ignore the effects of feedback without judgment about the child.
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Willingham's Learning Theory and Development
Key Principles
Factual knowledge must come before skills.
Learning relies on practice and effort.
Core Concepts of Willingham's Theory
Factual Knowledge Precedes Skill:
Knowing facts helps build problem-solving and reasoning skills.
Previous knowledge is needed to understand new concepts.
Example: Understanding "likes" to comprehend "she has more likes than
me."
Knowledge frees up space in working memory for mental skills. Example:
Knowing that priests wear special clothing can help understand a
problem about a priest tripping on their robes.
Importance of Practice and Effort:
Practice and effort enable mastery of knowledge and skills.
Necessary to make skills automatic and free up working memory. Short-term
memory involves rehearsal; long-term memory requires review and practice.
Ways to practice include doing quizzes or different tasks.
Key Terms
Working Memory:
Has different parts for processing information coming in from our senses,
including visual and sound data, and also involves a decision-making part.
Short-Term Memory:
Our initial memory store that is temporary and limited.
Rehearse:
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Repeat information over and over to make it stick.
Long-Term Memory:
A memory store that holds potentially limitless amounts of information for
up to a lifetime.
Motor Skills:
Actions that involve muscles and brain processes, resulting in movement.
Strategies to Support Development
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Cognitive Development:
Use problems that are new but within a student's ability, requiring effort.
Understand a student’s likely stage of development when planning activities.
Consider that abilities are variable and can change daily. Consider
factors other than developmental level (e.g., task understanding).
Physical Development:
Focus on suitable movements and their order.
Practice movements in the correct order to make muscle commands automatic.
Use conscious effort to improve motor skills.
Social Development:
Build on a child’s ability to take another’s viewpoint.
Demonstrate appropriate social behavior.
Help children stop impulsive behavior.
Encourage practice, requiring self-regulation.
Delay rewards to encourage perseverance.
Key Terms
Decentration:
Being able to separate yourself from the world and take different views of a
situation, so not being egocentric.
Social Learning:
Learning by observing and copying others.
Self-Regulation:
Limiting and controlling yourself without influence from others.
Nature:
Explanations of behavior that focus on environmental factors (the things that
happen to us).
Nurture:
Explanations of behavior that focus on environmental factors (the things that
happen to us).
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Strengths of Willingham's Theory
Practical Applications:
Can be applied to education to promote positive development.
Weaknesses of Willingham's Theory
Lack of Emphasis on Individual Differences:
Does not strongly emphasize individual differences for learning, even though
self-regulation and impulsivity may be inherited.
Not a Singular Theory:
Draws evidence from multiple areas of cognitive science, making it difficult to
test as a single theory.
Piaget and Inhelder (1956) - "Three Mountains"
Task
Study on children's understanding of different viewpoints.
Background
According to Piaget’s theory, children in the pre-operational stage are egocentric,
seeing the world from their own viewpoint.
Understanding different viewpoints develops over time, leading to the concrete
operational stage, where children can decenter.
Aim
Investigate the extent to which children of different ages can take another person's
view.
Examine children’s overall system of putting together different views of what they see.
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Procedure
100 children were studied.
Equipment:
Model of three mountains with distinct features.
Ten pictures of the model from different positions.
Cardboard shapes to represent the mountains. Wooden
doll.
Methods of Questioning:
Children used cardboard shapes to show the view from different viewpoints.
Children chose a picture representing what they could see from different
positions.
Children positioned the doll to "see" a chosen viewpoint.
Results
Pre-Operational Stage (4 to 6.5 years):
Children chose pictures and placed cardboard to show their own view, even when
asked about the doll's view, showing egocentrism.
Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 9 years):
Children began to understand others can see the model differently. By 9 to 10
years, they understood that the doll had a different view.
Key Term
Qualitative Data:
Data that is descriptive, not numbers, such as words or pictures.
Conclusion
Children up to about 7 years old are egocentric.
Older children are non-egocentric and can coordinate different perspectives. The study
provides evidence for Piaget’s stages of development.
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Strengths of the Study
Detailed Qualitative Data:
Provided rich details about individual children.
Experimental Methods:
Used careful controls, such as the same model and questions. Reliability was
ensured through repetitions with various children and methods.
Key Term
Reliability:
The consistency of an outcome or result of an investigation (a measure).
Weaknesses of the Study
Results suggest children develop thinking ability progressively, rather than in distinct
stages.
Older children in one stage were beginning to show abilities from the next stage.
Criticisms of Piaget's Stages
Piaget's stage theory has faced criticism:
The transitions between stages may not be as clear-cut as suggested. Actions and
task performance can be inconsistent during these transition periods.
The "Three Mountains" Task
A well-known criticism is that other studies using more realistic scenarios didn't yield the
same findings.
Helen Borke's Modification
Helen Borke (1975) adapted Piaget and Inhelder’s task to suit younger children.
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She used the puppet character Grover from Sesame Street and a turntable.
Findings:
3-year-olds gave Grover’s viewpoint correctly over 79% of the time. 4-year-olds
achieved this 93% of the time.
Borke suggested the original task was too difficult, not necessarily due to egocentrism.
Repacholi and Gopnik's Study
Willingham used Repacholi and Gopnik’s (1997) study to critique Piaget’s stages.
Children tasted crackers (liked) and broccoli (disliked).
The experimenter showed dislike for crackers and liking for broccoli.
Children were asked to pass a bowl to the experimenter.
14-month-olds passed the food they liked (egocentrism).
18-month-olds passed the broccoli, understanding the experimenter’s
preference.
General Thoughts
Piaget’s tasks may have been too unrealistic for children to understand what was being
asked.
Familiar tasks enable children to decenter earlier.
Despite criticisms, Piaget’s ideas are still used in education to understand cognitive
development.
Gunderson et al. (2013): Parent Praise Study
Background
Research indicates that parental praise impacts a child’s later beliefs and behaviors.
Praising effort over ability leads to the idea that hard work can change achievements.
Elizabeth Gunderson et al. (2013) examined parental praise in a natural setting to
support experimental findings.
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Key Terms
Framework: A basic understanding of ideas and facts used when making decisions.
Person praise: Praising the individual rather than what they are doing.
Process praise: Praising what is being done, not the individual.
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Entity theory/motivational framework: The belief that behavior or ability results from
a person’s nature.
Incremental theory/motivational framework: The belief that effort drives behavior
and ability, which can change.
Ecological validity: The extent to which findings explain behavior in reallife
situations.
Person vs. Process Praise
Person praise: May lead children to believe they are born with or without an ability,
leading to entity theory.
Process praise: Helps children link effort and success, viewing ability as changeable,
leading to incremental theory.
Mindset Theory
These ideas draw on Dweck’s mindset theory.
Experiments may lack ecological validity, leading Gunderson et al. to use a natural
setting for data collection.
Praise and Gender
Boys tend to think of ability as changeable (incremental theory), possibly due to
receiving process praise.
Girls are more likely to develop entity theory, suggesting they receive more person
praise.
Aims of the Study
The researchers aimed to determine:
Whether children are affected by different types of parental praise in a natural setting.
If parents give girls less process praise and more person praise than boys. Whether
early childhood praise predicts a child’s later reasoning about motivation (ability vs.
effort).
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Method
A longitudinal study observing parents' praise at home when children were 14, 26, and
38 months old.
Five years later, children’s ideas about behavior were measured and related to the type
of praise received.
Participants
53 children (29 boys and 24 girls) and their caregivers.
64% White, 17% African-American, 11% Hispanic, and 8% multiracial.
Procedure
Participants were asked to "go about a typical day" at home.
Caregiver-child interactions were videotaped in 90-minute sessions. Neither the
data collectors nor the participants knew praise was the study's focus.
Children's Later Beliefs
At 7–8 years old, children answered questions about what leads to a person’s
intelligence and moral actions.
Questions covered 18 items about intelligence and 6 about socio-moral views.
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Results
Parental Praise Patterns
Gender and Parent Praise
24.4% of praise for boys was process praise, compared to 10.3% for girls.
Parental Praise and Children’s Frameworks
More process praise in early childhood correlated with children believing effort is
worthwhile later on.
There was no relationship between person praise and children later showing an entity
motivational framework.
Conclusions
Process praise related to a child’s later use of an incremental motivational framework.
The study did not find that person praise led to an entity motivational framework.
Boys received more process praise than girls, indicating gender differences in praise.
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Strengths and Weaknesses
Strengths
Findings support Dweck’s experimental studies in a naturalistic environment.
Researchers videotaping and transcribing data were unaware of the study's focus,
reducing bias.
Weaknesses
The study involved deception as participants were told the study was about child
development.
Parents may have altered their praise style due to being observed, affecting data
validity.
The sample was limited to 53 parent/child pairs in Chicago, potentially limiting
generalizability.
Applications
Parents and teachers can focus on praising effort and process over ability.
Development of Morality
Morals and Morality Defined
Morals: Standards of right and wrong behavior that can differ between cultures and
depend on the situation.
Morality: "Proper" behavior, acting according to principles of what is right and
wrong.
Moral development: Children's growing understanding about right and wrong.
Piaget’s (1932) Theory of Moral Development
Suggests moral understanding develops through stages.
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Heteronomous Stage (5-10 years):
Belief that rules cannot be changed, originating from authority figures.
Focus on consequences; obedience to avoid punishment.
Autonomous Stage (10+ years):
Understanding of intentions; changing rules for the benefit of others.
Morals seen as agreed between people.
Kohlberg’s (1958) Theory of Moral Development
Uses stories to determine someone's stage of moral development. Three levels
of moral reasoning, each with two stages.
Level
Stages
Level 1: Pre- Stages 1 and 2: Rules cannot be changed; consequence conventional
(punishment/reward) determines good/bad action. Stage 1: Obey Morality
to
avoid punishment. Stage 2: Self-interest and benefits.
Stages 3 and 4: Seeing oneself as a good member of society; Level 2:
reasoning from group norms. Stage 3: Being seen as “good” and
Conventional conforming. Stage 4: Maintaining social order by obeying
Morality authority.
Stages 5 and 6: Individual ideas about good/bad; understanding
Level 3: Postuniversal moral principles. Stage 5: Laws as social contracts.
conventional
Stage 6: Abstract moral reasoning beyond individual laws;
Morality
universal ethical principles.
Weaknesses of These Theories
Artificial stories lack ecological validity.
Carol Gilligan (1977) criticized Kohlberg for a male-only sample, resulting in a theory
about male morality.
Damon (1999) on Developing a Moral Self
Explains how children develop an idea of their moral self.
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Moral development:
Explained by biology (nativist theories), social experiences, or intellectual
development.
Nativist theories: Emotions are within us; empathy from birth.
Nurture theories: Influenced by environment and social factors.
Moral identity comes from consistent messages about shared standards.
How to Help Children Develop Morality?
Exposure to different views.
Opportunities to resolve problems with others.
Developing self-control and accepting social responsibility.
Damon’s Ideas About Developing Empathy
How this links to a child’s level of understanding at different ages.
Early infancy: Feelings towards others and themselves.
Aged 1 to 2 years: Realizing others are upset, causing distress.
Early childhood: Learning others have feelings.
Aged 10 to 12 years: Understanding others may live differently; being more
responsive to distress.
Memory and Information Processing
Stages of Memory and Information Processing
1. Information Input
2. Encoding
3. Output
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Information Input
Information from the environment is input via our senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste,
smell).
Encoding Information
The brain processes information and stores sensory input as an electrochemical memory
trace.
Three ways of encoding:
Acoustic encoding: Holding sound information.
Visual encoding: Holding images.
Semantic encoding: Holding the meaning of information.
Output
For humans, output is the stored information we retrieve (retrieval).
Key Terms
Processing: The operations we perform on sensory information in the brain.
Input: Sensory information received from our environment.
Storage: The retention of information in our memory system.
Encoding: Turning sensory information into a usable form for storage.
Acoustic encoding: Storing sound in our memory system.
Visual encoding: Storing something seen in our memory system.
Semantic encoding: Storing the meaning of information in our memory system.
Output: Information we recall from memory.
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Introduction to Memory
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Memory is a critical component of human cognition, enabling us to store, retain, and retrieve
information. The study of memory is essential to understanding human behavior and
cognitive processes.
Key Terms and Concepts
The following terms are essential to understanding memory:
Encoding: the process of storing information in memory
Storage: the retention of information in memory
Retrieval: the process of accessing and recalling information from memory Short-term
memory: a temporary store that holds information for a short period
Long-term memory: a permanent store that holds information for an extended period
Definitions
Memory refers to the mental capacity to encode, store, and retrieve information.
Encoding is the process by which information is converted into a format that can
be stored in memory. Storage refers to the retention of information in memory
over time. Retrieval is the process of accessing and recalling information from
memory.
Memory Models
The Multi-store Model of Memory proposes that memory consists of three stores: sensory
memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Short-term and Long-term Memory
Short-term memory has a limited capacity and duration, whereas long-term memory has a
potentially limitless capacity and duration.
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Forgetting
Forgetting can occur due to:
Displacement: new information pushes out old information in short-term memory
Decay: information is lost over time due to non-use
Interference: new information overwrites old information in long-term memory
Amnesia
Amnesia refers to the loss of memory due to brain injury or disease. There are two types of
amnesia:
Retrograde amnesia: inability to recall past events
Anterograde amnesia: inability to form new memories
Bartlett's Theory of Reconstructive Memory
Bartlett's theory proposes that memory is an active reconstruction of past events, influenced
by schemas and expectations.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Memory Models
The Multi-store Model of Memory has been criticized for oversimplifying the complexity of
human memory. However, it provides a useful framework for understanding the different
components of memory.
Conclusion
Memory is a complex and multifaceted cognitive process that is essential to human behavior
and cognition. Understanding the different components of memory, including encoding,
storage, and retrieval, is crucial to appreciating the intricacies of human memory.## Memory
Models and Studies
Bartlett (1932) - "War of the Ghosts" Study
Bartlett's study delves into reconstructive memory using a Native American folk tale called
"The War of the Ghosts."
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Procedure
Participants read "The War of the Ghosts" and were asked to recall it at different intervals.
There were two types of recall:
Repeated Reproduction: Participants recalled the story multiple times. Serial
Reproduction: Participants told the story to another person, who then retold it, and
so on.
Results
Bartlett used qualitative analysis to identify changes in the recalled stories. Key findings:
Shortening: Stories became shorter as participants omitted unfamiliar details.
Rationalization: Participants added or changed details to make the story more
understandable and logical, fitting their schemas. For example, "Something black came
out of his mouth" became "a man's dying breath."
Familiarization: Unfamiliar elements were replaced with familiar ones. For example,
"canoe" became "boat," and "hunting" became "fishing."
Conclusion
Bartlett concluded that memory is an active and constructive process. People don't recall
stories perfectly; instead, they reconstruct them based on their schemas, omitting or altering
details that don't fit.
Strengths and Weaknesses
Strength: Using a story is more naturalistic than using nonsense trigrams, increasing
ecological validity.
Weakness: The story was unfamiliar and illogical, making it less like everyday memory
tasks.
Strength: Replicating the procedure with different stories yielded similar results,
enhancing reliability.
Weakness: The study lacked good controls (e.g., inconsistent recall intervals), making it
less scientific.
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Peterson and Peterson (1959) - Short-Term Memory Duration
This study investigated the duration of short-term memory by preventing rehearsal.
Procedure
Participants were presented with a trigram (three consonants) and then asked to count
backwards in threes or fours from a three-digit number. After varying time delays (3, 6, 9, 12,
15, or 18 seconds), they were asked to recall the trigram.
Results
The longer the participants counted backwards, the less accurately they recalled the trigram.
After 3 seconds, recall was over 80%.
After 18 seconds, recall dropped to less than 10%.
Allowing a brief period to repeat the trigram increased recall slightly but still showed a similar
decline over time.
Conclusion
Information in short-term memory fades rapidly when rehearsal is prevented. Only a small
percentage can be recalled after 18 seconds.
Strengths and Weaknesses
Strength: Fixed timings and elimination of distractions provided good control and
standardized procedures.
Strength: Demonstrates how verbal distractions can interfere with memory retention.
Weakness: Using nonsense trigrams lacks mundane realism.
Reductionism and Holism in Memory Research
This section discusses the debate between reductionism and holism and how it applies to
memory research.
Reductionism: Explaining something by breaking it down into its basic parts.
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Holism: Understanding behavior by looking at the whole person and all the
factors that might influence it.
Reductionism
Reductionism is a scientific approach that explains complex behaviors by examining their
simplest parts.
Scientists use it to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Associated with laboratory experiments where variables are isolated and tested.
Can oversimplify explanations by ignoring other contributing factors.
Holism
Holism is the opposite of reductionism, emphasizing the understanding of the entire behavior
rather than individual components.
Considers the interaction of multiple factors.
Holistic psychologists use qualitative methods to gain insight.
Can be difficult to achieve and may not be applicable to everyone.
Application to Human Memory Research
Approach
Memory Research Examples
Multi-store Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin), experiments
Reductionist isolating variables
Bartlett's reconstructive memory research using qualitative analysis to
Holistic understand how schemas influence recall.
Multi-Store Model of Memory: Seen as reductionist because it describes memory as
component stores with specific functions.
Bartlett's Work: Considered holistic due to his use of qualitative analysis and his focus
on how individual schemas influenced recall.
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Psychological Problems: Unipolar Depression
Symptoms and Features of Unipolar Depression
Unipolar depression is a mood disorder characterized by prolonged periods of sadness and
lack of motivation.
Unipolar depression: A type of mood disorder causing periods of feeling sad and
lacking motivation to do everyday activities.
Symptoms
According to the International Classification of Diseases version 10 (ICD-10), the main
symptoms are:
Lowering of mood: Feeling very sad or upset.
Lack of energy: Even after resting for a long time. Lack of
motivation: To do things.
For a diagnosis, at least one of these main symptoms should be present most of the time on
most days for at least two weeks, with another one of these symptoms present at some point
during that time.
Other Symptoms
Feeling suicidal or attempting to commit suicide.
Not enjoying activities that they used to like doing.
Acting nervously or feeling like their general behavior has slowed down more than
usual.
Poor sleep, including finding it difficult to fall asleep, and waking early even when still
tired.
Feelings of guilt or blaming themselves for problems.
Extreme tiredness that is not relieved by sleep.
Poor appetite or an increase in normal appetite.
Lack of self-esteem.
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Features of Unipolar Depression
Episode
Symptoms
Features
Patient might find displayed symptoms upsetting but
Mild
Four symptoms
will probably be able to carry on activities.
Five or six
Moderate symptoms activities.
Seven or more
Patient might have serious problems doing day-to-day
Patient may have suicidal thoughts or engage in self-
Severe
symptoms
harm.
Incidence of Depression Over Time
There is a perception that more people are diagnosed with depression now than in the
past.
Martin Seligman (1988) reported that diagnoses were 10 times more likely in the 1980s
than in the 1940s.
The King’s Fund (2008) estimates 1.45 million people will be diagnosed by 2026,
compared to 1.24 million in 2007.
Brandon Hidaka (2012) suggests that modern living is more stressful with risk factors
like sleep deprivation and social isolation.
Jean Twenge et al. (2010) found young adults in 2007 were significantly more likely to
be diagnosed than in 1938.
Some research has linked social media usage to higher risk of depression (Liu yi Lin et
al., 2016).
How Depression Affects Individuals and Society
Increases the risk of suicide; 10–15% of patients with severe depression may commit
suicide.
Affects society through time missed from work; 9.9 million days were missed in 2014–
15 due to stress, depression, or anxiety associated with work (HSE.gov.uk).
The cost of treatment to patients and society; antidepressant drugs can be expensive.
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Genetic Explanation of Unipolar Depression
Overview
The genetic explanation suggests that unipolar depression can be inherited through genes
shared by family members.
Unipolar depression: A mood disorder that causes a persistent feeling of sadness and
loss of interest.
Individuals with a family history of unipolar depression have a higher risk of developing
it.
However, not everyone in a family will develop depression, indicating that genes are
not the sole cause.
A study by Craig Hyde et al. (2016) found that 17 different gene variations were linked
to developing depression.
Twin Studies
Twin studies are valuable for examining the influence of genes.
A study by Peter McGuffin et al. (1996) found that if one monozygotic twin became
depressed, there was a 46% chance that their co-twin would also develop depression.
For dizygotic twins, if one became depressed, there was only a 20% chance that the
other twin would also develop depression.
This suggests that depression may be genetic, as monozygotic twins, who share more
genes, are at greater risk.
Twin studies: Research that compares behavior in groups of twins to see if there
are similarities in each pair of twins.
Monozygotic twins: Twins developed from one fertilized egg that has split into
two; monozygotic twins are genetically identical.
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Dizygotic twins: Twins developed from two different eggs fertilized during the
same pregnancy; dizygotic twins are not genetically identical.
Role of Environment and the Diathesis-Stress Model
Not all family members related to someone with depression will become depressed
themselves.
A trigger from the environment may be necessary for the gene to become
'active'.
Some people may have a genetic predisposition to become depressed but will only
develop depression if they face a stressful situation.
Genetic predisposition: A biological tendency to develop a particular behavior as a
result of the genes someone has.
Diathesis-stress model: An explanation for depression that claims people can have
a gene that makes them more likely to develop depression, but only if they face a
stressful situation that triggers depressive thoughts.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Genetic Explanation
Strengths
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Reduces stigma: If depression is explained by genes, people cannot be blamed for
being depressed.
Research support: Studies like Caspi et al. (2003) found that people with a variation of
the serotonin transporter gene were more likely to react negatively to stressful life
events and develop depression.
Weaknesses
Deterministic: Assumes that if you have certain genes, you are likely to become
depressed, with no way to change that.
Reductionist: Fails to take into account other factors, such as life events, that can
explain why someone may develop depression.
Deterministic: Our actions come from what we are born with and what we
experience; this is the opposite of having 'free will' or free choice.
Free will: Explanations of behaviour that claim we have the ability to choose
exactly what type of behaviour we want to show; this is the opposite of being
'determined'.
Cognitive Theory as an Explanation of Depression
Overview
Cognitive theory explains behavior by looking at how the brain processes information and
how we think.
Cognitive theory: An explanation that focuses on how thought processes influence
behavior
Beck’s Cognitive Triad
Aaron Beck proposed that depression could be explained by three negative thought patterns:
1. Negative view of the self
2. Negative view of the future
3. Negative view of the world
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Negative triad: A set of three thought patterns where people feel bad about
themselves, the future, and the world in general.
These negative thought patterns may develop from bad experiences in someone's past.
Individuals with a negative way of thinking are more likely to perceive things that
happen to them in an abnormal way, leading to a negative self-schema. This can lead to
magnification, where problems are seen as far worse than they are in reality.
Magnification: A form of cognitive bias that makes people see their problems as far
bigger than they actually are.
Ellis’s ABC Model
Albert Ellis suggested that there are three stages that might cause a person to develop
negative thought processes, which can then lead to them becoming depressed:
1. Activating Event: Something happens that makes a person feel unsettled (e.g., a bad
exam result, losing a job).
2. Beliefs: The thoughts the person associates with the event, which can be rational or
irrational.
3. Consequences: Emotional consequences that depend on whether the person has
rational or irrational thoughts about the event.
Rational thought → Positive emotional consequences
Irrational thought → Negative emotional consequences
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Cognitive Theory
Strengths
Considers life events: Takes into account the events in a person's life that could explain
why they have become depressed.
Nature and nurture: Accepts that it is a combination of nature and nurture factors that
make people become depressed.
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Applied to therapy: Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is one of the leading treatments
for depression.
Nature: Explanations of behaviour that focus on innate factors (the things we are
born with).
Nurture: Explanations of behavior that focus on environmental factors (the
things that happen to us).
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT): A therapy for mental health disorders that
aims to change thought processes in order to reduce symptoms.
Weaknesses
Cause or symptom: It is difficult to tell whether irrational thoughts are a cause of
depression or a symptom of being depressed.
Not always explained by thought processes: Some types of depression, like postnatal depression, may have more to do with biological factors than cognitive ones.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) as a Treatment
for Depression
Overview
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a type of therapy used to treat various mental health
disorders.
Aims to help patients change the way they think (cognitive part) and act (behavioral
part) to improve symptoms.
Based on the understanding that the way we think affects how we feel, and how we
feel influences how we behave.
How CBT Helps
1. Patient discusses their symptoms with the therapist.
2. Patient considers their thought processes.
3. Patient begins to challenge irrational thoughts.
4. Patient thinks more rationally about situations.
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5.
Patient feels better and improves their symptoms.
Stages of CBT
1. Discussion of Symptoms: Patient discusses all symptoms with the therapist.
2. Challenging Irrational Thinking: Patient recognizes irrational or negative thoughts and
tries to replace them with more rational and positive ways of thinking.
3. Homework: Patient practices changing the way they think about a situation and writes
about how they feel in a diary.
4. Discussion: Patient discusses their progress with the therapist.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Using CBT to Treat Depression
Strengths
Effective: Studies show that depressed patients treated with CBT improved more than
those waiting for treatment or not receiving any treatment. Longer-lasting: Patients
learn how to control their symptoms by looking at their own thoughts and trying to
change the negative ones.
Empowering: Patients learn how to deal with their own symptoms and reduce feelings
of helplessness.
Weaknesses
Patient motivation: Relies on patients wanting to change their behavior and being able
to recognize when their thoughts are irrational.
Ethical issues: Some argue that the therapist is encouraging the patient to think that
their own thought processes are a problem and that they should change to suit what
the therapist thinks is 'normal' and appropriate.
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Drug Therapy as a Treatment for Depression
Overview
Drug therapy involves using antidepressants to treat depression, especially for patients with
moderate to severe symptoms or when other therapies have not been effective.
Antidepressant drugs work by raising the levels of neurotransmitters, such as serotonin
and noradrenaline, which are thought to play a role in controlling our mood.
These drugs increase the amount of these neurotransmitters or help to make the
neurotransmitters' effects last longer.
Neurotransmitters: Chemicals found within the nervous system that pass messages
from one neuron to another across a synapse.
Noradrenaline: A type of neurotransmitter that is involved in mood and is released
during times of stress.
Reuptake: The process by which neurons reabsorb neurotransmitters that they
released.
Types of Antidepressants
Type
Mechanism of Action
Selective Serotonin
Block the reuptake of serotonin, making it available for
Reuptake Inhibitors longer. (SSRIs)
Serotonin and
Block the reuptake of both serotonin and noradrenaline,
Noradrenaline Reuptake enhancing their effects. Inhibitors (SNRIs)
Monoamine Oxidase
Inhibitors (MAOIs)
Prevent the enzyme monoamine oxidase from breaking
down neurotransmitters, making more available.
Boost the effect of serotonin and noradrenaline by preventing
their reabsorption into the neuron, giving them
Tricyclics (TCAs) longer to act on the brain, mood-enhancing effect lasts longer.
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Strengths and Weaknesses of Drug Therapy as a Treatment
of Depression
Strengths
Improves symptoms: Can improve a patient's symptoms enough to make it easier for
them to access other psychological therapies.
Effective: Studies show that a significant percentage of patients with moderate to
severe symptoms of depression show improvements when given antidepressants.
Placebo: An inactive substance, or 'fake pill', used instead of an active substance. The
person given a placebo will not know it is fake.
Weaknesses
Side effects: Can have unpleasant side effects for some patients.
Doesn't treat the cause: Does not tackle the cause of the depression. Patients are more
likely to relapse after treatment.
Relapse: A return of symptoms after treatment has been given.
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Addiction: Symptoms, Features, Incidence, and
Influence
Overview
Addiction is a psychological problem where people feel that they need to 'have' or 'do'
something regularly to avoid negative feelings.
Addiction: A mental health problem that means people need a particular thing – a
substance or an activity – in order to be able to go about their normal routine.
Addiction can be to substances such as alcohol or tobacco, or to activities such as
gambling or internet use.
People with addictions often experience withdrawal symptoms if they cannot have or
do what they are addicted to.
Withdrawal: A set of unpleasant physical or psychological symptoms someone
gets when they are trying to quit or cannot satisfy their addiction.
Symptoms of Addiction
The ICD-10 refers to addiction as a dependence disorder because the body 'depends' on the
substance in order to feel normal. To be diagnosed as an addict, at least three of the
following symptoms need to be present at the same time for 1 month in total, or for
repeated occasions over a year:
A feeling that the person needs to take the substance.
Stopping or reducing the use of the substance is very difficult.
Physical withdrawal symptoms when the substance is not used for a period of time.
Ignoring evidence that the use of the substance is harmful to them.
Replacing normal, fun activities with time spent using the substance. Tolerance to the
substance, meaning that they may need to increase the amount used to get the same
effect over time.
Symptoms of behavioral addiction to activities are very similar:
They need to do the activity regularly.
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Reducing the activity is very difficult.
They spend more time doing the activity than other things they used to enjoy.
They ignore arguments that the activity is unhealthy or damaging.
They have to do the activity more often, or do something more 'risky' to get the same
'buzz'.
Features of Addiction
In 2014–15, there were 141,646 adults being treated for problems with substance
misuse in England.
Most were treated for addiction to opiates, with the next highest group being treated
for alcohol addiction.
The NHS has estimated that about 2 million people in the UK are suffering from some
kind of addiction.
'Internet addiction' is recognized as a form of behavioral addiction characterized by the
symptoms of dependence disorder.
Psychological Problems: Addiction
Incidence and Influence of Addiction
Addiction has far-reaching effects on individuals and society, influencing everything from
personal health to the economy.
Cheaper access to addictive substances increases use in some populations.
Addictions can cause neglect of family, work, or school.
Money is diverted from essential needs to feed the addiction.
Addictions can lead to health problems and a decreased quality of life.
Addiction also has substantial impacts on the workplace and the economy.
Workplace impact includes health problems and absenteeism, resulting in costs for
companies.
Healthcare costs for substance misuse are significant, with the NHS spending £488
million annually.
Drug-related crimes cost the UK society £13.9 billion a year.
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Genetic Explanation of Addiction
There is evidence to suggest that genes play a role in addiction.
Addictions run in families and can have a genetic component.
Some people quickly show signs of addiction after limited exposure to a substance or
activity.
Identical twin studies show that genetics may play a role in addiction.
Identical twins are more likely to share smoking habits than non-identical twins.
Monozygotic twins sharing addiction suggests a genetic link.
Adoption studies provide additional evidence to suggest genetics can cause addiction.
Adopted children with a biological parent with alcohol addiction are more likely to
show signs of alcohol addiction.
Study by Remi Cadoret et al. (1987) supports the genetic explanation, but also
acknowledges environmental influences.
Specific genes, such as the DDR2 gene, have been linked to addiction.
A1 variation of the DDR2 gene affects how the brain reacts to pleasurable activities.
Diana Martinez et al. (2004) found that heavy cocaine users are more likely to have a
specific version of a dopamine receptor gene, leading to fewer D2 receptors.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Genetic Explanation
The genetic explanation of addiction is supported by scientific evidence.
Twin and adoption studies act as controls for possible factors, making the research
more reliable.
It explains why some people are more prone to becoming addicts. It
fosters understanding for those in treatment.
However, the genetic explanation is reductionist and fails to account for social factors.
Family members might share genes and environmental factors, such as home
environment, contributing to addiction.
Research has not identified a single gene that explains addiction.
The DDR2 A1 gene is also linked to autism, making the connection to addiction unclear.
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Learning Theory as an Explanation of Addiction
Learning theory posits that addictive behaviors are learned through experience. The
main explanations include classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social
learning theory.
Classical Conditioning and Addiction
Classical conditioning suggests that behaviors are learned through associations.
If a substance or activity is associated with positive feelings, the person learns to associate it
with that feeling.
Operant Conditioning and Addiction
Operant conditioning claims that behaviors are repeated when they lead to
positive consequences.
Positive consequences reinforce the behavior, making it more likely to be repeated. Avoiding
negative physical symptoms can also reinforce addictive behavior.
Social Learning Theory and Addiction
Social learning theory claims that behavior is learned by observing others, especially
role models.
People may copy the addictive behaviors of those they look up to.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Learning Theory
Addictions are behaviors that can be unlearned.
Re-learning associations and consequences is essential in treating addiction. Classical
conditioning explains why previous addicts sometimes relapse.
However, it ignores biological factors.
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Operant conditioning considers that reinforcement for taking drugs results from how
the drug affects brain chemistry.
Conditioning theories don't explain why only some people become addicted, even
when many try drugs, alcohol, and gambling.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) as a Treatment for
Addictions
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) helps people understand the triggers for their
addictive behaviors and learn how to control and manage these behaviors.
CBT occurs in two key stages: functional analysis and skills training.
Functional analysis involves identifying the triggers for the addiction. Skills
training involves learning skills to avoid engaging in the addictive behavior.
Skills might include:
Coping with cravings
Assertiveness training
Improving motivation
Patients keep a diary of important events between CBT sessions to record their progress. CBT
can be combined with other therapies to help addicts deal with the physical effects of
withdrawal.
Strengths and Weaknesses of CBT
CBT gives the patient control to stop their own addictive behavior and builds up skills to help
stop their addiction and stay away from the behavior in the future.
Young’s (2007) study found that CBT was effective for treating people with internet
addiction both in the short term and up to 6 months after treatment ended.
As long as the addict is motivated to change their behavior, they can reduce their own
addiction using these skills.
However, the addict has to be motivated to change their behavior.
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One of the symptoms of addiction is that the addict finds stopping difficult, and they
will refuse to face evidence that their addiction is harmful.
Morgenstern and Longabaugh (2000) found that alcoholics often showed the ability to
cope with their addiction after CBT, but did not always put these skills into practice and
actually stop drinking.
Drug Therapy as a Treatment for Addiction
Drug therapy can help patients cope with the effects of detoxification. Treatment will depend
on the type of addiction they have and the severity of symptoms.
Medication can help to reduce unpleasant side effects and help the patient to control
their addiction.
Withdrawal
When a person stops using a substance that they have been addicted to, they can face
physical symptoms of withdrawal as the substance leaves their system.
Drugs can be given to patients to reduce these symptoms of withdrawal and reduce the
chance of the patient relapsing and using the substance again.
Reducing Cravings
Many patients who have addictions to substances will find that they crave the substance
when they stop using it.
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Medication can be given to control these symptoms.
Methadone can be offered to people addicted to opiates such as heroin, because
methadone acts on the brain in a similar way to heroin, but is less dangerous.
Smokers can used different forms of nicotine-replacement therapy such as chewing
gum and patches.
Other drugs have been developed to treat alcoholics, such as naltrexone, which stops
the craving for alcohol.
Treating Underlying Mental Health Problems
Some patients with substance addiction also have other mental health problems, such as
depression or anxiety.
Drugs, such as antidepressants and anti-anxiety medication, can be offered to those
with substance addictions.
These drugs reduce the symptoms of problems that could cause a relapse in substance
misuse.
Behavioral Addiction Therapy
Although behavioral addictions, such as gambling, sex, and internet use, are not typically
treated using drug therapy, there is evidence that drugs can be effective for some patients.
Doctors are now prescribing naltrexone, a drug normally prescribed to treat those with
severe alcohol addiction, to some patients with severe gambling addiction.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Drug Therapy
Drug therapies are supported by research evidence.
Kim et al. (2001) presented evidence that 75% of the gambling addicts they studied who
were treated with naltrexone showed a significant improvement in their symptoms.
Drug therapy may help the patient access other types of therapy.
However, the evidence supporting its effectiveness is very mixed.
Krystal et al. (2001) found that there was no significant difference in relapse rates over
a 12-month period between alcoholic patients taking naltrexone and those taking a
placebo drug.
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Giving medication to patients who are already addicted to something, especially if the
medication is another substance, could make their problems worse in the long-term.
The Caspi et al. (2003) Study
Background
The study addresses the observation that stressful life events can lead to depression, but not
everyone exposed to such events becomes depressed. The researchers investigated whether
a gene linked to serotonin, a neurotransmitter involved in depression, could make individuals
more susceptible to depression after stressful events.
SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors), a class of antidepressants, increase
serotonin levels in the brain to alleviate depression symptoms. The hypothesis is
that individuals with genes causing lower serotonin levels may be more prone to
depression following stressful events.
Aims
Avshalom Caspi et al. sought to determine:
1. Why stressful life events lead to depression in some individuals but not others.
2. Whether a specific variation of the 5-HTT gene (linked to serotonin levels) increases the
likelihood of depression after stressful life events.
Procedure
Participants were drawn from the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development
Study, a longitudinal study tracking individuals from birth.
Longitudinal study: the same people are tested over a period of time to investigate
changes.
Participants completed questionnaires assessing life events occurring between their
21st and 26th birthdays, including problems with money, health, or relationships.
Another questionnaire measured depressive symptoms in the year before their 26th
birthday, providing quantitative data in the form of a 'depression score'. Participants
were divided into three groups based on the version of the 5-HTT gene they possessed:
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$Table 3.3 Groups of participants and their version of the 5-HTT gene
Results
Participants with at least one short version of the 5-HTT gene who experienced stressful
life events between 21 and 26 showed a significant increase in depressive symptoms.
Individuals with a short version of the 5-HTT gene and stressful life events were more
likely to be diagnosed with depression compared to those with two long versions.
Those with a short version of the gene were more prone to suicidal thoughts after
stressful events.
Participants with two short versions of the 5-HTT gene were most likely to report
severe depressive symptoms, with a significantly higher report of suicidal thoughts or
attempts after facing more than three stressful life events.
Conclusions
The study suggests an interaction between life events and genetic influences in causing
depression, indicating that both nature and nurture play a role. Individuals appear to need
both a specific gene and stressful life events to become depressed.
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The study highlights the interaction between nature and nurture in depressive symptoms. It
suggests that rather than seeking a single cause, depression may have biological and social
origins, impacting treatment approaches. Some individuals may be genetically predisposed to
depression, necessitating consideration of how to treat patients prone to recurrent
depression when facing future stressful events.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Study
Strength: The study involved a large sample of 847 participants, enhancing the
generalizability of the results.
Strength: The study could inform doctors, telling them that someone with depression
could have different causes for their symptoms.
Weakness: The researchers considered that individuals with the short version of the 5HTT gene might be more prone to stressful situations, suggesting the gene and life
events may not directly cause depression.
Weakness: The study relied on self-report data from questionnaires, which may be
unreliable due to exaggeration or minimization of symptoms.
Application
The Caspi et al. study suggests that individuals who become depressed after stressful life
events are more likely to have at least one short version of the gene controlling serotonin
levels in the brain. This implies an interaction between nature and nurture in causing
depressive symptoms.
Example: Jeremy and Lucy, siblings, moved and changed schools due to their father's new job.
Jeremy adjusted well, but Lucy is feeling down. A difference in their genes, specifically the 5HTT gene, could explain their different reactions to the move.
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Young (2007) Study on CBT for Internet
Addiction Background
Internet addiction has only recently been recognized as a specific mental health
problem, resulting in limited research on effective treatments.
Kimberly Young aimed to explore the applicability of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT),
which has been successful in treating other addictions, for internet addiction.
Aims
To investigate the effectiveness of CBT in treating patients diagnosed with internet
addiction.
To assess the improvement in problem behaviors over time, both during and after
therapy sessions.
Procedure
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114 participants were recruited from the Center for Online Addiction, a website
focused on treating internet addiction in the USA.
Participants had previously completed the Internet Addiction Test (IAT) and were
identified as having an internet addiction.
Individuals with other psychological problems were excluded from the study. All
participants underwent a course of online CBT sessions.
The initial sessions (functional analysis) involved gathering information about the
participant's background, the onset of symptoms, the nature of the symptoms,
and their severity.
Subsequent sessions (skills training) focused on developing skills to manage
symptoms. This included strategies such as stopping the use of problematic
online apps and implementing methods to reduce overall time spent online.
The therapist collaborated with the client to address underlying issues contributing
to increased internet use, such as problems at home, work, or school.
Participants completed the Client Outcome Questionnaire during the 3rd, 8th, and 12th
online therapy sessions, as well as 6 months after the treatment concluded.
The questionnaire consisted of 12 questions rated on a 5-point Likerttype scale to
assess the effectiveness of CBT in addressing internet addiction symptoms.
Likert-type scale: a scale where a person can rate their level of agreement to a
statement.
*
*
Questions included assessing the participant's ability to control computer
Ratings ranged from 1 (not at all) to 5 (extremely good).
Results
The study included slightly more males (58%) than females (42%).
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61% of participants had a university-level education.
Participants exhibited diverse online addictions, with 30% of males addicted to online
pornography and 30% of females addicted to online chat rooms. 96% of participants
identified time consumption as the primary issue caused by their internet addiction.
The average rating of the quality of CBT sessions improved throughout the 12 sessions.
$Table 3.4 The mean average rating of each outcome goal from the questionnaire over the
course of the CBT sessions – an increase in score indicates an improvement of symptoms
The data indicates improvement across various therapy goals during the 12 weeks of
CBT, with no significant decline in ratings 6 months post-therapy.
Conclusion
Young (2007) concluded that CBT is an effective treatment for internet addiction. Clients
reported increased control over problem behaviors and addiction symptoms throughout the
treatment, with sustained benefits observed 6 months later.
Online CBT is a useful method for internet addicts to access treatment. However, using an
online application as treatment could contribute to their addictive behavior.
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Strengths and Weaknesses of the Study
Strength: The study suggests online CBT sessions are a useful way to encourage people
to access addiction treatment. It might encourage more people to access treatment if
other types of therapy are not appropriate. Strength: The use of consistent questions
and rating scales across measurements ensures data reliability.
Weakness: Reliance on self-report questionnaires may lead to inaccurate data due to
participants providing dishonest responses to look better.
Weakness: The study did not differentiate between types of internet addiction (e.g.,
online gambling, pornography, chat rooms), so it is not clear whether all types achieved
the same effects from treatment.
Nature vs. Nurture Debate
Key Concepts
The nature versus nurture debate revolves around the primary influence on human behavior:
Nature: Biological factors, such as genes, that influence behavior from birth. Nurture:
Environmental factors, such as experiences, that influence behavior after birth.
Some psychologists believe nature is more influential, others emphasize nurture, and some
suggest both interact equally.
Nature: refers to the biological factors that can influence a person’s behaviour, and
these are generally in place even before we are born.
Nurture: refers to the environmental factors that can influence a person’s behaviour,
mostly after they are born.
Mental Health Problems: A Case Study
The nature versus nurture debate impacts the treatment of mental health problems:
Nature Perspective: Genetic explanations suggest that individuals inherit
predispositions to mental health issues. For example, Caspi et al. (2003) found that
individuals with a specific version of the 5-HTT gene were more likely to develop
depression after stressful events. This perspective implies that changing behaviors may
be challenging due to genetic factors, and relapse is possible even after treatment.
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Nurture Perspective: Cognitive explanations of depression and learning theory
explanations of addiction suggest that mental health problems are learned behaviors
resulting from environmental events. This perspective supports the idea that new
behaviors can be learned to replace maladaptive ones. Therapies like cognitive
behavioral therapy (CBT) train patients to think and behave differently, supporting the
idea that nurture, not nature, cause mental health problems.
Interactionist Perspective: Some explanations suggest an interaction between nature
and nurture. Caspi et al. (2003) found that a combination of the short version of the 5HTT gene and stressful life events increased the risk of depression. Genes may make
individuals more prone to mental health problems, while environmental stressors
trigger symptoms.
Psychology in Action
Historically, television shows have been criticized for negatively portraying individuals with
mental health problems. However, in 2014, the charity "Time to Change" collaborated with
television companies to promote more realistic and positive portrayals. This initiative aims to
increase awareness and reduce stigma surrounding mental health issues.
Psychological research has improved our understanding of mental health problems, enabling
efforts to change societal views.
The Brain and Neuropsychology
Introduction
The brain is a vital organ that acts as the body's control center, regulating behavior through
neural messages. Neuropsychology studies the brain to understand its functions and
processes.
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Learning Objectives
This topic will cover:
Brain structure and function
Lateralization of brain function
The central nervous system and neuron interactions
Impact of neurological damage on cognition and behavior
Neuropsychological studies by Damasio et al. (1994) and Sperry (1968) Historical
changes in psychology studies
Brain Protection
The brain is delicate and requires protection:
It is cushioned by layers of tissue within the skull.
The brain is suspended in fluid to absorb impacts.
Despite these safeguards, the brain can still be damaged, as seen in cases of athletes
suffering from repeated head trauma.
Brain Structure and Function
Overview
The human brain weighs about 1.4 kg and is divided into two hemispheres.
Brain: the organ in your head made up of nerves that processes information and
controls behaviour.
The upper part of the brain, the cerebrum, features an outer cortex with folds (gyri and sulci)
that increase surface area.
Hemisphere: half of the brain; if we imagine a person facing forward and then look
down on the brain from the top, the right hemisphere is on the right side of the
brain, while the left hemisphere is on the left.
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Cerebrum: the largest part of the brain where higher processing happens; it
includes the cortex.
Cortex: the outer layer of the brain.
The brain communicates with the body through the spinal cord and brainstem.
Spinal cord: a pathway of nerves inside the spine, which connects the brain to the
rest of the body through the peripheral nervous system.
Brainstem: the part of the brain that connects the spinal cord to the upper brain.
Key Areas and Functions
Frontal Lobe: Decision-making, impulse control, problem-solving, concentration.
Contains the motor cortex for voluntary movements.
Frontal lobe: the area at the front of the brain responsible for decisionmaking and
impulse control.
Temporal Lobe: Hearing, understanding speech, memory. Contains the auditory cortex
for processing sound-based information.
Temporal lobe: the area on the side of the brain that controls hearing and memory.
Parietal Lobe: Perception, understanding the world, sense of touch. Contains the
somatosensory cortex.
Parietal lobe: the area at the top of the brain that plays an important role in
perception and sensations of touch.
Occipital Lobe: Vision, processing visual information. Also called the visual cortex.
Occipital lobe: the area at the back of the brain that controls vision.
Cerebellum: Movement, coordination, balance (motor skills). Combines sensory
information to coordinate behavior.
Cerebellum: an area of the back of the brain that controls motor skills.
$Figure 4.1 The cortex of the brain is divided into five key areas: four lobes across the cortex
(frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital) and the cerebellum, located towards the bottom of
the brain
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Emerging research suggests that brain functionality may be more dispersed than previously
thought.
Lateralization of Function in the Hemispheres
Asymmetrical Functions
Lateralization of function refers to the specialized roles that each hemisphere of the
brain performs.
Each hemisphere has asymmetrical functions, meaning they are not equal in
terms of what they do; each controls different functions or plays a
larger/smaller role in particular behaviors.
The two hemispheres are asymmetrical in structure and function, not being mirror
images of each other.
Each side of the brain controls functions on the opposite side of the body.
For example, the right hemisphere controls the left hand, and vice versa. The
corpus callosum, a thick bundle of nerve fibers, connects the two hemispheres,
allowing them to communicate.
Corpus callosum is a thick bundle of nerve fibres connecting the two
hemispheres of the brain so they can communicate with each other.
Roles of the Left and Right Hemispheres
It is difficult to pinpoint exactly which functions are controlled in each area of the brain
due to its complexity.
The right and left hemispheres are linked to the ear on the opposite side of the head.
Auditory information from the right ear is processed by the left hemisphere, and vice
versa.
Here is a summary of the functions typically associated with each hemisphere:
Hemisphere
Functions
Control of right hand, right visual field, speech, understanding written
Left language, understanding what is heard, logical thinking
Control of left hand, left visual field, spatial awareness, recognizing
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Right faces, creativity, musical ability, making sense of visual information The left
hemisphere plays a significant role in language processing.
Broca's area is a part of the left hemisphere of the brain that controls
speech production.
Broca's area, located in the left hemisphere, controls speech production.
Damage to this area can cause difficulties in speaking. Other areas in
the left hemisphere control writing and language understanding.
The right hemisphere is important for spatial awareness and facial recognition.
Spatial awareness is the ability to negotiate space and navigate our way
around our environment.
It is also involved in processing music and visual information and is often seen as
being more creative.
Role of the Corpus Callosum
The corpus callosum allows messages to pass between the left and right hemispheres.
This facilitates communication and connection between different types of information.
For example, information heard in the left ear (processed by the right
hemisphere) can be passed to the left hemisphere for decoding and
understanding, then to the right hand for writing.
Sex Differences in Brain Lateralization
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Traditionally, it was believed that males and females have brains that function
differently, accounting for differences in behavior.
Females were thought to be better at language skills (left-brain tasks), while males
were considered better at spatial skills (right-brain tasks). Some evidence suggested
females might have a thicker corpus callosum, allowing them to use both sides of
their brain for some tasks. Males tend to show dominance for one hemisphere for
the same tasks.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Lateralization Explanation for Sex
Differences
Some studies suggest differences in how male and female brains are organized in the
cortex.
A study by Harasty et al. (1997) indicated that parts of the brain processing
and producing language are slightly larger in females. Rilea et al. (2005)
found that males performed better on some spatial tasks that heavily use the
right hemisphere.
Much of this evidence is based on scientific methods like brain scans and laboratory
experiments, which allow for well-controlled research and minimize extraneous
variables.
However, there are weaknesses in this research:
In the Rilea et al. (2005) study, males did not always outperform females on
spatial tasks, and some tasks did not heavily rely on the right brain. Sommer et al.
(2004) found no strong evidence that females use both hemispheres for language
tasks, challenging the explanation for girls' better language skills.
The Role of the Central Nervous System (CNS)
Components of the CNS
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
Central nervous system (CNS): The brain and spinal cord, which relays
messages from the brain to the rest of the body to instruct it what to do.
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It facilitates communication between the brain and body by relaying messages. Sensory
nerves send messages to the brain via the spinal cord. The brain processes the
information and sends instructions back down the spinal cord to the body.
The spinal cord activates the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which carries out the
actions directed by the brain.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS): The system of nerves that connect the
central nervous system (mainly the spinal cord) to the skin, muscles and
organs in the body.
This entire process occurs rapidly.
Function of Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit messages between neurons (nerve cells).
Neurotransmitters: Chemicals found within the nervous system that pass
messages from one neuron to another across a synapse. Neuron: A nerve
cell that transmits information.
Different types of neurotransmitters have specific roles in the nervous system.
The following table outlines the roles of a few key neurotransmitters:
Neurotransmitter
Role
Plays a role in attention and learning; deficiency can
Dopamine
cause difficulty concentrating.
Serotonin
Plays a role in mood; low levels can lead to depression.
GABA (Gammaaminobutyric Calms us down; produced when we feel stressed to acid)
induce relaxation.
Neurotransmitters are released when a nerve impulse reaches the end of a nerve fiber
and are then received by another neuron to continue the nerve impulse.
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Synaptic Functioning
Messages are transmitted throughout the nervous system via synaptic transmission.
Synaptic transmission: The process by which neurotransmitters are released
by a neuron, move across the synaptic gap and are then taken up by another
neuron.
Synapses are tiny gaps between neurons that facilitate the passage of chemical
messages.
Synapse: A gap between two neurons that allows messages, in the form of
neurotransmitters, to pass from one cell to another.
An electrical impulse triggers the release of neurotransmitters from vesicles in the
terminal button at the end of the axon.
Axon: The long structure that connects the cell body of a neuron to the
terminal button at the end of the cell. Terminal button: The end of a
neuron. Vesicles: Small sacs containing neurotransmitter (chemical)
molecules.
These neurotransmitters are then absorbed by receptors on the next neuron, passing
the message along.
Receptors: Special sites on neurons that are designed to absorb
neurotransmitter molecules.
Impact of Neurological Damage
Effects of Brain Damage
Neurological damage refers to damage to parts of the nervous system.
Neurological damage: Damage to the body’s central and peripheral nervous
system.
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Brain damage can disrupt the normal flow of messages in the nervous system, affecting
a person’s thoughts and behavior.
The impact depends on the extent and location of the damage, which can range from
large-scale damage affecting entire networks of neurons to smaller-scale damage
involving only a few neurons.
Visual Agnosia
Agnosia is a problem in how the brain processes sensory information, resulting in an
inability to make sense of the information.
Agnosia: An inability to interpret sensations and thus to recognise things.
Visual agnosia is a condition where a person can see perfectly well but cannot
understand what they are seeing.
Visual agnosia: An inability to recognise things that can be seen.
For example, they may see a kettle but not recognize it as such.
Symptoms of Visual Agnosia
Inability to recognize the color of an object
Inability to recognize and name objects
Inability to recognize familiar places
Prosopagnosia
Prosopagnosia, also known as "face-blindness," is the inability to recognize faces even
when they can be seen.
Prosopagnosia: ‘Face-blindness’ or an inability to recognise faces.
The eyes can send information about the face, but the brain cannot identify who the
face belongs to.
It can be caused by damage to the fusiform face area (FFA), located near the back of
the temporal lobe, next to the occipital lobe.
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Fusiform face area (FFA): Part of the temporal lobe, close to the occipital lobe,
that is thought to help in face recognition.
Symptoms of Prosopagnosia
Difficulty identifying people from their faces
Seeing all faces as "the same"
Inability to recognize faces of well-known people
Impact of Damage to the Pre-Frontal Cortex
The pre-frontal cortex helps control impulses and balance emotions.
Pre-frontal cortex: The area of the brain’s cortex at the very front of the
frontal lobe, immediately behind the forehead.
Damage to this area can result in impulsivity, aggression, and difficulty controlling
emotions.
Personality changes and an increased likelihood of committing crimes may occur.
Studies, such as Adrian Raine et al. (1997), have found differences in the prefrontal
cortex of murderers, indicating less activity in this area, which may contribute to
violent and impulsive behavior.
Damasio et al. (1994) The Return of Phineas Gage:
Clues About the Brain from the Skull of a Famous
Patient
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Background
In 1848, Phineas Gage suffered an accident where an iron rod was fired through his
head, damaging his face and frontal lobe.
Gage survived but experienced permanent personality changes, becoming irresponsible
and rude after being calm and responsible before the accident. Psychologists have used
evidence from Gage’s case to understand the role of the frontal lobe in the brain.
Aims
In 1994, Damasio et al. aimed to build a model of Gage’s skull to map out the path of
the iron rod and identify which brain areas were damaged. They wanted to
determine if areas other than the frontal lobe were also affected.
Procedure
Damasio et al. took pictures and measurements of Gage’s skull to create a virtual 3D
replica.
They compared measurements of the iron rod to the damaged parts of the skull to
determine the rod’s likely path.
Twenty different entry points and sixteen different exit points were tested to find the
most probable path.
Using the virtual replica, they mapped out which areas of the brain would have been
damaged in each scenario.
Results
The study indicated that both the right and left hemispheres of the frontal lobe were
likely damaged.
The damage was likely confined to the frontal lobe, with the iron bar passing through
the left eye socket and upward through the head.
There was likely more damage to the underlying white matter in the left hemisphere
than in the right frontal lobe.
White matter: Brain and spinal cord tissue, consisting mainly of nerve fibres
(axons).
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Damage was more severe in the middle of the underside (ventromedial region), while
the top edges (dorsolateral regions) of the frontal lobes were less affected.
Conclusion
The researchers compared areas of Gage’s brain that were most likely to have been##
Phineas Gage and Frontal Lobe Damage
The case of Phineas Gage, who experienced a significant personality change after an accident,
is a cornerstone in understanding the function of the frontal lobes.
Generalizing from Gage's Case
One challenge with the Phineas Gage case is generalizing the findings. Because his brain
damage was unique, it's difficult to apply these insights directly to other individuals with
frontal lobe injuries.
Ventromedial Area Importance
The ventromedial area of the frontal lobes is crucial for:
Making sensible decisions
Controlling impulses around others
Regulating emotions
Support from Other Case Studies
Damasio et al. found similar impulse and emotional control problems in 12 other patients
with comparable frontal lobe damage. This consistency strengthens the understanding and
predictability of behavior in individuals with such injuries.
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Strengths of Damasio et al.’s Study
Modern technology: Damasio et al. utilized modern technology to analyze data from
1848.
Computer model: They replicated the accident on a computer model of Gage's skull
and brain.
Localization: They concluded that damage was confined to the frontal lobes.
Behavioral predictions: Predictions about behavioral changes in patients with frontal
lobe damage.
Weaknesses of Damasio et al.’s Study
Reliance on reports: The reconstruction of the accident relies on reports gathered over
150 years ago.
Inference: Information was inferred rather than directly observed.
Sperry (1968) Hemisphere Deconnection and Unity
in Conscious Awareness
Roger Sperry's research on split-brain patients offers insights into the distinct functions of the
brain's hemispheres.
Background
Patients with severe epilepsy underwent surgery to cut the corpus callosum, separating the
brain's hemispheres to reduce seizures. Post-surgery, these patients showed few obvious
effects, but research suggested that their hemispheres functioned independently, like two
separate brains.
Aim
Sperry aimed to investigate the effects of this "split-brain" by monitoring how these patients
processed information compared to normal brains.
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Procedure
Sperry's study involved 11 participants who had undergone a corpus callosum transection.
The procedure involved:
Visual Tasks:
Participants focused on a screen where information was presented to the left
and right visual fields simultaneously.
Different words or pictures were displayed on each side of the midpoint.
Information on the right visual field went to the left hemisphere, and vice versa.
Participants were asked to verbally identify or point to the presented words or
pictures.
Tactile Tasks:
Unseen objects were placed in one hand, and participants identified them by
touch.
Different objects were placed in each hand, and participants searched for them in
a pile.
Results
Visual Field Presentation:
Words shown to the right visual field (left hemisphere) were easily repeated.
Words shown to the left visual field (right hemisphere) were difficult to verbalize.
Objects shown to the left visual field were easily matched with a selected object.
Participants struggled to point to the correct object when the word or picture
was shown to the right visual field.
Tactile Object Recognition:
Objects felt by the right hand (left hemisphere) were easily named.
Objects felt by the left hand were difficult to name.
When different objects were placed in each hand, participants could only identify
each item with the hand that originally held it.
Conclusions
Each hemisphere can function independently.
Each hemisphere has its own memories that cannot be shared without the corpus
callosum.
The left hemisphere is better at naming items, indicating language abilities. The right
hemisphere excels at identifying objects by touch, suggesting spatial abilities.
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Strengths of Sperry's Study
Detailed information: Detailed data collection improved the study's reliability.
Standardized procedures: Consistent procedures, like the split-screen, ensured reliable
data collection and facilitated comparisons.
Weaknesses of Sperry's Study
Small sample size: A small sample of 11 participants limits the generalizability of the
results.
Artificial tasks: The lab tasks were artificial, potentially reducing ecological validity.
How Psychology Has Changed Over Time
Early Psychology
Psychology emerged as a distinct field in 1875 when Wilhelm Wundt established a laboratory
in Leipzig, Germany, to study human thoughts. Before this, the focus was more on brain
anatomy rather than its functions. The case of Phineas Gage influenced doctors to explore
the connection between the brain and specific behaviors. Brain studies were primarily
conducted post-mortem.
Development of EEGs
In 1924, Hans Berger developed the EEG (electroencephalograph) to measure brainwave
activity in living brains. This non-invasive method allowed researchers to study brain activity
without relying on post-mortem examinations.
EEG (electroencephalograph): A method of measuring brain activity using
electrodes placed on the scalp.
Modern Brain Scanning Techniques
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) and PET (positron emission tomography) scans provide
detailed insights into brain structure and function.
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MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): A method of studying the brain using
electromagnets.
PET (positron emission tomography): Imagery showing the amount of energy being
used throughout the brain.
These advanced techniques offer opportunities to assist individuals living with brain damage
by identifying affected areas and understanding their functions.
Microscopic Investigation
Modern psychologists use high-powered microscopes to study synapses, uncovering specific
brain areas that control various behaviors at the neuron level. For example, risk-taking and
impulsive behaviors are associated with high dopamine levels and a lack of neural receptors.
Social Influence
Social influence examines how individuals and groups affect behavior.
Terms Used in Social Influence Research
Term
Definition
Obedience
Complying with the request or order of an authority figure.
Authority Figure
Someone with more power and control than another.
Matching the behavior and beliefs of others in order to fit in or
Conformity because we do not know how to behave in an unusual situation.
Going along with the majority even though we privately do not
Compliance
agree.
Normative
Compliance because of the need to fit into a group. Influence
Going along with the majority because we do not know how to
Internalization behave in a situation – we adopt the beliefs of the group.
Conformity because we do not know how to behave; others
Informational provide this information so we adopt their beliefs and behaviors.
Identification Temporarily adopting the behaviors of a role model or group.
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Loss of personal self-awareness and responsibility as a result of
Deindividuation being in a group.
Bystander Effect When we fail to help another in need.
Conformity Types
Compliance: Publicly agreeing with a group while privately disagreeing, driven by the
desire for acceptance (normative social influence).
Internalization: Adopting the beliefs and behaviors of a group because you genuinely
believe they are correct (informational social influence).
Identification: Temporarily adopting the behaviors and beliefs of a group to fit in, often
tied to a specific role or group membership.
Deindividuation: Loss of individual identity and personal responsibility within a group
or crowd, leading to altered behavior.
Bystander Effect
The bystander effect is the phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help someone in
need when others are present, as they believe someone else will intervene.
Introduction to Bystander Intervention
Bystander intervention refers to the actions taken by individuals who witness an emergency
or a situation where someone needs help. Situational factors and personal factors can
influence whether a bystander decides to intervene or not.
Situational Factors Affecting Bystander Intervention
The following situational factors can affect bystander intervention:
Diffusion of responsibility: when individuals feel less personally responsible for helping
because there are others around who can also help
Pluralistic ignorance: when individuals look to others to determine how to react in a
situation, and if others are not helping, they assume it is not an emergency
Noticing the event: individuals are less likely to notice an emergency situation when
they are in a large crowd
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Cost of helping: individuals may evaluate the situation and decide not to help if they
feel it will cost them too much, such as risking their own safety
A situation where an individual feels that others will help, so they do not have to, is
an example of diffusion of responsibility.
Personal Factors Affecting Bystander Intervention
The following personal factors can affect bystander intervention:
Competence: individuals who feel competent to help are more likely to intervene
Mood: individuals who are in a good mood are more likely to help others Similarity:
individuals who perceive themselves as similar to the person in need are more likely to
help
Conformity
Conformity refers to the tendency for individuals to match their beliefs and behaviors to
those of others. This can be influenced by:
Size of the majority: the larger the majority, the more likely an individual is to conform
Unanimity of the majority: if the majority is unanimous in their opinion, an individual is
more likely to conform
Task difficulty/ambiguity: if a task is difficult or ambiguous, an individual is more likely
to look to others for guidance
Factor
Description
individuals who feel they have control over their own
Internal locus of control behavior
External locus of individuals who feel that external factors control their control
behavior
Authoritarian
beliefs
individuals who are respectful of authority and rigid in their personality
Obedience to an Authority Figure
Obedience refers to the act of following the orders of an authority figure. This can be
influenced by:
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Proximity of the victim: individuals are less likely to obey orders if the victim is close to
them
Proximity of the authority figure: individuals are more likely to obey orders if the
authority figure is close to them
Legitimacy of the context: individuals are more likely to obey orders if the context is
legitimate and prestigious
Understanding Crowd Behavior
Crowd behavior refers to the behavior of individuals in a group or crowd. This can be
influenced by:
Deindividuation: individuals may lose their sense of personal identity in a crowd and
conform to the behavior of the majority
Conformity: individuals may conform to the behavior of the majority in a crowd
Obedience: individuals may obey the orders of an authority figure in a crowd
Type of Behavior
Description
Prosocial behavior
behavior that is helpful and kind
Antisocial behavior
behavior that is unhelpful and aggressive
Milgram's research highlights factors that influence obedience, offering insights into
preventing blind obedience.
Education
Understanding obedience studies and their implications can encourage individuals to
question authority.
Education about the dangers of blind obedience is key to resisting it as it can give
us insight into our own behavior.
Organizations are increasingly using education programs to support employees who feel the
need to question authority.
Distance
Increasing the distance from an authority figure can lessen their impact. This encourages
individuals to remove themselves from uncomfortable situations.
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Social Support
Resisting obedience becomes easier with the support of others. Seeking support from
colleagues or mentors can provide strength in questioning authority.
When we are with others who resist obedience, we are more likely to follow suit.
Hofling et al. (1966) and Rank and Jacobson (1977) demonstrated this by showing that nurses
were less likely to blindly obey a doctor's order when they could consult with another nurse.
Real-World Application: Airplane Accidents
Analysis of airplane accidents revealed that a first officer's reluctance to question a captain's
decision contributed to over 20% of accidents. This underscores the importance of
encouraging subordinates to voice concerns.
Piliavin et al. (1969) Good Samaritanism: An
Underground Phenomenon?
Background
Piliavin, Rodin, and Piliavin (1969) conducted a field experiment inspired by the murder of
Kitty Genovese, aiming to understand factors affecting helping behavior in a natural
environment.
Aims
Investigate helping behavior in a natural environment.
Understand conditions under which people are more likely to help.
Procedure
Participants: Approximately 4500 subway passengers in New York City between 11 a.m.
and 3 p.m.
Covert Observation: Passengers were unaware they were part of an experiment.
Covert observation: participants are unaware that they are being observed.
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Teams: Four groups of students from Columbia University. Each group had two male
actors and two female observers.
Victim: One male actor who would either appear drunk (carrying a bottle in a brown
paper bag) or ill (carrying a cane).
Model: A male actor who would either offer help after a delay or not at all.
Observers: Two female students who recorded data.
Location: A specific subway carriage.
Setup: The victim would stand and collapse after the first station stop.
Variables:
Victim's condition: drunk vs. ill
Victim's race: White vs. Black
Model's behavior: helping vs. not helping
Field experiment: a procedure staged in a naturalistic environment.
Results
Helped Before Model Intervention
Cane Victim (Ill)
Drunk Victim
62/65 trials
19/38 trials
Helping Rate: Ill victims were helped more often than drunk victims.
Gender: Men were more likely to be the first to help (90% of first helpers). Race: There
was a slight tendency for same-race helping, especially with drunk victims.
Group Size: Larger groups were more likely to offer assistance, contrasting with the
diffusion of responsibility concept.
Time Lapse: Longer time lapses before the model helped led to passengers discussing
the situation or leaving the critical area.
Conclusions
People are more likely to help those perceived as ill due to lower costs and perceived
responsibility.
Men are more likely to help due to societal expectations and perceived costs.
There is a tendency for same-race helping, especially when the victim is drunk. Larger
groups are more likely to offer assistance, possibly due to lower individual cost and
higher cost of not helping.
The situation was generally seen as unambiguous, reducing diffusion of responsibility.
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Strengths
Ecological Validity: Conducted in a naturalistic setting (subway), enhancing the
authenticity of behaviors.
Ecological validity: the extent into which the findings still explain the behaviour in
different situations.
Weaknesses
Ethical Concerns: Passengers were unaware they were being observed and could not
consent, potentially causing distress.
Covert Investigation Benefits: Reduced demand characteristics, ensuring natural
behavior.
Demand characteristics: when the behaviour of participants changes because they
derive cues from the experimenter about the nature of the study and conform to
those expectations.
Haney, Banks, and Zimbardo (1973) A Study of
Prisoners and Guards in a Simulated Prison
Background
Haney, Banks, and Zimbardo (1973) created a mock prison to explore the causes of conflict
between prisoners and guards, addressing concerns about aggression in US and naval prisons.
Aim
Investigate prisoner-guard conflict in a simulated prison environment.
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Procedure
Participants: 22 male college students, psychologically healthy, paid $15 a day.
Roles: Randomly assigned as either prisoner (10) or guard (11).
Setting: Simulated prison in the basement of Stanford University, including cells, a yard,
a guardroom, and a solitary confinement area.
Guards: Instructed to maintain order without specific guidelines, dressed in militarystyle uniforms with batons.
Prisoners: Arrested by real police officers, processed at a police station, then taken to
the simulated prison, stripped, deloused, and given muslin smocks with ID numbers.
Results
Guard Behavior: Became increasingly aggressive and controlling towards prisoners.
Prisoner Rebellion: Occurred on the second day but was quickly suppressed.
Escalation: Verbal aggression and punishment intensified over the next few days.
Individual Differences: Some prisoners were passive, others rebellious; some guards
were aggressive, others reluctant.
Premature Termination: The study was stopped after 6 days due to loss of control and
extreme emotional distress among prisoners.
Conclusions
Participants conformed to their assigned roles.
Prisoners became submissive and passive.
Guards became aggressive and hostile.
Deindividuation: Uniforms and ID numbers facilitated this change in behavior, causing
a loss of personal identity.
Strengths
Realism: Recordings showed participants discussing prison life, suggesting immersion in
the situation.
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Weaknesses
Ethical Concerns: Caused significant distress and psychological harm to prisoners.
Ecological Validity: Simulation differed from real prisons, potentially influencing
behavior. Participants were aware it was a simulation, which may have impacted their
actions.
Generalizability: Limited to male college students, restricting broader application.
Generalisability: the extent to which the results of a study represent the whole
population, not just the sample used.
Social and Cultural Issues in Psychology
Social Issues in Psychology
Society: a group of people in a community.
Social issue: a social problem or conflict that affects a community of people.
A social issue is a problem or conflict within a society. Research into obedience, conformity,
deindividuation, and the bystander effect can help explain social issues such as the Holocaust
and riots.
Obedience
Milgram's research helps understand atrocities by illustrating how situational factors can
drive obedience to authority.
Conformity
Informational and normative social influence can explain behaviors in events like the 2011 UK
riots, where individuals looked to others for cues on how to behave.
Deindividuation
Haney, Banks, and Zimbardo’s (1973) study illustrates how loss of personal identity can lead
to changed behavior, explaining aggression in groups like Nazi soldiers.
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Bystander Effect
The bystander effect can explain inaction during the Holocaust, where individuals may have
failed to help due to the presence of others or fear of personal risk.
Cultural Issues in Psychology
Culture: a set of traditions, beliefs and values shared by a group of people.
Cultural issues involve differences in beliefs and traditions between individualistic and
collectivistic cultures.
Individualistic Cultures: Emphasize independence and autonomy.
Collectivistic Cultures: Emphasize group membership, interdependence, and
cooperation.
Obedience
Individualistic cultures may be less likely to follow orders.
Collectivistic cultures may be more likely to conform to authority.
Shanab and Yahya's (1977) replication of Milgram's experiment in Jordan showed high
obedience rates, but the young age of participants may have influenced the results.
Conformity
Individualistic cultures may be more non-conformist.
Collectivistic cultures may be more likely to conform.
Bond and Smith's (1996) study across 17 countries found that collectivistic cultures were
more likely to conform.
Deindividuation
Deindividuation occurs across all cultures, with outcomes depending on established group
norms.
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Bystander Effect
Individualistic cultures may show indifference due to weak social bonds. Collectivistic
cultures may show strong in-group favoritism.
Piliavin et al.’s (1969) study showed higher same-race helping, especially when the victim was
drunk, reflecting in-group favoritism.
Exam Strategy
Revision Planning
Effective exam preparation requires revision, which demands both effort and time.
Create a revision timetable to manage your time efficiently.
Identify the exam date and available revision time.
Divide the topics into manageable sections.
Adhere to the revision timetable to prevent last-minute cramming.
Utilize online revision timetable builders.
Assessment in GCSE Psychology
GCSE Psychology assessment is 100% examination-based, with no coursework.
Practical investigations during the course enhance methodological knowledge and
psychological imagination, which are crucial for scenario-based exam questions.
Topic 11 (Research methods) is primarily assessed in Paper 2, though questions may also
appear in Paper 1.
Assessment Objectives (AOs)
The exam evaluates skills developed throughout the course, known as assessment objectives:
AO1: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of psychological ideas, processes, and
procedures.
Tested through straightforward 'identify' or 'describe' questions, or alongside
other AOs.
AO2: Apply knowledge and understanding of psychological ideas, processes, and
procedures.
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Assessed via questions requiring explanation of novel situations using
psychological knowledge.
AO3: Analyze and evaluate psychological information, ideas, processes, and procedures
to make judgments and draw conclusions.
May involve analyzing data and graphs or evaluating theories, concepts, and
research.
Paper 1 Breakdown
Consists of six sections (A–F).
Sections A–E cover compulsory Topics 1–5.
Section F focuses on issues and debates and the interrelationships between core areas
of psychology covered in Topics 1–5.
The exam lasts 1 hour and 45 minutes and is worth 98 marks, contributing to 55% of
the final mark.
Sections A–E include multiple-choice and short-answer questions worth 1–4 marks
each.
Section F contains two extended-response questions (essays) worth 9 marks each,
requiring assessment of provided material. Answer all questions in Paper 1.
Question Types and Command Words
Familiarize yourself with various command words, each requiring a different skill set and
approach:
Command Word
Skill
Select key information from a stimulus or knowledge base.
Identify
Typically used in multiple-choice or diagram identification questions.
Recall learned information (concepts, theories, research, methods)
Give/State/Name appropriate for the question, using factual information.
Develop a response beyond simple identification without needing
Describe
justification.
Explain
Provide explanation, reasoning, or justification for your response.
Often linked to a stimulus or context, or prompts you to use relevant
psychological knowledge. Use "because".
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Sample Questions and Answers, Paper 1
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1. Question: Describe two features of short-term memory. (4 marks)
Student Answer:
One feature of short-term memory is that you can only store a certain
amount of information.
Another feature of short-term memory is that encoding is acoustic.
Feedback/Annotation: The answer identifies the features but needs
further development. The capacity should be specified, and acoustic encoding
should be explained.
Verdict: Average answer. To improve:
Use key terminology.
Develop the answer fully to access all available marks.
2. Question: Tasie is a primary school teacher... Explain why the children may have been
unkind to each other... You should refer to a study in your answer. (4 marks)
Student Answer: The children may be showing unkind behavior towards each
other... This can be seen in Haney et al.’s prison study...
Feedback/Annotation: Good answer because the student has explained why the
children were initially unkind and has supported the answer with an appropriate
study. The answer could be slightly improved by using the key term
‘deindividuation’
Verdict: This is a clear explanation because:
it uses appropriate psychology, which is relevant to the scenario it refers
to a relevant study and only describes the relevant aspects of the study.
3. Question: You can often find arcades with various penny slot machines and games at
the seaside... Explain why children may become addicted to the arcade games. You
should refer to a learning theory in your answer. (2 marks) Student Answer: The
children may find the arcade games rewarding or exciting, which may act as
reinforcement to stay in the arcade and play the games. Operant conditioning explains
that reinforcement can make us repeat a behaviour.
Feedback/Annotation: This answer clearly explains the context of the question,
but should have made specific reference to ‘positive reinforcement’ to be more
accurate.
Verdict: It could be improved by: being more accurate in the use of
psychological terminology to show better understanding more clearly
linking the theory to the scenario.
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4. Question: Unipolar depression is one of the most common mental health problems
experienced... Assess how far nature and nurture would account for
Jean’s depression. (9 marks)
Student Answer: Nature can explain mental health problems... Nurture explains
that mental health problems arise from environmental conditions...
Feedback/Annotation: This is a high-level response that meets all three
assessment objectives
Verdict: The answer is good because:
knowledge and understanding of the nature–nurture debate is
relevant and clear there is a sustained attempt to relate the answer
to the context judgements are well formed and evidence is offered
Research Methods – How Do You Carry Out
Psychological Research?
Psychological Research
Psychological research is fundamental to psychology, underpinning explanations and serving
as a critical part of the scientific process.
Theories about human behavior are suggested and tested using psychological
investigations.
Research either supports, rejects, or refines these theories, contributing to scientific
knowledge.
Psychology uses diverse research methods and techniques to explore human behavior.
Designing Psychological Research
Variables
Independent Variable (IV):
the variable directly manipulated by the researcher.
Dependent Variable (DV):
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the variable being measured in a study.
Operationalization:
making the variables in an investigation detailed and specific.
Extraneous Variables
Extraneous Variable:
a variable that is not controlled and could affect the study's results.
Confounding Variable:
an extraneous variable that significantly affects study results, obscuring the true
effect of the IV.
Situational Variables
Situational Variable:
an extraneous variable present in the study environment (e.g., noise, light,
temperature).
Order Effects:
occur when participants' performance improves or worsens due to repetition or
fatigue.
Demand Characteristics:
when participants alter their behavior based on perceived aims of the study.
Investigator Effect:
when a researcher unintentionally gives clues, altering participant behavior.
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Participant Variables
Participant Variables:
extraneous variables specific to participants, such as mood, ability, or personality.
Controlling Extraneous Variables
Standardized Procedure:
keeping the study procedure consistent across all conditions.
Counterbalancing:
dividing participants to experience conditions in different orders to balance order
effects.
Randomization:
randomly assigning participants to condition orders.
Single-Blind Technique:
withholding information about the study from participants to control demand
characteristics.
Double-Blind Technique:
withholding study aims from both participants and researchers.
Random Allocation:
randomly assigning participants to conditions.
Hypotheses
Key Terms
Null Hypothesis:
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a prediction that the results will fail to show any difference (or relationship) that
is consistent or systematic.
Alternative (Experimental) Hypothesis:
a prediction of the outcome of a study based on what is expected to happen.
Directional Hypothesis:
a hypothesis that predicts the direction the results will go in.
Non-Directional Hypothesis:
a hypothesis that predicts that a difference/relationship will be found, but does not
specify what the difference/relationship will be.
Experimental hypothesis is the name given to a hypothesis when used in field and
laboratory.
Hypotheses
In psychological investigations, researchers seek to identify either a difference between
conditions (as a result of manipulating the independent variable) or a relationship between
variables (as explored in correlational studies).
Alternative Hypothesis
An alternative hypothesis is a prediction of the expected outcome of a study,
usually based on a theory.
Directional Hypothesis: Used when a theory makes a clear claim, predicting the
direction of the results.
Example (Difference): Adults will recall more digits than children. Example
(Relationship): There will be a negative correlation between selfesteem and
depression, or the more depressed people feel, the lower their self-esteem.
Non-Directional Hypothesis: Used when a theory cannot make a clear prediction, or
evidence is mixed, stating that a difference or relationship will be found, but not
specifying its nature.
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Example (Difference): There will be a difference in the number of digits recalled by
adults and children.
Null Hypothesis
A null hypothesis predicts that the results will find no effect or very little effect.
Essentially, it imagines what would happen if the IV had minimal impact on the DV. It
includes the statement that any difference found will be due to chance because it is
unlikely that no difference will be found, but the difference found will be too small to
be due to the IV.
Example (Difference): There will be no difference in the number of digits recalled
whether participants listened to classical music or jazz. Any difference will be due to
chance.
Example (Relationship): There will be no relationship between time spent revising and
percentage score on a test; any relationship found will be due to chance.
Methods of Sampling
Target Population and Samples
Target Population: The group of people that an investigation is concerned with or
wishes to study and apply the findings to.
Example: If a study examines the impact of literacy programs on preschool
children, the target population is all preschool children.
Sample: A selection of the target population that is directly studied in an investigation.
A sample should represent the nature of the target population to ensure the
findings can be generalized.
Generalizability: The extent to which the results of a study represent the whole
population, not just the sample used.
Sampling Method: A technique used to gather a representative group of people as a
sample from the target population.
Random Sampling Technique
A technique where the target population is identified, and all members have an
equal chance of being selected.
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Process: Assign a number to each member of the target population, then draw
numbers randomly (like a lottery).
Strengths: Generates a representative sample, controlling participant variables.
Weaknesses: Participants must agree to participate, and some may refuse, leading to a
less representative sample.
Stratified Sampling Technique
A technique that identifies subgroups within the target population and takes a
random sample from each to ensure they are proportionately represented in the
sample.
Example: If a target population of office workers has 10% senior management and 90%
general office staff, the sample should reflect these proportions, drawn at random.
Strengths: Useful if a small subgroup might be missed by random sampling; ensures a
completely representative sample.
Weaknesses: Time-consuming and shares weaknesses with random sampling; people
can still refuse to participate, leading to sample error.
Sample Error: When a sample differs in qualities from the target population it intends
to represent, which can lead to invalid conclusions being drawn about the target
population.
Volunteer Sampling Technique
A technique that asks for participants by placing an advert for volunteers.
Process: Advertising the study (e.g., in a newspaper or on a noticeboard) and
requesting volunteers.
Strengths: Minimal effort for researchers in identifying and selecting a sample; ethical
as participants volunteer without direct pressure.
Weaknesses: Less representative than random or stratified sampling; can lead to a
biased sample as volunteers tend to be a particular type of personality or have time
and the inclination to participate, which may mean that the findings are unreliable.
Biased Sample: When the sample recruited is made up of a particular type of person,
which may not reflect the target population.
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Opportunity Sampling Technique
A technique that recruits participants who are readily available at the time.
Process: Using people who happen to be around at the time of the research.
Strengths: Quickest and simplest sampling technique.
Weaknesses: Can lead to a biased sample as not every member of the target population
may be around at the time of the study; findings may not be generalizable or reliable.
Sampling Techniques Table
Technique
Description
Strengths
Weaknesses
Generates a
Each member of the
Participants must agree to
representative participate, which can lead to a
less representative sample.
Time-consuming, people can
still refuse to participate,
which can lead to sample
error.
Less representative, can lead
to a biased sample as
volunteers tend to be a
particular type of
personality.
Can lead to a biased sample
as not every member of the
target population may be
around at the time of the
study, findings may not be
generalizable or reliable.
Random
Sampling
target population has an
sample, controls
equal chance of being participant
selected. variables.
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Subgroups within the
Useful for
target population are representing small
identified, and a random
Stratified
subgroups, ensures
sample is taken from
Sampling
a completely
each to ensure representative
proportionate sample.
representation.
Minimal effort for
Asks for participants by researchers, ethical
Volunteer placing an advert for
as participants
Sampling
volunteers.
volunteer without
direct pressure.
Recruits participants
Quickest and
Opportunity who are readily simplest sampling
Sampling available at the time.
technique.
Research and Experimental Designs
Research design: How participants are allocated to the conditions of a study.
Experimental design: The name given to research design when used in an
experiment.
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