21st CENTURY LITERATURE FROM THE PHILIPPINES AND THE WORLD
Literary Criticism: Key Approaches
1. Formalism
Overview: Formalism is concerned with the form and structure of the text itself,
emphasizing the literary elements like plot, character, setting, imagery, and
symbols. This approach seeks to uncover meaning through a close reading of the text's
internal features.
Focus: The intrinsic elements of the text, such as its language, structure, and
literary devices, without considering external factors like the author’s biography
or historical context.
Example: Analyzing a Shakespearean sonnet for its use of rhyme, meter, and metaphor
to understand the theme of beauty and time.
Critical Questions:
- How do specific literary elements (e.g., imagery, metaphor, symbolism) contribute
to the overall meaning of the text?
- What tensions, contrasts, or paradoxes are evident in the structure of the work,
and how are they resolved or left unresolved?
- How does the form (such as rhyme scheme, narrative structure, or plot progression)
enhance or reflect the theme of the text?
- How do repetition and variation within the text create meaning or aesthetic effect?
- In what ways do the characters, setting, or dialogue contribute to the unity or
coherence of the work?
More on Formalism:
Formalism, also known as Russian formalism, emerged in the early 20th century. This
perspective draws on Ferdinand de Saussure’s concepts of semiotics, exploring how
signs and symbols can create new meanings within a literary text. Formalism
emphasizes the medium of literature itself, particularly how poetry can creatively
transform or “renew” everyday language, resulting in a “defamiliarized” artwork
that offers a fresh experience to the senses. The focus is on the form and techniques
employed in literature rather than its content, allowing literature to be appreciated
as an independent art form that exists separately from its themes.
2. Historical Criticism
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Overview: Historical Criticism examines the text in its historical context, exploring
how the time period, political events, and cultural dynamics shape the work. It sees
literature as a product of its time and place.
Focus: The relationship between the text and its historical context, focusing on how
historical events, social conditions, and the author's background influence the
literary work.
Example: Studying Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities in the context of the French
Revolution, examining how historical events shaped the novel's portrayal of social
unrest.
Critical Questions:
- How does the text reflect the social, political, and economic conditions of the
time in which it was written?
- What historical events or movements are referenced in the work, either directly or
indirectly, and how do they influence the plot or themes?
- How might contemporary readers of the time have interpreted this work differently
than modern readers?
- To what extent does the text engage with or challenge the dominant ideologies of
its historical period?
- How do the author's personal experiences and historical context shape the creation
and reception of the work?
More on Historical Criticism:
Historical criticism emphasizes that to fully comprehend a literary text, one must
first understand the author
including their social background, the ideas prevalent during their time, and the
context in which they lived. The central premise is that whether before or after
engaging with the text, it’s essential to be acquainted with the author and the
world they inhabited when the work was created.
3. New Criticism
Overview: An offshoot of Formalism, New Criticism emphasizes the close reading of the
text, viewing it as a self-contained unit. It disregards external contexts and
focuses entirely on the literary features within the work.
Focus: Close reading of the text to analyze its formal elements—such as imagery,
metaphor, and symbolism—without reference to the author's biography or historical
context.
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Example: Reading John Donne’s The Flea as an exploration of persuasion and love
through the poem’s metaphor and structure, without considering Donne’s personal
life.
Critical Questions:
- How does the interplay of literary devices like irony, ambiguity, and symbolism
create layers of meaning within the text?
- What is the central theme of the work, and how do specific textual elements
reinforce this theme?
- How does the text balance unity and complexity, and where do elements of tension or
conflict arise?
- How do the tone, diction, and style contribute to the overall mood and meaning of
the work?
- What patterns or motifs recur throughout the text, and how do they influence the
reader’s interpretation of the themes?
More on New Criticism:
New Criticism is a literary approach that prioritizes “close reading” of the text
itself, moving away from the historical context emphasized by traditional historicism
to focus on how a work operates. This method reveals the intricacies of a piece
through detailed analysis rather than exploring the author's life or the
circumstances surrounding its creation. It has become the predominant way of
analyzing literary works in middle and high school English classes.
Both New Criticism and Formalism examine the relationship between a text's ideas and
its form—specifically, what the text conveys and the methods it employs. New
Criticism, sometimes called the “science of literature,” investigates the technical
elements of language used in a work, such as sounds, imagery, narrative style, and
point of view. For instance, when reading a poem about love, New Criticism would
analyze its structure, such as its 14 lines of iambic pentameter and its rhyming
scheme. The poem's intent lies in the subtlety and unity of the text itself, with
meaning arising directly from the text on the page. When applying New Criticism to a
text, you can focus on three key aspects: form, meaning, and function.
4. New Historicism
Overview: New Historicism blends the study of literature with historical context but
emphasizes that history itself is also subject to interpretation. It explores how
texts are shaped by, and in turn shape, the culture and power structures of their
time.
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Focus: The interaction between the text and its historical, social, and political
environment, exploring how power relations and ideologies influence both the text and
history.
Example: Analyzing Shakespeare’s The Tempest for its commentary on European
colonialism and how it reflects 16th-century power dynamics, while also considering
how the text might shape cultural understandings of colonialism.
Critical Questions:
- How does the text both reflect and shape the cultural, political, and social
dynamics of its historical context?
- How are power relations—such as class, gender, or race—negotiated or represented
within the text and its historical backdrop?
- In what ways does the text challenge or reinforce the dominant ideologies and
discourses of its time?
- How does the text interact with other contemporary works, events, or cultural
productions of the same period?
- How might the text be seen as contributing to or resisting the formation of
historical narratives or cultural memory?
More on New Historicism:
New historicists aim to uncover the political role of literature as it was created,
exploring how cultures produce and sustain themselves. They strive to unveil the
historical truths and authority present in a text to understand the dominant ideas
and assumptions of its time. Consequently, history transcends mere facts or
timelines; it becomes a complex reflection of human reality and thought. Literature
produced in a specific era can reveal its social structures, taboos, biases,
challenges, practices, and more. Additionally, new historicism seeks to trace how
these ideas have evolved alongside changes in the literary text itself.
5. Marxism
Overview: Marxist criticism examines literature through the lens of class struggle,
materialism, and economic power. It considers how literature reflects, reinforces, or
challenges the ideologies of a given society.
Focus: Class, power, and economic structures, focusing on how texts reveal the
ideologies of their time and how they depict relationships between different social
classes.
Example: Reading George Orwell’s Animal Farm as a critique of totalitarianism and an
allegory of class struggle and economic inequality.
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- How are the dynamics of class struggle or economic inequality represented in the
text?
- How does the text depict the relationships between the working class and the ruling
class, and what message does this convey about power and oppression?
- How does the work reflect or critique the socio-economic structures of its time,
especially in terms of labor, wealth, and exploitation?
- In what ways does the text either reinforce or challenge the dominant ideology of
capitalism or materialism?
- How are characters' identities shaped by their social class, and how do class
conflicts drive the plot or theme?
More on Marxism:
Have you ever wondered why some people are wealthy while others are impoverished?
This question is central to Marxism, founded by Karl Marx, who sought to understand
how capitalist society operates and the implications for different social classes. He
identified a struggle between two main classes: capitalists, who own the means of
production, and the proletariat, or workers, who produce goods but do not own the
resources they use.
A key concept in Marxism is alienation, which refers to the disconnection workers
experience in a capitalist system. Workers are alienated in several ways:
Workers experience alienation in several significant ways within a capitalist system.
First, they are alienated from the productive process itself, as they have no say in
the decision-making regarding how and what to produce, with capitalists setting all
the rules and conditions. Second, they are alienated from the products of their
labor, as they rarely have the opportunity to use or benefit from what they produce,
which is intended solely for the capitalists' profit. Third, the demands of mass
production and competition lead to alienation from society and other individuals,
fostering indifference as workers prioritize their survival over communal
relationships. Lastly, they are alienated from their inherent need for creativity and
social connection, as the relentless focus on production stifles their ability to
express themselves and develop meaningful interactions with others.
As a result of this alienation, workers feel diminished and incomplete, losing a
sense of their humanity and connection to the world around them.
6. Postcolonialism
Overview: Postcolonialism explores literature produced in or about former colonies
and examines the cultural legacies of colonization. It critiques the ways in which
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literature has been used to reinforce colonial ideologies and gives voice to
previously marginalized perspectives.
Focus: The effects of colonization on cultures, identities, and literature, often
focusing on the power dynamics between colonizers and colonized peoples.
Example: Analyzing Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart for its portrayal of precolonial African culture and the devastating impact of European colonization.
Critical Questions:
- How does the text depict the relationships between colonizers and colonized people,
and what does this say about power, identity, and resistance?
- In what ways does the text challenge or reinforce colonial ideologies, stereotypes,
or representations of the “Other”?
- How are the cultural, linguistic, and political consequences of colonization
addressed in the text?
- How do characters negotiate their identities in a world shaped by colonial
domination, displacement, or hybridity?
- What strategies of resistance or subversion does the text employ to critique
colonial authority or reclaim indigenous voices?
More on Postcolonialism:
Postcolonialism refers to a period or theory that emerges after a colony achieves
independence from its colonizing nation. Postcolonialism examines how colonization
has influenced the political, economic, and social environments of these formerly
colonized countries. It also explores how these nations respond to their newfound
independence and the lingering ties to their former colonizers. Many literary works
depict characters grappling with their identities following colonization, focusing on
how they cope with the emotional, economic, and political consequences left by the
colonizers. Postcolonialism critically analyzes these texts, encouraging readers to
examine the impacts of colonization and imperialism on the characters. Additionally,
it investigates how the influence of the colonizers persists beyond the colonial
period and affects the future of the postcolonial nation.
7. Decolonization
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Overview: Decolonization goes beyond Postcolonialism by actively working to undo the
intellectual and cultural legacies of colonialism. It seeks to reclaim indigenous
narratives, languages, and identities from colonial domination.
Focus: Reclaiming cultural identity, language, and autonomy from the forces of
colonization, often critiquing the lingering effects of colonialism in contemporary
culture.
Example: Reading Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o’s Decolonising the Mind, which advocates for the
rejection of European languages in African literature, as an effort to decolonize
African thought and culture.
Critical Questions:
- How does the text seek to reclaim indigenous or native perspectives that were
erased or marginalized by colonial powers?
- How does the language used in the text reflect efforts to decolonize thought,
identity, or culture?
- In what ways does the text dismantle colonial narratives and offer alternative
histories or truths?
- How does the text address the psychological and cultural impacts of colonialism,
and what paths for healing or restoration are suggested?
- How does the author challenge or reject Western forms of knowledge, art, and
culture in favor of indigenous traditions or viewpoints?
More on Decolonization:
A way to address the lingering influence of colonizers on the colonized is through
the concept of decolonization. Decolonization is the intellectual process of
reclaiming the independence that colonies once had before colonization. This involves
deconstructing the dominant ideas, cultural practices, and beliefs imposed by the
colonizers from the minds of the indigenous people. It is a thorough and
transformative process aimed at severing the ties that connect the colonies to their
colonizers and restoring the power that was lost during colonization. Although
postcolonialism and decolonization are distinct concepts, they both address issues of
identity and belonging. When colonial powers invade a territory, they often dismantle
indigenous beliefs and cultural practices, replacing them with their own.
Consequently, when these colonies gain independence, they typically face the
challenge of establishing a cohesive national identity.
8. Romanticism
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Overview: Romanticism emerged in the late 18th century as a reaction to the
Enlightenment's focus on reason and science. It emphasizes emotion, nature, and
individualism, often idealizing the natural world and human imagination.
Focus: The celebration of emotion, individual experience, imagination, and the
sublime power of nature. Romantic works often reflect a sense of awe toward the
natural world and explore deep emotional states.
Example: Analyzing William Wordsworth’s Tintern Abbey for its reflection on the
beauty of nature and the power of memory and imagination in shaping personal
identity.
Critical Questions:
- How does the text celebrate or emphasize the power of individual emotion,
imagination, and intuition?
- How is the natural world portrayed, and what relationship does the individual or
society have with nature in the text?
- How does the text reflect a critique of industrialization, rationalism, or
materialism in favor of spiritual or emotional transcendence?
- In what ways does the work explore the sublime, particularly in its depiction of
awe, terror, or beauty in nature?
- How do the characters’ inner lives—emotions, dreams,
narrative, and what does this suggest about human experience?
desires—drive
the
More on Romanticism:
Romanticism emerged as a literary critical movement in the 1800s and lasted for about
fifty years before being succeeded by modernism. It emphasizes human emotions and
imagination, responding to the disillusionment with Enlightenment values of reason
that followed the French Revolution of 1789. Romanticism champions individual
freedom, encouraging people to explore their emotions and imaginative ideas, often
leading to an egocentric focus on personal feelings. It also stresses individualism,
prompting individuals to think for themselves and support their own liberal beliefs.
The movement draws inspiration from the remote past, nostalgia, and the exotic,
aiming to illuminate personal emotions to better engage with the world.
The term "romanticism" originates from medieval romance, highlighting heroic
individuals and their thrilling adventures, which starkly contrasted with the
formality of earlier literary forms like couplet poems. In English literature,
romanticism began with the lyrical ballads of Samuel Taylor Coleridge and William
Wordsworth, who described poetry as a “spontaneous overflow of emotions.” William
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Blake later joined them as a key figure in the movement. Romanticism gained momentum
in Germany, where writers celebrated the bizarre, mysterious, and supernatural.
A second phase of romanticism occurred from 1805 to 1830, emphasizing cultural
naturalism and native origins through folklore and music. Sir Walter Scott revived
interest in history, while poets like John Keats and Percy Bysshe Shelley propelled
English poetry into a deeper romantic consciousness, exemplified by Mary Shelley’s
novel Frankenstein. As romanticism spread across Europe, it became more focused on
exploring national historical and cultural significance and the struggles of
individuals within these contexts.
9. Modernism
Overview: Modernism arose in the early 20th century as a response to the alienation
brought about by industrialization and war. It is characterized by experimentation
with form, fragmentation, and a focus on subjective experience.
Focus: The breakdown of traditional narrative structures, fragmentation of
perspective, and exploration of alienation, disillusionment, and the search for
meaning in a chaotic world.
Example: Reading T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land as a reflection of post-World War I
disillusionment and the fractured nature of modern life, with its fragmented
narrative and collage of literary references.
Critical Questions:
- How does the text experiment with narrative form, structure, or language to reflect
the disjointed or fragmented nature of modern life?
- In what ways does the work depict alienation, disillusionment, or existential
crisis, especially in relation to modern society?
- How does the text respond to major historical events like World War I or
technological advancements, and how do these events shape the themes?
- How do the characters grapple with questions of identity, meaning, or the search
for purpose in a world that feels unstable or chaotic?
- What role does subjectivity or stream-of-consciousness play in the narrative, and
how does this affect the reader’s understanding of the characters or events?
More on Modernism:
Modernism is a literary and cultural movement that emerged in the late 19th and early
20th centuries, primarily in Europe and North America. It encompasses a wide range of
artistic disciplines, including literature, visual arts, and music. Modernism is
marked by a deliberate break from traditional forms and conventions, focusing on new
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ways of perceiving reality, experimentation with narrative techniques, and often
reflecting themes of alienation, dislocation, and fragmentation. Writers associated
with modernism include figures like T.S. Eliot, Virginia Woolf, and James Joyce.
Characterized by a rejection of tradition, modernism sought to explore innovative
approaches and venture into uncharted territories, striving for uniqueness and
creativity. It emphasized possibilities and the importance of individuality.
10. Postmodernism
Overview: Postmodernism developed after World War II as a reaction against Modernism.
It is marked by irony, playfulness, and skepticism toward grand narratives.
Postmodern works often blur the boundaries between high and low culture, reality and
fiction, and meaning and chaos.
Focus: Playfulness, self-referentiality, and the questioning of absolute truths and
traditional narrative forms. Postmodernism often challenges established conventions
and celebrates multiplicity of meaning.
Example: Analyzing Kurt Vonnegut’s Slaughterhouse-Five for its non-linear narrative,
blending of fiction and reality, and use of dark humor to explore the absurdity of
war.
Critical Questions:
- How does the text challenge traditional narrative structures, such as linearity or
closure, and what effect does this have on meaning?
- In what ways does the text play with the boundaries between fiction and reality, or
between high and low culture?
- How does the text use irony, parody, or pastiche to critique dominant cultural or
social norms?
- How are notions of identity, truth, or knowledge destabilized or questioned in the
text, and what does this suggest about postmodern thought?
- How does the text invite multiple interpretations, resisting any single or
authoritative reading, and what does this say about meaning in a postmodern context?
More on Postmodernism:
The concept of postmodernism initially emerged in architecture. It fundamentally
rejects the modernist approach of pursuing novelty and avant-garde ideas.
Postmodernism offers a skeptical interpretation of culture, art, history,
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architecture, and literature, implying a critical perspective on artistic works.
Rather than focusing on ornamentation or innovation, postmodernists emphasize
variety. This movement entirely dismisses the modernist principles of "totality,"
"unity," and comprehensiveness.
In the 1970s, what Arab-American scholar Ihab Hassan referred to as the "literature
of silence" began to take shape through the works of authors like Marquis de Sade,
Franz Kafka, Samuel Beckett, and Ernest Hemingway. These writings often explore
ontology, which is the nature of being and the experiences of becoming, existing, and
living as individuals. Postmodernism encourages the creation of art that transcends
mere acts or products; it invites individuals to engage fully with their existence
and embody the art itself.
References:
Abrams, M. H. (1999). A glossary of literary terms (7th ed.). Heinle & Heinle.
Barry, P. (2017). Beginning theory: An introduction to literary and cultural theory
(4th ed.). Manchester University Press.
Eagleton, T. (2008). Literary theory: An introduction (Anniversary ed.). University
of Minnesota Press.
Greenblatt, S. (1988). Shakespearean negotiations: The circulation of social energy
in Renaissance England. University of California Press.
Sayuno, C. and Chua, R. (2019). 21st century literature from the Philippines and
the world. Diwa Learning Systems Inc.
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