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A high-performance thermoelectric
single-photon detector for telecom
wavelengths
Astghik A. Kuzanyan, Armen S. Kuzanyan, Vahan R.
Nikoghosyan
Astghik A. Kuzanyan, Armen S. Kuzanyan, Vahan R. Nikoghosyan, "A highperformance thermoelectric single-photon detector for telecom wavelengths,"
Proc. SPIE 11027, Quantum Optics and Photon Counting 2019, 110270K (30
April 2019); doi: 10.1117/12.2520105
Event: SPIE Optics + Optoelectronics, 2019, Prague, Czech Republic
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A high-performance thermoelectric single-photon detector for telecom
wavelengths
Astghik A. Kuzanyan*, Armen S. Kuzanyan, Vahan R. Nikoghosyan
Institute for Physical Research, National Academy of Sciences, Ashtarak – 2, 0203, Armenia
ABSTRACT
In this work the problem is solved to achieve high detection efficiency of TSPD for telecommunication systems. A fourlayer detection pixel of TSPD is proposed which consists of a photon absorber, thermoelectric sensor and the heat sink
that also play the role of an electrical contact. The computer modeling was carried out using the equation for heat
propagation from a limited volume and of the three-dimensional matrix method for differential equations. The results of
computer simulation of heat propagation processes in the four-layer detection pixel of TSPD after the absorption of
single photons with the 0.8 eV energy (λ = 1550 nm) are presented. Various geometries of the detection pixel consisting
of lanthanum hexaboride nanoparticles as absorber material, the cerium hexaboride as a thermoelectric sensor and
tungsten as electrical contact and heat sink are considered. It is shown that a TSPD with a four-layer detection pixel will
have the gigahertz count rate and detection efficiency exceeding 90%. Taking into account the advantages of TSPD over
the other types of detectors it can be argued that the four-layer detection pixel of the thermoelectric detector has strong
prospects to solve a number of single-photon detection tasks.
Keywords: Single photon detector, sensor, thermoelectric, telecommunication systems.
1. INTRODUCTION
At the present stage the development of science and high technologies is connected with the creation of a new generation
of measuring devices with enhanced characteristics and the creation of new devices based on the latest achievements of
fundamental science. Among such devices are single photon detectors (SPD), which are capable to see a single photon
and to determine its energy [1]. During recent years, the interest in single photon sources and detectors of the visible and
IR ranges has exponentially increased due to the accelerated development of such areas of science as quantum optics,
quantum information processing and telecommunication systems [2–5]. At the same time, interest is growing in the UV
and X-ray detectors in such areas as astrophysics and space astronomy, laser physics, conventional and quantum
metrology, high-energy physics, medical instrumentation, microchip testing, fluorescence microscopy, X-ray
microanalysis and bioluminescence [6]. At this stage of development of single-photon detection, the superconducting
nanowire single photon detectors (SNSPD) have the highest characteristics [7, 8]. They have high energy resolution,
count rate and low dark count in a wide area of the electromagnetic spectrum.
One of the most important characteristics of single-photon detectors is the detection efficiency, which can be represented
as the product of three components η = ηo × ηa × ηi, where ηo is the optical coupling efficiency of the photons and the
detection pixel, ηa is the absorption efficiency of the photons in the absorber and ηi is the internal detection efficiency or
the probability of registering of already absorbed photon [9]. The low detection efficiency is unacceptable in
telecommunication systems using near-infrared radiation. That is why a number of papers deal with the problem of
increasing the efficiency of single-photon IR detectors. The system efficiency of SNSPD for the wavelength of 1550 nm
in 2012 was limited to 36% [10], but later sensor designs with system efficiency exceeding 90% were proposed [11–13].
In these studies, multilayer coatings with SiO2 antireflection layer were used to increase the efficiency of the detectors.
The thermoelectric single-photon detectors (TSPD) can compete with SNSPDs. The concept of TSPD was proposed by
Armenian and American scientists in 2000 [14, 15]. The main advantages of TSPD in comparison with other types of
detectors are their high technical characteristics, simple design and the absence of strict requirements for working
temperature [16, 17].
Computer simulation of heat distribution processes in a detection pixel of TSPD has shown that such a detector can
register single photons in a wide range of electromagnetic spectrum with high count rate and energetic resolution [18–
22]. In these works lanthanum-cerium (La1-xCexB6) and cerium (CeB6) hexaborides were considered as TSPD sensors
that have high thermoelectric properties at 0.5 K and 9 K respectively. It is obvious that low operating temperatures of
Quantum Optics and Photon Counting 2019, edited by Ivan Prochazka, Roman Sobolewski,
Ralph B. James, Peter Domokos, Adam Gali, Proc. of SPIE Vol. 11027, 110270K
© 2019 SPIE · CCC code: 0277-786X/19/$18 · doi: 10.1117/12.2520105
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single-photon detectors are necessary to suppress the thermal noise. This requirement leads to the necessity of using the
compounds having high Seebeck coefficient at low temperatures in TSPD and provide the high internal detection
efficiency ηi. The next important detail is that in these works as a material of the absorber and the heat sink the tungsten
(W) is chosen and a high absorption efficiency ηa was ensured. As shown in [21, 22], with an appropriate choice of the
thickness of the W absorber, it is possible to provide a value of ηa close to the unity for photons from the IR to the hard
X-ray range. At the same time, because of the high reflection coefficient (~80%), the W cannot provide a good optical
coupling and close to the unity values of optical coupling efficiency ηo for photons in the near-IR region [23, 24].
However, just in this area there is a window of telecommunication wavelengths of 1310 and 1550 nm (0.8 and 0.95 eV)
[25, 26], which determines the possibility of using the single-photon detectors to solve one of the most topical tasks of
today, the creation of new generation of telecommunication systems. This circumstance prompts us to search for the
absorber material of the TSPD sensor, which would provide high optical coupling with the photons of the specified
range. Such a material may be the lanthanum hexaboride. The monocrystalline and film samples of LaB6 have the
reflection coefficient of about 80 and 60% in 1300–1600 nm area, respectively [27, 28]. However, after annealing in
vacuum, the coefficient of reflection of film samples reduces to ~20%. In the near-IR region, a lower reflection
coefficient (5%) and the high molar extinction coefficient have the coatings with the LaB6 nanoparticles [29]. Such
coatings are used in solar radiation filters for absorption in the near-IR region [30]. Naturally enough, they can be used as
an absorber of the TSPD detection pixel, which, as compared with the W absorber, will increase the value of ηo and
increase the system efficiency of detection by several times.
In the present work we consider the possibility of the TSPD creation with high system efficiency of detection of 0.8 eV
photons. By the method of computer simulation of the heat propagation processes, the characteristics of a single-photon
detector with a four-layer detection pixel consisting of LaB6 and CeB6 hexaborides and W heavy metal are investigated.
2. TSPD: DESCRIPTION, METHOD OF COMPUTATION
The single layer detection pixel of TSPD contains two W absorbers which are deposited on a dielectric substrate and
coupled to each other by the CeB6 thermoelectric bridge (Figure 1, left). When a photon enters an absorber, its
temperature rises in comparison to that of the second absorber, leading to appearance of voltage. By measuring this
voltage, the fact of absorption can be registered and the energy of the photon determined. Operation of such detection
pixel does not require any additional power source or applied voltage and, hence, no additional contacts. Such detection
pixel has, however, deficiencies limiting its application. The photon energy is being determined by taking the signal
temporal dependence integral. If the time decay of the signal to the background value is higher than the time of heat
propagation through the metal-dielectric boundary, the so called Kapitza boundary, then a part of the heat generated by
the photon will pass to the substrate making impossible to determine the photon energy. The photon energy cannot be
determined by the maximal value of the arising signal, since the temporal behaviour depends on the area of the photon
thermalization. The three-layer design of the TPSD sensor (Figure 1, in the middle) avoids such dependence and the
possibility of heat draft from absorber to the substrate. If we add an additional anti-reflective layer to the three-layer
sensor, we will obtain a four-layer sensor design (Figure 1, on the right).
Figure 1. Design of single layer, three-layer and four-layer detection pixels of TSPD.
The computer modeling was used to study the peculiarities of the heat propagation processes in the single-layer TSPD
detection pixel with the tungsten made absorber and thermoelectrics (La,Ce)B6 [31], CeB6 [18, 32] and FeSb2 [33]. The
method of computer simulation was applied to study the features of heat propagation processes in the three-layer
detection pixel of TSPD with the tungsten and superconducting absorbers [19, 34, 35]. The characteristics of a single-
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layer [36] and three-layer [37] detection pixel of TSPD with the LaB6 absorber and the (La,Ce)B6 and CeB6 sensors are
also investigated.
Let us use now this method to determine the characteristics of four-layer detection pixel with LaB6 anti-reflective layer,
CeB6 sensors, W absorber and heat sink. The computer simulation of the processes taking place in a four-layer detection
pixel after the absorption of photons with the energy of 0.8 eV at the center of the surface of 10×10 μm2 of LaB6 layer
was carried out based on the heat-transfer equation from a limited volume using the three-dimensional matrix method.
The details of applied approaches and approximations are given in [31]. The parameters of materials used in the
computations are represented in Table 1. CeB6 is the thermoelectric sensor with the maximum values of the Seebeck
coefficient at 9 K, so this temperature is chosen as the operating temperature of the TSPD. The detection pixel is located
on the sapphire (Al2O3) substrate, which is the dielectric that has high thermal conductivity at low temperatures.
Table 1. Parameters of used materials at 9 K.
Parameters
Density, kg m-3
Specific heat, J kg-1K-1
Thermal conductivity, W m-1 K-1
The Seebeck coefficient, μV K-1
LaB6
CeB6
4720
0.196 [37]
100 [38]
4800
7.3 [39]
0.8 [40]
150 [41]
Materials
W
19250
0.187 [44]
9680 [45]
Al2O3
4000
0.0588 [42]
300 [43]
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of computer simulation of heat propagation processes in the four-layer detection pixel of TSPD are presented
in Table 2. The numbers of computations for the detection pixel LaB6/W/CeB6/W have the notation LWCW. We denote
the thickness of LaB6 anti-reflective layer (L1), W absorber (L2), CeB6 sensors (L3), W heat sink (L4) as Z1, Z2, Z3, and
Z4, respectively. The characteristics of the detection pixel obtained as a result of computation have the following
denotations: ΔTm is the maximum difference of temperature arising on the sensor, Vm is the maximum voltage, tm is the
time to reach the maximum signal, tb is the time of the fall of the signal down to its background value (10−4 K) and R =
1/tb is the count rate.
Table 2. Characteristics of the TSPD four-layer detection pixel with LaB6 anti-reflective layer
№ of
computation
Z1,
μm
Z2,
μm
LWCW 1
LWCW 2
LWCW 3
LWCW 4
LWCW 5
LWCW 6
LWCW 7
LWCW 8
LWCW 9
LWCW 10
LWCW 11
LWCW 12
LWCW 13
LWCW 14
LWCW 15
LWCW 16
LWCW 17
LWCW 18
1
1
1
1
1
1
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
Z3,
μm
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1
Z4,
μm
∆Tm,
mK
tm,
ps
Vm,
μV
tb,
ps
R,
GHz
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
4.918
4.911
4.854
4.565
3.406
1.814
25.742
25.742
25.739
25.572
21.886
12.383
290.4
290.4
290.4
290.4
289
232.7
2040
2028
1965
1815
1629
1524
570
570
570
558
465
402
55.2
55.2
55.2
55.2
54.3
42.6
0.0074
0.0074
0.0073
0.0068
0.0051
0.0027
0.0386
0.0386
0.0386
0.0384
0.0328
0.0186
0.4356
0.4356
0.4356
0.4356
0.4335
0.3491
2571
2523
2379
2067
1488
735
2289
2202
1986
1617
1139.4
685.2
0.39
0.39
0.42
0.48
0.67
1.36
0.44
0.45
0.5
0.62
0.88
1.46
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In accordance with Figure 1, the geometric dimensions of surface of the absorber, thermoelectric layer and of the heat
sink are similar to those of the absorber. The value of arising voltage on the sensor is determined by maximal
temperature difference on the thermoelectric layer using equation Vm = S×∆Tm where S is the Seebeck coefficient of
thermoelectric CeB6. We shall consider further only the dependences ΔT(t) calculated for the region in the center of the
sensor directly under the photon thermalization point.
Consider first the results of computer modeling of heat propagation processes in the four-layer TSPD detection pixel
with the LaB6 anti-reflective layer of 1 μm thickness (calculations LWCW 1 – LWCW 6). The main result is that ∆Tm
<10−4 K, namely, the maximum signal is less than the background value. With a decrease in the thickness of the
thermoelectric Z3, the parameters ∆Tm and Vm decrease, as does the time for reaching the maximum of the signal tm.
These two facts are interrelated and are due to the time dependence of the temperature at the boundaries of the
thermoelectric. According to the calculation LWCW 1, the temperature at the L2–L3 interface rises and reaches a
maximum of 0.4918 × 10–4 K in a time of 2040 ps (Figure 2, curve 1), whereas the temperature at the border L3–L4
during this time reaches 6 × 10– 9 K (Figure 2, curve 2), i.e. practically does not change. The LWCW 6 calculation results
show that heat comes much faster through a thin thermoelectric layer and the maximum temperature difference at the
boundaries of the thermoelectric layer ∆Tm=0.1814×10–4 K is reached after 1524 ps since photon absorption, when the
temperature at the boundaries L2–L3 (Figure 2, curve 3) and L3–L4 (Figure 2, curve 4) reaches the values of
0.44146×10−4 K and 0.26007×10−4 K, respectively.
Figure 2. The temporal dependences of temperature at the boundary of the thermoelectric layer according to the
results of LWCW 1 (curves 1, 2) and LWCW 6 (curves 3, 4) calculations.
Consider the calculations LWCW 7– LWCW 12 with the parameters Z1= 0.5 µm, Z2=0.1 µm, Z3=1–0,1 µm, Z4=1 µm.
The main result – ∆Tm has values above the background (at the level of ~ 2 × 10−4 K), the count rate reaches the values
of 0.39–1.36 GHz. According to the data of Table 2, for the parameters Z1= 0.1 µm, Z2=0.1 µm, Z3=1–0,1 µm, Z4=1
µm. (calculations LWCW 13– LWCW18) the main result is that the ∆Tm signal values are within the limits of 29.04–
23.27 × 10−4 K, and the counting rate R reaches the values 0.44–1.46 GHz.
In each of the 3 groups of calculations, the parameters ∆Tm, tm, Vm and tb decrease with decreasing Z3, the counting rate
R increases. With a decrease in Z1 from Z1 = 1 µm (calculations LWCW 1–LWCW 6) to Z1 = 0.1 µm (calculations
LWCW 13–LWCW 18), the average values of ∆Tm and Vm (Figure 3) increase. The average values of the time to reach
maximum tm (Figure 4), the signal to the background fall-off time tb decreases and the counting rate R increases at each
value Z3 (Figure. 5).
Let us mention now that we have considered the processes of heat propagation in the four-layer detection pixel of TSPD
after the absorption of a photon in the center of the surface of the anti-reflective layer LaB6. The question arises - how
the obtained results will change if the photon is absorbed not in the center and not on the surface of the upper layer of the
detection pixel?
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Figure 3. Vm vs Z3 for Z1 - 1, 0.5 and 0.1 μm (calculations LWCW 1–LWCW 18).
Figure 4. tm vs Z3 for Z1 - 1, 0.5 and 0.1 μm (calculations LWCW 1–LWCW 18).
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Figure 5. tb and R vs Z3 for Z1 - 0.5 and 0.1 μm (calculations LWCW 7–LWCW 18).
We have previously shown that in the case of a three-layer detection pixel the signal generated by the sensor is
independent from the location of the area of photon thermalization in the absorber, with the exception for the edges of
the absorber [19]. Another important result is that when the thermalization area is approaching to the thermoelectric layer
the parameter tm decreases meanwhile ΔTm, Vm and R increases [21]. We can state that these features will be performed
for a four-layer detector as well.
CONCLUSION
According to the assigned results, it can be concluded that a decrease in the thickness of the thermoelectric layer Z3 and
the anti-reflective layer Z1 within 1–0.1 μm leads to an increase in the parameters ∆Tm and Vm. At the same time, the
counting rate increases, reaching values greater than 1 GHz.
We can assert that the used design of the four-layer detection pixel of TSPD ensures high efficiency of IR photon
detection. High optical coupling efficiency of the photons is provided by using LaB6 anti-reflective layer. High
absorption efficiency of the photons is provided by using W absorber. The ∆Tm parameter is tens of times greater than
the background value of the signal, which ensures high internal efficiency of detecting photons with energy of 0.8 eV.
Thus, we have obtained the value of three components of system efficiency ηo, ηa and ηi close to one and can provide the
value of system detection efficiency exceeding 90%.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the RA MES State Committee of Science in the frames of the research projects 18T 2F134.
The authors would like to thank Dr. A.M. Gulian for the helpful discussions.
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