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3.1 The Psychosocial Dimension of Human Senses and Sexual Behavior
3.1 Lesson Objectives:
1.​ Define the term "psychosocial"
2.​ Discuss the psychosocial definitions of gender & sexuality
3.​ Reflect upon one's responsibility in ensuring psychological wellness in the aspect of
gender & development
INTRODUCTION:
In the previous sessions, we discussed the biological dimensions of sexuality. We learned
that the human person has biological mechanisms for sexual growth and reproduction, and that
depending on sex, these mechanisms differ.
Also, it was emphasized that these reproductive mechanisms are interpreted by societies,
thereby, creating differentiated social standards for behavior and expectations. For instance, since
the human female is capable of bearing a child, the society interprets this capacity as associated
to womanhood, and thus, sets the fulfillment of the reproductive role as an expectation among
women, conceiving children. On the other hand, the human male has a relatively larger muscularskeletal frame, the society expects the human male to perform productive role.
While there are distinct physiological differences, much of the capabilities, except those
involved in reproduction, can actually be performed by either sexes. The limits are only set
by social expectations. This shows that gender and sexuality also have a psychological and
social aspect. This perspective of exploring and understanding human sexuality in the lens of
psychological social process is referred to as psychosocial perspective.
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WHAT DOES PSYCHOSOCIAL MEAN?
The term “psychosocial” is an encompassing (all-around) term. It is comprised by two
primary aspects: psychological and social. There are myriad (countless) of ways in defining these
two terms but in essence,
o​ Psychological pertains to anything associated with mental process and behavior
and;
o​ Social pertains to anything associated with human relationships, connection, and
interaction.
​
The psychological aspect of gender and sexuality anchors itself in the field of psychology.
Psychology is a field of science which concerns itself with how people think and feel and how
thoughts and feelings interact and lead to behavior.
​
There are three primary psychological domains:
o​ Affect (affective domain): emotions and feelings
o​ Behavior (behavioral domain): people’s actions-both observable (overt) or not
readily observable (covert).
▪​ Overt: dancing, walking, speaking
▪​ Covert: thinking, reasoning, retrieving memories
o​ Cognition (cognitive domain): people’s thought processes such as memory,
perception, and information processing.
​
This means that in studying gender and sexuality, it is important to look into the way
people think, feel and behave since these are linked to one another.
​
For instance, someone who believes (cognition) that another person is attracted to them
may also feel excited (affect) upon seeing the said person, which may also increase the likelihood
of flirting (behavior).
Another example is how
someone who feels disgust (affect)
toward someone with a different
​
CHAPTER 3: UNDERSTANDING GENDER AND SEXUALITY FROM A
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sexual orientation may perceive
(cognition) the said feelings as valid
because of one’s belief
system, and in turn try to justify
speaking out against the said person
(behavior).
​
Another example is how someone who feels disgust (affect) toward someone with a
different sexual orientation may perceive (cognition) the said feelings as valid because of one’s
belief system, and in turn try to justify speaking out against the said person (behavior).
Hence, to say that gender and sexuality have a psychological dimension is to note that our
sexual behaviors, as well as gender-related behaviors, originate from what we sense, think,
and feel.
On the other hand, the social aspects of gender and sexuality primarily anchor itself on the
field of sociology and allied fields such as social psychology. In essence, Sociology is the field of
science which concerns itself with the human person’s realities and experiences as part of groups
and institutions and the dynamics of human relationships within them.
UNDERSTANDING THE PSYCHOSOCIAL DIMENSION
Our experience of gender and sexuality is generally a relational experience. It is
relational because while as individuals, we have our own affect, cognition, and behavior to be
aware of, we are also viewing ourselves in relation to others who also have their own personal
preoccupations.
​
At the front of our experiences as gendered beings is awareness. Awareness is our
conscious understanding of something.
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As individuals, we are in a constant process towards self-awareness.
o​ In the context of gender and sexuality, we ask:
▪​ What am I physiologically?
▪​ What is my gender?
▪​ What is my sexual orientation?
▪​ How am I expressing my gender?
▪​ How do I feel about my sexuality?
▪​ Am I happy with what I am?
​
This striving towards self-awareness requires constant self-reflection and a realistic
evaluation of how one interacts with and responds to the world.
We are social beings. We live our lives in relation to others. Hence, as we try to
understand ourselves more, we are also in a constant process towards other-awareness, that is
understanding others.
o​ What is he/she physiologically?
o​ What is his/her preferences?
o​ How is he/she different from me?
o​ What is his/her motivations and aspirations?
Intimacy and Relationship
In certain situations, when two people recognize and become aware of each other, they
decide to keep close distance in each other’s lives, share their personal bubbles, so to speak and
allow frequency of interaction between them. This forge of human relationship - a bond formed
between two or more people, manifested through communication and interaction. These
relationships may be in the form of family, friendships, romantic relationships or others. While
in these relationships, we share resources and emotions, we, as individuals, constantly aim to
further understand our own selves as we also try to understand others and be understood by them.
This process of knowing others and allowing others to know is intimacy.
As social beings, we also learn
from our own experiences and from
the lessons taught to
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us by those who have come before
us. How we behave in relation to
other people, with due
consideration to social expectations
related to our gender and how we
make choices to balance
out personal goals and social goals,
might be passed on to us through
education and other
cultural
preoccupations.
This
process by which we learn cultural
norms and traditions is referred
to as socialization.
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As social beings, we also learn
from our own experiences and from
the lessons taught to
us by those who have come before
us. How we behave in relation to
other people, with due
consideration to social expectations
related to our gender and how we
make choices to balance
out personal goals and social goals,
might be passed on to us through
education and other
cultural
preoccupations.
This
process by which we learn cultural
norms and traditions is referred
CHAPTER 3: UNDERSTANDING GENDER AND SEXUALITY FROM A
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to as socialization.
​
As social beings, we also learn from our own experiences and from the lessons taught to us
by those who have come before us. How we behave in relation to other people, with due
consideration to social expectations related to our gender and how we make choices to balance out
personal goals and social goals, might be passed on to us through education and other cultural
preoccupations. This process by which we learn cultural norms and traditions is referred to as
socialization.
​
At the end of it all, as rational beings, we are also capable of making sense of our
experiences vis-à-vis the influences of our environments and integrate these interpretations into our
own choice.
WELL-BEING AS A PSYCHOSOCIAL GOAL
​
The ultimate goal of understanding the psychosocial aspects of our experiences is
well-being – a state of satisfaction, meaning, and purpose.
​
Two general classifications of well-being:
o​ Objective Well-Being: Observed, outward and can be evaluated through the
presence/absence of particular elements in our environment. In the aspects of
gender and sexuality here are some questions to ask:
▪​ Does the physical environment allow expression of diversity?
▪​ Are health care systems and services responsive to the needs of people
with different sexes, genders, etc.?
▪​ Are there services and policies in place to mitigate abuse and different
forms of violence related to gender and sexuality?
​
​
Another side of well-being is our personal experience of satisfaction, meaning, and
purpose. This is referred to as subjective well-being. It is subjective because it pertains to our
own appreciation of how well we are.
o​ Subjective Well-Being: Personal experience of satisfaction, meaning and
purpose.
▪​ Sometimes, even when the environment fully provides our needs, we
remain unsatisfied, thus we have a low subjective well-being. But there
are also moments where the environment has shortcomings, but we are
at peace and satisfied within.
▪​ Is your purpose as a person clear to you yet and if not yet, what are you
doing to clarify this purpose?
SUMMARY
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The psychosocial dimension is an important aspect of our gender and sexuality. Aside
from upholding human dignity and human rights, one of the ultimate goals of our discussions in
gender and sexuality is to ensure well-being among people of different genders. Understanding
our psychosocial needs and concerns and the various elements of psychosocial conditions of
humans is necessary.
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SEX AND THE SENSES
3.1 Lesson Objectives:
1.​ Discuss the human senses in the context of sexual response; and
2.​ Show appreciation of how the sensorium contributes to our experience of human
sexuality.
INTRODUCTION
When we were children, we were taught that there are five bodily organs which
corresponds to our primary senses. Our eyes enable our sense of sight (visual), so that we are
able to see visual stimuli (color, size, shape) in the environment. Our nose enables us to smell
(olfaction), so that we are able to experience scent. Our ears allow us the sense of hearing
(audition), so that we are able to experience sounds of varying tones, pitches, and volume. Our
tongue is covered with taste buds that allow us the sense of taste (gustation), so that we are
able to experience the taste of our food and other objects that we put in our mouth. We have
the sensory reception in our skin, muscles and joints which allow us the sense of touch/feeling
so that we are able to have tactile experiences.
These five senses make up our sensorium- the totality of our sensory experiences and
perception. While we receive information from our environment through the senses, our
brain has the ability to organize and interpret these numerous stimuli into meaningful ideas
that are useful for our choices (behavior).
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WHAT ARE THE
SEXUALITY?
DIFFERENT
SENSORY
EXPERIENCES
RELATED
TO
​
The topic of attraction is quite personal. Each person has a unique attraction profile. Do
some features matter more than others? For example, some people place value on intelligence
and kindness. Others value physical appearance such as facial symmetry, height, vocal
qualities, and scent. Attraction is complicated. (Lents, 2018)
​
1.​ Visual Experience
Humans are predominantly visual (Peralta, 2019). One of the most crucial factors in
sexual interest, desire, and arousal is visual stimuli. Sexual attractiveness in terms of visual
appearance is a complex topic and each person probably has a different criterion (Bancroft,
2009). Overall, both men and women value physical attractiveness and this is true across
many different cultures.
​
However, there are some studies that have explored gender differences in visual stimuli
and sexual arousal.
-​ Men and women respond differently in terms of sexual attraction
The study of Rupp & Wallen (2007) found that men respond more to sexual stimuli
and tend to be influenced by the sex of the actor in a sexual scenario. When confronted by an
intimate interaction, men would tend to be rather influenced by visual cues, e.g., how the
other person looks physically or what the person is wearing. On the other hand, women
were found to be more influenced by the context, although they, too, are responsive to the
sexual content of a visual stimuli. This means that when confronted by an intimate
interaction, women tend to be rather influenced by the nature of the relationship they have
with another person, e.g., is the other person is someone they know and can trust.
2.​ Olfactory Experience
Everyone has heard of love at first sight, but nobody ever talks about love at first scent. It
is even more possible that we are drawn to someone by their scent as opposed to their
appearance. Despite the fact that humans don’t act like dogs by smelling everyone we come into
contact with, looking for potential sex partners, some of the ways our body works are very
similar to the ones of other animals.
Scientists have tried to explain how human olfaction influence sexuality. Our noses are the
best compass to find a suitable partner because of two reasons:
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A.​ Pheromones
Pheromones are chemical molecules released in humans that trigger a
response to or to elicit specific behavioral expressions or hormonal changes from
the opposite sex, the same sex, or both sexes of the same species. Pheromones are
substances which are secreted to the outside by an individual and received by a
second individual of the same species. These molecules are contained in body
fluids such as urine, sweat, specialized exocrine glands (saliva, milk) and
genital mucous secretions. (Mostafa, Khouly, & Hassan, 2012).
The part of the brain that interprets these chemical messages is the
hypothalamus. This part comprises much of the limbic system, the part of the
body responsible of managing our emotions, including sexual behavior. This
explains why smell can turn us on so suddenly, without us even realizing what's
happening with our bodies (Brocca, 2019).
●​ Humans rely on verbal and non-verbal; of the existence of
pheromones are true, then its role may just be minor
Oxytocin is a hormone that's produced in the hypothalamus and released
into the bloodstream. Oxytocin is often referred to as the “love hormone.” This
is largely because it increases when you hug someone or have an orgasm. It's
produced in the hypothalamus and released through your pituitary gland. It's
associated with social bonding as well. This is important for trust and building a
relationship.
B.​ Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)
MHC is a group of genes that code for proteins that help the immune
system recognize foreign substances.
MHC is like a tag that helps the immune system what cells belong to our
body or those that are foreign.
It is because of these genes that we feel attracted to another person’s
signature odor (the unique way that each individual smells). The way these genes
are combined in our bodies defines how resistant we are to diseases, and we are
programmed to search for partners that have a different configuration to our
own (Brocca, 2019).
Our body perceives other humans’ MHC through our sense of smell and
we feel attracted to those that are opposite to ours, because in case of
reproduction, the two of them would eventually spawn offspring with stronger
immune system (Brocca, 2019).
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One of the famous studies about MHCs is the “sweaty t-shirt experiment”
(Wedekind and Furi 1997). It was discovered that individuals tend to be attracted
to other people with a different set of MHC genes.
A study by Muscarella, Arantes, and Konscol (2011) explored the
preferred scent among heterosexuals and homosexual males and females. The
study found that
-​ heterosexual females tend to like wearing floral-sweet but want musky-spicy
scent to be worn by their partners.
-​ Heterosexual
males and homosexual females preferred wearing
musky-spicy scent and liked their partners to wear floral-sweet scent.
-​ homosexual males wanted musky-spicy for themselves and their partner.
​
3.​ Tactile Experiences
Touch is an element of intimacy and holds meaning. As a sensation, touch has the
following elements:
1.​ Tactile – Is it rough? Is it smooth? Is the surface hard or soft?
2.​ Thermal – Is it warm or cold?
3.​ Vibrational – Is the pressure of touch strong or weak?
Different parts of the body have different threshold of tactile experience.
●​ Primary Erogenous Zones: mouth, anus, genitals, and nipples. These areas are very
sensitive to touch.
●​ Secondary Erogenous Zones: back, cheek, neck, and buttocks. These areas are also
sensitive, but only supportive of the primary zones in eliciting (bringing out) response.
These erogenous zones are areas of the body involved in the reproductive and sexual act.
Human touch is essential in social bonds. Often, we only give people we trust the right
to have tactile contact with us. It is always a consensual act to touch and be touched. When
we touch, our body produces a hormone called oxytocin- it is referred to as the love hormone).
It is observed to be produced in vast amounts during nipple stimulation, such as for instance
when a mother breastfeeds her newborn.
​ In intimate relationships, touch is suggested to be one of the love languages. A person
whose love language is touch tend to give and receive tactile stimulation to and from others
through holding, hugging, and other forms of physical connections.
4. Auditory Experience
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Sexual activities are also a verbal communication process. Sounds give additional
context to sexual situations. In sexual interactions, couples may give verbal erotic
encourage-words that trigger sexual response or verbal expression of affection- words that
manifests feelings.
Recall how certain kinds of music can influence your mood, especially in the presence
of someone you are attracted to. The sounds of love aren’t just in the voice of a person.
Throughout history, lovers used romantic melodies and lyrics to convey their emotions to
each other. This only emphasize the value of sound in human sexuality.
5. Taste Experience
Our taste receptors are a critical part of determining when something is dangerous or
pleasurable. Throughout human history, our taste receptors have helped us identify nutritional
foods and avoid poisons and toxins. We are attracted to sweet and salty flavors, as well as
savory ones, while sour and bitter flavors tend to be aversive (dislike) in high quantities
(which is why we add sweeteners to lemons, coffee, alcohol, and so on). (Woo, 2022)
In a 2015 study, researchers found that participants who ate sweet candies prior to
speed dating were more likely to report romantic interest in those they met. Studies have
found that after people who consumed something sweet (such as a sugary drink or a cookie)
looked at a photo of a potential partner, they were more likely to desire a relationship with that
individual. Tasting something sweet sets off the brain’s pleasure center, flooding it with
dopamine (feel good, feel pleasure chemicals) and the strong urge to repeat the behavior —
in this case, the reward of being with that other person. (Woo, 2022)
“In part, this also helps explain why people use chocolates, candy, and other sweet
treats as a means of seduction,” says Dr. Stieg. (Woo, 2022)
SUMMARY
The senses are the windows of our consciousness. We are aware, we learn, and we
​
experience because we can receive information from the environment through our
sense’s organs. The brain is a powerful organ that consolidates and processes these stimuli into
meaningful units and wholes.
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References:
Lents, N. H. (2019, December 22). How Our Brain Computes Attraction. Psychology Today.
https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/beastly-behavior/201810/how-our-brain-computes-attraction
Peralta, EP.D., Botor, NJ. B., Laude, T.M. 2019. Gender and Society: A Human Ecological Approach. Manila,
Philippines: Rex Book Store, Inc.
Brocca, J. (2022, March 31). The Science Of Attraction: Falling In Love Through The Sense Of Smell. Cultura
Colectiva. https://culturacolectiva.com/technology/science-smell-attraction-love/
John Bancroft, Human Sexuality and Its Problems (Third Edition), Churchill Livingstone, 2009, Page i, ISBN
9780443051616, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-05161-6.00024-0.
(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780443051616000240)
Taymour Mostafa, Ghada El Khouly, Ashraf Hassan, Pheromones in sex and reproduction: Do they have a role in
humans?, Journal of Advanced Research, Volume 3, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 1-9, ISSN 2090-1232,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jare.2011.03.003.
(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2090123211000397)
Woo, A. (2022, February 12). The Science Behind Love: How Your Brain and Five Senses Help You Fall in Love.
NewYork-Presbyterian.
https://healthmatters.nyp.org/the-science-behind-love-how-your-brain-and-five-senses-help-you-fall-in-love/
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SEXUAL BEHAVIORS
3.1 Lesson Objectives:
1.​ Discuss the variety of sexual behaviors in humans;
2.​ Tackle atypical sexual variations; and
3.​ Show appreciation of the diversity of human sexual expression.
INTRODUCTION
In the previous discussions, you have learned that psychology has three primary
components: Affect (emotions & feelings), cognition (thought process) and behavior (actions).
Hence, when used as a framework in understanding human sexuality, it is only appropriate to
explore the diversity of behaviors related to our understanding of human sexuality.
What is behavior? In simple terms, it refers to actions. These are things that we do,
both overt (observable) and covert (not readily observable by the naked eye). On a daily basis,
we act because of motivation- something that drives us to do something.
Unlike feelings and thoughts, behavior is readily measurable.
You can look at its frequency: how many times an action is done in a span of time.
You can also check on duration: how long does an action take place. A behavior has an
intensity: the magnitude by which it is done. Then there is diversity: what are the varieties of
similar behavior done in various context or what are the different behaviors we are capable of
depending on our physical characteristics.
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SEXUAL BEHAVIORS
These are actions that humans interpret as an expression of their sexual motivation or
intention. It is important to remember that behaviors are given meaning by people. For
instance,
while hugging and kissing maybe considered sexual in nature, this is not always the case
because the context of the behavior matters.
Sexual behaviors are generally erotic because they involve any of the primary or
secondary
erogenous zones. Sexual behaviors can be typed according to the aim of the
behavior:
●​ Auto-erotic: self-directed (masturbation, or the stimulation of one’s own genitals)
●​ Homoerotic: directed to the same sex
●​ Heteroerotic: directed to the other sex
For reproductive purposes, copulation or the insertion of the penis to the vagina is
necessary. However, sexual behaviors do not only refer to copulation. They also include an
array of non- copulatory sexual behaviors such as hugging, kissing, and caressing. There are
also sexual behaviors that involve oral stimulation of genitals such as fellatio (oral stimulation
of the penis) or cunnilingus (oral stimulation of the vagina). Then, there are also sexual
behaviors involving the stimulation or penetration of the anal orifice (anal sex).
SEXUAL RESPONSE CYCLE
For heterosexual couples, the purpose of sexual acts is for reproduction.
Master and Johnson’s Model: Master and Johnson (1966, 1970) proposed that the following
are the four phases in the cycle:
1. Excitement: The first phase in the cycle. For the human male, the goal of this phase is the
erection or tumescence (elongation and stiffening of the penis) so that it can be efficiently
entered into the vagina. At this phase, the testes and the scrotum start to elevate and some
parts of the skin (e.g., the breast and chest) reddens- a phenomenon known as sex flush. For
the human female, the goal of this phase is lubrication (wetness of the vaginal orifice to
facilitate insertion of the penis). There is swelling of the glans clitoris and the labia minora, and
there are sex flushes in breasts and chest. In both males and females, heart rate increases during
this phase.
2. Plateau: This phase is characterized by a sustained peak in stimulation of the organs. In the
human male, the corona and glans penis become enlarged and reddish. Internally, the Cowper’s
glands release a lubricating fluid and the testes and scrotum are totally elevated. In the human
female, the outer vagina swells while the inner vagina expands and becomes elongated
creating the orgasmic platform (tenting).
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3. Orgasm: This is the climax of this cycle. It is a stage of release wherein the human male
achieves ejaculation (discharge of semen) and the human female is ready to receive the
sperm for possible fertilization. In the human male, ejaculation is made possible by the
contraction of the vas deferens, seminal vesicles, and urethra, followed by the contraction of the
rectal sphincter. In the human female, the vagina, uterus, and anal sphincter also contract.
4. Resolution: The male penis returns to its normal unerected phase, wherein the testes and
scrotum descend. In the human female, the outer and inner reproductive organs also relax.
SEXUAL RESPONSE DYSFUNCTIONS
There are people who encounter difficulties or problems in some of the sexual phases. These
include the following:
•​ Sexual Desire Disorder: An individual has low levels of desire or has an aversion to
sexual activities.
•​ Sexual Arousal Disorder: An individual has problems in achieving necessary
physiological state of copulation (e.g. erectile dysfunction in males).
•​ Orgasmic Disorder: An individual has problems in achieving orgasm (e.g.,
premature ejaculation among males; male and female orgasmic disorders).
•​ Sexual Pain Disorders: An experience of pain during the sexual response cycle
(painful erection or dyspareunia, and vaginal spasms or vaginismus).
The causes of these disorders are varied. It can be organic (problem with anatomy and
physiology of the reproductive organ). It can also be psychosomatic (a psychological concern
which manifests itself physically). Hence, possible interventions could either be biomedical
(e.g., surgery, medication) or psychosocial (e.g., psychotherapy, education, marital or couple’s
counselling).
PARAPHILIAS
There are sexual behaviors that are relatively atypical due to the following reasons:
•​
•​
•​
•​
They are not prevalent
They are dangerous to self and others
They are bizarre and are not socially acceptable
They are distressing either to the doer or to other people involved in the act.
Among these atypical sexual behaviors is paraphilia.
​
Paraphilia: An individual gets sexually aroused by an object, person, or a
circumstance that are unusual (e.g., pain-inflicting, humiliating, non-consenting
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​
persons).
Paraphilic Disorder: When the urge lasts for at least six months and
is a manifestation of clinically significant distress.
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Some of the common paraphilic disorders are as follows:
•​ Exhibitionism: pleasure from exposing one’s genitals to non-consenting people;
•​ Fetishism: arousal from non-living objects (e.g., socks, shoes, body parts);
•​ Frotteurism: touching or rubbing one’s body or genitals to non-consenting people;
•​ Pedophilia: arousal from children (prepubescent);
•​ Sexual Masochism: arousal from actual suffering or humiliation;
•​ Sexual Sadism: arousal from actually inflicting pain to others;
•​ Transvestic Fetishism: (for heterosexual males only): arousal from wearing clothing
by the opposite sex during sexual activities;
•​ Voyeurism: observing other people engaged in sexual activities.
For a paraphilia to be considered as a disorder, diagnosis has to be made. Only trained
psychologists or medical doctors can make such diagnosis after conducting lengthy and
comprehensive assessments.
SUMMARY
The behavioral aspect of human sexuality provides a holistic perspective as to how
physiological and psychological elements coalesce towards action. In certain cases, behaviors
often serve as an indicator whether an organism is functional or not. By knowing what
behavior normal and acceptable, and what behavior is is the exact opposite, we are able to
make intelligent judgements on issues concerning human sexuality
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Gender Role Socialization3.2.1 GENDER ROLE AND GENDER
Learning objectives:
​
At the end of the chapter, the students must have:
1.​ Understood the meaning of socialization;
2.​ Explained the agents of socialization
3.​ Describe how agents of socialization contribute in the development of self;
4.​ Explained the dynamics of gender role socialization;
5.​ Understood gender issues and concerns.
A.​ Definition
Socialization refers to the lifelong process of learning to become a member of the social
world, beginning at birth and continuing until death. It is a lifelong experience by which
individuals develop their human potential and learn culture. The process through
which people learn to behave, think, and feel as individuals in relation to their
environments.
Socialization is the process of internalizing society’s values in order to adapt to one’s
culture. It influences how people behave as males and females in the society. The
social learning process that imbibes (absorbs) people into understanding the various
aspects of culture includes the process of learning gender socialization.
Gender socialization encompasses the process of learning society’s gender roles and their
advantages and limitations.
B.​ Human Development: Nature and Nurture
The Role of Nature – how much personality is determined by our biological inheritance.
The Role of Nurture – how much personality is determined by social-cultural environment.
C.​ Role
Role set – a number of roles attached to a single status.
-​ A doctor is different with the nurse and to the patient
-​ An instructor is an employee of a school, but a teacher to the students
Role strain – occurs when incompatible demands are built into a single status that a person
occupies
-​ Example: a student has to write two papers, write a research, give a speech, study for
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midterm exam in one week
Role conflict – conflict between the roles of two or more social statuses.
-​ (e.g., a woman whose roles include fulltime employee, mother, wife, caregiver for an
elderly parent, community volunteer).
-​ Example: PTA meeting or work meeting, sick husband
Role exit – occurs when people disengage from social roles that have been that have been
central to their identity (e.g., divorced women and men, retirees, ex-nuns).
Gender Role Socialization is the process of learning and internalizing culturally approved
ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving according to one’s gender.
​ Learning of gender roles begin in the early stages of childhood.
​ The outcome: male gender-roles (MASCULINITY e.g., dominance,
assertiveness, instrumentality) and female gender roles (FEMININITY
e.g., submissiveness, modesty, nurturance)
Gender Stereotypes are fixed, unquestioned beliefs, or images we carry in the back of
our minds about women and men.
​ The tendency or attitude, to ascribe particular traits, characteristics and roles
distinctly to men or women that have become fixed in one’s mind that is not
open to change.
Gender Discrimination refers to any situation where a person is denied an opportunity
or misjudge solely on the basis of their sex.
o​ when someone is treated unequally or disadvantageously based on their gender
but not necessarily in a sexual nature.
a.​ Gender roles are highly resistant to change due to continuous exposure and
reinforcement of gender differentiation.
b.​ Once internalized, gender roles are further reinforced, maintained, and sanctioned by
the mechanism of social control: Family, Language, School, Church, Media
Agents of Socialization in the Context of Gender Roles
In most societies there is a clear categorization of what it means to be male or
female. This categorization process and the agents of socialization that transmit about
gender roles influence how individuals define themselves and other terms of gender and
sex roles. In many societies gender roles are rigidly defined. For instance, men have
traditionally been expected to be strong, aggressive even dominating, while women are
expected to be modest, caring, and soft.
Agents of socialization are the sources from which we learn about society and
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ourselves. People and groups that influence our self-concept, emotions, attitudes, and
behavior are called agents of socialization.
Agents of Socialization
1.​ Family:
-​ The family is perhaps the most important agent of socialization for children. Parents’
values and behavior patterns profoundly influence those of their daughters and sons.
Four Processes in Child’s Learning of Gender Bias
1st stage: Manipulation – where people treat boys and girls differently
2nd stage: Canalization – gender socialization through interaction with toys and
objectives. People will direct their attention to gender appropriate objects exemplified
by toys
3rd stage: Verbal Appellation – words used to tell children what they are.
Example: boys don’t cry, brave boy, pretty/beautiful girl
4th stage: Activity Exposure – children are familiarized with gender appropriate task.
2.​ Education/Schools
​ Schools socialize children by teaching them their formal curricula but also a
hidden curriculum that imparts the cultural values of the society in which
the schools are found.
​ Schools teach set of expectations about the work, profession, or
occupations they will follow when they mature. Schools have the formal
responsibility of imparting knowledge in those disciplines which are most
central to adult functioning in our society.
​ Schools reinforce sexist concepts e.g., textbooks depict stereotyped roles like
females as mother, housewives, sewers, or well-behaved girls, and males as
fathers, workers, or naughty adventurous little boys.
​ Education steered field of study for females (nursing, secretarial, HRM, etc.)
and males (politics, engineering, science, etc.)
3.​ Language
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​ Language to communicate thoughts or ideas in the most pervasive institution
of socialization.
​ Sexist terms, no matter how subtle, very easily maintain gender ideology e.g.
using “he” to refer to both sexes.
4.​ Churches/ Religion
​ Many religious institutions also uphold gender norms and contribute to
their enforcement through socialization. From ceremonial rites of passage
that reinforce the family unit to power dynamics that reinforce gender roles,
organized religion fosters a shared set of socialized values that are passed on
through society.
​ Religious teachings depicting women as martyrs, self-sacrificing and
conservative, etc.
5.​ Mass Media
The mass media are another agent of socialization. Television shows, movies,
popular music, magazines, web sites, and other aspects of the mass media
influence our political views; our tastes in popular culture; our views of
women, people of color, and gays; and many other beliefs and practices.
​ Print and broadcast media are most effective socializing agent; subtle and
often subconscious way plus long amount of time people expose themselves
to media.
6.​ Peer
​ Our peers also help socialize us and may even induce us to violate social
norms. The influence of peer group typically peaks during adolescents.
However, peer groups generally only affect short term interest unlike the
family, which has long term influence.
7.​ Workplace
​ At the workplace, a person meets people of different age groups and
belonging to different social and cultural backgrounds.
​
​
In general, it may be said that the total society is the agency for socialization
and that each person with whom one comes into contact and interact is in somewhat an
agent of socialization.
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Gender roles are deep-seated in the culture as well as beliefs and value systems of the
society. Pervasive social control further reinforces, maintains, and sanctions gender roles.
Therefore, all of us needs to be conscious of our beliefs and assumptions as these often
impede the attainment of our full potential as human beings and those for which we are
responsible.
D.​ Manifestations of Gender Bias
1.​ Marginalization
●​ The process which forces women out into the periphery of economic and
social life; on the periphery of decision making, as well as diminishing the
value of the activities in which they contribute to the national development
process.
2.​ Subordination
●​ Is the institutionalized domination by men and women
●​ Position (very few women in politics and top positions)
●​ Status (weaker sex)
●​ Decision making (women are not included in planning and decision-making
process.)
VISION: Quality participation in decision making, recognition of capabilities
3.​ Multiple Burden
●​ Involvement in the three spheres of work: reproduction, production, and
community work (parenting, housework, work in the public/private sector).
VISION: Shared parenting, shared housework; shared breadwinning.
4.​ Gender Stereotypes
●​ Fixed, unquestioned beliefs or images we carry in the back of our minds about
men and women
VISION: Liberation from stereotyped images: non-sexist child rearing, non-sexist
language.
5.​ Violence Against Women
●​ Acts of instilling fear and inflicting pain with the aim to injure, or abuse a
person usually women using intimidation, emotional abuse, isolation,
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minimizing, denying, and blaming, using their children, using male privilege,
using economic abuse, using coercion, and threats.
VISION: Freedom from violence, freedom from harassment, control over one’s
body, non-threatening behavior, respect, thrust and support, honesty and
accountability, responsible parenting, shared responsibility, economic partnership,
negotiation and fairness.
E.​ Gender Sensitivity
Gender Sensitivity
​ Is the ability to recognize gender issues
​ Wo/men’s different perceptions and interests arising from their social location
and different role
​ Renaming and reimaging wo/men relationships to bring about mutuality and
partnerships.
​ Not a war of sexes
​ Not an anti-male stance (both women and men are victims, although women
are affected more than men. In practically all cultures women have lower
status than men.)
How to be gender sensitive?
●​ Seeing women and men, what they actually do, rather than relying on
assumptions.
●​ Hearing women and men, their needs, priorities, and perspectives
●​ Counting the value of women’s work
●​ Respecting the full dignity of women and men
●​ Caring about women and men and what happen to them.
Book References:
Fouda et. al., 2017. Theoretical Perspective on Gender and Development. Edited by 3G
E-learning LLC, USA. ISBN 978-1-68095-615-3
Mendoza et. al., 2014. Workbook in General Sociology. Central Mindanao University. CMU
IMDC. Unpublished.
Online References:
CHAPTER 3: UNDERSTANDING GENDER AND SEXUALITY FROM A
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https://archive.unescwa.org/gender-discrimination
https://share.stanford.edu/get-informed/learn-topics/gender-discrimination
https://www.equalrights.org/issue/economic-workplace-equality/discrimination-at-work/
https://www.unicef-irc.org/evidence-for-action/what-is-gender-socialization-and-why-does-it-mat
ter/
GENDER STEREOTYPING, DISCRIMINATION, AND GENDER BIAS
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1.​ Differentiate stereotype, prejudice, and discrimination; and
2.​ Understand the manifestations of stereotype, prejudice, and discrimination
Definition of Terms:
o​ Stereotype – extremely generalized belief about a group of people
o​ Prejudice – unjustified or incorrect attitude towards a person
o​ Discrimination – when stereotype and prejudice translate into a negative act towards a
person
INTRODUCTION
​
There are 7.8 billion people across 195 countries and every race has their own belief
systems, religion, culture, and tradition. Yet, each individual is a unique mix of their own. That is
why appreciating diversity is very important to fully understand the human experience and for us
to coexist peacefully.
​
However, understanding diversity requires us to broaden our appreciation of the many
facets of the human race and recognize that we have our own stereotypes, prejudice, and
discrimination too.
STEREOTYPES
​
Stereotypes are over-generalized beliefs about a particular group or class of people
(Cardwell 1996). It can be helpful in simplifying things, after all, there are 7.8 billion people in
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the planet. When we meet someone for the first time, we associate with them certain
characteristics and abilities that we usually base on the group they belong to.
​
While some stereotypes convey positive examples (like a student from Ivy League
schools would be stereotyped as very intelligent or matalino, or Filipinos being known for our
hospitality), most stereotypes, however, are drawn from negative generalizations like equating
our Muslim countrymen as terrorists and viewing farmers and blue-collar workers as lazy
and less educated.
​
It reflects our expectations and beliefs and is largely based on the social circle we
belong to as we try to conform or agree to the standard way of thought. However, these
stereotypes change through time depending on social and political conditions.
​
Stereotypes can be categorized into two:
1.​ Implicit – meaning the person does not know if they have these stereotypes since it
lies in their subconscious.
Example: An implicit stereotype of violent black men may associate black men
with weapons. In a video game where subjects were supposed to shoot men with
weapons and not shoot men with ordinary objects, subjects were more likely to
shoot a black man with an ordinary object than a white man with an ordinary
object.
2.​ Explicit – meaning the person is aware that they have these thoughts towards a
group of people and they can say it out loud.
The most explicit forms involve sexual harassment, unfair pay, and bias in the
allocation of promotions and work assignments.
When the stereotype is explicit, a person can choose not to turn their stereotypes into
actions. While with an implicit stereotype, a person has no control or awareness of it, and it may
manifest into actions or behavior.
PREJUDICE
​
Prejudice is an “unjustified or incorrect attitude (usually negative) towards an
individual based solely on the individual’s membership of a social group” (McLeod 2008).
Prejudice represents our emotional response upon learning of a person’s membership to a
specific group (like age, skin color, race, disability, generation, nationality, religion, sex, sexual
expression, gender expression, and so on).
​
This negative attitude (prejudice) can be dangerous since it often leads to negative
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actions and behaviors. For example, a sexist person is someone who has negative attitude
towards the other sex and sees them as the lesser sex. This negative attitude could manifest into
action such as bullying, discrimination, or violence.
DISCRIMINATION
​
Discrimination refers to actions or behaviors towards an individual or a group of
people. According to the United Nations, “discriminatory behaviors take many forms, but they
all involve some form of exclusion or rejection”.
​
People who are discriminated on are treated worse than the way people are usually
treated just because they belong to a certain ,group or they have certain characteristics. Here are a
few examples of discrimination:
1.​ Genocide is the action of recognizing someone as different so much that they are
treated inhumanly and degraded.
the deliberate killing of a large number of people from a particular nation or ethnic
group with the aim of destroying that nation or group.
2.​ Apartheid (means separateness) is a form of racial discrimination wherein one
race is viewed as less than the other, resulting in the separation of black and whites
and the mass murder of Jews in concentration camps.
3.​ Gender discrimination is another form of discrimination. Statistically, women earn
less than men and are often relegated to be solely responsible for child-rearing and
house chores. Men, on the other hand, are discriminated in household
responsibilities such that they are perceived as less manly when they do their share of
house chores or when they become stay at home husbands.
4.​ LGBT discrimination happens when LGBT people are treated as lesser than
straight people. Discrimination happens early in their childhood as they get bullied
when they act differently or dress differently than other kids. During adolescence,
they get judged, bullied, or physically assaulted as they explore and express their
sexuality.
Restricting opportunities or privileges that may be available to other groups is
discrimination, like the right to vote in national elections. In the Philippines, women only gained
the right to vote in 1937 and before that, Filipino women had no legal rights even to own
properties. That form of institutional discrimination was based on illogical or irrational judgment
that women are weaker than men.
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FREEDOM AND EQUALITY
​
Article I of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) states that “all human
beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.” This declaration was drafted by member
countries of the United Nations, including the Philippines in 1948. This monumental document
outlines the fundamental rights of every human being that should be protected by everyone at all
times.
​
Its preamble recognizes that the “inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights
of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice, and peace in the
world.”
​
While discriminatory traditions, policies, ideas, practices, and laws exist in many
countries, many have shifted towards making opportunities and privileges accessible to everyone.
In many countries, people of the same sex can now get married (29 countries – Australia,
Denmark) and create their own families while enjoying the same rights as straight couples. In the
Philippines, all establishments are now required by law to have an access ramp for people with
disabilities.
​
Appreciating diversity of the human race is key to making a safer and more inclusive
environment for everyone, regardless of race, sex, religion, sexuality, gender, or creed.
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The LGBTQIA+ and SOGIE
(Meaning, History and Processes)
■​ Intended Learning Outcomes
​
​
​
​
Trace the history of the LGBTQIA+;
Discuss the LGBTQIA+ terms and its meaning;
Define the SOGIE Terms and discuss its meaning; and
Explain the importance and relevance of SOGIE.
■​ Introduction
​ Labels are powerful words to discriminate and oppress people. The use of ‘Aryan race’ as a
word which means ‘superior’ (by the German Nazi). ‘Jews’ and ‘homosexual’; to justify
their mass murder – what they called as ‘inferior’ race. Use of language; empower people to
claim their space in the society – political sphere.
■​ Views on LGBT in History
​ In china 600 BCE, they use the terms pleasures of the bitten peach and brokeback.
​ In Japan, ‘shudo’ or ‘nanshoku’.
​ In Thailand, ‘Kathoey’ – referring to lady boys.
​ In the Philippines, ‘babaylan’ and ‘catalonan’ – mostly women priests, but some are males
who lived their lives as women.
​ In ancient Greek, Pedastry- all males are expected to take on a younger male lover in a
practice. Other societies, like indigenous Native Americans, accepted and celebrated what
they called Two-spirited’ person in a dance to the “Berdache.”
✔​ Abrahamic Religion, this branded it as Sodomy- a crime against nature.
✔​ System enforced its belief systems of viewing same-sex attractions as a sin through
violence such as; killing homosexuals through burning , stoning , or being fed to the
dogs.
​ In 19th century, homosexuality was classified as an illness and as a basis to legally persecute
homosexuals, imprison , and commit them to mental institution.
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■​ What does LGBTQIA+ stand for?
Lesbian
Gay
Bisexual
Transgender
Queer
Intersex
Asexual
+ Plus
Women who are emotionally and sexually attracted to men.
Men who are emotionally and sexually attracted to men.
Man or woman who is emotionally and sexually attracted to men and women.
When your gender identity (how you feel) is different from your Physical sex
(Male and Female).
Used by people who celebrate all gender identities, can also mean someone
who do not want to be restricted as Lesbian , Gay or Bisexual.
People who were born with sex genitals or chromosome patterns that do
not fit the typical male or female body.
People who do not feel sexual attraction to anyone but it does not mean
that they do not engage in romantic or sexual relationship.
Refers to all sexuality that do not fit in the LGBTQI spectrum.
■​ Why it keeps changing ?
There are many variations of this acronym and it continues to build as the world becomes
more and more educated on the fluidity of human sexuality. As we become more inclusive as a
society, these letters vacillate sometimes having one or two of the same letter, sometimes not
including one. The important part is that, whatever the combination, these letters represent
anyone identifying as or in support of any person(s) who are non-heterosexual or
non-cisgendered. Cisgender or 'cis' is a term for anyone whose gender identity matches the sex
that they were assigned at birth.
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(Aurelia, 2020)
■​ LGBTQ+ Identities, Sexuality and Genders
The following list is neither comprehensive nor incontrovertible, but it’s an
ever-improving list of definitions for terminology relating to LGBTQ+.
​ Advocate – 1 noun : a person who actively works to end intolerance, educate others, and
support social equity for a marginalized group. 2 verb : to actively support or plea in favor of
a particular cause, the action of working to end intolerance or educate others.
​ Agender – adj. : a person with no (or very little) connection to the traditional system of
gender, no personal alignment with the concepts of either man or woman, and/or someone
who sees themselves as existing without gender. Sometimes called gender neutrois, gender
neutral, or genderless.
​ Ally /“al-lie”/ – noun : a (typically straight and/or cisgender) person who supports and
respects members of the LGBTQ community. We consider people to be active allies who
take action on in support and respect.
​ Androgyny /“an-jrah-jun-ee”/ (androgynous) – 1 noun. : a gender expression that has
elements of both masculinity and femininity; 2 adj. : occasionally used in place of “intersex”
to describe a person with both female and male anatomy, generally in the form “androgyne.”
​ Androsexual / androphilic – adj. : being primarily sexually, romantically and/or
emotionally attracted to men, males, and/or masculinity.
​ Aromantic /”ay-ro-man-tic”/ – adj. : experiencing little or no romantic attraction to others
and/or has a lack of interest in romantic relationships/behavior.
​ Aromanticism exists on a continuum from people who experience no romantic attraction or
have any desire for romantic activities, to those who experience low levels, or romantic
attraction only under specific conditions. Many of these different places on the continuum
have their own identity labels (see demiromantic). Sometimes abbreviated to “aro”
(pronounced like “arrow”).
​ Asexual – adj. : experiencing little or no sexual attraction to others and/or a lack of interest
in sexual relationships/behavior. Asexuality exists on a continuum from people who
experience no sexual attraction or have any desire for sex, to those who experience low
levels, or sexual attraction only under specific conditions. Many of these different places on
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the continuum have their own identity labels (see demisexual). Sometimes abbreviated to
“ace.”
​ Bicurious – adj. : a curiosity toward experiencing attraction to people of the same
gender/sex (similar to questioning).
​ Bigender – adj. : a person who fluctuates between traditionally “woman” and “man”
gender-based behavior and identities, identifying with both genders (or sometimes
identifying with either man or woman, as well as a third, different gender).
​ Binder – noun : an undergarment used to alter or reduce the appearance of one’s breasts
(worn similarly to how one wears a sports bra). binding – adj. : the (sometimes daily)
process of wearing a binder. Binding is often used to change the way other’s read/perceive
one’s anatomical sex characteristics, and/or as a form of gender expression.
​ Biological sex – noun : a medical term used to refer to the chromosomal, hormonal and
anatomical characteristics that are used to classify an individual as female or male or
intersex. Often referred to as simply “sex,” “physical sex,” “anatomical sex,” or specifically
as “sex assigned at birth.”
​ Biphobia – noun : a range of negative attitudes (e.g., fear, anger, intolerance, invisibility,
resentment, erasure, or discomfort) that one may have or express toward bisexual
individuals. Biphobia can come from and be seen within the LGBTQ community as well as
straight society. biphobic – adj. : a word used to describe actions, behaviors, or individuals
who demonstrate elements of this range of negative attitudes toward bisexual people.
​ Bisexual – 1 noun & adj. : a person who experiences attraction to some men and women. 2
adj. : a person who experiences attraction to some people of their gender and another gender.
Bisexual attraction does not have to be equally split, or indicate a level of interest that is the
same across the genders an individual may be attracted to. Often used interchangeably with
“pansexual”.
​ Butch – noun & adj. : a person who identifies themselves as masculine, whether it be
physically, mentally, or emotionally. ‘Butch’ is sometimes used as a derogatory term for
lesbians, but is also be claimed as an affirmative identity label.
​ Cisgender /“siss-jendur”/ – adj. : a gender description for when someone’s sex assigned at
birth and gender identity correspond in the expected way (e.g., someone who was assigned
male at birth, and identifies as a man). A simple way to think about it is if a person is not
transgender, they are cisgender. The word cisgender can also be shortened to “cis.”
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​ Cisnormativity – noun : the assumption, in individuals and in institutions, that everyone is
cisgender, and that cisgender identities are superior to trans* identities and people. Leads to
invisibility of non-cisgender identities.
​ Cissexism – noun : behavior that grants preferential treatment to cisgender people,
reinforces the idea that being cisgender is somehow better or more “right” than being
transgender, and/or makes other genders invisible.
​ Closeted – adj. : an individual who is not open to themselves or others about their (queer)
sexuality or gender identity. This may be by choice and/or for other reasons such as fear for
one’s safety, peer or family rejection, or disapproval and/or loss of housing, job, etc. Also
known as being “in the closet.” When someone chooses to break this silence they “come
out” of the closet. (See coming out)
​ Coming out – 1 noun : the process by which one accepts and/or comes to identify one’s own
sexuality or gender identity (to “come out” to oneself). 2 verb : the process by which one
shares one’s sexuality or gender identity with others.
​ Constellation – noun : a way to describe the arrangement or structure of a polyamorous
relationship.
​ Cross-dresser – noun : someone who wears clothes of another gender/sex.
​ Demiromantic – adj. : little or no capacity to experience romantic attraction until a strong
sexual connection is formed with someone, often within a sexual relationship.
​ Demisexual – adj. : little or no capacity to experience sexual attraction until a strong
romantic connection is formed with someone, often within a romantic relationship.
​ Down low – adj. : typically referring to men who identify as straight but who secretly have
sex with men. Down low (or DL) originated in, and is most commonly used by, communities
of color.
​ Drag king – noun : someone who performs (hyper-) masculinity theatrically.
​ Drag queen – noun : someone who performs (hyper-) femininity theatrically.
​ Dyke – noun : referring to a masculine presenting lesbian. While often used derogatorily, it
is also reclaimed affirmatively by some lesbians and gay women as a positive self identity
term.
​ Emotional attraction – noun : a capacity that evokes the want to engage in emotionally
intimate behavior (e.g., sharing, confiding, trusting, inter-depending), experienced in varying
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degrees (from little-to-none to intense). Often conflated with sexual attraction, romantic
attraction, and/or spiritual attraction.
​ Fag(got) – noun : derogatory term referring to a gay person, or someone perceived as queer.
While often used derogatorily, it is also used reclaimed by some gay people (often gay men)
as a positive in-group term.
​ Feminine-of-center; masculine-of-center – adj. : a phrase that indicates a range in terms of
gender identity and expression for people who present, understand themselves, and/or relate
to others in a generally more feminine/masculine way, but don’t necessarily identify as
women or men. Feminine-of-center individuals may also identify as “femme,”
“submissive,” “transfeminine,” etc.; masculine-of-center individuals may also often identify
as “butch,” “stud,” “aggressive,” “boi,” “transmasculine,” etc.
​ Feminine-presenting; masculine-presenting – adj. : a way to describe someone who
expresses gender in a more feminine/masculine way. Often confused with
feminine-of-center/masculine-of-center, which generally include a focus on identity as well
as expression.
​ Femme – noun & adj. : someone who identifies themselves as feminine, whether it be
physically, mentally or emotionally. Often used to refer to a feminine-presenting queer
woman or people.
​ Fluid(ity) – adj. : generally with another term attached, like gender-fluid or fluid-sexuality,
fluid(ity) describes an identity that may change or shift over time between or within the mix
of the options available (e.g., man and woman, bi and straight).
​ FtM / F2M; MtF / M2F – abbr. : female-to-male transgender or transsexual person;
male-to-female transgender or transsexual person.
​ Gay – 1 adj. : experiencing attraction solely (or primarily) to some members of the same
gender. Can be used to refer to men who are attracted to other men and women who are
attracted to women. 2 adj. : an umbrella term used to refer to the queer community as a
whole, or as an individual identity label for anyone who is not straight.
​ Gender binary – noun : the idea that there are only two genders and that every person is one
of those two.
​ Gender expression – noun : the external display of one’s gender, through a combination of
clothing, grooming, demeanor, social behavior, and other factors, generally made sense of on
scales of masculinity and femininity. Also referred to as “gender presentation.”
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​ Gender fluid – adj. : a gender identity best described as a dynamic mix of boy and girl. A
person who is gender fluid may always feel like a mix of the two traditional genders, but
may feel more man some days, and more woman other days.
​ Gender identity – noun : the internal perception of an one’s gender, and how they label
themselves, based on how much they align or don’t align with what they understand their
options for gender to be. Often conflated with biological sex, or sex assigned at birth.
​ Gender neutrois – adj. : see agender.
​ Gender non-conforming – 1 adj. : a gender expression descriptor that indicates a
non-traditional gender presentation (masculine woman or feminine man). 2 adj. : a gender
identity label that indicates a person who identifies outside of the gender binary. Often
abbreviated as “GNC.”
​ Gender normative / gender straight – adj. : someone whose gender presentation, whether
by nature or by choice, aligns with society’s gender-based expectations.
​ Genderqueer – 1 adj. : a gender identity label often used by people who do not identify with
the binary of man/woman. 2 adj. : an umbrella term for many gender non-conforming or
non-binary identities (e.g., agender, bigender, genderfluid).
​ Gender variant – adj. : someone who either by nature or by choice does not conform to
gender-based expectations of society (e.g. transgender, transsexual, intersex, genderqueer,
cross-dresser, etc).
​ Gynesexual / gynephilic /“guy-nuh-seks-shu-uhl”/ – adj. : being primarily sexually,
romantically and/or emotionally attracted to woman, females, and/or femininity.
​ Hermaphrodite – noun : an outdated medical term previously used to refer to someone who
was born with some combination of typically-male and typically-female sex characteristics.
It’s considered stigmatizing and inaccurate. See intersex.
​ Heteronormativity – noun : the assumption, in individuals and/or in institutions, that
everyone is heterosexual and that heterosexuality is superior to all other sexualities. Leads to
invisibility and stigmatizing of other sexualities: when learning a woman is married, asking
her what her husband’s name is. Heteronormativity also leads us to assume that only
masculine men and feminine women are straight.
​ Heterosexism – noun : behavior that grants preferential treatment to heterosexual people,
reinforces the idea that heterosexuality is somehow better or more “right” than queerness,
and/or makes other sexualities invisible.
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​ Heterosexual/straight – adj. : experiencing attraction solely (or primarily) to some
members of a different gender.
​ Homophobia – noun : an umbrella term for a range of negative attitudes (e.g., fear, anger,
intolerance, resentment, erasure, or discomfort) that one may have toward LGBTQ people.
The term can also connote a fear, disgust, or dislike of being perceived as LGBTQ.
homophobic – adj. : a word used to describe actions, behaviors, or individuals who
demonstrate elements of this range of negative attitudes toward LGBTQ people.
​ Homosexual – adj. & noun : a person primarily emotionally, physically, and/or sexually
attracted to members of the same sex/gender. This [medical] term is considered stigmatizing
(particularly as a noun) due to its history as a category of mental illness, and is discouraged
for common use (use gay or lesbian instead).
​ Intersex – adj. : term for a combination of chromosomes, gonads, hormones, internal sex
organs, and genitals that differs from the two expected patterns of male or female. Formerly
known as hermaphrodite (or hermaphroditic), but these terms are now outdated and
derogatory.
​ lesbian – noun & adj. : women who are primarily attracted romantically, erotically, and/or
emotionally to other women.
​ LGBTQ; GSM; DSG – abbr. : shorthand or umbrella terms for all folks who have a
non-normative (or queer) gender or sexuality, there are many different initialisms people
prefer. LGBTQ is Lesbian Gay Bisexual Transgender and Queer and/or Questioning
(sometimes people at a + at the end in an effort to be more inclusive); GSM is Gender and
Sexual Minorities; DSG is Diverse Sexualities and Genders. Other options include the
initialism GLBT or LGBT and the acronym QUILTBAG (Queer [or Questioning] Undecided
Intersex Lesbian Trans* Bisexual Asexual [or Allied] and Gay [or Genderqueer]).
​ Lipstick lesbian – noun : Usually refers to a lesbian with a feminine gender expression. Can
be used in a positive or a derogatory way. Is sometimes also used to refer to a lesbian who is
assumed to be (or passes for) straight.
​ Metrosexual – adj. : a man with a strong aesthetic sense who spends more time, energy, or
money on his appearance and grooming than is considered gender normative.
​ MSM / WSW – abbr. : men who have sex with men or women who have sex with women,
to distinguish sexual behaviors from sexual identities: because a man is straight, it doesn’t
mean he’s not having sex with men. Often used in the field of HIV/Aids education,
prevention, and treatment.
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​ Mx. / “mix” or “schwa” / – noun : an honorific (e.g. Mr., Ms., Mrs., etc.) that is gender
neutral. It is often the option of choice for folks who do not identify within the gender
binary: Mx. Smith is a great teacher.
​ Outing – verb : involuntary or unwanted disclosure of another person’s sexual orientation,
gender identity, or intersex status.
​ Pansexual – adj. : a person who experiences sexual, romantic, physical, and/or spiritual
attraction for members of all gender identities/expressions. Often shortened to “pan.”
​ passing – 1 adj. & verb : trans* people being accepted as, or able to “pass for,” a member of
their self-identified gender identity (regardless of sex assigned at birth) without being
identified as trans*. 2 adj. : an LGB/queer individual who is believed to be or perceived as
straight.
​ PGPs – abbr. : preferred gender pronouns. Often used during introductions, becoming more
common as a standard practice. Many suggest removing the “preferred,” because it indicates
flexibility and/or the power for the speaker to decide which pronouns to use for someone
else.
​ Polyamory (polyamorous) – noun : refers to the practice of, desire for, or orientation
toward having ethical, honest, and consensual non-monogamous relationships (i.e.
relationships that may include multiple partners). Often shortened to “poly.”
​ Queer – 1 adj. : an umbrella term to describe individuals who don’t identify as straight
and/or cisgender. 2 noun : a slur used to refer to someone who isn’t straight and/or cisgender.
Due to its historical use as a derogatory term, and how it is still used as a slur many
communities, it is not embraced or used by all LGBTQ people. The term “queer” can often
be use interchangeably with LGBTQ (e.g., “queer people” instead of “LGBTQ people”).
​ Questioning – verb, adj. : an individual who or time when someone is unsure about or
exploring their own sexual orientation or gender identity.
​ QPOC / QTPOC – abbr. : initialisms that stand for queer people of color and queer and/or
trans people of color.
​ Romantic attraction – noun : a capacity that evokes the want to engage in romantic
intimate behavior (e.g., dating, relationships, marriage), experienced in varying degrees
(from little-to-none, to intense). Often conflated with sexual attraction, emotional attraction,
and/or spiritual attraction.
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​ Same gender loving (SGL) – adj. : sometimes used by some members of the
African-American or Black community to express an non-straight sexual orientation without
relying on terms and symbols of European descent.
​ Sex assigned at birth (SAAB) – abbr. : a phrase used to intentionally recognize a person’s
assigned sex (not gender identity). Sometimes called “designated sex at birth” (DSAB) or
“sex coercively assigned at birth” (SCAB), or specifically used as “assigned male at birth”
(AMAB) or “assigned female at birth” (AFAB): Jenny was assigned male at birth, but
identifies as a woman.
​ Sexual attraction – noun : a capacity that evokes the want to engage in physically intimate
behavior (e.g., kissing, touching, intercourse), experienced in varying degrees (from
little-to-none, to intense). Often conflated with romantic attraction, emotional attraction,
and/or spiritual attraction.
​ Sexual orientation – noun : the type of sexual, romantic, emotional/spiritual attraction one
has the capacity to feel for some others, generally labeled based on the gender relationship
between the person and the people they are attracted to. Often confused with sexual
preference.
​ Sexual preference – noun : the types of sexual intercourse, stimulation, and gratification one
likes to receive and participate in. Generally when this term is used, it is being mistakenly
interchanged with “sexual orientation,” creating an illusion that one has a choice (or
“preference”) in who they are attracted to.
​ Sex reassignment surgery (SRS) – noun : used by some medical professionals to refer to a
group of surgical options that alter a person’s biological sex. “Gender confirmation surgery”
is considered by many to be a more affirming term. In most cases, one or multiple surgeries
are required to achieve legal recognition of gender variance. Some refer to different surgical
procedures as “top” surgery and “bottom” surgery to discuss what type of surgery they are
having without having to be more explicit.
​ Skoliosexual – adj. : being primarily sexually, romantically and/or emotionally attracted to
some genderqueer, transgender, transsexual, and/or non-binary people.
​ Spiritual attraction – noun : a capacity that evokes the want to engage in intimate behavior
based on one’s experience with, interpretation of, or belief in the supernatural (e.g., religious
teachings, messages from a deity), experienced in varying degrees (from little-to-none, to
intense). Often conflated with sexual attraction, romantic attraction, and/or emotional
attraction.
​ Stealth – adj. : a trans person who is not “out” as trans, and is perceived/known by others as
cisgender.
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​ Straight – adj. : a person primarily emotionally, physically, and/or sexually attracted to
some people who are not their same sex/gender. A more colloquial term for the word
heterosexual.
​ Stud – noun : most commonly used to indicate a Black/African-American and/or Latina
masculine lesbian/queer woman. Also known as ‘butch’ or ‘aggressive’.
​ Third gender – noun : for a person who does not identify with either man or woman, but
identifies with another gender. This gender category is used by societies that recognize three
or more genders, both contemporary and historic, and is also a conceptual term meaning
different things to different people who use it, as a way to move beyond the gender binary.
​ Top surgery – noun : this term refers to surgery for the construction of a male-type chest or
breast augmentation for a female-type chest.
​ Trans* – adj. : an umbrella term covering a range of identities that transgress
socially-defined gender norms. Trans with an asterisk is often used in written forms (not
spoken) to indicate that you are referring to the larger group nature of the term, and
specifically including non-binary identities, as well as transgender men (transmen) and
transgender women (transwomen).
​ Transgender – 1 adj. : a gender description for someone who has transitioned (or is
transitioning) from living as one gender to another. 2 adj. : an umbrella term for anyone
whose sex assigned at birth and gender identity do not correspond in the expected way (e.g.,
someone who was assigned male at birth, but does not identify as a man).
​ Transition / transitioning – noun, verb : referring to the process of a transgender person
changing aspects of themself (e.g., their appearance, name, pronouns, or making physical
changes to their body) to be more congruent with the gender they know themself to be (as
opposed to the gender they lived as pre-transitioning).
​ Transman; transwoman – noun : An identity label sometimes adopted by female-to-male
transgender people or transsexuals to signify that they are men while still affirming their
history as assigned female sex at birth. (sometimes referred to as transguy) 2 Identity label
sometimes adopted by male-to-female transsexuals or transgender people to signify that they
are women while still affirming their history as assigned male sex at birth.
​ Transphobia – noun : the fear of, discrimination against, or hatred of trans* people, the
trans* community, or gender ambiguity. Transphobia can be seen within the queer
community, as well as in general society. Transphobic – adj. : a word used to describe an
individual who harbors some elements of this range of negative attitudes, thoughts, intents,
towards trans* people.
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​ Transsexual – noun and adj. a person who identifies psychologically as a gender/sex other
than the one to which they were assigned at birth. Transsexuals often wish to transform their
bodies hormonally and surgically to match their inner sense of gender/sex.
​ Transvestite – noun : a person who dresses as the binary opposite gender expression
(“cross-dresses”) for any one of many reasons, including relaxation, fun, and sexual
gratification (often called a “cross-dresser,” and should not be confused with transsexual).
​ Two-spirit – noun : is an umbrella term traditionally within Native American communities
to recognize individuals who possess qualities or fulfill roles of both genders.
​ ` – alternate pronouns that are gender neutral and preferred by some trans* people. They
replace “he” and “she” and “his” and “hers” respectively. Alternatively, some people who are
not comfortable/do not embrace he/she use the plural pronoun “they/their” as a gender
neutral singular pronoun.
The Importance and Relevance of SOGIE to Individuals
Such like other parts of our identity; race and ethnicity, SOGIE really Matters. Indeed, it is an
essential part of our identity that can determine and shape our needs and experiences. Thus, here
are the following some importance and relevance of Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and/or
Expression:
​
Understanding Individuals SOGIE
In reality of life, everybody has SOGIE. However, this is where SOGIE becomes
useful as a first step to understanding not only those who are in CISGENDER but also the
LGBTQIA+ and his or her personal identity. Hence, it is useful for questioning individuals to
understand themselves better and it also provides a framework that the public can use to
empathize with the multitudes of sexual orientation and identity.
​
SOGIE as a catalyst for Human Rights
There is an understanding at an international level that the issue should come from the
equality of all people, the respect for human rights. SOGIE can bridge the current gap. At the
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international level, “human rights” are “the minimum standard that must be protected,” and it’s
not a radical idea that has recently emerged. The United Nations adopted the idea of human
rights and sexual issues, gender identity in 2011 for the first time. It means they expanded the
protection to more people to the SOGIE level at this time. Since then, there’s been an awareness
campaign called “Free & Equal.”
​
To Promote the Understanding of SOGIE
SOGIE is essential to help everyone understand that sexuality is not binary nor lies along
a binary scale. SOGIE shows us the myriad forms of sexual orientation and identity, and will
foster a base of understanding for us to build foundations of human civilization.
3.4 SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF MEN AND MASCULINITY
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Men and Masculinities
LESSON OBJECTIVES:
​
This module discusses the many faces of men and masculinities. It also discusses themes
of masculinity and its relationship with well-being, fathering, domestic roles, and drug and
alcohol use. This module finally deals with hegemonic, protest, and caring masculinities. At the
end of this module, you are expected to:
1.​ Understand fully men’s studies and the constructs of masculinity;
2.​ Know fully the themes of masculinity and its relationship with well-being, fathering,
domestic roles, and drug and alcohol use; and
3.​ Comprehend hegemonic, protest, and caring masculinities
DEFINITION OF TERMS:
o​ Masculinities – a social, cultural, and historical construction of men dependent on and
related to other factors such as class, ethnicity, sexuality, age, and disability.
o​ Hegemonic Masculinity – form of masculinity which is culturally dominant in a given
setting.
o​ Protest Masculinity – form of masculinity which is culturally dominant in a
marginalized setting.
o​ Caring Masculinity – proposes that men are able to adopt what is viewed as
traditionally feminine characteristics.
INTRODUCTION
​
Since 1970s, studies on different aspects of manhood (from men in the labor market to
men in the family and violent men, etc.) were made. By the 20th century, the number of these
studies increased dramatically.
​
A growing body of literature theorizing men and masculinities focuses on a variety of
topics including men’s violence, fatherhood, pornography, men’s crimes, female masculinity,
male femininity, etc. These studies arose despite the clear dominance of men over global
economic and political power. Men make up a large majority of corporate executives, top
professionals, and holders of public office. Worldwide, men held 93% of cabinet-level posts in
1996 and most top positions in international agencies (Gierycz 1999).
​
Essentialist views of gender are still popular and are constantly reinforced in the media.
However, they are increasingly under challenge, not only in biology (Fausto-Sterling 1992), but
also in everyday life. The rise of the women’s liberation movement, and many feminisms that
have followed on from it, produced a massive disturbance in the gender system and people’s
assumptions about gender.
​
Large numbers of men now acknowledge that their position is under challenge, that what
they once took for granted about must be re-thought, making men’s studies and masculinity
became popular.
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MEN’S RIGHTS LOBBY
​
One of the main founding texts of this lobby is by Warren Farrell, in his work, The Myth
of Male Power: Why are Men the Disposable Sex? (1994). According to him:
​
“Men are now the gender victims as a result of feminism having gone too far, with men
having increased responsibilities but few rights around issues of marriage, divorce, child custody
and access to children.”
​
Modern legislation is seen to be overprotective of women’s interests, resulting in
discrimination against men at a time when they are under increasing threat within a rapidly
changing society.
​
Still, some researchers argue that these pro-male movements were only a reaction to
feminism – an attempt to accuse women and feminists for creating problems that men encounter
in society.
MASCULINITY THEMES
​
Masculinity is a social, cultural, and historical construct dependent on and related to other
factors such as class, ethnicity, sexuality, age, and disability. Researches on men’s studies and
masculinity established common themes which strengthened and developed these evolving
concepts.
1.​ Multiple Masculinity
Accordingly, there is no one pattern of masculinity that is found everywhere.
Different cultures and different periods of history, construct masculinity differently. Some
cultures make heroes of soldiers and regard violence as the ultimate test of masculinity. Other
cultures look at soldiering with disdain and regard violence as contemptible.
Some countries regard homosexual sex as incompatible with true masculinity. Other
countries think that no person can be a real man without having had homosexual relationships.
The meaning of masculinity in working-class life is different from the meaning in
middle-class life and same goes among the very rich and the very poor. It is even possible that
more than one kind of masculinity can be found within a given cultural setting and within a
specific class.
This only shows that masculinities cannot be delimited to a sole definition or description
as various countries, culture, and levels in life view this concept differently.
2.​ Hierarchy and Hegemony
The form of masculinity which is culturally dominant in a given setting is called
“hegemonic masculinity”. “Hegemonic” signifies a position of cultural authority and leadership
but not total dominance as other forms of masculinity persist alongside.
Hegemonic masculinity embodies popular heroes, role models, and fictional characters.
According to Kimmel (1997), hegemonic masculinity:
“contains within it the image of the ‘man’ in power, a man with power and a man of
power. We equate manhood with being strong, successful, capable, reliable, in control. The very
definitions of manhood we have developed in our culture maintain the power that some men have
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over other men and that men have over women.”
Hegemonic masculinity was understood as the pattern of practice that allowed men’s
dominance over women to continue. Hegemonic masculinity embodied the currently most
honored way of being a man as it required all other men to position themselves in relation to it
and ideologically legitimated the global subordination of women to men.
Hegemonic masculinity did not mean violence, although it could be supported by force; it
meant ascendancy achieved through culture, institutions, and persuasion.
Hegemonic masculinity in Western society hinges on heterosexuality, economic
autonomy, being able to provide for one’s family, being rational, being successful, keeping one’s
emotions in check, and above all, not doing anything considered feminine. Hegemonic male
norms stress values such as courage, aggression, autonomy, mastery, technological skill,
adventure, toughness in mind and body.
Hegemonic masculinity is hegemonic not just in relation to other masculinities, but in
relation to the gender order as a whole. This is an expression of the privilege men collectively
have over women.
The hierarchy of masculinities is an expression of the unequal shares in that privilege
held by different groups of men. Thus, some masculinities are deemed as higher than the others,
as well as higher than other forms of gender.
3.​ Collective Masculinities
Gender structures of a society define particular patterns of conduct of individuals as either
“masculine” or “feminine”. These patterns also exist at the collective level in institutions, such as
corporations, armies, governments, and even schools. Masculinities are also defined collectively
in the workplace and in informal groups like street gangs.
Masculinity also exists impersonally in culture. Video games, for example, circulate
stereotyped images of violent masculinity. Cinema and TV shows portray stereotypes
masculinity such as abandoning father, disgruntled student, abusive partner, and the drug convict.
​
MASCULINITIES AND WELL-BEING
​
Research confirms a strong association between rigid norms about what it means to be a
man and men’s negative health practices and vulnerabilities (Barket et al., 2011).
​
Men are unlikely to talk about their worries and more likely to drink and engage in other
destructive behaviors when stressed. These findings echo the evidence in the literature that
conforming to stoic and rigid notions of masculinity contributes to suicidal behavior and
depression.
​
Culturally dominant forms of masculinity, which often urge men to practice strict
emotional control, serve as barriers to health and help-seeking behavior, or encourage some men
to engage in practices detrimental to their own health and that of their families.
​
Evidence confirms that death and disability rates related to alcohol and substance abuse
are considerably higher for men than for women, making substance abuse and addiction
predominantly male phenomena worldwide (Pyne et al. 2002; WHO 2004).
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