Sustainable tourism innovation: Challenging basic assumptions
Author(s): Gianna Moscardo
Source: Tourism and Hospitality Research , JANUARY 2008, Vol. 8, No. 1, Special Issue:
Innovation for Sustainable Tourism: BEST EN Think Tank VII (JANUARY 2008), pp. 4-13
Published by: Sage Publications, Ltd.
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Academic Papers
Sustainable tourism innovation: Challenging
basic assumptions
Gianna Moscardo
Received (in revised form): 1st September, 2007
School of Business, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld 4811, Australia.
E-mail: Gianna.Moscardo@jcu.edu.au
Gianna Moscardo is a professor in the ities
School
and development options. These potential
of Business at James Cook University.synergies
Before are described and illustrated with a
joining the School of Business she had range
been of
a examples. In addition, the paper sets
principal research fellow and project leader
in of additional criteria that could be
out a series
tourism research in the Cooperative Research
used to evaluate different potential tourism devel
Centres for Reefand Rainforest for eight
yearsand makes suggestions about the devel
opments
managing a series of research and extension
opment of sustainability performance indicators.
activities aimed at enhancing the sustainability
Finally, the paper highlights the importance of
of tourism activities in Northern Australia. She
better knowledge management systems to support
was recently elected to the World Tourism
innovation in tourism.
Organization's International Academy for the
Study of Tourism Scholars.
doi: 10.1057/thr.2008.7;
published online 18 February 2008
Abstract
KEYWORDS: sustainable development,
sustainable tourism, innovation, regional
development
Tourism and Hospitality Research (2008) 8, 4-13.
INTRODUCTION
Innovation can come in many forms but all of
these share three common elements — crea
Although much of the discussion of innovationtivity, a problem-solving approach and a new
focuses on new products and technologies, all way of thinking. This paper proposes that
innovation is based on challenging existing current approaches to tourism and sustainable
assumptions and ways of thinking. This paperregional development have a number of prob
argues that one option to develop new ways oflems and new solutions to these problems could
thinking and innovation in tourism is to arguecome from using creative thinking methods.
that there is no such thing as sustainable tourism. It is argued that challenging basic assumptions
If we begin with the assumption that tourism can lead to very simple but powerful new ideas.
cannot be sustainable in its own right but maySpecifically, this paper will seek to demonstrate
contribute to the sustainable development of somethat by taking the position that there is no such
regions under some circumstances, then a numberthing as sustainable tourism, a number of new
of new approaches to tourism development emerge. ways of thinking about the role of tourism in
In particular, it is argued that stronger links may sustainable regional development can be
emerge between tourism and other economic activdescribed. Typically discussions of tourism
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Moscardo
development concentrate on the resources, assumptions and looking at things from an
skills and infrastructure that a community offers alternative viewpoint,
to tourism developers. This paper will take the
inverse of this approach and will explore a THE PROBLEMS FOR TOURISM AND
number of ways in which regional communi- REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT
ties can use tourism developers and tourists to Tourism is an option chosen by many govern
achieve the destination region's broader goals ments as a key tool for regional development
and aspirations. (Forstner, 2004). Despite a relatively long
history of use as a regional development tool
and substantial investments of resources, there
INNOVATION AND CREATIVITY — KEY is considerable debate about the value of
POINTS tourism for communities in rural and periph
Hjalager (1997) argues that there is a tendency eral areas. Numerous evaluation
to associate innovation only with invention or lighted many negative conseque
the creation of new products and this limits our tourism development including
understanding of the potential for innovation in
a sector. Hjalager (1997) goes on to argue that — Modest or no economic retu
this product innovation is only one of several tourism for locals (Kiss, 2004)
types of innovation. Other types include classic — negative impacts on local culture
process innovations (where the production structure (Forstner, 2004)
process is altered), information handling innova- — restriction of access to land fo
tions (where new forms of knowledge manage- activities (Vail and Flultkrantz
ment are adopted), management innovations — disruption of traditional subs
(where the way in which a business is managed other activities (Abakerli, 2001
is changed) and institutional innovations (where — damage to natural and cultu
the structure of the organisation is altered) (Briassoulis, 2002).
(Hjalager, 1997). Perdomo-Ortiz et al. (2006)
provide a similar argument in their review of In response to these critical assessments of
definitions of innovation. They concluded that tourism development in rural and peripheral
innovation is best defined as a 'dynamic capa- regions many researchers and governments
bility' (p. 1173) based on patterns of thinking have argued for the use of alternative forms of
and action that allows an organisation to regu- tourism such as ecotourism and community
larly modify the way it operates to improve its based tourism. Such options are claimed to
effectiveness. The importance of patterns of have better outcomes because they are smaller
thinking is stressed in this definition and these in scale, which is typically associated with more
authors note that all innovation is based on new limited environmental and social impacts and
ways of thinking often associated with creative greater opportunities for local businesses to get
thinking techniques. Edward De Bono (1998) is involved (Kirsten and Rogerson, 2002).
one of the leading proponents of creative Community-based approaches to tourism are
thinking techniques and offers a number of particularly popular as they explicitly describe
options to stimulate new ideas for innovation. processes for involving local stakeholders in
Although De Bono (1998) offers a wide range decisions about the types and locations of
of thinking techniques they are all connected by proposed tourism developments (Hall, 2005).
two common themes — challenging existing These community-based approaches to
assumptions and looking at an existing situation tourism are not, however, universally hailed as
from a different perspective. Put simply, all inno- positive options for the development of periph
vation is ultimately based on challenging existing eral and rural regions. Okech (2006), for
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Sustainable tourism innovation
example, notes that the effective involvement concept of sustainable tourism is much more
of local residents and stakeholders in decision about the continuity of tourism than it is about
making requires them to have sufficient under- the contribution of tourism to sustainable
standing of tourism and their rights to be able outcomes (Coccossis, 1996; Stabler, 1997).
to contribute meaningfully to the discussions According to Wall (1997), the real question to
of tourism. Johnson and Wilson (2000) also be asked about tourism and sustainability is
note that the proponents of community 'whether and in what form might tourism
involvement in decision making often make contribute to sustainable development?'(p. 34).
naive assumptions about the existing political Further it could be argued that few tourism
structures in a destination community, and that authors have explicitly contemplated the
in many cultures and places it cannot be concept that tourism may not be an option for
assumed that all stakeholders will be able to sustainable development in some destinations,
speak openly about their attitudes towards a A further barrier identified in consideration of
proposed development. In practice, this means the role of tourism in sustainable development
that development decisions are often domi- is that it is often considered in isolation from
nated by external agents such as consultants other sectors and activities (Butler, 1999). Other
and NGO staff. issues identified by Butler (1999) are the power
Despite the best of intentions, these external given to external parties over tourism develop
agents tend to limit community participation ment, a limited understanding of tourism
to choosing between tourism options devel- process and impacts, and a tendency to focus
oped by people outside the community. on a limited range of tourism forms.
Moscardo (2006) provides an analysis of the This tendency to assume that tourism can
social representations of tourism planning held be considered sustainable in its own right and
by many professionals and academics in which the subsequent confusion between sustainable
locals are seen as lacking the knowledge and tourism and tourism as part of sustainable
skills to participate in tourism and are therefore development has three important consequences
excluded from many marketing decisions. In for communities where tourism is proposed as
essence, tourism development becomes almost a tool for regional development. The first of
completely market driven which Collins (1999) these is that already noted by Butler (1999)
notes limits the capacity for tourism to — considering tourism in isolation to other
contribute to sustainable development. activities. While some tourism planning text
books refer to the need to consider the inter
CHALLENGING BASIC ASSUMPTIONS actions between tourism and other activities,
The concept of sustainable tourism develop- specific mechanisms for analysing these interac
ment has received considerable academic and tions are missing from the tourism literature
government attention and support as evident (Collins, 1999).
in the number of policies for sustainable The second important consequence of the
tourism and books, papers and journals. Within sustainable tourism sustainable development
this literature, there is considerable debate about confusion is the widespread and uncritical use
what constitutes sustainable tourism and how of tourism planning models that look at
it can be achieved and several authors have communities and their regions only as resources
questioned the value of the concept itself. for tourism (Hall, 2000). The various tourism
Coccossis noted as early as 1996 that discus- planning textbooks provide detailed discussions
sions of sustainable tourism are often restricted of the methods for assessing the available
to an analysis of how to ensure the continuity resources for tourism but there has been virtu
of tourism by minimising negative impacts. In ally no discussion of assessing tourism as a
other words,, it could be suggested that the resource for regional communities (see Inskeep
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Moscardo -jjf
(1994), for an example endorsed by the World options for rural and peripheral regions tend
Tourism Organization). to focus on forms of tourism that have been
The third and final consequence of the focus established in other contexts. Richards an
on sustainable tourism rather than tourism for Wilson (2006) refer to this as 'serial reproduc
sustainable development is the disempower- tion' (p. 1210).This discussion raises the qu
ment of local residents and other local stake- tion of what sorts of resources tourism might
holders in the tourism development and be able to contribute to the sustainable devel
management process. A focus on tourism opment of a rural or peripheral region. Hol
models and planning approaches that see local fjord (2000) suggests that there are three types
residents and their regions as resources for of synergies between tourism and other ac
tourism contributes to a view of tourism as an ities that can be exploited by rural communit
activity that needs to be directed by those with — product synergies, market synergies and
specialist knowledge of sustainable tourism marketing synergies,
practices and tourism marketing.
Product synergies
CONSEQUENCES OF A NEW WAY Product synergies refer to the shared use of
OF THINKING facilities and resources by tourism and other
According to Devuyst and Hens (2000: 100) activities. A common benefit often claim
'the road towards sustainable development is tourism is that it relies upon and cont
inevitably a search for new ways of thinking to infrastructure that can then be used f
and acting'. Such a sentiment suggests that activities.Transport and communication
innovation in considerations of tourism and are typically considered as such resourc
sustainability will require changes in ways of and Mitchell, 2000). If, however, to
thinking. An alternative way to view the role becomes an end in itself, rural comm
of tourism in sustainable development is to may find themselves having to fund th
challenge the assumption that it can be sustain- structure that was meant to be provided
able in its own right and more explicitly label tourism development. This is especially t
it as a potential resource for communities when the planning is based on develop
seeking sustainable development options. infrastructure for tourism and then fi
Re-conceptualizing tourism as just one among other uses for it.
many possible development options is likely to The alternative is to determine the
result in a more direct comparison of tourism structure already available and/or requir
to other development options. Additionally, the nontourism activities and then find the t
treatment of tourism as a development tool just tourism that can utilise these resources
like any other is also likely to encourage the fjord (2000) offers the example of tou
application of concepts and processes from two regions of Norway where loc
these other activities to tourism, particularly producers are able to use their existin
ideas about building community capacity. Liter- ings and facilities for tourism in low pro
ature in agriculture (Bokor, 2001) and health times. Fisherman, for example, can take to
(Slater et al., 2005), for example, provide models on sightseeing cruises or charter fishin
for the development of community capacity when commercial fish stocks are not availa
that could be adapted for tourism.
A consideration of tourism as a resource for Market synergies
communities rather than vice versa might also The market synergies category recognise
encourage a discussion of wider and more tourists can be additional customers fo
innovative types of tourism development than products and services. Thus, tourists can
are typically considered. Discussions of tourism customer base for various specialist or n
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Sustainable tourism innovation
agricultural, craft and other products (Bessiere, culture. The initial establishment of organic
1998; Cawley et al., 1999: Hall and Mitchell, agriculture can be challenging as it is often
2000). Kangaroo Island, off the South Australian associated with limited income during the
coast, offers an example of this approach. The transition period and lower levels of produc
specific characteristics of this region make tivity. The ability to access low-cost labour can
traditional agriculture difficult to sustain but be an important benefit for regions where this
do provide good conditions for organic and form of agriculture is seen as an option for
specialised food products. The challenge for development. WWOOF is an organisation that
such a small community has been producing matches tourist volunteers to host organic
these products in sufficient quantities to both farms. The volunteers exchange their labour
make transport to the mainland viable and to for free accommodation and meals and the
attract the attention of mainland distributors. opportunity to access a destination.
One solution has been the development of
food and wine tourism with the specific goal
of generating a customer base for these prod- Marketing synergies
ucts that allows the producers to sell directly Marketing synergies are ways of using tourism
to the consumer (see Good Food Kangaroo to create a broader awareness of other aspects
Island (2006) for further details). But this solu- of the region (Holmefjord, 2000). These
tion required a change in thinking about the marketing synergies can involve the joint use
type of tourists attracted to the island. Tradi- of marketing distribution systems, the use of
tionally, tourism to this area has been based on tourists themselves as a promotion tool for
wildlife viewing and a change in tour products, regional products and the joint development of
promotion and event planning was necessary regional brands. Hall and Mitchell (2000)
to create the conditions under which the Good provide evidence of the use of tourism distri
Food movement could be successful (TOMM, bution and promotional opportunities to estab
2006).The critical element again was to deter- lish awareness of products such as fruit and
mine the needs of the nontourism activity and wine. Good Food Kangaroo Island provides a
then seek to attract the appropriate type of limited example of this type of activity. Tour
tourism to support that. operators and accommodation establishments
Tourists can be seen as more than just on the island are encouraged to use l
customers, they can also be seen as human produce as part of their services and to ad
resources for regional development. Volunteer tise this use of local produce in their p
tourism is a form of tourism that has been tional activities. In addition, local prod
given little attention in the literature on rural suppliers are listed on tourism websites an
tourism development. Volunteer tourism refers tourism brochures. Thus, local food produ
to people paying to participate in various are taking advantage of existing tourism d
nature-based and community development bution systems. There is, however, potent
projects on their holidays (Wearing, 2001). expand on this, for example with online o
While many of the existing volunteer tourism tunities to buy produce connected to touris
opportunities focus on contributions to heritage websites and the development of tourist d
research and restoration, the potential use of bases that could be exploited by the local
volunteer tourists in other areas such as educa- producers.
tional development and assistance with tradi- Holloway et al. (2006) describe such a sy
tional economic activities has yet to be fully in an Italian example. A scheme has been
explored. Willing Workers on Organic Farms oped in the Abruzzi region of Italy to su
(WWOOF, 2006) is an example of the use of traditional farming practices and specialist
tourist volunteers to support local organic agri- production. Here customers from outside
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Moscardo
*
region can 'adopt' a milking sheep in return focus almost entirely on what the destination
for food products. The adoption funds support region has to offer for tourism developers. The
the continued traditional agricultural practices. change in thinking about tourism and its
The original aim was not to support tourism, potential role in sustainable development
but tourism accommodation and a restaurant suggested in this paper would change the focus
have been developed to support the scheme. of assessments of tourism development proposals
The tourism development here is associated to include audits of the value of the proposed
with growing interest from the 'adopters' who tourist markets and the associated tourism
act as promoters for the scheme. distribution systems that would result from the
The development of regional brands has not proposed tourism development, for existing or
been given much attention in the rural tourism desired nontourism products and services. So
development literature despite the growing the following sorts of questions could be posed
emphasis of tourism promotion organisations with regard to a proposed tourism develop
on the concept of regional or destination ment.
branding (Caldwell and Freire, 2004). Once
— Are the tourists likely to be attracted to this
, . . , , ... tourism development also likely to purchase
literature is about developing a destination . , ;
again most of the discussion within the tourism , . . ... , ,
.... . , other products?
brand that is attractive to the tourist markets . , ... , , , . .
, , , . , , — Are the tourists likely to be attracted to this
chosen by external agents rather than about , , .
tourism development likely to promote
developing a brand that supports other activi
ties conducted in the destination.
SOME IDEAS FOR NEW WAYS OF
ASSESSING TOURISM DEVELOPMENT
PROPOSALS
other products or services to others in their
work and home environments?
— Does this form of tourism provide support
for the development of infrastructure for
non-tourism economic development activ
ities?
The key innovation that has been suggested in . . r r „ .
. . . ,. — Will this form of tourism create sufficient
this paper is to reconceptuahse tourism as a , , r . , ,
. 111 r . . . demand for non-tourism products and
tool to support the development of activities . 11, /
, ... . . . , . services to support the development of
such as traditional or specialist agriculture, craft, . , , .. ,
. . 1,,, • networks and clusters to provide these
education, health or other socio-economic ,
... , . . . . , nontourism products?
activities, rather than solely as a development . r
. , ... r — Will this form of tourism create pressures
option separate from other activities m the , ....... . r .
. . . . .... that wili limit the expansion of other activ
destmation region. In addition to new ways to .... . .
. , . . , , . ities in the region?
. ■ -, — Does the destination brand proposed for
look at types of tourism development, such a „ . . . . . . . r
change m thinking about tourism can contribute , . r r , , ,
. .... this form of tourism match or enhance the
to two important changes m the planning and , , r . , ...
. . .... brands tor other products and services?
management of tourism m regional destina
tions — the use of a different set of assessment The second key change in
criteria for evaluating tourism development and management that would re
proposals, and the development, and more on the potential role touri
extensive use, of sustainability monitoring broader sustainable developm
systems. a destination region is that of supporting the
Many tourism planning texts provide need for comprehensive sustain
substantial detail on the methods and contents toring systems. Despite a wide
of audits of the resources available for tradi- tion that a core element of sustainable
tional forms of tourism (Gunn, 2002; World development is the monitoring of different
Tourism Organization, 1998).These approaches areas or dimensions of sustainability (Devuys
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Sustainable tourism innovation
and Hens, 2000), there has been little progress sustainable development assessment literature
in the development and use of sustainability to guide their approaches to assessing tourism
monitoring systems for tourism development developments (Ko, 2005). Such broader
(Choi and Sirakaya, 2006; Ko, 2005; McCool approaches do, however, provide a number of
et al, 2001; Twining-Ward and Butler, 2002). indicators that would allow tourism to be
Ko (2005) reviewed 12 studies where a judged and compared to other development
sustainability assessment for tourism had been options in terms of its contribution to the
completed and concluded that the overall improvement of a range of dimensions. Such
assessment was often based on the judgment of systems include the Global Reporting Initiative
the author using a limited range of indicators (GRI, 2002), and the United Nations Commis
with little discussion of how or why those indi- sion on Sustainable Development Indicators of
cators were chosen or how the indicators would Sustainable Development (2005). In addition
be measured in a completed system. It can be there exists a growing body of literature on the
further argued that few, if any, of the systems measurement of quality of life (Massam, 2002;
described in the tourism literature are based on McMahon, 2002), social capital (Wilson, 2006)
the perspectives of the residents and/or other and social aspects of community development
key stakeholders in the destination regions. (Copus and Crabtree, 1996; Moles et al, 2007;
Choi and Sirakaya (2006), for example, used Parkins et al, 2001) that could be used to
tourism academics to determine a list of sustain- develop sustainability monitoring programmes
ability indicators to assess tourism development. for destination regions.
McCool et al. (2001) looked at the perspectives
of local tourism industry members on sustain- CONCLUSIONS
ability and tourism and found significant It has already been noted that adherence to the
discrepancies between what the tourism idea of'sustainable tourism' tends to be associ
industry respondents saw as the goals of sustain- ated with a focus on ensuring the continuity
able tourism and the measures they selected as of tourism (Coccossis, 1996; Stabler, 1997) that
indicators.The tourism industry respondents in limits consideration of the possibility that
this study recognised the potential for tourism tourism may not be a sustainable option in
to contribute to a broad range of community some places (Wall, 1997). This tendency to
development factors but selected mosdy indicators assume that there will always be some form of
of the economic success of tourism business. tourism that can be sustainable means that there
Northcote and MacBeth (2006) also argue has been almost no discussion in the academic
that many attempts to assess tourism sustaina- or government policy literature on provisions
bility concentrate on measuring environmental or procedures for dismantling tourism or resto
and cultural heritage conservation to the exclu- ration of tourism areas. Other development
sion of considering how and if, tourism can sectors, such as mining (Hebestreit et al, 2005)
contribute to the enhancement of resident and agriculture (Baneijee et al, 2006), are often
quality of life. Northcote and Macbeth (2006) required to have plans for site rehabilitation and
go on to outline an alternative approach to restoration as part of their development plans
assessing tourism based on expanding the and increasingly restoration and rehabilitation
concept of yield to include a range of dimen- of buildings and precincts is seen as key compo
sions other than finance. This application of a nent of sustainable development (Franz et al,
yield-based approach to tourism sustainability 2006). Such considerations are a major gap in the
assessment uses a number of indicators that discussion of principles of sustainable tourism,
have been established in the broader sustaina- Finally, it is important to return to a consid
bility assessment literature. Surprisingly, very eration of innovation more generally. Perdomo
few tourism academics have used the broad Ortiz et al (2006) presented evidence that
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Moscardo
Briassoulis, H. (2002) 'Sustainable Tourism and the
innovation was more likely to occur in organ
isations that pursued the principles of total Question of the Commons', Annals of Tourism
Research, 29, 4, 1065-1085.
quality management. In particular, they noted
Butler, R. W (1999) 'Problems and Issues of Inte
the importance of knowledge management for
grating Tourism Development', in Pearce, D.G.
successful innovation. A major barrier to
and Butler, R.W. (eds), 'Contemporary Issues
creating innovative approaches to regional
tourism is a lack of knowledge. A lack of under
inTourism Development', Routledge, London,
pp. 65—80.
standing and experience of tourism and tour
Caldwell, N. and FreireJ. R. (2004) 'The Differences
ists has been identified as a major barrier to Between Branding a Country, a Region and
effective community participation in, and a City: Applying the brand box model', Brand
control over, tourism development (Reid et al, Management, 12, 1, 50—61.
Cawley, M. E., Gaffey, S. M. and Gillmor, D. A. (1999)
2004). Residents of many rural and peripheral
regions have limited experience of tourism 'Quality Tourism and Craft SMEs: Evidence
themselves and lack an understanding of the
relating to formation and development in
full range of potential impacts and changes Western Ireland', Paper presented at the
associated with tourism (Pearce et al, 1996). European Congress of the Regional Science
Association, Dublin.
This lack of understanding can result in false
Choi, H. C. and Sirakaya, E. (2006) 'Sustainability
expectations about the benefits of tourism, a
Indicators for Managing Community Tourism',
lack of preparedness for the changes associated
Tourism Management, 27, 1274-1289.
with tourism and an inability to benefit from
Coccossis, H. (1996) 'Tourism and Sustainability:
tourism development opportunities (Hall,
Perspective and implications', in Priestley, G.
2005) .The dual challenge for tourism researchers
K., Edwards, J.A. and Coccossis, H. (eds)
is to find ways to effectively transfer existing 'Sustainable Tourism? European experiences',
knowledge about tourism and tourists directly CAB International, Wallingford, pp. 1—21.
Collins, A. (1999) 'Tourism Development and
to regional communities and to further develop
an understanding of tourism as a social and Natural Capital', Annals of Tourism Research, 26,
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Copus, A. K. and Crabtree, J. R. (1996) 'Indicators
of Socio-economic Sustainability: An applica
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