© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
www.asminternational.org
Index
A
Abiotic corrosion
corrosion products in pipeline excavations and
laboratory soil box tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
corrosion rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
Above-ground storage tank, corrosion
failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753–754
Abrasion
as damage mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . .349
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1061
as rolling contact fatigue failure mode of thermal
spray cermet and ceramic coatings . . . . . . . .951
Abrasive cutoff machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501
Abrasive cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501–502, 503
Abrasive erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .997
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .997
mechanical seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .997
Abrasive hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911, 913
Abrasive wear . . . . . .32–33, 337, 902, 906–920, 966
categories or types of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .907
causes of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .902
characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
of continuous unidirectional fiber reinforced
polymers (FRP) . . . . . . . . . . . . .1029, 1032, 1033
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .907, 1061
erosion-corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .908
of fabric-reinforced polymer
composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1033–1035
failure analysis, procedural sequence . . . . . 914–915
fracture toughness effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .913
gouging abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907–908, 919–920
grinding abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .908, 991–992
hardness effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911, 913, 919–920
high-stress abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .908, 919, 920
impact velocity effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .912
in impact wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .966
impingement angle effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .912
jaw-type rock crusher wear plates . . . . . . . . 915, 916
low-stress abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .908
and lubricant failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
in martensitic steels, wear mode
identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919–920
material changes for mitigation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
material property effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912–913
mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909–914
particle size effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .911
percentage of wear failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022
of refractory or ceramic linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .803
of reinforced polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1029–1035
scratching abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .908
service conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
of short-fiber reinforced polymers . . . . 1030, 1031–
1033
sliding abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908–909
subcategories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .902
surface hardness increases for mitigation . . . . . .407
of thermal sprayed coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .950
three-body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907, 908–909, 947, 949
two-body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907, 908–909, 947
wear rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .912
Abrasive-wheel cutting, to section specimens . . .501
ABS. See Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene.
Absolute maximum shear stress in three
dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .464
Absorber tubes in air-conditioning unit, stresscorrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .855
Absorption bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .438
Accelerated corrosion tests . . . . . . . . . . .406–407, 752
Accelerating voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .525
Accident
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
definition, in commercial aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Accident investigation, testing evidence in a
laboratory setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374–375
Accident reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371–379
background information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .373
codes and standards referenced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .372
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .371
documentation of evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .372
elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372–376
facts related to the accident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .372
interdisciplinary nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .371
investigation of the accident scene . . . . . . . 373–374
motor vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377
preservation of evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .372
references available . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371–372
testing of hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375–376
types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .371
visual documentation of accident scene . . . . . . . .373
witness interviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372–373
Accumulation stage, of cavitation erosion . . . . . 1003
Accuracy, of probability of failure estimate . . . . . .261
Acetabular sockets for hip joints, wear
failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025
Acetal
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
creep modulus vs. temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .652
impact wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .970
specific wear rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
Acetate, damaging effect of trace levels . . . . . . . . . .883
Acetate tape, for replicas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
Acetic acid
causing intergranular corrosion in sensitized
austenitic stainless steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .779
environment causing stress-corrosion cracking of
nickel and nickel-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . .848
Acetic acid anhydride mixture, causing
intergranular corrosion in sensitized austenitic
stainless steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .779
Acetone
solvent-induced cracking of polycarbonate metalframed ophthalmic lenses . . . . . . . . . . . 653–654
use in surface replica production . . . . . . . . . 520, 522
ACI. See Alloy Casting Institute.
Acicular phases, in aluminum alloy castings . . . .152
Acid cleaning, as hydrogen source for hydrogen
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .819
Acid cleaning corrosion, as damage mechanism for
boiler tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
Acid cleaning damage, as boiler tube damage
mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
Acid producers, microbially-induced corrosion
morphology products, and deposits . . . . . . .888
Acid-producing bacteria (APB) . . . . . 753, 882, 883,
885
identification basis for microbially-induced
corrosion site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
in microbially-induced corrosion of stainless
steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
viable cell counts, method used for inspection,
growth and activity assays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
Acoustic-emission inspection
description, advantages and limitations . . . . . . . .396
to detect ring crack initiation in bearing
balls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .957
for failure analysis and investigation . . . . . . . . . . .396
Acquisition Reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274
Acquittal, by composition verification . . . . . . . . . . .429
Acrylic resins
as corrosion-resistant coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .758
for mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .503
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS)
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
brittle fracture of protective covers . .449–450, 452
distortion from inclusion in handle . . . . . . . 447, 449
ductile fracture behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .655
embrittlement of grips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447, 448
notch sensitivity and brittle fractures . . . . . . . . . . .657
parabolic markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
Activation energy, and thermomechanical
fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739, 740
Active metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .750
Active region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .750
Additives, for lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), to investigate
microbial populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
Adherent packing material, as casting defect . . .109
Adhesion, as damage mechanism on failure
wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
Adhesive tape residue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .436
Adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . 32–33, 337, 408, 909, 966
coatings and surface finishes for
mitigation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1061
dynamic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
of fabric reinforced composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
of hybrid composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1040–1041
in impact wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 966, 967
and lubricant failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
material changes for mitigation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .902
of particulate-filled composites . .1035, 1036–1037
percentage of wear failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
of reinforced polymers . . . . . . . . . . .1034, 1035–1041
of short fiber reinforced polymers . . . . .1035, 1036,
1037–1038
of unidirectional FRP composites . . . . . .1038–1040
Adiabatic, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1061–1062
Adiabatic heating, as root cause of forgings defects,
rationale, resolution, and corrective
action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327, 329, 330, 331
Adiabatic mode of wear, of polymers . . . . . . . . . 1024
Adiabatic shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599, 600, 621–622, 943
in ductile overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672–673
Adiabatic shear bands (ASB) . . . 982, 984, 985, 987
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
Adipic acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .769
Adjacent surface discoloration, macroscale
fractographic implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
Admiralty B brass, intergranular
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784, 785
Admiralty brass
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
stress-corrosion cracking with microbially-induced
corrosion of condenser tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
Adsorption-enhanced plasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .826
Advanced ceramics. See also Engineering ceramics;
Technical ceramics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .800
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
Advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR), high pressure
effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .930
Advanced mean value method (AMV) . . . 250, 255,
257–258
AMVⳭ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258
Aeolian vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335, 337
Aerated aqueous NH3 in aqueous solution, causing
stress-corrosion cracking in copper
alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
Aeration of water, to prevent cavitation
erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .999
AerMet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
spalling resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987–988
Aerobic bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753, 754
AES. See Auger electron spectroscopy.
Aesthetics, as criteria for materials selection . . . . . . 32
AF. See Aramid fibers.
AFGROW (computer software program) . . . . . .283
Age, definition in reliability-centered
maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .444
room-temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
of rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405
and stress rupture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .734
Aging reactions, as mechanism for hightemperature corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .874
AGR. See Advanced gas-cooled reactor.
Air
corroding by stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . .833
still, heat transfer rate of quenching medium . .210
Airbag safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Air bubbles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
Air-conditioning absorber tubes, stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .855
Air cooling, to minimize cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
Aircraft. See also Helicopter.
brittle fracture of F-111 wing box . . . . . . . . 228, 231
compressor disks, fatigue failure . . . .264–265, 266
fatigue management by U.S. Air Force . . 269–270
fuel tanks, microbially-induced corrosion of
aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .891
inventory showing abnormal conditions present at
failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394–395
overhaul intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
rotor fatigue failure, titanium . . . . . . . .264–265, 266
sensor cable for jet engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
torque link bolt on fixed-nose landing gear,
fatigue failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283–284
wing slat track of steel, distortion failure . . . . 1052
Aircraft, specific types
Airbus Industrie A-300, reliability-centered
maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Boeing 707, reliability-centered maintenance . . . 66
Boeing 747, reliability-centered maintenance . . . 61
Concorde, reliability-centered maintenance . . . . . 61
Douglas DC-8, reliability-centered
maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60, 61
Douglas DC-10, reliability-centered
maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Lockheed TriStar 1011, reliability-centered
maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
P-51 Mustangs, reliability-centered
maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Aircraft actuator barrel lug, stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .852
Aircraft actuators, brittle fracture of aluminum
alloy castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150–151, 152
Aircraft attachment bolt, stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .848
Aircraft flight simulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377
Aircraft freshwater tanks, pitting corrosion . . . 773–
774
Aircraft fuel-control lever, defect-related failure,
cold shut in casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
Aircraft hinge bracket, stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851, 852
Aircraft lug forging, stress-corrosion cracking . .852
Aircraft nuts on wings, hydrogen
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811, 812
Aircraft strap-type clamp, stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828, 829
Aircraft Structural Integrity Program
(ASIP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231, 274
Aircraft undercarriage leg forgings, stresscorrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852–853
Air-hardening tool steel, wear failure of chopper
knife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512, 513
Airline/Manufacturer Maintenance Program
Planning Document (MSG-2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Air plasma sprayed coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 951, 954
Air plasma spraying (APS)
coating material, thickness, roughness, and
average hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .950
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 951, 954
contact stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .950
rolling contact fatigue life, ⳯106 cycles . . . . . . .950
rolling contact fatigue tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .950
substrate material and hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .950
Alclad aluminum coatings, for corrosion
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .764
Alcohol
as addition to prevent freezing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .894
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . .857, 858–859
Alkali halides, fracture mechanism maps, general
shifts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571
Alkalis, corroding technical ceramics . . . . . . . 804, 805
Alkyd resins, as corrosion-resistant coatings . . . . .758
All-beta titanium alloys, workability behavior . . . 98
Alligatoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .874
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
Alligator skin. See Orange peel.
Allowable equivalent stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
Allowable stress, as design parameter . . . . . . . . . . . .229
Alloy Casting Institute
CF-8, corrosion of castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
Alloy depletion, promoting cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
Alloy segregation, effect on fatigue strength . . . 719–
720
Alloy steels
brittle fracture of ski chair lift grip
components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10, 11
centrifugal casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
compatibility with various manufacturing
processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . 863, 864,
865–866
mitigating adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
notched tension test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .634
reheat-quenched carburized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
solid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . .865
spalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .978
temper embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
tempering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
Almen strip, to determine peening parameters . . .222
Alpha alumina
formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
melting point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
Alpha-beta titanium alloys
crystallographic texture, effect on fracture path
and fracture toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .564
dual fracture modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578
flow localization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
phase morphology, effect on fracture path and
fracture toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .564
stress intensity range effect on fatigue fracture
mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578
workability behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Alpha (␣)-brasses
environment systems exhibiting stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .835
Alpha-phase, and embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . 692–693
Alpha-titanium alloys, workability behavior . . . . . 98
Alternating stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .700
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .277
Alumina (Al2O3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .800, 803, 804
for abrasive particles for cutting wheels . . . . . . . .502
brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .669
cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003
content effect in refractory coatings . . . . . . . . . . . .878
corrosion resistance to fused salts, alkalis, and
low-melting oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .805
corrosion resistance to various hot gases . . . . . . .805
density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .960
elastic modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .960
erosion rate of ceramics with different grain sizes
in ion-exchanged water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007
www.asminternational.org
Index / 1091
failure mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .960
fretting wear of flat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .929
hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .960
intergranular fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .666
mixed with liquid epoxy for mounting resin . . .504
refractoriness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .804
thermal etching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .363
as thermally sprayed coating
material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949–950, 951, 952, 953
toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .960
transgranular fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .666
Alumina refractories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .800
Alumina scale-forming alloys, carburization
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
Aluminates, formation in steel ingot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Aluminides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1016
chrome-modified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
chromium-silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
as high-temperature coatings resisting
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876–877
substituted for Stellite to lower weight
modified by additions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
Aluminizing, to prevent fretting damage . . . . . . . . .933
Alumino-silicate refractories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .800
Aluminum
as addition, effect on grain size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
addition increasing solubility of manganese
sulfides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
addition to nickel alloys and sulfidation
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .870
bond energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
causing liquid or solid metal induced
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862
cavitation erosion evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1008
cavitation erosion, incubation time . . . . . . . . . . . 1004
cavitation erosion in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
commercially pure, velocity-affected
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .788
compatibility with various manufacturing
processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
content effect on graphitization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .693
content effect on nitridation susceptibility . . . . .870
content effect on sigma-phase embrittlement . .693
in deposits from microbially-induced corrosion
sites in stainless steel cooling water
systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .889
effect on low-alloy steel castings . . . . . . . . . 144, 145
effect on time-to-fracture of copper by stresscorrosion cracking in ammoniacal
atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .853
erosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995, 996
fatigue fracture at low stacking fault energy . . .578
forging, fatigue fracture showing striations . . . .635
fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .930
galvanic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766–767
gas causing porosity in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
hydrogen damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .817
liquid embrittlers of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
maximum erosion rate dependence in cavitation
erosion on combined parameter . . . . . . . . . 1016
microbially-induced corrosion . . . . . . .889, 890–891
as molten metal corrodent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873, 874
oxide film for fretting corrosion resistance . . . . .928
as protective layer for chromium steels in
hydrogen sulfide attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
removed from alloys by selective leaching . . . . .785
standard emf series value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .763
structural component material behavior . . . . . . . .282
Aluminum alloys
anodic dissolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647, 648
anodized to prevent fretting damage . . . . . . . . . . .934
atmospheric stress-corrosion cracking . . . . 641–642
brittle fracture of aircraft actuators . .150–151, 152
casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149–152
casting
corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150
dimple-rupture fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .673
ductile fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151–152
cavitation erosion in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
centrifugal casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
compatibility with various manufacturing
processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
conductivity tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
www.asminternational.org
1092 / Index
Aluminum alloys (continued)
creep onset temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729
critical section thicknesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .477
defects in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
die casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125, 126, 150
die casting demands on molds . . . . . . . . . . . . 127, 129
dimple size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .595
dispersoids, effect on fracture path and fracture
toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .564
in dissimilar metal pair, fretting damage . . . . . 928–
929
distortion failures of side rails of extension
ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1048–1049
ductile fatigue failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522, 524
ductile fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .522
ductile fracture vs. intergranular fracture process
regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .549
elastic crack-tip opening displacement . . . 244–245
electron beam welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189–190
environment systems exhibiting stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
fast overload fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .634
fatigue crack initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .577
fatigue failure showing striations . . . . . . . . . 634, 635
fatigue fracture, cracking direction . . . . . . . 630, 633
fatigue life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .718
fatigue striations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .708
fibering, effect on fracture path and fracture
toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .564
galvanic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766–767
galvanic corrosion of helicopter tail rotor . . . . . .766
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
gas porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127, 128, 129
gravity casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149–150
high strength, causes of stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
hydrogen damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .817
hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . 646–647, 648, 813
impact wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .967
impact wear coefficient values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .971
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778, 784
intergranular fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647, 648
intergranular fracture of forging . . . . . . . . . . 641, 642
intergranular stress-corrosion cracking . . . 648, 852
intergranular stress-corrosion cracking and
hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . .646–647, 648
large particles, effect on fracture path and fracture
toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .564
liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . 862, 863,
864
localized corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .767
mercury-induced failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862
microbially-induced corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . 890–891
microporosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
no cyclic strain softening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1056
no debonding for second-phase particles . . . . . . .592
notch sensitivity vs. notch radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .278
permanent-mold casting material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
pitting corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .775
as sacrificial anodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .756
second phases in fracture surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608
semisolid casting and defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127
shrinkage porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127, 128, 129
squeeze casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . 825, 832, 833, 834,
835, 836, 850–853
substances in atmospheric environments causing
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
weldment hot cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
weldment inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172
weldment porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
workability behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Aluminum alloys, specific types
319-T5
brittle torsion fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607, 610
384-F
cold shut in pressure die casting . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
413-F
cold shut in pressure die casting . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
518
composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
718
fatigue striations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .709
1xxx series (Al)
stress-corrosion cracking resistance rating . . .850
1100
ductile fracture (unnotched bar) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .599
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .784
for nitric acid storage and shipping
containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .770
1100-O
erosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .996
as reference material for cavitation erosion
testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1008, 1009
2xxx series, intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . .784
2xxx series (Al-Cu-Mg)
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .784
stress-corrosion cracking resistance rating . . .850
2xxx series (Al-Cu-Mg-Si)
stress-corrosion cracking resistance rating . . .850
2011-T3
impact wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .967
2014
fatigue striations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .709
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .784
particle spacing correlated with dimple
size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .596
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851–852
2014-T6
overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .678
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851–853
2014-T652
corrosion fatigue failure of helicopter tail
rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .766
2017
for “icebox” rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .684
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851–852
2024
fatigue striations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354, 355
for “icebox” rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .684
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .784
particle spacing correlated with dimple
size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .596
replica technique for fracture profile
generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
strain-rate sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601, 605
2024-O
strain-rate sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601, 605
2024-T3
ductile fatigue failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522, 524
fatigue crack growth of circular penetration in
pressurized fuselage . . . . . . . . . . . .279, 284–286
fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .707
plane stress and fracture toughness of
sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
2024-T4
S-N curve for bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .277
2024-T431
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .830
2024-T6
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851–852
2024-T62
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851–852
2024-T851
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851–852
2219-T87
microbially-induced corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .891
3xxx series (Al-Mn-Mg)
stress-corrosion cracking resistance rating . . .850
3003
for nitric acid storage and shipping
containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .770
5xxx alloys
intergranular corrosion evaluation tests and
acceptance criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .781
5xxx series (Al-Mg)
stress-corrosion cracking resistance rating . . .850
5xxx series (Al-Mg-Mn)
stress-corrosion cracking resistance rating . . .850
5xxx series (MnAl6)
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .784
5083
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .778
microstructure after sensitization . . . . . . . . . . . .778
stretch zone width correlation with fracture
toughness, elastic modulus normalized . . .584
5183
liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . .864
5356
liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . .863
6xxx series
crystallographic fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636–637
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .784
6xxx series (Al-Mg-Si)
stress-corrosion cracking resistance rating . . .850
6061
erosion rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
erosion rate in mineral oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007
liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . .863
microbially-induced corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .891
particle spacing correlated with dimple
size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .596
6061 composite, alumina-particle reinforced
microbially-induced corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .891
6061-T6
diffuse and local necking, tensile
fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601, 606
ductile torsion fracture with shear
dimples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607, 611
as reference material for cavitation erosion
testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1009
shrinkage gap between specimen and
mount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503, 505
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851–852
weldment with embedded SiC grinding
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .506
6061-T651
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851–852
6063-T6
distortion failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1048–1049
6151
particle spacing correlated with dimple
size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .596
6351-T6
liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . .864
7xxx series
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .784
7xxx series (Al-Zn-Mg)
stress-corrosion cracking resistance rating . . .850
7xxx series (Al-Zn-Mg-Cu)
stress-corrosion cracking resistance rating . . .850
7050
area fraction of unrecrystallized vs.
recrystallized regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .549
stretch zone boundaries in fracture surface,
roughness, and fractal dimension . . . 552–553
vertical-section serial sectioning . . . . . . . 553, 554
7075
hydrogen damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .816
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .784
microbially-induced corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .891
particle spacing correlated with dimple
size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .596
7075-T6
crack initiation in unnotched specimens . . . . 602,
607
fatigue-fracture zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .710
prestraining in torsion effect on fracture . . . 620–
621
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . .828, 832, 852
7075-T651
intergranular fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
7075-T7
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
7075-T73
fatigue fracture of forging, beach marks
present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .707
7079
particle spacing correlated with dimple
size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .596
7079-T651
mud cracks on intergranular fracture
surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .564
A356
brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150–151, 152
brittle torsion fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607, 610
dimples in tensile fracture surface . . . . . . . . . . .550
fatigue striations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550, 551
fraction of fracture profile length through Si
particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .543
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
shrinkage porosity in fracture . . . . . . . . . . 608, 613
A356-T6
fatigue failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286–287
Wallner lines on fracture surfaces . . . . . 369, 370
A356-T61
hot tears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150–151, 152
A357-T6
repair welding effect on yield strength . . . . . .152
A360
composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
A380
composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
dimple size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595, 597
microvoid coalescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593, 594
A383
composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
A384
composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
A413
composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
ductile fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151–152
A2017
as substrate material for thermally sprayed
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .950
Al-Cu
erosion rate in distilled water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006
Al-2Cu
erosion rate in distilled water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006
Al-2Cu (PH)
erosion rate in distilled water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006
Al-4Cu
erosion rate in distilled water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .826
Al-4.2Cu
dimpled intergranular fracture . . . . . . . . . 643, 644
Al-Mg
erosion rate in distilled water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006
Al-3Mg
erosion rate in distilled water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006
Al-4.4Mg alloy
weldment incomplete fusion and inadequate
penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178
Al-5Mg
erosion rate in distilled water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006
Al-9Mg
erosion rate in distilled water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006
Al-6Zn
erosion rate in distilled water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006
B390
composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
LM6M (BS1490)
tensile test results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
Aluminum anodizing, for corrosion resistance . .759
Aluminum brasses
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .784
microbially-induced corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
Aluminum bronze
dealuminification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .787–788, 789
environments subjecting alloy to selective
leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
Aluminum-killed steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
and intergranular fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
Aluminum-lithium alloy, void nucleation without
particle debonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .593
Aluminum-lithium alloy metal matrix composite,
number density of processing defects . . . . 548,
549
Aluminum-magnesium alloys
intergranular corrosion and stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .779
Lüders lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
Aluminum-magnesium-zinc alloys
dimpled intergranular fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .643
precipitate-free zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576
Aluminum nitride
embrittlement cause in low-alloy steel
castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
inhibiting grain growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
segregation to grain boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353
Aluminum oxide, generated by aluminide
intermetallics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .876
Aluminum oxide scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .870
Aluminum oxide-titanium oxide (Al2O3-TiO3), as
thermally sprayed coating material . . . . . . . .950
Aluminum pigmented coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .841
Aluminum-silicon alloys
ductile microvoid coalescence fracture . . . 593, 594
second phases effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118
Aluminum-zinc alloy coatings, for corrosion
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .759
Aluminum-zinc-magnesium alloy, fretting
wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .930
Aluminum-zinc-magnesium-copper alloys
particles, effect on fracture path and fracture
toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .564
precipitates, effect on fracture path and fracture
toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .564
Ambient, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
American Law Institute
clarification of “unreasonably dangerous” . . . . . . . 72
defect definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
American Petroleum Institute (API). See also
Standards and specifications, specific
types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251, 265, 266, 267
materials selection guide for hydrogen service at
elevated temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .816
American Railway Engineering and Maintenanceof-Way Association (AREMA) . . . . 978, 980
alloy 9260 B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987, 988
specifications of sledge hammer heads . . . 978, 980
American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM). See also Standards and
specifications, specific types.
Committee E-30 on forensic sciences . . . . . . . . . .327
Subcommittee E-30-05 on forensic engineering
sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME), Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 48, 274
Amine cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .839
Amines, stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . 833, 839
Aminolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .439
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .439
Ammonia (NH3)
bond energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
causing stress-corrosion cracking of carbon steel
boiler downwind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405
as damaging substance in atmospheric
environments for stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
environment for nitridation attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
and stress-corrosion cracking 823, 824, 829, 831,
832, 833, 839, 853–856
Ammoniacal copper sulfate solution, stresscorrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .853
Ammonium bisulfite, as oxygen scavenger, and
sulfate-reducing bacteria nutrient . . . . . . . . .885
Ammonium nitrate, and stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .828, 839, 841
Ammonium salts in aqueous solutions, causing
stress-corrosion cracking in copper
alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
Amorphous iron sulfide, as corrosion products in
pipeline excavations and laboratory soil box
tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
Amorphous polymers, chemical absorption . . . . .796
Amorphous resins
glass transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .441
thermogram of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443, 444
Amplitude, effect on cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . 1010
Amplitude of slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .926
AMV. See Advanced mean value method.
Anaerobic bacteria
corrosion cell, schematic diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . .882
pH potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .881
redox potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .881
Anaerobic methanogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .889
Anaerobic microbially-induced corrosion
corrosion products in pipeline excavations and
laboratory soil box tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
corrosion rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
Analyzing of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334, 339
Anchor link, fatigue failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133–134
Anderson-Darling test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253
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Index / 1093
Angle of contact, impact wear of ceramics . . . . . .969
Angle of impingement, of slurry particles 990–991
Angle of incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .518
Angular orientation distribution function . . . . . .545
Animation, computer-generated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .379
Anisotropic material, elastic constants for . . . . . . .467
Anisotropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
and directionality effect in manufacturing . . . . . 615,
617
of fracture profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .542
of fracture surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545, 546
texture effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680–681
Annealed steel, notch sensitivity vs. notch
radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .278
Annealing twin, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
Annulus of slant fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .597
Anode, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
Anodic corrosion inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .771
Anodic depolarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .882
Anodic dissolution, of aluminum alloys . . . . 647, 648
Anodic dissolution (stress-corrosion cracking),
controlling factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .811
Anodic hard coating, defects resulting from . . . . . . 81
Anodic inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757–758
Anodic polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .882
Anodic protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755–757
to prevent stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . .838
Anodic reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749, 750
Anodizing
to prevent fretting damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .934
Anthropometrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Antichills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
to prevent hot cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
Antifriction bearings
contact fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722–723
on nylon/polyethylene, wear failure . . . 1025, 1026
Antimony
as alloying species in metal, causing accelerated
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
as alloying species in metal, causing stresscorrosion cracking in copper alloys (in
presence of aerated aqueous NH3) . . . . . . . .831
as alloying species in metal, causing stresscorrosion cracking in stainless steels (in
presence of Cl–) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
content effect on temper embrittlement . . 691, 692
effect on rupture ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .736
effect on time-to-fracture of copper by stresscorrosion cracking in ammoniacal
atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .853
as embrittling impurity in low-alloy steel
castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144, 145
as grain-boundary embrittler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
grain-boundary segregation and intergranular
brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643, 645
as ions in aqueous solutions, causing accelerated
hydrogen entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
as ions in aqueous solutions, causing hydrogeninduced cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
as ions in aqueous solutions, causing stresscorrosion cracking in high-strength
steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
as molten metal corrodent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .873
x-ray elemental composition map made with
electron microprobe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .865
Antimony compounds, as damaging substance in
atmospheric environments for stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
Antioxidants, as additives to polymers . . . . 441, 798,
800, 801, 806
AOD. See Argon-oxygen decarburization refining
process.
“AOL” vertical testing apparatus, description of
rolling contact fatigue test method . . . . . . . .944
APB. See Acid-producing bacteria.
Aperture, in photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .421
API. See American Petroleum Institute.
Apollo spacecraft, stress-corrosion cracking of
pressure vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857–858
Apparent fracture toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
Appliance housings, environmental stress cracking
of polycarbonate/PET . . . . . . . . . . .450–451, 453
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
www.asminternational.org
1094 / Index
Application-life diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 8
effects of increasing the severity of the service
condition of rotor blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13, 15
effects of manufacturing-caused surface
discontinuities on service life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Applied load, and real area of contact . . . . . . . . . . . .926
Applied stresses, analysis of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461–475
Applied torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .469
Appropriate task, definition in reliability-centered
maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
APS. See Air plasma spraying.
Aqueous electrolytes, causing fretting wear . . . 930–
931
Aramid fibers (AF)
as filler for nylon promoting wear
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1025–1026
in phenolic resin composites . . . . . . . . . . . 1022, 1023
for polymer reinforcement . . . . . . 1032, 1033–1034,
1038, 1039, 1040, 1041
Arc blow
weldment inclusion cause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
weldment porosity cause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
Arc burns (arc strikes), in weldments . . . . . . . . . . .169
Arc gouging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232–233
Archard-type wear law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971, 973
Arc strikes (arc burns)
surface feature as cause for rejection . . . . . . . . . . .156
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
AREMA. See American Railway Engineers and
Maintenance-of-Way Association.
Argon, bond energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
Argon-oxygen decarburization (AOD) refining
process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .780
Arrest lines (marks). See also Beach marks; Rib
marks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .707
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
Arrhenius factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300
Arsenic
as alloying species in metal, causing accelerated
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
as alloying species in metal, causing stresscorrosion cracking in copper alloys (in
presence of aerated aqueous NH3) . . . . . . . .831
as alloying species in metal, causing stresscorrosion cracking in stainless steels (in
presence of Cl–) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
content effect on temper embrittlement . . . . . . . .691
effect on rupture ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .736
effect on time-to-fracture of copper by stresscorrosion cracking in ammoniacal
atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .853
as embrittling impurity in low-alloy steel
castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144, 145
as grain-boundary embrittler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
grain-boundary segregation and brittle
fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643, 645
as ions in aqueous solutions, causing accelerated
hydrogen entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
as ions in aqueous solutions, causing hydrogeninduced cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
as ions in aqueous solutions, causing stresscorrosion cracking in high-strength
steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
Arsenic compounds, as damaging substance in
atmospheric environments for stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
Artifacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .589
leading to false conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
mud cracks, microscale fractographic
implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
tire tracks, microscale fractographic
implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
Artificial aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403
ASB. See Adiabatic shear band.
As-cast products, segregation present . . . . . . 429, 430
Ashby deformation maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684, 685
ASIP. See Aircraft Structural Integrity Program.
ASME. See American Society of Mechanical
Engineers.
Aspect ratio
and incomplete fusion and incomplete
penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178
of reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1036
Asperity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408, 925
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
elastic deformation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .927
Asperity height, average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .538, 542, 549
Asphaltic materials, as corrosion-resistant
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .758
Assembly, and tensile residual stresses . . . . . . . . . . .830
Assembly at factory/installation at site,
manufacturing/installation anomalies . . . . . . 12
ASTM. See American Society for Testing and
Materials.
Atmosphere
endothermic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .214
as stress-corrosion cracking cause . . .832, 833, 856
Atmosphere control, and distortion . . 201–202, 204,
205
Atomic-absorption spectroscopy . . . . .404, 413, 430
Atomic binding energies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530, 531
Atomic force microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539, 551, 561
as fractography technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .662
for three-dimensional surface maps . . . . . . . . . . . .565
Atomic number contrast, by scanning electron
microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .499
ATP. See Adenosine triphosphate.
ATR. See Attenuated total reflectance.
Attenuated total reflectance (ATR) . . . . . . . . . . . . .438
property derived from polymer analysis . . . . . . . .359
Attenuation stage, of cavitation erosion . . . . . . .1004,
1006, 1007
Auger analysis
to detect intergranular fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
of hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
for impurity presence detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .820
Auger electron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .357, 529, 530
Auger electron peaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .529
Auger electron spectrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
Auger-electron spectrometry, of corrosion
products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) . . . . . . 357, 358,
527, 528, 529–530
adapted to running conducting and semiconducting
material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529, 530
analysis depth and area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
atomic concentrations 1.5 nm sputter
removed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .532
detection limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
ease of use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
features of technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
information evaluated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
of inorganic insulating materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .530
of intergranular fracture surfaces . . . . . . . . . 644–645
map of calcium contamination on stainless steel
surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528, 530, 534
properties measured . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
property derived from polymer analysis . . . . . . . .359
of solid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . .862
of stainless steel sample, SEM surface
photo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528, 534
to study intergranular brittle fracture in pure
iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .643
for submicrometer particle analysis . . . . . . . . . . . .530
surface contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
survey spectrum of stainless steel . . .528, 530, 534
use in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
Auger line scans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .530
Auger maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528, 529, 530, 534
Auger microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .561
Austempering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212–213
and distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207
and overload failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .681
Austenite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192, 193, 194, 195
atomic volume of ferrous alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
crystal structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
untransformed, volume of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211
volume changes of carbon steels due to phase
transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194, 195
Austenitic alloys, creep onset temperature . . . . . . .729
Austenitic manganese steel
brittle fracture of cast chain link . . . . .146–147, 148
casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146–147, 148, 149
microstructure, epsilon martensite with
decarburization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509, 510
Austenitic nickel cast irons
cavitation erosion in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
Austenitization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201, 204
effect on grain size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
of entire hammer head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .978
optimal time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201
powder metallurgy die of tool steel . . . . . . 510, 511
of tool steel punch, heat treatment failure . . . . . 509,
510
of tool steel roll, heat treatment failure . . .509–510,
511
Austenitizing temperature . . . . . . 192, 193, 201, 204
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192
and heat-treatment-related failure . . . . . . . . . 510–511
indicating heat treatment effect on grain
size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217–218, 219
and overaustenitized tool steel . . . . . . . . . . . . 510, 511
and quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201, 204
Autocatalytic corrosion cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .769
Autographic drafting methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Automatic digital image analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
Automotive sleeves, embrittlement of PBT
resin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448–449, 451, 452
Automotive valve spring,
distortion failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1050–1051
Auto-oxidative cross-linked resins, as corrosionresistant coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .758
AutoSteve computer simulation system, failure
modes and effects analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Availability, effect on materials selections . . . . 33–34
Average lineal vertical section profile roughness
parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
Average normal stress, definition . . . . . . . . . . 461–462
Average shear stress, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .462
Average true striation spacing along global crack
growth direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551
Average value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252
Axial, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
Axial compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .469
Axial distance, measurement to determine fretting
wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .932
Axial shrinkage, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
Axial strain. See also Shear strain.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
Axial stress
distribution beneath notch root of notched-bar
specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .597
and smearing of fracture surface . . . . . . . . . 607, 610
of thin-walled pressure vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
Axisymmetric threaded connection . . . . . . . . . . . . .383
Axle
fatigue failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .562
rear, of automobiles, load conditions . . . . . . . . . . .710
Axle housing, fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
B
Babbitt metal
copper precipitation of bearings in locomotive
axle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .366–367, 368
lining of bronze cylinder of friction bearing of
locomotive drive axle, overheating . . 335–336
liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . 865, 866
Background data assembly, in failure
analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333, 334–335
Backing bar, unspliced, hydrogen cracking . . . . . .183
Backing piece left on, surface feature as cause for
rejection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
Backofen equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
Backofen’s model for fracture from holes . . . . . .592
Backscattered electron imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .432
Backscattered electrons (BSE) . . . . . . . . . . . . 518–519
Backscatter electron mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .432
Backup subsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Bacterial numbers (acid-producing bacteria),
factors correlating with sulfate-reducing
bacteria (SRB) numbers for buried pipeline
sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .886
Baddeleyite
formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
melting point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
Bainite
in bands with tempered martensite . . . . . . . 219, 220
lower, formation at quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207
lower, in high-temperature transformation
products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
nonuniform quenching effects after
tempering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208, 210
as transformational product in steel . . . . . 192, 195,
196
upper, formation at quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207
upper, in high-temperature transformation
products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
Bakelite, for mounting metallographic
specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .502
Ballistic impact wear apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .970
Ball-on-ring flexure test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .666
Ball-peen hammers, spalling analysis . . . . . .975–978,
983, 986
Ball-rod testing apparatus (Federal-Mogul),
description of rolling contact fatigue test
method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .944
Banded structure, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
Banding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219, 582, 584, 612, 681
with chemical segregation in ingots . . . . . . . . . 83–84
effect on fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .720
and hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .815
Band width, crack-growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .660
Bar
forging defect, pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
seam defect in rolled bar forging . . . . . . . . . . . .93, 94
Barker v Lull (California Supreme Court
decision) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
“Barn door” characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Barreling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .603, 604, 622
Base material
ceramics, analysis of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
intermetallics, analysis of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
metals, analysis of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358–359
polymers, analysis of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358, 359
Basicity/acidity ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
Basic refractories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .800
Batch quench system, nonuniform quenching . . 208,
210
Bates-Clark approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584–585
Batteries, prevention approach for corrosion in
industrial facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
Bauschinger effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .689
bcc. See Body-centered cubic materials.
BEA. See Boundary-element analysis.
Beach marks. See also Arrest lines; Rib
marks. . . . . 337, 352, 397, 480–481, 579–580,
581, 628, 629, 633
absent in rotating bending test of axle . . . . . . . . . .627
in casting fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608, 613
characteristic of many fatigue-fracture
surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .633
characteristic patterns in cylindrical
components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632, 633
and cold shut in truck equalizer beams . . . 122, 123
in corrosion-fatigue fractures of wires . . . . 774–775
vs. crack arrest lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
curvature direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631, 633
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
on ductile iron stuffing box . . . . . . . . . .136–137, 138
and fatigue crack propagation . . . . . . 707, 710, 711,
712, 713
as fatigue damage mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344
in fatigue fracture . . .175, 176, 177, 576, 577, 627,
718
formation aided by corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .635
in fractured connecting end of steel rod . . . . .85, 86
with galvanic corrosion of helicopter tail
rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .766
identifying fracture origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631, 633
indicative of fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
at intermediate stress intensity range . . . . . . . . . . .579
linked to component service history . . . . . . . . . . . .633
not caused by fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634, 635
from oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707, 708
on polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .368
presence and visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .561
from reversed bending fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . 630, 633
sources for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .579
stress concentration effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .716
from stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . .631, 633, 708
from torsional stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .714
in welded cast steel crosshead of industrial
compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153, 154
Bead reinforcement, surface feature as cause for
rejection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
Bead strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .615
Beam analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380
Beams
curved, stresses on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470–471
internal forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469–470
loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469–470
round, stress analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .474
stress analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469–471
Beam shear stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470
Bearing life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .945
Bearing raceway
contact fatigue macropitted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .724
fatigue spall in rolling-element bearings . . . . . . .941
Bearings
antifriction, contact fatigue in . . . . . . . . . . . . 722–723
cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1003, 1004, 1007
electrical discharge and arcing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352
life prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .945
liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . 865, 866
wear damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356–357
Beggiatoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
Bell-and-spigot joints, aqueduct weldment
failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
Belleville washers, distortion failure of stainless
steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
Bending
alternating (reversed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711–712
of ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666–667
as damage mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . .349
reversed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .712
rotational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .712–713, 714
unidirectional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710–711
Bending failures, in fractures . . . .604–606, 608, 609,
610
Bending fatigue strength, of ground surfaces . . .221
Bending loading, initiation sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Bending moment, of beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469–470
Bending stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .474
Bend tests, to locate fracture origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . .662
Bent annealing twins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .561
and plastic deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569, 570
Benzene, and stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . .859
Benzotriazole, as corrosion inhibitor . . . . . . . . . . . . .853
Berg-Gurson model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623–624
Beryllium
cleavage plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .574
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
workability behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Beryllium alloys, corrosion resistance to
microbially-induced corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
Best-replacement-interval algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Beta-CoAl coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .876
Beta distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253
Beta factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .239, 276, 285
and crack geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279–280
Beta-FeAl coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .876
Beta-NiAl coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876–877
Bevel-groove welds, vs. fillet welds . . . . . . . . 162, 163
Biaxial flexure, magnesium fluoride disks 662, 663
Biaxial stress ratios, permitting no necking local or
diffuse necking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .621
Biaxial tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .465
Bicycle handlebar stem, fatigue fracture . . . . 13, 14,
15
Bifurcation. See also Crack bifurcation.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
Binding energies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .530, 531, 535
Binocular stereo microscopy, for macroscopic
examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353
Binomial distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
Bins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
Biocides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .894
to prevent and control microbially-induced
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .894
targeted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885, 886
Biodegradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .881
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Index / 1095
Biofouling. See also Biological corrosion. . . . . . . . 751,
768, 791, 834, 881–894
copper-base alloys resistant to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
Biological assays, to analyze microbially-induced
corrosion deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .892
Biological corrosion. See also Biofouling;
Microbially induced or influenced
corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . 751, 768, 791, 881–894
and hydrostatic testing environment . . . . . . . . . . . .834
Biomass, method used for inspection, growth and
activity assays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
Biot number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .214
Bird-strike testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325
Biscuit, in pressure die castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
Bismuth
as alloying species in metal, causing accelerated
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
as alloying species in metal, causing stresscorrosion cracking in copper alloys (in
presence of aerated aqueous NH3) . . . . . . . .831
as alloying species in metal, causing stresscorrosion cracking in stainless steels (in
presence of Cl–) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
cleavage fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .589
as embrittling agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691, 862
as ions in aqueous solutions, causing accelerated
hydrogen entry in high-strength steels . . . .831
as ions in aqueous solutions, causing hydrogeninduced cracking in high-strength steels . .831
as ions in aqueous solutions, causing stresscorrosion cracking in high-strength
steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
liquid, environment causing stress-corrosion
cracking of nickel and nickel-base
alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .848
as molten metal corrodent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .873
Bitmap digital camera file format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .420
Bituminous resins, as corrosion-resistant
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .758
Black, finely divided iron (II) sulfides, as corrosion
products in pipeline excavations and
laboratory soil box tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
Blacking inclusions, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . .111
Blacking scab, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
Black refractories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .800
Black spots, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
Blade alloys, microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .739
Blind shrinkage, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
Blistering. See also Fisheyes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695, 696
of aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
as discontinuity in semisolid casting . . . . . 127, 131
as flaw in rolled bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
of forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
hydrogen-induced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .814–815, 816
in ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83, 87, 90
microbial involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .884
of pressure die castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127
in squeeze casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
Block diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Blocksim (computer software program) . . . . . . . .267
Block tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .701
Block-type stress spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280, 281
Blocky ferrite, and distortion failure of gas-nitrided
drive-gear assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055
“Blood” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .922
Blowholes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
adjacent to inserts, chills, chaplets, etc., as casting
defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
in corner as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
in malleable irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
slag, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171, 187
Blow molding
extrusion compatibility with various materials . . 33
injection compatibility with various materials . . 33
Blue brittleness
causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
effect in ferrous alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690–691
steels susceptible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
temperature for weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
www.asminternational.org
1096 / Index
Body-centered-cubic (bcc) materials
cracking by a ductile mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .611
deformation behavior (Ashby) maps . . . . . 684, 685
deformation twinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .589
ductile-to-brittle transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .684
ductility reduction in ductile-brittle transition
temperature region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .599
flow strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1049–1050
hydrogen embrittlement and intergranular
fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .678–679, 680
temperature effect on toughness and
ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684, 685
tongues and deformation twinning . . . . . . . . . . . . .590
yield strength vs. temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
Boiler feedwater tubes, uniform corrosion . . . . . .768
Boiler plate, creep-induced rupture . . . . . . . . . 733, 735
Boiler tubes
corrosion fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .634
damage mechanisms (EPRI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
damage mechanisms failure wheel . . . . . . . 349, 350
life assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .305
maximum metal temperatures for materials . . . 304,
305
pitting damage mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343–344
pitting damage mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344
Boiler waterwall, damage mechanisms . . . . 347, 348
Boil scab, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
Bolted joints, crevice corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .775
Bolt hole, brittle fracture by, steel grain storage
bin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .616, 618, 619
Bolts
from diesel engine connecting rod, stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352
fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631, 633
root-cause analysis of failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
unidirectional fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .711
Bonding
between atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678–679
Bonds, covalent, and thermal degradation . . 797, 798
Bone screw, gas porosity failure . . . . . . . . . . . . 115, 116
Borax-nitrite, as inhibitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .757
Borescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .421
Boron
as addition to nickel aluminide coatings . . . . . . .878
content effect on stress-relief embrittlement . . .691
Boron-carbide-reinforced aluminum composites,
microbially-induced corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . .891
Boron-containing alloy, torsional fatigue failure of
coil springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630, 633
Boron nitride (BN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .800
formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
hot pressed, corrosion resistance to fused salts,
alkalis, and low-melting oxides . . . . . . . . . . .805
hot pressed, corrosion resistance to various hot
gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .805
melting point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
refractoriness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .805
Boroscopic examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
Boudouard reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
Boundary-element analysis (BEA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .461
Bounding methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262–263
Box-Behnken design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258
Box counting method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .544
Brace, elevated temperature failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320
Brackets
brittle overload fracture of cast steel . . . . . 683–684
embrittlement of polycarbonate . . . . . . . . . . . 446, 447
Bragg’s law, to calculate d-spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .484
Brainstorming, in failure investigation . . . 326, 327
Brake design of low-loading trailer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Branching. See also Stress-corrosion cracking,
branching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .875
of fracture surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .664
Brasses. See also Copper alloys.
corrosion resistance to microbially-induced
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
dezincification, and chemical analysis . . . . . . . . . .430
environments subjecting alloy to selective
leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785
intergranular stress-corrosion cracking . . . 521, 524
mercury-induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . 864–865
microbially-induced corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
as molten metal corrodent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .873
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . 823, 825, 832, 835,
836, 837, 853, 854, 875
stress-corrosion cracking due to microbiallyinduced corrosion, in condenser . . . . . . . . . . .887
Breach of warranty, as legal theory for products
liability lawsuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Breakage (cold), as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
Breaking stress. See Rupture stress.
Break wave markings, not caused by fatigue . . . .635
Bright-field illumination, of light microscope
fractographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .499
Brinell hardness number (HB)
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
of quenched and tempered low-alloy steel . . . . .980
Brinell hardness test, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
Brinelling. See also False brinelling.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
failures by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Brine tank, crevice corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .776
British Standards Institute (BSI). See Standards
and specifications, specific types.
Brittle, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
Brittle alloys, angle of impact in corrosive
wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .991
Brittle cleavage, as pleonasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Brittle crack propagation, definition . . . . . . . . . . 1062
Brittle erosion behavior, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
Brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17, 18, 19, 20
abnormal conditions present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
aircraft F-111 wing box of high-strength
steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228, 231
of alloy steel ski chair lift grip
components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10, 11
of austenitic manganese steel
chain link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146–147, 148
bending failure . . . . . . . . . . . . 604–606, 608, 609, 610
by bolt hole in grain storage bin . . . . .616, 618, 619
brackets of cast steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683–684
of cast materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608, 612, 613, 614
of ceramics due to processing defects . . . . 669–670
cleavage as mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587
compression failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .604
of cone-crusher frame of cast iron . . . . . . . . 682–683
cylindrical specimens in tension . . . . .598, 601, 602
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
distinguishing characteristics at different scales of
observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671, 672
distinguishing characteristics by scale of
observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .672
energy expenditure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .565
fast, with spalling of forged roll . . . . . . . . . . 629, 632
gas turbine hot-gas casing of stainless steel . . . 363,
364
glass plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .662
glass, rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .664
glazed porcelain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .670
high-manganese carbon steel lawn mower
blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681, 682
on hoop plane of pressure vessel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
initiation and propagation, microscale
details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611–613, 616, 617
initiation site and roughness
consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562–563
intergranular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .522, 675–677
of jacket for transportation assemblies of
PET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451–453
by light microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498, 499
linear elastic fracture mechanics design approach
for avoiding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
loading types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
in low-carbon steel, microstructure . . . . . . . 498, 499
macroscale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
macroscale and microscale
appearances . . . . 598–609, 610, 611, 612, 613
macroscopic fracture surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 566–568
manganese bronze worm gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .676
from manufacturing imperfections 613–616, 617,
618, 619
material properties related to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
material selection criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
metallographic examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .402
microscale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
mild carbon steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521, 523
as mode of fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400–401
molasses tank failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228, 229, 230
nickel-plated carbon steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499, 500
notched specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .602–603, 607
of nylon hinges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457–459
operating temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .674
of polyacetal latch assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . 454–456
polycarbonate electrical switch housing . . . . . . 456–
457, 458
of polyethylene gas pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
in polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656–657
polyvinyl chloride water-filter housing . . . . . . . . .660
pressure vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
pressurized cylindrical section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .475
prismatic specimens in tension . . . . . 601–603, 605,
606, 607
rail car couplers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
reduction in area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .565
round beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .474
silicon nitride rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666–667
soda-lime glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521, 523
steel plate from oil storage tank . . . . . . . . . . 352–353
of steel pump impeller from nuclear plant . . . . 152,
153
steel shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352, 353
steel, with manganese sulfide inclusions . . . .89, 91
near stress raisers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609–611, 614, 615
stress types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
structural steel ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685–686
temper-embrittled steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .522
“thick-lipped” (macroscale) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
of tool steel medical device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677, 678
torsion loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606–608, 610, 611
transgranular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .522
triggered by incomplete fusion and inadequate
penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178
unnotched specimens . . . . 599, 600, 601–602, 606,
607
of valve seats of resulfurized steel . . . . . . . . . . . . .677
welded cooling tower pipe of steel . . . . . . . 168–169
of welded crosshead of industrial
compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153–154
welded elbow assembly of
stainless steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163–164
welded gas-turbine inner-combustion-chamber
case assembly of nickel-base alloy . . 164, 165
welded headers for superheated water, steel pipes
and elbows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165–166
of welded steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178, 180
of welded steel shaft for
amusement ride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175–176, 177
welded water-wall tube of steel . . . . . . . . . . . 176, 177
weldment of direct-current motor armature . . . 181,
182
weldment of steel railway tank car . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
of weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158, 161
Brittle materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
erosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995, 997
failure criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .473
loaded in pure compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .469
tensile loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .468
in torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .469
Brittleness, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
Brittle overload
characteristics of failure mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
examination methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
examination methods used and surface
magnification possible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .672
Brittle overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .674
of zinc alloy snowthrower adapters . . . . . . . . . . . .683
Brittle overload fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579, 581
of cast iron cone-crusher frame . . . . . . . . . . . 682–683
Brittle striations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708, 709
Brittle structure, as defect resulting from heat
treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Brittle-to-ductile fracture transition . . . . . . 612, 616
Brittle torsion fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561, 562
Brittle transgranular fracture. See also Cleavage
fracture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572–574
Bromide ions, stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . .857
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
Bronze. See also Copper alloys.
corrosion resistance to microbially-induced
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
fretting damage on steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .933
liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . .862, 864–
865
maximum erosion rate dependence in cavitation
erosion on combined parameter . . . . . . . . . 1016
mercury induced liquid metal embrittlement . . 862,
864–865
as molten metal corrodent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .873
BSE. See Backscattered electrons.
Bubbles, in ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .665, 669, 670
Buckle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
as casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108, 120
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104, 1062
from mold-wall deficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343, 347, 559, 603, 689
with bending failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .605
causing service failures of welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
as damage mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
as damage mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . .349
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
in distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
loading types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
material properties related to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
material selection criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
operating temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
of sheet metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100–101
stress types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
and waves of detachment in elastomers . . . . . . 1022
Bulging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .603
Bulk failure, as rolling contact fatigue failure mode
of thermal spray cermet and ceramic
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .951
Bulk forming, cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99–100, 101
Bulk materials, chemical analysis for
verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429–432
Bulk modulus. See Bulk modulus of elasticity.
Bulk modulus of elasticity (K),
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1062–1063
Bulk working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96, 97
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99–100, 101
Bull’s-eye ferrite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677, 682
Bump check. See Percussion cone.
Burner cans for gas turbine engines
elevated temperatures for applications . . . . . . . . .729
materials used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729
Burn in, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Burning. See also Grain-boundary liquation;
Overheating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201, 204, 720
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201, 1063
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .695
of forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92, 96
of grain boundaries, as defect resulting from heat
treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
and intergranular fracture of steels . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
Burnishing, and distortion failure of spool-type
hydraulic valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
Burn on, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Burn-through, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
Burrs, in nodular iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139, 140
Bursts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
central, in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93–94, 95
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190
as discontinuity for forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91, 94, 95
in ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
internal, in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93–94
as root cause of forgings defects, rationale,
resolution, and corrective action . . . 327, 329,
330, 331
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190
Bushings, quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207
Butterfly bruise. See Percussion cone.
Butterfly valve, failure in manufacturing plant
cooling water system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Butterfly wings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .943
“Butter” repair technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
Butt joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161–162, 164
Butt welds, weldment porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172
Butyl rubber
as sealant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
wear resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022
C
CAA. See Corrective Action Assessment chart.
CAD. See Computer-aided design.
Cadmium
causing liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . 863,
864, 865, 866
causing solid metal induced embrittlement . . . . 865,
866
as embrittling metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
liquid, causing stress-corrosion cracking in
titanium alloys at various temperatures . . .857
as liquid embrittler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
as molten metal corrodent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .873
solid, causing stress-corrosion cracking in titanium
alloys at various temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . .857
standard emf series value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .763
Cadmium plating, hydrogen embrittlement of plated
wing nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811, 812
Caking, of refractory walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .803
Calcia
formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
melting point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
Calcite scale, and microbially-induced corrosion of
stainless steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .889
Calcium carbonate scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .886
Calcium chloride, stress-corrosion cracking . . . . .849
Calcium ladle additions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .584
CaO/SiO2 ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
Calrel (computer software program) . . . . . . . . . . .267
Cambridge Engineering Selector (materials
selection software) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Cameras
accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .420
bodies used in failure analysis photography . . . .419
digital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420–421
flashes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419–420
lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .419
for on-site investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
to record experimental stress analysis . . . . . . . . . .397
Camshaft, grinding cracks in gray iron . . . . . . . . . .221
Cantilever beam analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382
Cantilever beams, distortion failure of stainless
steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049
Cantilever curl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .666
Capped steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
Cap screws, hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . 696–697
Carbide coalescence, of steel alloys used for gas
turbine tubes and piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291–292
Carbide coarsening, of turbine blades . . . . . . . . . . .291
Carbide inclusions, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . 172–174
Carbide overaging, of nickel-base superalloys used
for gas turbine blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294–295
Carbide precipitation
and cold forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
of nickel-base superalloys used for gas turbine
blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294, 295
in stainless steel hot gas casing . . . . . . . . . . . 363, 364
Carbides
in austenitic manganese steel castings . . . . 147, 148
of beta-NiAl coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .876
in cast stainless steel with intergranular
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 150
effect on properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216–217, 218
effect on stress rupture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735, 736
formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216, 217, 218
forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216, 217, 218
geometric models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216, 217
with high-temperature corrosion of nickel
alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .870
as inclusions, and debonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571, 572
in overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .683
in power plant piping and tubing
microstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .305
rounded, effect on ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .682
weld-interface, in friction welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
Carbide segregation, of twistdrill material . . . . . . . 73
Carbide spheroidization, of steel alloys used for
gas turbine tubes and piping . . .291–292, 293
Carbide stabilizers, in cast irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
www.asminternational.org
Index / 1097
Carbon
content effect on distortion with quenching . . 199–
200, 205
content effect on quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . .694
content effect on retained austenite
formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210, 212
content effect on sigma-phase embrittlement . .693
content effect on stress-corrosion cracking in
nitrate solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .839
content in intergranular fracture surfaces of
carburized steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644–645
content needed to offset shrinkage and porosity in
ductile iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141
depletion on steel surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .430
diamond, bond energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
effect on weldment hot cracking . . . . . . . . . 184–185
enhancing embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .691
films, lustrous, as casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
grain-boundary segregation causing intergranular
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
and hot corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .872
removed from alloys by selective leaching . . . . .785
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838–843
Carbonate ions in aqueous solutions, causing
stress-corrosion cracking in carbon
steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
Carbonates, stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . .840
Carbon diffusion, effect on chemical analysis . . .430
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
plus moisture, as damaging substance in
atmospheric environments for stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .840
Carbon dioxide sand molding, in shape-casting
processes classification scheme . . . . . . . . . . .124
Carbon equivalent (CE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
and carbon flotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
effect on quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208, 211
equation for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211
to solve hydrogen cold cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
Carbon evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .522
Carbon fibers (CF)
as filler for nylon promoting wear
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1025–1026
in phenolic resin composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023
for polymer reinforcement . . . . . . 1031, 1032, 1033,
1034, 1038, 1039, 1040, 1041
Carbon flotation
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
in gray iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
of nodular iron crankshaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139, 140
Carbonitrides, with high-temperature corrosion of
nickel alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .870
Carbonitriding, and hydrogen embrittlement . . . .818
Carbon-manganese steels
cavitation erosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013
clad with erosion-resistant alloys by fusion
welding or explosive bonding . . . . . . . . . . . 1016
failure assessment curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248
failure assessment diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244
three-dimensional fracture surface
reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .553
weldment hydrogen cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
weldment inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173, 176
weldment lamellar tearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181, 182
weldment porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
Carbon-molybdenum steels
composition of castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
mechanical properties of castings . . . . . . . . 144, 145
Carbon monoxide (CO), plus moisture, as
damaging substance in atmospheric
environments for stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
Carbon monoxide-carbon dioxide-water (COCO2-H2O) gas, causing stress-corrosion
cracking in carbon steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
Carbon-nitrogen interaction, as mechanism for
high-temperature corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .870
Carbon pickup, and intergranular corrosion . . . . 781,
783
Carbon potential, variation with dewpoint . . . . . .216
Carbon residue buildup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .436
Carbon saturation (SC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134, 137
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
www.asminternational.org
1098 / Index
Carbon steels
carbide changes with elevated temperature . . 291–
292, 293
casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
causes of stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1013–1014
cavitation erosion in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
centrifugal casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
chloridation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .873
compatibility with various manufacturing
processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
copper-induced liquid metal induced
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367, 369
crevice corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .776
crystallographic fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
ductile fracture of tapered-ring sprocket locking
device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 10
environment systems exhibiting stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
fretting wear low after shot peening . . . . . . . . . . . .928
fretting wear of connecting rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .928
fretting wear of cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .930
intergranular fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500–501, 502
intergranular stress-corrosion cracking of
weldment in sulfur recovery unit . . . . 840–841
liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . .500–501,
502, 865–866
maximum metal temperatures for high-temperature
boiler tube materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .304
microbially-induced corrosion in oilfield
waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .884
microstructure, tensile test fracture of
casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509
microstructure using replicating tape, reinforcing
rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513, 514
mitigating adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
nickel-plated fractures, light micrographs . . . . . 499,
500
pitting corrosion of pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356, 357
retained austenite volume fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . .364
solid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . .865
spalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .978, 980, 981
strength-hardness correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980, 981
substances in atmospheric environments causing
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
tensile testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509
uniform corrosion of boiler feedwater tubes . . .768
weldment discontinuities in World War II Liberty
ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
weldment underfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175, 177
workability behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Carborundum
formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
melting point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
Carburization
in cast irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
as defect resulting from heat treatment . . . . . . . . . . 81
effect on bulk composition verification . . . 429, 430
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .688
of forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
of low-alloy steel castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
as mechanism for high-temperature
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868, 869
of valve seats, intergranular brittle fracture . . . .677
variables affecting rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .868
Carburized steels, intergranular fatigue . . . . 644–645
Carburizing
defects resulting from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
distortion due to residual stresses or
fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1053–1054
and hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .818
to prevent fretting damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133, 934
to reduce stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .717
of track wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510, 511
Cartridge brass, grain size effect . . . . . . . . . . 598, 601
Case crushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413, 723, 725–726
contact fatigue terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .722
Case debonding, in squeeze casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131
Case depth, as distortion failure factor . . . . . . . . . 1053
Case hardening
and fatigue initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
microcracking tendency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
by shot peening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221–222
for stress reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .717
Case history, in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337
Casing of ship service turbine generator, load
diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .742
Casings, for ship service turbine generator . . . . . 741–
745
Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103–154
aluminum, minimum web thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
cast iron, minimum web thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
characteristics of processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
classification of processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
design
and defect-related failures . . . . . . . . .133–137, 138
progressive solidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103–104
fractured, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
imperfection classification scheme
(ICFTA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104, 105–112
permanent-mold methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123–124
specification and design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
Casting defects
in aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149–152
austenitic manganese steels . . . . 146–147, 148, 149
of austenitic steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146–147, 148, 149
in carbon steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
cavities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104, 106
classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104, 105–112
corrosion-resistant steels . . . . . . . . . . . . .147–149, 150
defective surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104, 107–109
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104, 107, 120–131
in ductile iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141–142, 143
Hadfield steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146–147, 148, 149
inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . 104, 111–112, 116–117, 118
incomplete casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104, 109–110
incorrect dimensions or shape . . . . . . .104, 110–111
in low-alloy steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142–146
malleable irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140–141
metallic projections . . . . . . . . . . . . 104, 105, 119–120
oxide films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117–118, 119
in pressure die casting . . . . 126–127, 128, 129, 130
of stainless steels, austenitic . . . 146–147, 148, 149
in steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142–149, 150
structural anomalies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104, 111–112
from welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152–154
Casting distortion, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
Casting/molding, compatibility with various
materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Casting process, as root cause of forgings, defects,
rationale, resolution, and corrective
action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327, 329, 330, 331
Castings
brittle overload failure of zinc alloy . . . . . . . . . . . .683
brittle overload fracture of steel brackets . . . . . 683–
684
dendritic solidification microstructural
features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608
discontinuities, types of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
distortion due to residual stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
fatigue crack initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .577
fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
fracture appearances . . . . . . . . . . . 608, 612, 613, 614
manufacturing imperfections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .614
rework of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152–154
sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
Casting shrinkage. See also Liquid shrinkage;
Shrinkage cavity; Solidification shrinkage;
and Solid shrinkage.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
Casting stresses, in gray iron crankcases . . .135–136,
137, 138
Casting temperature, as root cause of forgings
defects, rationale, resolution, and corrective
action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327, 329, 330, 331
Cast irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
cavitation erosion in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
cavitation erosion of suction bell of water
pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .999
cleavage cracking of graphite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608
compatibility with various manufacturing
processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137–139
corrosion failure of Yankee dryer . . . . . . . . 387–388
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
gases causing porosity in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
graphite corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786–787, 788, 789
high-silicon, as impressed-current anodes . . . . . .756
impact wear failure of valve seating . . . . . . 972–973
inert gas flushing for gas removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
macroscale details minimal in fractures . . 608, 612
microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137–139
mixed-mode cracking of impeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . .677
Cast irons, specific types
ASTM grade 60-45-10
dimple-rupture fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .673
fatigue fracture of stuffing box . . . .136–137, 138
ASTM grade 65-40-10, ductile fracture . . . . . . . .641
ASTM grade 80-55-06
brittle overload fracture of cone-crusher
frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682–683
intergranular fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .641
transgranular fracture by cleavage . . . . . . . . . . .641
ASTM grade 100-70-03, mixed-mode cracking of
impeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .677
ASTM A 47, grade 35018, impingement
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .792
ASTM A 48, grade 20, cold sheet failure in paperdrier head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
ASTM A 159, grade G 1800, cold shut failure in
paper-drier head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121, 122
ASTM A 602, grade M 7002, fatigue failures of
rocker lever of diesel engines . . . . . . . 140, 141
D4018, fracture surface roughness . . . . . . . . . . . . .546
D5506, fracture surface roughness . . . . . . . . . . . . .546
G3000 grade, transgranular cleavage of truck
transmission housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675, 676
G3500, crack propagation martensite corrosion
after grinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221
GG25, cavitation erosion, incubation time . . . 1004
GGL NiCuCr15 6 2, shrinkage porosity of pump
impeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114–115, 116
GGL NiCuCr 15 6 3, recommended material for
pump impellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
MIL-I-11466, grade D 7003, fatigue failure of
piston for a gun-recoil mechanism . .141–142,
143
Cast stainless steels, intergranular corrosion . . . . .780
Cast stainless steels, specific types
alloy 20, cast, galvanic series in seawater . . . . . .762
CA-6NM
cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013, 1014
erosion rate in vibratory cavitation . . . . . . . . 1016
for high-head pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013
CA-15
for high-head pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013
weld repair of impeller vane, cavitation
erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1016–1017
CD-4MCu, hot tears and cracks in castings . . . .148
CF-3, intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .780
CF-3M, intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .780
CF-8
microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147–148
for smaller hydroturbines and pumps . . . . . . 1013
CF-8M
erosive wear of pump impeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .999
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .845
CFR-8M, microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147–148
CN-7M
hot tears and cracks in castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .780
18Cr-10Ni-3.2Mo, intergranular corrosion
of neck fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 150
GX CrNiMo18 10 cavitation erosion,
incubation time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004
GX CrNiMoCu25 6, cavitation erosion,
incubation time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004
Cast steels
casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142–149, 150
cold shut in truck equalizer beam . . . . . . . . 122–123
Catastrophic oxidation, of low-alloy steel
castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
Catastrophic wear, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
Cathode, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
Cathode sputtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .807
Cathodic depolarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .882, 883, 892
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
Cathodic inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757–758
Cathodic poisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .812
Cathodic polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .882
Cathodic protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .755–757, 764
as corrosion prevention method in industrial
facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
for graphitic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .787
and hydrogen embrittlement of high-strength
steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .813
in low-velocity water systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .789
to resist corrosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .992
for resisting microbially induced
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754–755, 885, 893–894
and stress-corrosion cracking . . 824–825, 838, 839
Cathodic reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .749, 750, 770
Cause, root. See Root cause.
Cause, simple physical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316
Cause-and-effect analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14, 16
Caustic cleaning, as hydrogen source for hydrogen
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .819
Caustic corrosion, as damage mechanism
on failure wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
Caustic cracking, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
Caustic embrittlement. See also Caustic cracking;
Sodium hydroxide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337, 873
loading types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
material selection criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
operating temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
stress types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Caustic gouging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344, 873
as boiler tube damage mechanism on failure
wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
characteristics of boiler waterwall damage
mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347, 348
Cavitation . . . . . . . 409, 755, 791, 792–793, 831, 997,
999–1000, 1013–1014
in bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003, 1004–1005, 1007
brittle failure mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1002, 1003
of cast iron pump impeller . . . . . . . . . . .114–115, 116
cause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .995
in centrifugal pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . .1004, 1005, 1007
characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409, 1002
clearance reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007
creep behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .731
as damage mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . .349
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409, 1063
design changes for mitigation of . . . . . . . .409, 1007
ductile failure mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1002–1003
failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1002–1004
in gear boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004, 1005
incidence of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1002
industry examples of failure . . . . .1003, 1004–1005
laser surface modification for
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1006–1007, 1008
and lubricant failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
manifestations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1013–1014
material changes for mitigation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
mechanisms causing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1002
by microjets . . . . . . . . 1002, 1003, 1004, 1006, 1013
of permanent-mold castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651
from power-generation plant processes . . . . . . . . .996
relative resistance scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1010
resistance of materials . . . . . . . . . . .1005–1007, 1008
resistance of metals and alloys . .1004, 1005, 1006
resistance of metals in seawater rated . . . . . . . . . .793
by shock waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1002
sodium chromate addition to cooling water for
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1003–1004
tests for evaluation of . . . . . . . . . . . .1006, 1007–1010
variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .902, 1010
vibration reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007
Cavitation corrosion. See Cavitation.
Cavitation damage. See Cavitation.
Cavitation erosion. See Cavitation.
Cavitation pitting. See Cavitation.
Cavities
as casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104, 106
rounded-type (r-type) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .734
wedge type (w-type) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .734
Cavity shrinkage
as discontinuity for castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
as discontinuity for forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
CBED. See Convergent-beam electron diffraction
technique.
CCT. See Continuous cooling transformation
diagrams.
CDF. See Cumulative distribution function.
CE. See Carbon equivalent.
CEGB R6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244
Cell numbers of microorganisms, method used for
inspection, growth, and activity assays . . .893
Cellulose acetate
characteristics of engineering polymers . . . . . . . .359
replica of glazed electrical porcelain insulator
fracture surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663, 664
use in surface replica production . . . . . . . . . 520, 522
Cellulose acetate replicas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
Cellulose acetate tape, for replicating fracture
surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397–398
Cementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .766
Cementite
atomic volume of ferrous alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
as transformational product in steel . . . . . 192, 193,
194
Cement sand molding, in shape-casting processes
classification scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Center defects, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188
Centerline cracks, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
Centerline pipe, as discontinuity for forgings . . . . . . 9
Centerline segregation, in squeeze casting . . . . . .130
Centerline shrinkage. See also Shrinkage
porosity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82–83
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
in ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86–87
Center-of-gravity method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
Central bursts, as discontinuity for extrusions and
drawn products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 511, 512
Central composite design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258
Central geometry fibrous zone, in ductile
fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598–600, 602, 603, 604
Central limit theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253
Centrifugal casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131–133
mold types used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
in shape-casting processes classification
scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Centrifugal pumps, cavitation . . . . 1004, 1005, 1007,
1013
Centroidal axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
Ceramic filters, to reduce inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
Ceramic molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
and surface finish of casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .662–670, 800
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911, 913
as base material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .663
cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1003, 1006, 1007
centrifugal casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
ceramographic etching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362–363
comprehensive stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .959
crack branching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369–370
crack patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .369
crack propagation testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .959
cutting of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362
cyclic fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .959
evaluation in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369–370
examination of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362–367
fracture features surrounding fracture origin . . .369
fracture mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958–959
fracture modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665–667
grinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362, 363
as high-temperature coatings resisting
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877–878
high-toughness, fracture toughness
measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .666
impact wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 968–970
for impressed-current anodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .756
microcracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .582
mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362
polishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362, 363
rollers, microchipping wear mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . .958
rolling-contact fatigue of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957–963
salt melt etching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362
spalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .961
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Index / 1099
thermal etching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362
wear particle size related to coefficient of
friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .958
Ceramics, specific types
GS-44 silicon nitride, impact wear . . . . . . . . . . . . .969
NBD-200, balls impacting sintered reactionbonded silicon nitride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .969
SN220M silicon nitride, impact wear . . . . . . . . . .969
Ceramic shell investment molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
Ceramic slurry molding, in shape-casting processes
classification scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Ceramographic etching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362–363
Ceria, addition improving oxidation resistance . .868
Cermets, as coatings . . . . . . . . 949–950, 951, 952, 953
Ceroxides, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
CF. See Carbon fibers.
Chafing fatigue. See also Fretting.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
Chain branching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
Chain graphitization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .693
Chain link, brittle fracture of austenitic
manganese steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146–147, 148
Chain of commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Chain of evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .340
Chain scission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444, 569, 797, 798
of polyethylene terephthalate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .452
Chalcocite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
Chalk, brittle torsion fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561, 562
Chamfer angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .978
Chamfers, of nail and ball-peen hammers . . . . . . .978
Channeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
Chaplet cold shut, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
Chaplet, unfused, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
Charcoal-regeneration kiln, sulfidation . . . 871, 872
Charge correction method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .531
Charging, of sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .521
Charpy (impact) test (Charpy
V-notch test) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .301, 684, 692
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
for polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .445
of stainless steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500
of weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161, 179–180, 783
Charpy V-notch bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .604
Charpy V-notch impact energy . . . . . . 604–606, 608,
609, 610
of cast carbon-molybdenum steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
and tempered-martensite embrittlement . . . . . . . .692
Charpy V-notch upper-shelf energies, of shapecontrolled steel with inclusions . . . . . . . .89, 90
Check cracks, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
Chelates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .768
Chemical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403–404, 522
of brass, dezincification effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .430
bulk composition verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429–432
calibration with similarly composed material . .429
carburization effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429, 430
of casting defect fracture due to cold shut . . . . .121
of cast steel of equalizer beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
chemist selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
of corrosion products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
corrosion reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .430
economy test methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429, 430
in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334, 337
hydrogen analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429, 431
of metals in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429–436
of microbially induced corrosion deposits . . . . . .892
microchemical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . .429, 432–436
for microscopic examination of fracture
surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .399
qualitative chemical tests used in materials
identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
referee test methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .429, 430–431
specimen handling information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .436
spot-check test kits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
for stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 837–838
of worn surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .413
Chemical attack, of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .439
Chemical bond molding, and surface finish of
casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
Chemical characterization of surfaces, evaluation
techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
Chemical composition, as root cause of forgings
defects, rationale, resolution, and corrective
action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327, 329, 330, 331
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
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1100 / Index
Chemical corrosion, prevention, to fracture
surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .397
Chemical invasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .802
Chemical segregation
of forging die of tool steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
of ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82, 83–86
Chemical-setting ceramic linings, as corrosionresistant linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758–759
Chemical splash protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653–654
Chemical storage vessel, distortion of high-density
polyethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453–454
Chemical treatment, as corrosion prevention
method in industrial facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .759
of aluminide coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
coating material, thickness, and hardness . . . . . .949
coatings and rolling-contact fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . .949
coatings for structural ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .807
contact stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
fatigue life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
vs. physical vapor deposition for coatings . . . . .945
to prevent fretting damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .934
rolling contact fatigue tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
substrate material and hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
surface roughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
Chemical wear mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902, 903
Chem Sage computer code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
Chevron cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183, 561
of extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511, 512
in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93–94, 95
Chevron pattern (chevron marks) . . 395, 397, 561,
562, 601, 605
by bolt hole fracture of grain storage bin . . . . . 616,
618, 619
with brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400, 674
in casting fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608, 610, 612
vs. crack arrest lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
in fast-fracture zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708, 709
of fatigue failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630, 633
in fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576
near fibrous zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601, 605
as flaw in rolled bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
near fracture origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398, 399
macroscale fractographic implication . . . . . . . . . . .560
and shrinkage porosity and manufacturing
flaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .614
v (chi) geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .485
v (chi) goniometer geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .485
Chill casting, for chemical analysis specimens . .430
Chill(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113, 119
to accelerate cooling of casting heavy
sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
formation in gray iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
to prevent hot cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
Chip (lamellar structure) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
as flaw in rolled bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Chipping, of hammers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .978
Chisels, striking/struck tool specifications . . . . . . . .987
Chi-Square test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253
Chloridation
as mechanism for high-temperature
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872, 873
molten salts involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .874
of nickel alloys of charcoal-regeneration
kiln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .871
Chloride ions, role in pitting corrosion of stainless
steel tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772, 773
Chlorides
degrading nylon filtration unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456
effect on microbially induced corrosion attack on
weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .888
effect on refractories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .803
exposure causing corrosion of stainless
steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .755
and hot corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .872
inducing pitting corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .771
Chloride salts
as agent involved with hot corrosion . . . . . . . . . . .871
hot dry
causing stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . .857
causing stress-corrosion cracking in titanium
alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .857
Chlorides plus moisture, as damaging substance in
atmospheric environments for stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
Chloride stress-corrosion cracking . . 366, 490, 755,
823–827, 829, 830, 832–835, 840–852, 856–
857
of austenitic stainless steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .812
holding tank coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37–38
resistance of corrosion-resistant castings . . . . . . .148
of stainless steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .340–341, 816
with thermal insulation of pipes . . . . . . . . . . 776–777
transgranular, of austenitic stainless steels . . . . .638
Chlorinated diphenyl, causing stress-corrosion
cracking in titanium alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .857
Chlorinated products, removed as antifoulant in
marine paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .894
Chlorinated rubbers, as corrosion-resistant
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .758
Chlorinated solvents, stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .857, 858–859
Chlorine
as biocidal agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .894
bond energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
causing stress-corrosion cracking in titanium
alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .857
in deposits from microbially induced corrosion
sites in stainless steel cooling water
systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .889
as surface contaminant on powder-free
gloves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
Chloroprene rubber, characteristics of engineering
polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
Chopper knife, wear failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512, 513
Chord modulus. See also Modulus of elasticity.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
Chromate conversion coatings, for corrosion
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .759
Chromates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771, 992
as inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .757
removed as antifoulant in marine paints . . . . . . . .894
toxic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
Chrome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803, 804
Chromia
content effect in refractory coatings . . . . . . . . . . . .878
formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
melting point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
Chromia scale-formers, carburization
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
Chromic acid
causing intergranular corrosion in sensitized
austenitic stainless steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .779
environment causing stress-corrosion cracking of
nickel and nickel-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . .848
Chromic anodizing, for corrosion resistance . . . .759
Chromic oxide
formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
melting point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
Chromites, alkali . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
Chromium
as addition to aluminide coatings . . . . . . . . . 877, 878
cavitation erosion, incubation time . . . . . . . . . . . 1004
content effect on alloy steel temper
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
content effect on internal oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . .214
content effect on low-alloy steel
carburization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
depletion, and high-temperature corrosion . . . . .870
in deposits from microbially induced corrosion
sites in stainless steel cooling water
systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .889
in dissimilar metal pair fretting damage . . . . . . . .928
enhancing embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .691
forming dispersoids to slow down crack
growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 930, 934
microsegregation susceptibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
oxidation potential in endothermic gas . . . . . . . . .214
oxide film for fretting corrosion resistance . . . . .928
qualitative chemical testing for materials
identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
removed from alloys by selective leaching . . . . .785
to stabilize carbides in low-alloy steel
castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145, 146
standard emf series value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .763
Chromium alloy steels, austempering . . . . . . . . . . . .207
Chromium carbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735, 783
Chromium carbide-titanium carbide, as chemical
vapor deposition coating material . . . . . . . . .949
Chromium-molybdenum steels
spalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .978
stress-rupture (creep) failure of steam pipe . . . .365
Chromium-molybdenum-vanadium steels, elevated
temperatures for engineering
applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729
Chromium-nickel alloys, sigma-phase
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512, 513
Chromium nitride (CrN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .945
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945–946
elevated temperatures and stability . . . . . . . . . . . . .868
layer on well-passivated stainless steel
surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .535
as physical vapor deposition coating
material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
precipitation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .692
Chromium oxide, passivation layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . .536
Chromium oxide scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .870
Chromium oxide-silicon oxide-titanium oxide, as
thermally sprayed coating material . . . . . . . .950
Chromium plating
for cavitation erosion resistance . . . . . . . 1006, 1008
erosion rate of metallic coatings in 3% NaCl
aqueous solution, various thicknesses . . . 1008
Chromium steel (12%), liquid-droplet erosion
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015
Chromizing, to prevent fretting damage . . . . . . . . .933
Chuck jaw, microstructure of replica . . . . . . . 513–514
CID. See Commercial Item Description.
Circuit diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .376
Circular crack, initiation and propagation measured
by finite-element method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .957
Circumferential ridging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598, 599
Citrate, stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .853
Citric acid, corrosion of stainless steel valve in
vending machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Citrobacter freundii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .884
Cladding
of carbon-manganese steels with erosion-resistant
alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1016
to resist corrosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .992
Cladosporium resinae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .891
Clamp-off, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Clamshell marks. See also Beach marks. . . 352, 707
Classical beam theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382
Classical design, and distortion failures . . . . . . . .1047,
1048
Classical ripening equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .740
Classical stereological relationship, to measure area
fraction of fracture mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . .549
Classical theory of elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380
Clay, factors correlating with sulfate-reducing
bacteria (SRB) numbers for buried pipeline
sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .886
Clay sand molding, in shape-casting processes
classification scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Cleaning
as corrosion prevention method in industrial
facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
excessive, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
and fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .720
of fractured surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397–398
in preliminary laboratory examination . . . . . . . . .406
prior to microfractography . . . . . . . . . . .353–354, 355
Cleaning/finishing, manufacturing/installation
anomalies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Cleaning solution, retained, causing pitting
corrosion of stainless steel tanks . . . . 773–774
Clean-room gloves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
Cleavage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588, 641
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
facet size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612, 616
and fracture at or near stress raisers . . . . . . . . . . . .609
ideal or perfect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .588
transgranular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .674–674, 676
Cleavage crack
associated with deformation twinning in
metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .572
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
of casting fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608
characteristic features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .612
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
subsurface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499, 500
Cleavage crack nucleus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .589
Cleavage facets, in stress-corrosion cracking . . . 835,
836
Cleavage fracture. See also Brittle transgranular
fracture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18, 20
with brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
indications on surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .561
indicative of brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
in low-carbon steel, microstructure . . . . . . . 498, 499
Cleavage plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573–574, 579, 590
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
Cleavage plane families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .574
Cleavage plane multiplicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .574
Cleavage system multiplicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .679
Cleavage with ductile tear ridges. See Quasicleavage fracture.
Clevis connectors for pontoons . . . . . . . . . . . . 113, 114
CLM. See Constant load method.
Closed die forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
compatibility with various materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Closed-form equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382
Clostridium acetobutylicum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .884
CLSM. See Confocal laser scanning microscopy.
CMOD. See Crack mouth opening displacement.
CO. See Carbon monoxide.
Coal ash corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .874
Coal gasification, causing corrosive wear . . . . . . . .990
Coal particle corrosion, as damage mechanism for
boiler tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
Coal particle erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .876
as boiler tube damage mechanism on failure
wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
Coal tar enamels, as corrosion-resistant
coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .769
Coal tar-epoxy resins, as corrosion-resistant
coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769, 776
Coal tars, as corrosion-resistant coating . . . . . . . . . .758
Coarse hackle. See Fatigue striation; Striation.
Coating(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338
adhesive wear mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
application inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .758
for cavitation erosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006
cement-lined pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
ceramic impact wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969–970
chromium plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006, 1008
cobalt-base alloy flame, arc, or HVOF
deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
as corrosion prevention method in industrial
facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
diffusion for adhesive wear mitigation . . . . . . . . .408
electroless nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
fluffy oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
governing penetration of refractories and structural
ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .806
hard chrome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
hardfacing alloy weld overlay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
high-velocity oxyfuel (HVOF) ceramics . . . . . . .407
metallic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .759
to minimize hot corrosion susceptibility . . . . . . .873
for molds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120, 125
nonmetallic, for corrosion protection . . . . . 758–759
photoelastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396–397
to prevent fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933–934
as protection from corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405
protective from high-temperature corrosion . . 876–
878
protective, to resist microbially-induced
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885, 893
remaining coating life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .298
removal before x-ray diffraction residual stress
analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
role in hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .820
and stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .834
for structural ceramics, governing oxidation . . .807
tungsten carbide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
on weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187, 188, 190
Coating degradation
as elevated-temperature failure in gas
turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .289
of nickel-base superalloys used for gas turbine
blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
Coating evaluations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289, 298
life assessment technique for elevated-temperature
exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
Coating life, prediction, for gas turbine
blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303–304
COATLIFE computer program, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .304
Cobalt
cavitation erosion, incubation time . . . . . . . . . . . 1004
maximum erosion rate dependence in cavitation
erosion on combined parameter . . . . . . . . . 1016
qualitative chemical testing for materials
indentification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
removed from alloys by selective leaching . . . . .785
standard emf series value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .763
Cobalt aluminides, as high-temperature
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .876
Cobalt-base alloys
centrifugal casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
erosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .997, 1016
fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578
galvanic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .767
Cobalt-base alloys, specific type
Co-Cr-Mo-C
crystallographic fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .636
ECY-768/x-45
turbine blade, vane, and nozzle land-based
applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296
FSX-414
turbine blade, vane, and nozzle land-based
applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296
S-816
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
Stellite
cavitation erosion in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
erosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997, 1005, 1006
inserts to combat liquid-droplet
impingement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
as overlays to resists liquid impingement
erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61, 998
Stellite 6 (ST-6)
erosion rate in vibratory cavitation . . . . . . . . 1016
Stellite 6B
cavitation erosion evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1008
liquid-droplet erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015, 1016
plating brazed on stainless steel steam turbine
blade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .998
Stellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
erosion rate in vibratory cavitation . . . . . . . . 1016
Cobalt-base heat-resisting alloys
creep onset temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729
for hot gas turbine engine components . . . . . . . . .296
Cobalt-base superalloys. See Superalloys.
Cobalt-chromium binary alloys, sulfidation
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .870
Cobalt-chromium-molybdenum alloys, gas porosity
failure in bone screw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115, 116
Cobalt-iron-molybdenum-silicon-boron alloys,
fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .928
Cobalt-tungsten carbide, abrasive wear . . . 915–916
Cobalt-tungsten-chromium alloys, environments
subjecting alloy to selective leaching . . . . .785
“Cocoa” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .922
Cocodiamine, as biocidal agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .894
COD. See Crack opening displacement.
Codes, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385, 386
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
effect on materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Coefficient of expansion, relationship with various
failure modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35, 36
Coefficient of friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022
Coefficient of thermal expansion
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442–443
of PET jacket of transportation assemblies . . . . .452
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442–443
and thermal shock of ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .667
Coefficient of variation (COV) 251, 256, 265, 266
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252
Cognitive reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .375
Coherency, degree of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .592
Coherent boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .683
Coherent domains, in iron alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .495
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Index / 1101
Cohesive wear, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022
Coil springs
decarburization failure of spring steel . . . . 509, 510
heat treatment effects on residual stress . . 494–495
residual stress versus depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .494
torsional fatigue failure of boron-containing
alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630, 633
Cold box resin sand molding, in shape-casting
processes classification scheme . . . . . . . . . . .124
Cold chamber die casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125, 126
in shape-casting processes classification
scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Cold cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .686, 698–699
of weldments . . 167, 170, 179, 181–183, 184, 186,
187, 698–699
Cold die quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213
Cold forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82, 96, 97
Cold forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97, 101–102
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
grain size variation in thin-section products . . . .102
imperfections causing fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .615
Cold heading, compatibility with various
materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Cold laps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .595
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
in corrosion-resistant casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
in squeeze casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
Cold rolling, minimum web thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Cold shot
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111, 120
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104, 1063
Cold shut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81, 614
in aircraft fuel-control lever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104, 1063
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107, 120–123
as discontinuity for castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
as discontinuity in semisolid casting . . . . . 127, 131
in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
in gray iron paper-drier head . . . . . . . .120–122, 123
in permanent-mold castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124, 125
in pressure die castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126, 127
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190
Cold tearing, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
Cold working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99, 561
and alpha-phase formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .693
effects on manufactured components . . . . . . . . . . .494
metallurgical defects in cast or wrought grain
structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
for stress reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .717
Collaborative Testing Service, “round robin”
programs of chemical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . .431
Collapse ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240, 241, 243, 244
definition, fundamental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248
Collision cascade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .533
Colorimetry, of worn surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .413
Color photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .419
to preserve evidence of damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
Columbium, addition to control intergranular
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .875
Columnar structure, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
Combing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .332
Combustion analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 404, 430, 431, 432
Comet (DeHavilland) aircraft failures . . . 228, 231,
239
Comet tailing, from improper polishing . . . . . . . . . .506
Commercial alloys, substances in atmospheric
environments causing stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
Commercial cap screw, distortion failure . . . . . . 1054
Commercial Item Description (CID) . . . . . . . . . . . .986
Commercial software tools, usefulness for larger
scale investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320
Commodity-grade steels, hydrogen
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818–822
Common cause failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Comparison specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .319
Compass method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .544
Complete deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382
Complex oxide inclusions, in weldments . . 172–174
Complex stresses, effect on fatigue strength . . . . .717
Component failure simulation testing . . . . . . . . . .419
Component life
expended, definition and description . . . . . . . . . . .227
expending of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .289
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
www.asminternational.org
1102 / Index
Component proof testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403
Component-simulation testing, in
thermomechanical fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .741
Composite material, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
Composites. See also Fiber reinforced polymers;
Hybrid composites; Polymers.
fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638–639
fretting wear versus fiber orientation angle . . . .192
Composition
of cast carbon-molybdenum steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
of low-alloy steels, and failures in castings . . 144–
145
Composition depth profiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .530
Compound impact wear . . .965, 966, 967, 968, 970
Compression
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
of shaft, stress analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468, 469
Compression curl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605, 609
Compression residual stress, calculation of . . . .283
Compression strength, as criteria for materials
selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Compressive strength, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
Compressive stress
in ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .959
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
to retard or prevent stress-corrosion cracking . .490
Compressive yield strength, relationship with
various failure modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35, 36
Compressor blade, failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . .13, 14
Compressor rotor, failure analysis of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Compressor rotor drive shaft, failure analysis . . 13,
14
Compressor wheels of helicopter jet engines, liquid
metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . 865, 866
Computer-aided design (CAD) software . . . . . . . .381
Computer expert systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Computer modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .371
Computer programs
commercially available simulation software . . .379
for crack growth assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
for probability analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
for reliability-centered maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
for simulating motor vehicle accidents . . . . . . . . .377
Computer simulation, solidification program . . . .134
Concentration cell(s), . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887, 889
in aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .891
of copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
creation by alteration of surface
environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883–884
Concentration cell corrosion, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .579
Concentration gradients, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338
Concentric fibrous marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .397
Conceptual design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
design review investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Conceptual design reviews, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75–76
Conceptual tools, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320
Conchoidal fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
Conchoidal marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .707
Concrete, binder destruction by environmental
agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405
Condenser, stress-corrosion cracking due to
microbially induced corrosion, in brass . . .887
Condenser lens, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .517
Condenser tubing
microbially induced corrosion of copper
alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
microbially induced corrosion of stainless
steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .881
stress-corrosion cracking initiated by microbially
induced corrosion in admiralty brass . . . . . .890
Conditional probability of failure, definition in
reliability-centered maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Condition-monitoring algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Condition/remaining life assessments . . . . . . . . . . .296
Conductivity testing, of aluminum alloys . . . . . . . .403
Cone crack, from ring crack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .957
Cone-crusher frame, brittle overload
fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682–683
Confidence intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261
Configuration design
(embodiment) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25, 27, 31, 33
Confirmation bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317, 321
Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) . .539
Confocal scanning microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
Connectors for pontoons, shrinkage porosity of
low-alloy steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113, 114
Constant amplitude cyclic loading spectrum . . .491
Constant amplitude loading cycle . . . . . . . . . 276–277
Constant-life diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700, 701
Constant load method (CLM), . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .361
Constant strain hardening exponent . . . . . . . . . . . .467
Constant strength coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .467
Constant-stress testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729
Constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .566–567, 589
Constraint factor (X) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245, 283
for one-dimensional crack models . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
for two-dimensional crack models . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
Consumable wheel for abrasive cutting . . . . . . . .502
Consumer complaints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Contact analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .383
Contact fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722–726, 906, 922
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
material properties related to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
micropitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724–725
modes and controlling factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .725
Contact-finger retainers, stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828–830
Contact geometry, operational variations . . . . . . . .902
Contact pressure, of abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . .911
Contact stress (Hertzian) . . . . . . . 467–468, 943–944
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
effect on abrasion rating of metallic wear
materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .911
effect on impact wear failures . . . . . . . . . . . . 967–968
and fracture from manufacturing
imperfections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .614
operational variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .902
and stress intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .481
Contamination
of nylon couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448, 450
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .439, 448, 450
Contamination line technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .540
Continuous cooling transformation (CCT)
diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192, 193
interpretation of, in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . .322
Continuous fiber reinforced composites . . . . . . 1028
Continuous Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Continuous network carbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
Continuous random variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252
Continuous unidirectional fiber reinforced
polymers (FRP), abrasive wear . . . . . . . . .1029,
1032, 1033
Continuum mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .581
ductile plastic flow modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .617
macroscopic and microscopic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .561
models for fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .581
Contraction
hindered as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
irregular as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
Contributing factors, of failure modes,
instantaneous and progressive . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
Controlled-current method, electrochemical
testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407, 752
Controlled-potential method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .752
electrochemical tests
Controlled wear, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18–19
Control part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .319
Convergent-beam electron diffraction technique
(CBED), in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338
Conversion coatings, for corrosion resistance . . .759
Conveyers, vertical lift for mail-sorting
facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Coolant
for grinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
use with strain gages used to monitor sectioning
samples prior to XRD analysis . . . . . . . . . . . .489
water soluble, stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . .848
Cooling power, of quenchants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206
Cooling systems, prevention approach for corrosion
in industrial facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
Cooling tower pipe, fatigue fracture of welded
steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168–169
Cooling towers, prevention approach for corrosion
in industrial facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
Cooling water systems, microbially induced
corrosion diagnosis factors . . . . . . . . . . 887, 888
Cope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
Cope defects, casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Cope spall, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
Copper
causing liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . 865,
866
causing liquid or solid metal induced
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862
cavitation erosion, incubation time . . . . . . . . . . . 1004
compatibility with various manufacturing
processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
corrosion-fatigue cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .721
corrosion resistance to microbially induced
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
in dissimilar metal pair, fretting damage . . . . . . .928
effect on rupture ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .736
effect on time-to-fracture of copper by stresscorrosion cracking in ammoniacal
atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .853
electrolytic tough pitch, fatigue fracture showing
striations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .635
electrolytic tough pitch, intergranular fatigue . .637
as embrittling metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862
erosion rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
erosion rate in mineral oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007
erosion wear of waterline pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .999
fretting damage of rod in electrical contacts . . .926
fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .930
galvanic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762, 767
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
gas causing porosity in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
hardness vs. amplitude of slip in fretting . . . . . . .928
helical tensile fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561, 562
high-purity, fracture mechanism by void
nucleation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .593
hydrogen damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .817
impact wear coefficient values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .971
liquid embrittlers of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
local and diffuse necking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597, 599
manganese bronze, decohesive rupture of worm
gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .676
maximum erosion rate dependence in cavitation
erosion on combined parameter . . . . . . . . . 1016
as molten metal corrodent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .873
oxidation potential in endothermic gas . . . . . . . . .214
oxygen-free, high-conductivity wavy slip . . . . . 580,
581
phosphorus-deoxidized, stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .855
pitting corrosion of heat exchanger tube . . . . . . 356,
357
pure, stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . 831, 832
qualitative chemical testing for materials
identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
removed from alloys by selective leaching . . . . .785
standard emf series value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .763
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853–856
uniform corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768–769
x-ray elemental composition map made with
electron microprobe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .865
Copper alloys
causes of stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003
centrifugal casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
compatibility with various manufacturing
processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
corrosion-fatigue cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .721
corrosion resistance to microbially induced
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
dezincification of tube from water supply . . . . . 786,
787
die casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125, 126
erosion-corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .791
galvanic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762, 767
hydrogen damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .817
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784–785
liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . .862, 864–
865
permanent-mold casting material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
squeeze casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
stress-corrosion cracking . . 828–830, 832, 853–856
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
substances in atmospheric environments causing
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
uniform corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .767
Copper alloys (in presence of aerated aqueous
NH3), causes of stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
Copper alloys, specific types
C10200
overheating and burning effects on
forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
C11000
overheating and burning effects on
forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
C22000
liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . .862, 864–
865
C23000
dezincification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .786
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .854
C26000
corrosion fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836, 837
C26000
dezincification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785, 786, 787
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .784
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836, 837
C26800
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
C27000
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .854
C28000
dezincification of tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786, 787
C44300
dezincification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .786
C44300
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855–856
C46400
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854–855
C64700
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .829
C65500
stress-corrosion cracking of contact-finger
retainers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828–830
C68700
dezincification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .786
C68700
microbially induced corrosion of power stations
condenser tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
C68700
velocity-affected corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .791
C70600
microbially induced corrosion of condenser
tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
cavitation erosion in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
denickelification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788, 789
impingement erosion of tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .999
microbially induced corrosion of power station
condenser tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
C71500
velocity-affected corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .791
C85800
composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
C87800
composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
C87900
composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
C92200
cavitation erosion in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
C92300
cavitation erosion in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
C95500
cavitation erosion in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
C95700
cavitation erosion in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
G CuAl9NiFe, cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004
Cu-2Al
erosion rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
Cu-6Al
erosion rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
Cu-9Al
erosion rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
Cu-9Al-3Ni-2Fe
erosion rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
Cu-9Al-5Ni-4Fe
erosion rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
Cu-10Al-5Ni-5Fe
erosion rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
Cu-25Au
dealloying of noble metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788, 790
Cu-41Mn-Al-Fe
erosion rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
Cu-3Sn-3Pb
erosion rate in mineral oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007
Cu-20%Zn
polishing with pitting damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .506
Cu-30Zn
erosion rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
Cu-35Zn-3Pb
erosion rate in mineral oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007
Cu-38Zn-2Pb
erosion rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
70Cu-30Ni
erosion-corrosion of tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .856
80Cu-20Ni
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
90Cu-10Ni
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
weldment underfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175, 177
80Cu-20Zn (brass)
annealed plastic deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
cold worked plastic deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
92Cu-8Zn
microbially induced corrosion of piping . . . . .890
Copper checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .866
Copper-copper sulfate-sulfuric acid test, to
evaluate intergranular corrosion in stainless
steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .779
Copper electroplating, of fracture surfaces for
fracture profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539, 540
Copper fluoride (CuF2), as filler for nylon
promoting wear resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025
Copper inclusions, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . 172–174
Copper in some acids, removed from alloys by
selective leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785
Copper-lead phase diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367, 368
Copper-nickel alloys
corrosion resistance to microbially induced
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
denickelification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788, 789
environments subjecting alloy to selective
leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785
weldments porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
Copper-nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloys,
fretting wear of orthopedic implants . . . . . .931
Copper oxide (CuO), as filler for nylon promoting
wear resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025, 1026
Copper salts, removed as antifoulant in marine
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .894
Copper silicon, hardness vs. amplitude of slip in
fretting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .928
Copper sponge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .750
Copper steels, accelerated cracking, causes of
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
Copper sulfate carbonate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
Copper sulfides
as corrosion products in microbially induced
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
as filler for nylon promotion wear
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025, 1026
Copystand, photographic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .419
Core
broken or crushed, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . .105
raised, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
shifted, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
Core shrinkage, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
Corner blowholes, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
Corner joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
Corner scab, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Corner shrinkage, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
Corner thinning, and cold forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
Cornstarch slurry, causing intergranular corrosion
in sensitized austenitic stainless steels . . . .779
Correction factor
for stress-intensity factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
Correction factors, for test data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .702
www.asminternational.org
Index / 1103
Corrective action
tests for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
Corrective Action Assessment (CAA) chart . . . .328
Corrective Action Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
Corrosion. See also Cavitation; Chloride stresscorrosion cracking; Corrosion failure(s);
Corrosion fatigue; Crevice corrosion;
Denickelification; Dezincification; Erosioncorrosion; Exfoliation; Filiform corrosion;
Fretting corrosion; Galvanic corrosion;
General corrosion; Graphitic corrosion;
Impingement attack; Interdendritic corrosion;
Intergranular corrosion; Internal oxidation;
Oxidation; Parting; Pitting; Poultice
corrosion; Rust; Selective leaching; Straycurrent corrosion; Stress-corrosion cracking;
Sulfide stress cracking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18, 20
by acetic acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .749, 482–783
alloy composition changes for control of . . . . . .755
annual cost in U.S. (1998) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .749
anodic protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755–757
aqueous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .768
atmospheric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .768
by brine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .776, 788, 815
and brittle fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .523
cathodic protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755–757
causing service failures of weld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
of ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .370
characteristics of failure mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
by citric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781–782
classification of related failure . . . . . . . . . . . . 355–356
and cold forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
conversion coatings for resistance to . . . . . . . . . . .759
crater corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .777
by cupric sulfate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .781
damage features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354–356
as damage mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
data incompleteness or inconsistency . . . . . . . . . .753
data on Internet web sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .753
dealloying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768, 785, 788, 790
dealuminification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .787, 788, 789
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18, 405, 1064
denickelification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788, 789
design considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232, 755, 756
desiliconification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .788
destannification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .788
dezincification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785–786, 787
of dissimilar metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
effect on chemical analysis results . . . . . . . . . . . . .430
effect on fracture surface and failure
analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
effect on x-ray diffraction residual stress
measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486–487
electrochemical nature of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .749
environmental conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .755
environmental control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .755
as environment contributing to damage
mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347–348
examination methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
factors affecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405
by ferric chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788, 790
by ferric sulfate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .781
by formic acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .749, 782–783
forms of, basic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .355
galvanic protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .755–757, 764
general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .761
graphitic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786–787, 788, 789
by “Green Death” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .775
by hot gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804, 805
by hydrochloric acid . . . . . .749, 750, 769, 770, 781
by hydrofluoric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749, 815
by hydrogen sulfide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .815
by hydrogen sulfide gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .755
inhibitor use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757–758
intergranular, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
by iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .769
as life-limiting factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
liquid-metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .768
by lithium hydride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .788
localized . . . . . . . .751, 755, 756, 763, 764, 767, 781
material properties related to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
metallic, forms of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405
microbial involvement in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881–882
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
www.asminternational.org
1104 / Index
Corrosion (continued)
by molten salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .768, 804, 805
monetary loss in U.S. annually due to . . . . . . . . . .325
by nitric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . .769, 770, 780, 781, 784
of nonmetallic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405
by oxalic acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780, 781
ozone treatment for microbially induced
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .755
pH control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .755
by phosphoric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .749, 781–782
preventive techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .751
processing/fabrication operations effect . . . . . . . .405
product layering effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .752
qualitative energy-dispersive spectrometry
microchemical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .435
rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752–753
root cause resulting in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
scale buildup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .754
by sweater . . . . . . . . . . . 776, 777, 787, 788–793, 812
by sodium chloride (brine) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776, 788
by soil containing sulfates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787, 788
splash-zone corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .776
stray-current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .768
by sulfuric acid . . . . . . . . . . . .749, 757, 769, 770, 780
surface modification for resistance to . . . . 759–760
testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .752
transgranular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .761
of turbine blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296
types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752–753
uniform . . . . . . . . . 751, 755, 761, 765–766, 767–771
velocity-affected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .761, 788–793
by water . . 772, 773–774, 784, 786, 787, 788–793,
812
of weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156–157
Yankee dryer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387–388
Corrosion allowances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232
Corrosion-assisted fatigue, driven by two
environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348
Corrosion-assisted high-cycle fatigue, stainless
steel gas turbine blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341
Corrosion cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .882
Corrosion failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749–760
aboveground storage tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753–754
aircraft freshwater tanks of stainless steel . . . . . .773
analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405, 751–755
buried pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .754
documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751, 752
elbow of pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .792
in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337
feedwater pressure tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788, 789
heat exchanger tubes of stainless steel . . . . . . . . .777
helicopter tail rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .766
pipe for fire protection system water supply . . 787,
788
piping of fire-sprinkler system on ferry . .789–790,
791
preventive measures for metals . . . . . . . . . . . 755–760
reboiler bypass duct damper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .775
saw cutting vs. torch cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .751
ship hull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .778
storm sewer piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .753
valve in soda-dispensing system . . . . . . . . . . 781–782
wastewater tunnel structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .755
of weld in wastewater vaporizer . . . . . . . . . . 782–783
wires in electrostatic precipitator at paper
plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774–775
Corrosion fatigue . . . . . 337, 347, 490–491, 634–635,
875–876
of boiler tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .634
causing service failures of welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
of copper alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836, 837
and cyclic stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
as damage mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . .349
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
and fatigue fractures . . . . . . . . . . . 721–722, 774–775
fireside, as damage mechanism for boiler
tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
loading types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
material properties related to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
material selection criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
microbial involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .884
operating temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
resulting in fatigue damage mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344
stainless steel wires around insulators in wet
scrubbing systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340–341
of steam-turbine blade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774–755
stress types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
waterside, as damage mechanism for boiler
tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
wires in electrostatic precipitator in paper
plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774–775
Corrosion inhibitor(s) . . . . . . . . . . . 750, 757–758, 768
in aqueous environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .812
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .750
effect on microbially induced corrosion . . . . . . . .885
factors affecting systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .758
in low-velocity water system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .788
in lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
to resist corrosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .992
silicate-type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .777
for stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838–839
for working fluids, to prevent stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .833
Corrosion jacking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387
Corrosion potential, as electrochemical monitoring
method used for microbially induced
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .892
Corrosion products, chemical analysis of . . . . . . .406
Corrosion resistance
as criteria for materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
specification in purchase agreement . . . . . . . . . . . .344
Corrosion-resistant castings, defects . . . . . .147–149,
150
Corrosion-resistant steels
centrifugal casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .833
Corrosion testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406–407
types of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .752
Corrosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32–33, 989–993
cathodic protection for resistance to . . . . . . . . . . . .992
characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409–410
claddings for resistance to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .992
by coal gasification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .990
corrosion inhibitors for resistance to . . . . . . . . . . .992
by crushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989–990
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .989, 1064
design of wear-resistant slurry pumps for control
of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992–993
environmental factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .990
by grinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989–990
from grinding, impact and three-body abrasivecorrosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 991–992
hard facings for resistance to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .992
by high-temperature processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .990
liners for resistance to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .992
materials selection for resistance to . . . . . . . . . . . .992
patching with welds for resistance to . . . . . . . . . . .992
by power-generation plant processes . . . . . . . . . . .990
products, and mass transfer of oxygen . . . . . . . . .991
by sliding wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .989
slurry conditioning for resistance to . . . . . . . . . . . .992
slurry handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .989
slurry parameters for resistance to . . . . . . . . . . . . . .992
solution conditioning for resistance to . . . . . . . . . .992
surface treatment for resistance to . . . . . . . . . . . . . .992
two-body, slurry particle impingement on . . . . 990–
991
Corundum
formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
melting point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
Cost
effect on materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
of modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377
Cost/benefit analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Cottrell’s model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .589
Coulomb-Mohr fracture criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .473
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
Coulomb-Mohr model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .565
Counting frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .548, 549, 550
Couple action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .761, 762, 763
Coupling nuts, stress-corrosion cracking . . . 851–852
Couplings, embrittlement of nylon . . . . . . . . . 448, 450
Coupon tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238
COV. See Coefficient of variation.
Covalent bond, bond energy in various
materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
Cover-coat enamels, as corrosion-resistant
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .758
Covers, brittle fracture of acrylonitrile-butadienestyrene resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .449–450, 452
CP. See Cathodic protection.
Crack(s)
abusive grinding as cause . . . . . . . . . . . .511–512, 513
in bulk working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99–100, 101
in cold forging, classification scheme by Greek
letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
cold, in weldments . .158, 170, 179, 181–183, 184,
186, 187
cold, surface feature as cause for rejection . . . . .156
corrosion-fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .721
in corrosion-resistant castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
crater, surface feature as cause for rejection . . .156
crater, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184, 190
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
die-contact surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
ductile, nucleation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591–593, 594, 595
in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
as flaw in rolled bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
grain-corner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575, 734
growth strain localization effect . . . . . . . . . . 622–623
hook, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191
hot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .691
hot, in weldments . . .158, 170, 179, 184–185, 186,
188, 190
hot-shortness, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
hot, surface feature as cause for rejection . . . . . .156
hydrogen-induced, in weldments . . 170, 179, 181–
183, 184
in ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83, 90
initiation, strain localization effect . . . . . . . 622–623
internal, in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
liquation, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170, 184
longitudinal, surface feature as cause for
rejection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
nucleation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .589
nucleation, and twinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590–591
in permanent-mold castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
promoted by alloy depletion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
quench, and component design . . . . . .198–199, 203
and quenchant severity effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205–206
quench, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
in reaustenitized zones of forging . . . . . . . . 511, 512
restraint, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188
selective quenching for suppression of . . . 213, 214
solidification, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170, 184
stress-relief, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
subcritical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478
subsurface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219, 220
surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
through-wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
transverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612, 617
transverse, surface feature as cause for
rejection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
triple point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575, 734
with volume changes during phase
transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196, 200
wedge “w-type” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575, 734
as welding defect of castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
in weldments . . 158, 169, 170, 179, 181–184, 186,
187, 191
at weld toe, surface feature as cause for
rejection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
W-shape fronts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .716
Cracking, as damage mechanism for boiler
tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
Crack-arrest
of corrosion-resistant castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
Crack arrest lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566–568, 612–613
in corrosion-fatigue fractures of wires . . . . 774–775
macroscale fractographic implication . . . . . . . . . . .560
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659, 660
Crack arrest marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567–568
in casting fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .610
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
Crack arrest profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Crack bifurcation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .561
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
factors causing change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .562
Crack blunting . . . . . . . . . . . . . .566, 567, 581, 584, 611
Crack branching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .397
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .658
in stress-corrosion cracking . . . 835, 843, 844, 845,
846, 852, 856
Crack closure stress intensity (Kcl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .542
Crack curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .574
Crack deflection, measure of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .545
Crack extension. See also Crack length (a) or depth;
Effective crack size; and Physical crack size
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
Crack extension force, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
Crack fronts, shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .633
Crack growth
computer software programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
creep behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .733
Crack growth rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279, 480–481
for aircraft wing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237, 238
calculation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
of circular penetration in aluminum pressurized
fuselage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279, 285, 286
determination of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235–238
predicted vs. measured . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237, 238
Crack growth velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1032
Cracking from hydride formation, metals affected
and conditions for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .809
Cracking from precipitation of internal gaseous
hydrogen, metals affected and conditions
for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .809
Crack initiation
cold shut in gray iron paper-drier head . . . . . . . . .122
at inner edge of lubrication hole of stuffing
box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
modeling with fracture mechanics . . .581–582, 583
Crack length (a) or depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .476
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
Crack mouth displacement range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .743
Crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD). See
Crack tip opening displacement (CTOD).
Crack on surface, tightly closed, macroscale
fractographic implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
Crack opening displacement (COD). See Crack tip
opening displacement (CTOD).
Crack plane orientation and growth system,
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
Crack promoters, defects as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
Crack propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522, 659
in ceramics, testing of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .959
in polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654–655
Crack size (a) See also Crack length (a) or depth.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
Crack size at occurrence of overload . . . . . . . . . . .283
Crack tip, stress concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .581
Crack tip blunting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567, 611, 612, 616
in casting fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611, 614
Crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) . . . . . 243,
244, 246
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
and lineal profile roughness parameter . . . . . . . . .541
relation to fracture toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567, 584
residual compressive stress effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496
Crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) design
curve method . . . . . . .160, 283, 479, 480, 481
Crack-tip plane strain, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
Crack tip shielding effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .959
Crack-tip stress-intensity factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .703
Crack tunneling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567–568
Crankcases, casting stresses in gray iron . . .135–136,
137, 138
Crank pin, fatigue failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .628
Crankshafts
cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007
fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352
misalignment as abnormal condition . . . . . . . . . . .394
quench cracking from nonuniform
quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208, 210
CRASH (computer program), for analyzing motor
vehicle accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377
Crater cracks, in weldments . . . . . . . . . .158, 184, 190
Craters, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169, 190
Craze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .656
formation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568, 569
Craze fibrils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .652
Craze yielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .656
leading to brittle fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656, 657
Crazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651, 652, 653
crack formation from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656–657
leading to brittle fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .656
of polyacetal latch assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .455
as polymer failure mechanism . . . . . . .367–368, 369
solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652–653
Creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
in boiler plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733, 735
as boiler tube damage mechanism on failure
wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
bulk behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728–730
and carbon-nitrogen interaction with hightemperature corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .870
causing cracking of glaze oxide layer in fretting
wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .931
cavitation damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .731
characteristics of failure mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
crack growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .733
cyclic frequency under fluctuating stress . . . . . . .718
damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731, 732
damage level correlation with life fraction
consumed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731, 732
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234, 1064
effect on fracture mechanics analysis of turbine
casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .744
as elevated-temperature failure in gas
turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289, 290–291, 296
examination methods used and surface
magnification possible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345, 672
of gas turbine components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297, 298
high-temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .876
influencing intergranular fracture . . . . . . . . . 642, 645
intergranular brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .675
loading types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
location on failure wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
material properties related to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
material selection criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
metallographic examiniation of damage . . . . . . . .365
microstructural changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730–731
mold, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
nitride strengthening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .730
nonclassical behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .730
operating temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
and overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .682
oxide strengthening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .730
of polycarbonate switch housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .457
in polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .367
primary or transient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .730
replication methods for assessment of . . . . 731, 732
secondary or steady-state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .730
stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729
steady-state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729
stress types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
temperatures for onset in select alloy groups . .729
tertiary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730, 733
turbine vane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .728
Creep cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
Creep cavitation damage assessment . . . . . 289, 298
life assessment technique for elevated-temperature
exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
of power plant piping and tubing . . . .304, 305–306
Creep cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .728
elastic-plastic fracture mechanics concepts
used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478
Creep damage
and folds of fracture surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .545
of nickel-base superalloys used for gas turbine
blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
Creep deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .728
stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729
Creep embrittlement
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .695
of superheater tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .695
Creep failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .728
avoidance methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729
Creep fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736–737
Creep fatigue interaction
as damage mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . .349
resulting in fatigue damage mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344
Creep fracture profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542, 543
Creep life
fraction consumed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
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Index / 1105
remaining determination of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .298
Creep rate. See also Minimum creep rate.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
relationship with various failure modes . . . . .35, 36
Creep-rupture embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .736
Creep rupture strength
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
environmental stress cracking effect . . . . . . . . . . . .797
polyethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .798
Creep strain, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
Creep strength, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
Creep stress, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
Creep testing, of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
Crevice corrosion . . . . .337, 751, 755, 761, 763, 765,
770, 771, 775–777, 876
brine tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .776
as damage mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . .349
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
failure reduction measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .777
features observed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .356
heat exchanger tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .777
implant materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .777
from microbially induced corrosion . . . . . 883, 884,
887, 889
solid deposits effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .777
under thermal insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776–777
tray deck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775–776
tube in piping system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .776
Cristobalite
formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
melting point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
Critical amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .925
Critical cooling rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
Critical crack length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
of circular penetration in aluminum pressurized
fuselage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279, 285
prediction of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .477
Critical crack size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233, 478, 657
Critical design review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Critical excitation energy (Ec) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .519
Critical excitation voltage of the x-ray . . . . . . . . .520
Critical flange crack depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248–249
Critical flaw size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475, 478, 595, 686
computation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401, 705
Critical groove size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .913
Critical item list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Critical normal stress law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587–588
Critical resolved shear stress law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .588
Critical shear stress law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .588
Critical stress-crack size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246, 247
Critical stress intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478, 686
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478
Critical stress regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .474
Critical thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603, 607
Cross-correlation method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
Cross direction. See Transverse direction.
Crosshead of industrial compressor, brittle fracture
of cast steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153–154
Cross-linked polymer, swelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .796
Cross-linked thermosetting coatings, as corrosionresistant coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .758
Cross linking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
and overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .679
of PET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .452
in polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .444
in thermoplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
Cross-sectional method (CSM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .361
Crow’s feet, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Crush
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
Crushing, causing corrosive wear . . . . . . . . . . 989–990
Cryogenic applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .684
Cryogenic temperatures
effect on fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931–932
and overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684–685
Crystal Ball (computer program), . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
Crystal lattices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .376
Crystalline fracture. See also Granular fracture.
in brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
Crystalline inclusions, in ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .669
Crystalline polymers, chemical absorption . . . . . .796
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
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1106 / Index
Crystallinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
level of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .441
Crystallites, in iron alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .495
Crystallization, of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
Crystallization temperature, of polymeric
materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
Crystallographic cleavage . . . . . . . . . . . . .674–675, 676
Crystallographic fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .579
in fatigue fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636–-637
Crystal structure
effect on fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
effect on stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
and overload failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678–679
of steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193, 194
CSM. See Cross-sectional method.
C-source code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
CTE. See Coefficient of thermal expansion.
CTOD. See Crack tip opening displacement.
Cumulative damage, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
Cumulative distribution function (CDF) 255, 266
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252
estimation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260–261
Cup-and-cone fracture. See also Cup fracture.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
Cup fracture (cup-and-cone fracture) . . . 398, 473,
598–599, 602
changes in strain path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620–621
ductile overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671, 672
Cupping, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
Cupric oxide, fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .934
Cupric sulfate, intergranular corrosion evaluation
test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .781
Cupronickel alloys,
microbially induced corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
Curve-fitting equations, phenomenological . . . . .479
Customer focus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Cut
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
from mold-wall deficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910, 912, 913, 914
of ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362
Cutting wear, of ductile alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .991
CVD. See Chemical vapor deposition.
CVN. See Charpy V-notch testing.
Cycle, whole, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280–281
Cycles of interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255
Cycles to failure, for toque link bolt of aircraft
fixed-nose landing gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
Cycle summation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .585
Cyclic brittle cleavage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579, 580
Cyclic ductile decohesion (crystallographic
fatigue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .579
Cyclic fatigue life, of semicrystalline
thermoplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024
Cyclic loading
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
and fatigue failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334–335
Cyclic reverse bending, and fatigue crack
initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576, 577
Cyclic strain accumulation, as distortion
failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1055–1056
Cyclic strain resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1016
Cyclic stresses, and stress-corrosion cracking . . . .831
Cyclic stress resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1016
Cylinder blocks, casting stress related failure . . 134–
135, 136
Cylinder head, of gray iron, cracking due to
microporosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112–113
Cylinder-to-ball testing apparatus
description of rolling contact fatigue test
method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .944
Cylinder-to cylinder testing apparatus, description
of rolling contact fatigue test method . . . . .944
D
Dag (conductive solution) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .521
Damage, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .289
Damage distributions
post-inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
pre-inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
probability of detection influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
Damage levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
Damage mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .582
Damage mechanisms(s)
for boiler tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347, 350
categorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347–349
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343
primary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346–347
secondary, categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346–347
Damage mode(s)
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343
distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
identification chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
Damage modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .582
Damage nucleating conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
Damage tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .239, 281–282
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231, 270
Damage-tolerance analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244
Damage-tolerance approach . . . 270–273, 274, 281–
282, 286
to assess circular penetration in pressurized
fuselage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279, 284–286
to life assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270, 271
Damage tolerant design
design methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .700
principal testing data description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .700
Danger, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Dark-field illumination, of light microscope
fractographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .499
Dart penetration test, for polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . .445
DARWIN (computer software program) . . . . . . 264,
265, 267
Data, collection, and samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393–394
DBTT. See Ductile-brittle transition temperature.
Dead-metal zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Deaeration, of pipes to resist corrosive wear . . . .992
Dealloying. See also Dealuminification;
Decarburization; Denickelification;
Desiliconification; Destannification;
Dezincification; Graphitic corrosion; and
Selective leaching. . . . . . . . . 768, 785, 788, 790
as damage mechanisms on failure wheel . . . . . . .349
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
Dealuminification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .787–788, 789
Debonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591–592
at matrix-particle interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591–592
of refractories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
Debye-Scherrer powder camera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358
Decarburization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342, 809
in austenitic manganese steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509, 510
in cast irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
causing distortion failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1051–1052
and cold shut in equalizer beams of truck . . . . . 122,
123
as defect resulting from heat treatment . . . . . . . . . . 81
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215, 1065
depth of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215–216
and distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203–204
effect on fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .719
effect on steel properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215–216
and forging defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93, 94
of forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97, 509
in hot crack vs. hot tear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
of hot tear of sand-cast steel axle housing . . . . .119
with hydrogen attack of steel alloys for gas
turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293, 294
hydrogen effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .816
of malleable iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140, 141
metallographic examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .364
and overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68, 688
and oxidation causing distortion . . . . . . . . . . 202, 204
partial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215, 216
partial, in alloy steel coil spring . . . . . . . . . . 509, 510
quench-cracking propensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
and residual stress in hardened steels . . . . . . . . . .493
of steel valve springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87, 88
and stress corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .839
Decision logic diagrams, to guide users ofreliability
centered maintenance processes . . . . . . . .67, 68
Decohesion, critical total stress for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
Decohesion theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809, 810
Decohesive rupture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .642, 675–676
of worm gear of manganese bronze . . . . . . . . . . . .676
Decohesive separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .642
Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
in conceptual design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
functional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
physical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Deep traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .820
Defect(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473–474
in ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .665, 669–670
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 72, 103, 269, 1065
design, criteria for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
and failure criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .473
in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90–97
initial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .481
manufacturing, criteria for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
material or mechanical, life-limiting . . . . . 231, 232
surface cracks in ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957–958
of weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157–159
Defect cavity enhancement
as root cause of forgings defects, rationale,
resolution, and corrective action . . . 327, 329,
330, 331
Defective, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Defective coating (tear-dropping), as casting
defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
Defective surface, as casting defects in ICFTA
classification scheme . . . . . . . . . . .104, 107–109
Defect-related failure (casting), definition . . . . . . .103
Defendant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
“Defense in depth” philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273
Definition of the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Definition review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Deformability index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .683
Deformation
Ashby maps of unalloyed annealed metals . . . . 684,
685
beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470
bulk, rolling-contact fatigue, coating failure . . 953,
954
and cold forming limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047, 1065
design as cause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057
and ductile fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
and fracture mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
of gas-nitrided drive-gear assembly . . . .1054–1055
of grain by cold forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101–102
with high-temperature creep in gas turbines . . .290
interligament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623–624
localized, in torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .606
mechanisms of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587–595, 596, 597
motor vehicle steering and suspension parts 1056
and overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .680
plastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 966, 967
hardening by shot peening . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221, 222
in fracture mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
as polymer failure mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .367
of steel cooling without transformation . . . . . 194,
197
and stress field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477, 478
plastic and fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568–572
of polyacetal latch assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .455
preceding brittle fracture in weldments . . . . . . . .156
primary processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
problems of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
related to other failure types . . . . . . . . . . . .1056–1057
of shotgun barrel of steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1051
with strain localization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622–623
tensile loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .468
thermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .383
torsion bars, ductile material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .469
viscoplastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568–569
and workability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96, 97
work transformed to heat generation . . . . . . . . . . .620
and wreckage analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .395
Deformation bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .561
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
Deformation curve. See Stress-strain diagram.
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
Deformation failures, shotgun barrel, bulging
of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1051
Deformation plasticity failure assessment diagram
(DPFAD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241, 243, 244
Deformation twinning. See also Mechanical twin
(deformation twin); and Neumann
bands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .561, 563, 587, 588, 589
and crack nucleation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590–591
in crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589–591
and fracture at or near stress raisers . . . . . . . . . . . .609
in metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569, 570, 571–572
and overload failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680, 689
Deformation wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .996
of brittle alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .991
mechanisms of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .996
Deformation zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .965–966, 967
Deformed mold, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
Deformed pattern, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
Degradation
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439, 441, 442, 444
and structural deficiencies of pressure
vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
Degradation time, determination of . . . . . . . . 235–238
Degree of coherency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .592
Degree of order, effect on overload failures . . . 678–
679
Degree of sensitization (DOS), to measure
intergranular stress-corrosion cracking of
austenitic stainless steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
Delamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599, 603
of ceramics in impact wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 968–969
of cermet and ceramic coatings . . . . . .951, 952, 953
in impact wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .966, 967, 970
large-scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .599
as rolling contact fatigue failure mode of thermal
spray cermet and ceramic coatings . . . . . . . .951
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
Delamination failure in rolling-contact
fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960–962
Delamination of interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
Delamination theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .966–967, 970
Delayed adhesion failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785
Delayed cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181, 183, 815, 838
Delayed failure. See also Internal reversible
hydrogen embrittlement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .810
Delta ferrite
transformation to sigma in Cr-Ni alloy . . . 512, 513
transformed to sigma phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500, 501
DK. See Stress intensity factor range.
Dendrite
in castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .614
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
of post-EDM tool steel mold . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512, 513
Dendrite arms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
in ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Dendritic segregation
in austenitic manganese steel castings . . . . . . . . . .147
in cast steel equalizer beams with cold shut . . 122,
123
Dendritic solidification, in casting fractures . . . . 608,
613
Denickelification. See also Selective leaching. . . 788,
789
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
feedwater pressure tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788, 789
Denitrifiers, in cooling systems drawing on natural
waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .889
Dense-zone magnesia formation theory . . . . . . . .801
Density
as criteria for materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
of engineering ceramics and bearing steel . . . . .960
Denuded zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576
Deoxidation, of castings to control nonmetallic
inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
Department of Defense (DoD)
commercial aviation preventive maintenance
report requested . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
documents, information on anticipated human
errors in using products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
specification and standards, policies and
procedures, internet availability . . . . . . . . . . .274
Depletion. See also Selective leaching.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
Deposit attack. See Poultice corrosion.
Deposit corrosion. See Poultice corrosion
Deposits, providing examination information . . . .354
Depressions, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
Depth of field, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
Depth profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .530
Descriptor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Design
adequacy, proof of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
anticipating errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
as cause of distortion or deformation . . . . . . . . . 1057
corrosion allowances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232
for corrosion control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755, 756
damage tolerance approach . . . . 231, 237, 238–239
defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
deficiences as root causes of failure . . . . . . . . . . . .7–9
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
elevated-temperature concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . 231–232
and failure modes and effects analysis . . . . . . 51–52
human factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74–75
and in-service failure investigation structural
aging, and fitness-for-service . . . . . . . . 228, 229
leak-before-break approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
of polycarbonate switch housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .457
to prevent fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .933
preventing galvanic action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764, 765
reliability approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
safe-life approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231, 238
strength-of-materials approach . . . . . . . . . . . . 230–231
uniform corrosion prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .771
upper limit, defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047
usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
Design Assessment of Reliability with Inspection
(DARWIN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .264, 265, 267
Design-based failure analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380
Design codes, for pressure vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
Design constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30, 31
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Design deficiency, as root cause resulting in
failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Design environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29–30
Designer/manufacturer, determining necessary
directions and warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Design factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256–257
Design-induced stress concentrators . . . . . . . . . . . .336
Design life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .702
of components in power industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
Design objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Design of experiments (DOE) techniques, for RSM
basic concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258
Design of wear-resistant slurry pumps, to control
corrosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992–993
Design-related failure (casting), definition . . . . . .103
Design review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75–76, 386, 686
analysis of engineering design process . . . . . . 42–43
communication problems of global design
teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
conceptual design investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
detail design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
embodiment design issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44–46
external influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47–48
ISO 9001 requirements for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
life-cycle issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
management influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46–47
preliminary investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
and probability of injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
task clarification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43–44
time and money constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
transportation issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Design review board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Design review checklists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Design specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Design stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .477
Design teams, cross-functional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Design usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
Design value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .251
Desiliconification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .788
Desired performance, definition in reliabilitycentered maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Dessicants, to preserve fracture surfaces . . . . . . . . .397
Destannification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .788
Destructive evaluation, guidelines, for monitoring
turbine operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297–298
www.asminternational.org
Index / 1107
Destructive pitting, contact fatigue
terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .722
Destructive testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316
and accident invesigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374–375
competence requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316
purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .375
significance of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316
Desulfovibrio gigas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .884
Detailed design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25, 31–34
materials information required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Detailed fault analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53, 55
Detailed software fault analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Deterministic approach, to life assessment . . . . . .274
Deterministic model, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .376
Detonation-gun (D-gun)
coating material, thickness, roughness, and
average hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .950
contact stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .950
rolling contact fatigue life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .950
rolling contact fatigue tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .950
substrate materials and hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .950
Deviatoric stress, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
Deviatoric stress tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .482
Dewpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
Dezincification. See also Selective leaching. . . . 785–
786, 787
of brass effect on chemical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . .430
of copper alloy tube sheets in air
compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .855
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
of tube from water supply system . . . . . . . . 786, 787
Diallyl phthalate, for mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . 502, 504
Diamond cycle, of thermomechanical fatigue . . . .738
Diamond-like carbon (DLC), . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .945
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945–946, 947, 948–949
as physical vapor deposition coating
material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
Diamond-like hydrocarbon (DLHC/DLC)
for coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948–949
as physical vapor deposition coating
material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
Diamond pyramid hardness test. See Vickers
hardness test.
DIC. See Differential interference contrast.
Die(s)
cracking due to abusive grinding . . . .511–512, 513
heat-checked, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
hydrogen flaking of forging die . . . . . . . . . . . . .88, 89
liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . .865
Die casting. See also Pressure die casting. . . . . . . .124
aluminum alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150
characteristics of process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
compatibility with various materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
minimum web thickness for various metals . . . . . 32
in shape-casting processes classification
scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188
Die-contact surface cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
Die design, and pessure die casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
Die erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127, 130
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Die quenching system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197, 201
Diesel engine bearing, wear failure . . . . . . . . . . .18, 20
Diesel fuel injection control sleeve, ductile fracture
of stainless steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12–13
Diethanolamine (DEA) solution, stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .839
Differential interference contrast (DIC) . . . . . . . 503,
505, 513, 514
Differential scanning calorimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .438
acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene protective
covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449, 452
of nylon couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448, 450
of nylon hinges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458–459
of nylon wire clips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447, 449
of polyacetal latch assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .455
of polybutylene terephthalate automotive
sleeves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448–449, 451, 452
of polycarbonate/PET appliance housings . . . . . 450,
453
of polycarbonate switch housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .457
of polyethylene chemical storage vessel 453, 454
of polyethylene terephthalate jacket, transportation
assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .452
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
www.asminternational.org
1108 / Index
Differential scanning calorimetry (continued)
for polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439–441
properties measured . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
property derived from polymer analysis . . . . . . . .359
use in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
Differential thermal analysis (DTA), property
derived from polymer analysis . . . . . . . . . . . .359
Differential thermal contraction stresses,
minimized with sigma phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292
Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338
Diffractometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338, 358
Diffuse neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .596
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
Diffuse necking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597, 599, 601–602
Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .965
Diffusion aluminide coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876–877
Diffusion coatings
for hot corrosion resistance of turbine blades . .294
to mitigate adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
thermal-mechanical fatigue life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302
Digenite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
Digital image analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538, 553
to measure area fraction of fracture
mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .549
Digital image processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .553
Digital photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420–421, 425–426
for capturing fluorescent indications under
ultraviolet light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425
Digital scanners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420–421
Dilatometry, to measure volume expansion of
polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .443
Dilute solution viscosity, property derived from
polymer analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
Diminishing return, point of, on investments . . . . . 5
Dimpled fracture regions, number density of
dimples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549–550
Dimpled fracture surface, microscale fractographic
implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
Dimpled intergranular fracture . . . . . . . . . . . 643–644
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .642
Dimpled rupture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571
of sprocket locking device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 10
without void nucleation in alloys deforming by
planar slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .593
Dimple-rupture failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .673
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
Dimples
average area of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549–550
average perimeter of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
average width of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
indicating ductile fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .591
shape of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549, 571, 593–595
size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549, 593–595, 596, 597
Dioctyl adipate, as plasticizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448, 451
Dip coat spall, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
Diphenyl carbonate, as breakdown product in
polycarbonate decomposition . . . . . . . 446, 447
Dip slides, to investigate microbial populations . .893
Direct-comparison method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338
Direct injection die casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125, 126
Directionability, effect in manufacturing
imperfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615, 617
Directionally solidifed alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .682
for gas turbine components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296
Directional solidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
of centrifugal castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
and metal penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119–120
Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Dirty steels, quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
Discharge, as cavitation mechanism . . . . . .1004–1005
Disclaimers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Discoloration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104, 107, 120–131
as damage mechanism for boiler tubing . . . . . . . .347
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103, 104, 269
weld, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157
Discrete bands, of fast overload fatigue
fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .634
Discrete random variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252
Dishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
Disk attrition mill wear plates, abrasive
wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916–919
Disk cutters, abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918, 919
Dislocation, in iron alloys from cold working . . . .495
Dislocation density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336
Dislocation models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .588
Dislocation motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .588
and plastic deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .679
Dislocation pileup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .592, 593, 679
Dislocation theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561, 581, 588, 617
model for ductile fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
Dispersed shrinkage, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . .106
Dispersed white iron (II) carbonate, as corrosion
products in pipeline excavations and
laboratory soil box tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
Dispersion-strengthening processes . . . . . . . . . . . . .682
Dissimilar metals, galvanic corrosion . . . . 405, 764,
765
Dissimilar metal welds, as boilder tube damage
mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
Dissimilar metal weld stress rupture, as damage
mechanism for boiler tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
Dissolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .800, 801, 802
direct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .802
factors governing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .806
indirect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .802
mass-transport controlled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .802
per unit area at a given temperature . . . . . . . . . . . .802
phase-boundary controlled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .802
slag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .803
Distillation/nesslerization method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .856
Distorted casting, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
Distortion
amount of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049
austempering effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207
buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
carbon content effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199–200, 205
classification of distortion-sensitive shapes . . . 202,
205
complex stress states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1050
component design effect . . 197–199, 201, 202, 203
from component support and loading . . . . 202, 205
creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048, 1050
as damage mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
and decarburization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203–204
decarburization effect on spiral power
spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1051–1052
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047, 1065
elastic or plastic, as failure mechanisms . . . . 1049–
1050, 1052, 1055–1056
as failure category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
failure, description of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047
failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1050–1057
and grain size effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
heating and atmosphere control . . . . 201–202, 204,
205
of high-density polyethylene chemical storage
vessel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453–454
inelastic cyclic buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1056
localized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1050
machining material removal as cause . . . . 205, 209
macrothermal, of printed circuit boards . . . . . . . .385
materials/process design effects . . . . 196–205, 206,
207, 208, 209
microsegregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
nonmetallic inclusions as cause . . . . . .205, 207, 208
one-dimensional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
in permanent-mold castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
of pinion shafts from improper loading . . 202, 205
press and plug quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213
from prior surface condition . . . 202–204, 206, 207
quenchant flow direction effect . . . . . . . . . . . 208, 211
and quenchant severity effect . . . . . . . .205–206, 207
quench distortion and cracking . . . . . .208–210, 211
and quench system design . . . . . . . . . . .196–197, 201
ratcheting as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1055–1056
during reheating and quenching, metallurgical
sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195–196
residual stress effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1052–1053
and retained austenite content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201
root causes resulting in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
safe loads calculated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
safety factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1048–1049
selective quenching for suppression of . . . 213, 214
service conditions of automotive valve
spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1050–1051
shape, defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047
shape, of sheet metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
size, defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047
steel grade/condition selection . . . . . . .199–200, 205
strain rate effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049
stress raisers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1050
and stress ratios from overloding . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047
submicroscopic, detectable by x-ray
diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .396
temperature effect . . . . . . . . . 1049–1050, 1051–1052
tempering, temperature dependence of yield
strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195, 199
and thermal stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206–207
transformer housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .384
two-dimensional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
of tube support plate (U-tube) . . . . . . . . . . . . 388–389
visible, macroscale fractographic implication . .560
warpage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1052–1053
welded inlet header . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156, 160, 169
Distortion energy theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .482
Distortion failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17, 1047, 1050–1057
aircraft-wing slat track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
analysis of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1054–1055
of automotive valve spring . . . . . . . . . . . . .1050–1051
cantilever beams of stainless steel . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049
commercial cap screw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054
creep behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .731
of extension ladders by overloading side
rails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1048–1049
of gas-nitrided drive-gear assembly of
steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1054–1055
of hold-down clamps of steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
small volute springs of Inconel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054
special types of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1055–1056
specifications, failure to meet . . . . . . . . . . .1051–1054
specifications incorrect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1050–1051
spool-type hydraulic valve of steel . . . . .1053–1054
stainless steel Belleville washers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
Distortion-sensitive shapes, classification of . . . 202,
205
Djurleite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
DLC. See Diamond-like carbon.
DLHC/DLC. See Diamond-like hydrocarbon.
DMA. See Dynamic mechanical analysis.
Documentation
of dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .395
failure analysis report preparation and
writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414–416
field failure report sheet or checklist . . . . . . . . . . .393
of metallurgical samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .360
photographic records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
service history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
specifications and drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393
DoD. See Department of Defense.
DOD. See Domestic object damage.
Doloma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800, 801, 803–804
Dolomite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803–804
Domestic object damage (DOD), of gas turbine
superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292
Dong’s solutions, to clean steel fracture
surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354, 355
DOS. See Degree of sensitization.
Double integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382
Double shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .472
Downshock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .667
Downtime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
costs of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228
DPFAD. See Deformation plasticity failure
assessment diagram.
Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
Drag marks, in pressure die casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
Draw
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
corner, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
Draw die insert, heat-treatment-related
failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510–511
Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Draw marks, deformed, macroscale fractographic
implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
Drawn products, discontinuities, types of . . . . . . . . . 9
Drill bits for electronic circuit board, abrasive
wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915–916
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
Drilling, and fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .720
Drive-gear assembly, distortion failure of
steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1054–1055
Drive shaft, fatigue fracture by rotating
bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .712–713, 714
Driving gear, of nylon, wear failure . . . . . . . . . . . . 1026
Droplet erosion, variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .902
Drops, from mold-wall deficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
Drop-weight testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684, 685
on shell plate in weldment failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
Dross (flux) inclusions
in aluminum alloy castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
in permanent-mold castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Dry sand molding, in shape-casting processes
classification scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
DSC. See Differential scanning calorimetry.
DS. See Directional-solidification alloys.
d-spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .484–485, 487
DTA. See Differential thermal analysis.
Dual-dimple size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592, 595
Ductile, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
Ductile alloys, angle of impact in corrosive
wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .991
Ductile/brittle fracture, mild carbon steel . . . . . . 522,
524
Ductile-brittle transition temperature (DBTT)
and brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234, 521, 523
and cryogenic applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .684
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
and ductile rupture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .563
and ductility reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .599
grain size effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .598
increased by neutron embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . .697
to investigate brittle fracture of low-carbon
steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403
of polymeric materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
if rail car couplers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
related to fitness-for-purpose analysis . . . . . . . . . .178
strain rate effect on ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .600
and strain rate sensitivity of notched
specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .606
temper embrittlement effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .691
weldment intergranular corrosion example . . . . .783
of weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
Ductile crack propagation, definition . . . . . . . . . . 1065
Ductile erosion behavior, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
Ductile fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18, 20
aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .522
bending failure . . . . . . . . . . . . 604–606, 608, 609, 610
in bulk deformation processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
of cast materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608, 612, 613, 614
compression failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .603–604, 608
cylindrical specimens in tension . . . . .598, 601, 602
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
dislocation theory model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
distinguishing characteristics at different scales of
observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671, 672
distinguishing characeristics by scale of
observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .672
energy expenditure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .565
high density polyethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .797
on inclined plane through wall of pressure
vessel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
initiation and propagation, microscale
details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611–613, 616, 617
loading types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
low-carbon steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353
macroscale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473, 559
macroscale and microscale appearances . . . . . . 598–
609, 610, 611, 612, 613
macroscopic fracture surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 566–568
from manufacturing imperfections 613–616, 617,
618, 619
material selection criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
microscale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
and microvoid coalescence . . . .571, 591–595, 596,
597
mild carbon steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521, 522, 523, 524
as mode of fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
nickel-plated carbon steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499, 500
notched specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .602–603, 607
operating temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
overstress, dimpled fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .522
polyethylene pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659, 660
in polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655–656, 659, 660
pressurized cylindrical section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .475
prismatic specimens in tension . . . . . 601–603, 605,
606, 607
pure tearing on maximum normal stress plane
model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623, 624
reduction in area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .565
round beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .474
stainless steel diesel fuel injection control
sleeves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12–13
steel lifting eye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36, 37
steel tapered-ring sprocket locking device . . . 9, 10
near stress raisers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609–611, 614, 615
stress types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
torsion loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606–608, 610, 611
in torsion microscale shear elliptical
dimples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607, 611
unnotched specimens . . . . 599, 600, 601–602, 606,
607
Ductile Fracture Handbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246
Ductile iron
brittle overload fracture of cone-crushed
frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682–683
casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141–142, 143
casting stress related failures in cylinder
blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134–135, 136
centrifugal casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132, 133
fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136–137, 138
gas porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
graphite content effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
inclusions causing failures, tire-mold
castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117, 118
mixed-mode cracking of impeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . .677
notch sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
tensile and yield strength vs. nodularity . . 141, 142
uniform corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767, 768
Ductile material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
erosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995–997
failure stress criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .473
overloaded in compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .469
tensile loading and necking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .468
in torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .469
Ductile overload fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . .671–674, 675
characteristics of failure mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
examination methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
examination methods used and surface
magnification possible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .672
of screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673–674
wire of stainless steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .674
Ductile plastic flow, modeling of . . . . . . . . . . . 617–624
Ductile striations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708, 709
Ductile tearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623, 624
assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246
pure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .593
Ductility. See also Deformation, plastic.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
fracture affecting . . . . . . . . . . 595–598, 599, 600, 601
geometric limits of . . . . . . . . 595–597, 598, 599, 600
materials factors affecting . . . . . . . . . . .597–598, 601
and overload failures in crystalline
materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679–680
relationship with various failure modes . . . . .35, 36
strain rate effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .680
tempering effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
trade-off with overall strength, wear resistance and
deformation resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Ductility-dip cracking, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . .184
Dugdale method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
Dugdale’s strip-yield model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245
Duplex slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .589
Dusts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801, 803, 841
Dye-penetrant inspection. See Liquid pentrant
inspection.
Dynamic, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
Dynamic failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46–47
Dynamic impact analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385–386
Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA)
of high-density polyethylene chemical storage
vessel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .454
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .443–444, 445
properties measured . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
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Index / 1109
property derived from polymer analysis . . . . . . . .359
use in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
Dynamic recrystallization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98, 601
and intergranular creep fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575
and stress-rupture ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .733
and stress-rupture fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .734
Dynamic vibration analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385
E
EAC. See Environmentally assisted cracking.
Early shakeout
As casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
Ears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614–615
EBSD. See Electron backscatter diffraction
technique.
EBSP. See Electron backscattered pattern.
Eccentricity
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
Economic consequences of failure modes . . . . 66–67
Economic value analysis (EVA) . . . . . . . . . . . 263, 264
Economy test method
tin impurity detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .429
ECT. See Equicohesive temperature.
Eddy-current inspection
of aluminum pressurized fuselage . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
of corrosion surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .752
description, advantages and limitations 270, 395,
396
detectable crack length possible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281
of evaporator tubes with stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845, 846
for failure analysis and investigation . . . . . 395, 396
flaw size range with 90% probability of
detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
of forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
in preliminary laboratory examination . . . . . . . . .406
uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
Edge cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .667
as discontinuity for extrusions and drawn
products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
as discontinuity for plate and sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
thermal-shock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .667
Edge dislocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588–589
Edge effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .548
Edge joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
Edge preservation
of metallographic specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503–505
Edge retention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362
nickel plating, electroless . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503, 504
Edge tensile stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .467
Edge-to-edge impact . . . . . . . .977, 978, 979, 980, 981
surface impae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .966, 978, 979
EDM. See Electrical discharge machining.
EDS. See Energy-dispersive spectroscopy.
ED-SMAC (computer program)
for analyzing motor vehicle accidents . . . . . . . . . .377
Effective crack size (ae)
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
Effective net-section stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245
Effective strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .618
Effective stress. See also von Mises stress. . . . . . 465,
618
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
Effective stress ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
Effective temperature
over TMF cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739, 740
EFMA. See Elastic fracture mechanics analysis
Eigenvalues of stress tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .482
Eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .482
Elastic buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
Elastic constants. See also Bulk modulus of
elasticity; Modulus of elasticity; Poisson’s
ratio; and Shear modulus
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
impingement corrosion of malleable iron . . . . . .792
Electrical
as environment contributing to damage
mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347–348
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
www.asminternational.org
1110 / Index
Electrical conductivity
as criteria for materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Electrical discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352, 354
Electrical discharge machining (EDM) . . . 512, 513
compatibility with various materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
and fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .720
Electrical isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .764
Electrical porcelain
fracture markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .665
Electrical porcelain insulator
fracture markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .664
replica, fracture surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663, 664
Electrical resistance
as electrochemical monitoring method used for
microbially induced corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . .892
Electrical resistance heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
Electrical resistance strain gages
to monitor strain relaxation during
sectioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .489
Electrical switch housing
brittle fracture of polycarbonate . . . . .456–457, 458
Electric motor driven pump or compressor
failures
root-cause analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
damage mechanism categorization . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
reliability-centered maintenance applications . . . 61
Electrochemical corrosion tests . . . . . 406, 407, 752,
771, 813
Electrochemical etching
as ceramographic etching procedure . . . . . 362, 363
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
as electrochemical monitoring method used for
microbially induced corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . .892
Electrochemical machining
compatibility with various materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
and fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .720
to remove surface oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
Electrochemical monitoring methods
of microbially induced corrosion
conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 891–892
Electrochemical noise
as electrochemical monitoring method used for
microbially induced corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . .892
Electrochemical potential
for hydrogen environmental embrittlement . . . . 811,
812
relationship with various failure modes . . . . .35, 36
Electrochemical potentiokinetic reactivation
(EPR) technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647, 779, 780
Electrochemical reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .749
Electrochemical relaxation
as electrochemical monitoring method used for
microbially induced corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . .892
Electrochemical theory
stress-corrosion crack propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . .826
Electrode pickup
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
Electrodeposition
of coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .759
to prevent fretting damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .934
Electrode potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .750
Electrodes and shelf
unmelted, in ingot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Electrodischarge machining
distortion due to residual stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
Electrogas welding
failure origins related to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
Electroless nickel plating
and fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .720
to preserve brittle and ductile fractures in low
alloy steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337, 340
Electroless plating
for edge retention in metallographic
examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362, 503, 504
Electrolyte, alteration of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .764
Electrolytic cleaning
defects resulting from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Electrolytic coatings
of fracture surfaces for fracture
profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539, 540
Electrolytic etching
as ceramographic etching procedure . . . . . . . . . . .362
Electrolytic plating
for edge retention in metallographic
examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503, 504
Electrolytic polishing
and fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .720
Electromagnetic inspection. See Eddy-current
inspection.
Electromagnetic pumps
to fill castings, avoiding oxide films . . . . . . . . . . . .118
Electromotive force (emf) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755, 762
Electron acceptor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .881, 882, 883
Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD)
technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .538, 551, 553
Electron backscattered pattern (EBSP) . . . . . . . .520
Electron beam physical vapor deposition
of thermal barrier coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
Electron beam welding
failure origins related to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189–190
Electronic computer-aided design constructs . . . 29
Electron diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
of corrosion products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
of worn surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .413
Electron fractography
to assess temper embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .691
of low-alloy steel casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
Electronic circuit board, drill bits with abrasive
wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915–916
Electron-microprobe analyzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
Electron microscopy
in preliminary laboratory examination . . . . . . . . .406
Electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) . . 357, 358,
359
of corrosion products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .334, 337, 338
of liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . .866
of low-alloy steel castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
or worn surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .413
Electron spectrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529, 530
Electron spectroscopy
of solid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . .862
Electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis
(ESCA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
for polymeric analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
Electroplating
of aluminide coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
of coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .759
defects resulting from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
galvanized coatings and intergranular
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785
and hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .696
as hydrogen source for hydrogen
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .819
and hydrogen stress cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811, 812
role in hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .820
Electrophoresis sputtering
of aluminide coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
Electropolishing
to remove surface oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
of surface before x-ray diffraction for stress
measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
and x-ray diffraction peak integral breadth . . . . .495
Electroslag-remelted alloys
inclusions in ingot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Electroslag welding
failure origins related to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
Electrostatic precipitation at paper plant, wires
pitting corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774–775
Elemental analysis, for microsegregation . . . . . . . .219
Elemental sensitivity factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .531
Elemental sulfur
as corrosion products in pipeline excavations and
laboratory soil box tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
Elephant skin
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Elevated temperature. See High temperature.
Ellingham diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
Elongation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .732
of cast carbon-molybdenum steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
as criteria for materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
of quenched and tempered low-alloy steel . . . . .980
tensile loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .468
total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732, 733
true . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732, 733
uniform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .732
Embedded scab
as flaw in rolled bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Embedded scale
as flaw in rolled bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Embedding
prevention by coating abrasive paper . . . . . . . . . . .506
of SiC grinding paper abrasive in soft
metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505–506
Embodiment design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Embrittled material at stress raisers
as defect resulting from anodic hard coating . . . . 81
as defect resulting from carburizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
as defect resulting from nitriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
as defect resulting from surface hardening . . . . . . 81
Embrittlement
and brittle fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .523
contribution to overload failures . . . . . . . . . . 689–690
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
of gas turbine blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300
emf. See Electromotive force.
emf series of metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .763
Emission spectroscopy
of corrosion products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
Empirical observation method
for x-ray diffraction measurement location
selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .488
Emulsifiers
as addition to disperse microbially induced
corrosion deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .894
End-effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55, 196, 201
End grain
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
End-grain attack
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
Endothermic atmosphere (endogas) . . . . . . . . . . . .214
End points
of life prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
Endurance limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .276–277, 702
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1065–1066
and high-cycle fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
Energy
absorbed in ductile and brittle fractures . . . . . . . .657
Energy absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .566
of brittle vs. ductile fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .565
Energy density to fracture
sample size effect on bending failure . . . . . 606, 610
Energy dispersive spectrometers (EDS) . . 520, 522
Energy-dispersive spectrometry microchemical
analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432–435
Energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) . . 322, 345,
357–359, 404, 527, 530, 561
of alloy steel ski chair lift grip components . . . . . 11
of aluminum alloy castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
analysis depth and area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
to analyze acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene
handle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .447
of copper alloy tube with dezincification . . . . . . 786,
787
of corrosion products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
of corrosion surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .752
of cracks in locomotive axle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367, 368
of crevice corrosion on stainless steel tube . . . . .776
detecting elements heavier than beryllium . . . . .530
to detect intergranular fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
detection limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
ease of use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
to evaluate corrosion surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 753, 754
in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336, 337
information evaluated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
of liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . .866
of liquid metal induced embrittlement by
cadmium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863, 865
of liquid metal induced embrittlement by
mercury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .865
of nickel alloy showing high-temperature
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871, 872
of nylon filtration unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456
properties measured . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
of solid metal induced embrittlement . . . . 862, 863,
865
of steam turbine rotor disc with stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .842
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
for stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .837
of tension springs with overload failure . . . . . . . .689
use in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
of wear damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
of welded cast steel crosshead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
of worn surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .413
of zinc-induced liquid metal induced
embrittlement in stainless steel . . . . . . 367, 369
Energy-dispersive x-ray microprobe analysis
of hot tears in brittle fracture of aircraft
actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150, 152
Energy-dispersive x-ray spectrometry
detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357, 358
Energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopes (EDS)
for microscopic examination of fracture
surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .399
Energy dissipation rate
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .658
Engineering ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800.
See also Advanced ceramics; Technical ceramics.
Engineering design process . . . . . . . . . 25, 41–42, 386
Engineering failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
context of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40–41
Engineering materials
evolution timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29, 30
Engine Structural Integrity Program
(ENSIP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274
Enhanced plastic flow theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809, 810
ENSIP. See USAF Engine Structural Integrity
Program.
Enterobacter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .891
Entrapped mold materials
inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
Environment(s)
causing intergranular corrosion in sensitized
austenitic stainless steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .779
corrosion prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .755
corrosive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .721
effect on corrosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .990
effect on polymer performance . . . . . . . . . . . 796–799
effect on polymer wear failures . . . . . . . .1024–1025
for galvanic series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .763
humidity and zinc alloy intergranular
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785
operating and nonoperating as life-limiting
factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
operational variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .902
for stress corrosion cracking . . .832–836, 838–840,
843–844, 848–849, 853, 856, 857
testing, and stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . .834
Environmental consequences
definition in reliability-centered maintenance . . . 62
for failure mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Environmental cracking
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .875
as mechanism for high-temperature
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875–876
Environmental effects
fatigue crack propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .704
Environmental impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Environmentally assisted corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
Environmentally assisted cracking (EAC) See also
Stress-corrosion cracking. . . . . . . . . . . . 490–491
microbial involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .884
polycarbonate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .654
Environmentally assisted sustained load
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .563
fracture mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .563
Environmentally induced embrittlement
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695–699
Environmentally induced loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
Environmental stress cracking (ESC) . . . . . . . . . . .799
physical characteristics of failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . .797
of polycarbonate/PET appliance housings . . . . 450–
451, 453
of polymers . . . . . . . . . 439, 443, 653, 657, 796, 797
reagents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .797
Enzyme activity
method used for inspection, growth, and activity
assays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
EP. See Epoxy polymer.
EPFM. See Elastic-plastic fracture mechanics.
EPMA. See Electron probe microanalysis.
Epoxy (EP)
abrasive wear . . . . . . . 1030, 1032, 1033, 1034–1035
adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
brittle fracture behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .656
chemical changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
coatings and stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . .841
for cold-mounting materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .503
as corrosion-resistant coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . 758, 769
crack propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .654
for mounting metallographic specimens . . . . . . . 502,
503, 504, 505
specific wear rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023
for surface replicas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .522
Epoxy-copper-aluminum composite
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029, 1030
Epoxy esters
as corrosion-resistant coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .758
Epoxy, high-performance structural,
for linings or coatings for reinforced
concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .755
Epoxy-phenolics
as corrosion-resistant coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .769
EPR. See Electrochemical potentiokinetic
reactivation technique.
EPRI. See Electric Power Research Institute.
EPRI Boiler Tube Failure Metallurgical
Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
EPRI/GE handbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244, 246
EPRI/GE model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244
EPS. See Extracellular polysaccharides.
Epsilon-carbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .735
Epsilon martensite
in austenitic manganese steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509, 510
Equalizer beams of truck
cold shut in cast steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122–123
Equicohesive temperature (ECT) . . . .575, 641, 734
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .686
and grain boundary strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .680
Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .463
Equivalent stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .465
Equivalent temperatures
estimation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
Erosion. See also Erosion-corrosion; Erosion rate;
Erosive wear; Flow-assisted corrosion.
causes of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .902
cut, or wash, as casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
damage manifestation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .901
as damage mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . .349
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .995, 1066
of die casting dies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127, 130
percentage of wear failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
subcategories of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .902
zinc die casting nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127, 130
Erosion-corrosion. See also Erosion; Erosion rate;
Erosive wear; and Flow-assisted
corrosion. . . . . . .751, 755, 769, 771, 791, 908,
997–999
damage features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356–357
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .998, 1066
features observed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .356
as mechanism of high-temperature corrosion . .876
occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .995
of steam turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .990
of tube of cupronickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353
use of terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .998
Erosion rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .995, 996, 997
of brittle materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .997
corrosion effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .996
Erosion scab
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
Erosive wear See also Erosion; Erosion-corrosion;
Erosion rate; and Flow-assisted
corrosion. 407–408, 906, 910–913, 995–999
aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995, 996
brittle materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995, 997
characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
of ductile materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995–997
equipment affected by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .995
examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997–1000
flow condition changes for mitigation . . . . 407–408
by fly ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .997
glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .995
hydrodynamic intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .998
impact angle effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995–996
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Index / 1111
industries affected by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .995
material changes for mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
mechanisms of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .995
oxidation effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .997
particle shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .996
volume-loss rate versus time curves . . . . . . . . . . . .995
ESC. See Environmental stress cracking.
ESCA. See Electron spectroscopy for chemical
analysis.
Escape depth of the electron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .529
Etching
electrolytic, of metallographic specimens . . . . . 500,
501, 503, 504, 505, 506, 507, 509, 510, 511,
512, 513, 514
of fractured castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608
of worn surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .413
Etch pits
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
Etch polishing
as ceramographic etching procedure . . . . . . . . . . .362
Ethyl alcohol
causing stress-corrosion cracking in titanium
alloys at various temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . .857
Ethylene-pyrolysis furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .870
European Maintenance Systems Guide . . . . . . . . . . 61
Eutectic melting
effect on fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .719
EVA. See Economic value analysis.
Evaluation intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .297
Evaporation coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521, 522
Evaporation of interference layers
as ceramographic etching procedure . . . . . . . . . . .362
Evaporator tubes
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845, 846
EVD. See Extreme value distribution.
Event and causal factor analysis charting . . .14, 15
Event tree method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262, 267
Evident failure
definition in reliability-centered maintenance . . . 62
Evident failure modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Evident function
definition in reliability-centered maintenance . . . 62
Evolved gas analysis
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .442
Examination. See also Nondestructive examination
(NDE).
of ceramic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362–367
corrosion failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751–752
of corrosion fatigue fracture-surface
deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721–722
cracking sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351–352
documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .351
edge retention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362
of fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499–501
macroscopic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351–353
macroscopic, for stress-corrosion cracking . . . . .352
of metallographic sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363, 364
microchemical analysis procedures . . . . . . . 357–358
microfractography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353–354
microstructural analysis and interpretation . . . 363–
367
of microstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509–512, 513, 514
on-site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405–406
overload fractures in laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .699
rub marks, scores, and indentations . . . . . . . . . . . .354
for stress-corrosion cracking on-site . . . . . . . . . . . .835
visual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351–352
of weldment failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Excessive bead concavity
surface feature as cause for rejection . . . . . . . . . . .156
Excessive bead convexity
surface feature as cause for rejection . . . . . . . . . . .156
Excessive case thickness
as defect resulting from anodic hard coating . . . . 81
as defect resulting from carburizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
as defect resulting from nitriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
as defect resulting from surface hardening . . . . . . 81
Excessive grain growth
as defect resulting from heat treatment . . . . . . . . . . 81
Excessive indentation
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
Excessive metal penetration into space between
sand grains
from mold-wall deficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
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1112 / Index
Excessive mismatch at weld joint
surface feature as cause for rejection . . . . . . . . . . .156
Excessive reinforcement
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
Excessive ferrite
in cast irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
Excitation energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .519
Executive decision trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Exemplar component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .319, 402, 403
Exfoliation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .754, 779, 831
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
Exogenous inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116, 117
Exothermic atmosphere (endogas) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
Expansion, scabs
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
Expansion formed (explosive-loading) tubing
cleavage cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .572
Expected value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252
Expendable-mold casting processes
and defect-related failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
Expendable pattern casting
in shape-casting processes classification
scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Experimental stress analysis
description, advantages and limitations . . 396–397
for failure analysis and investigations . . . . 396–397
Expert witness
for twist drill of high-speed steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Explosive bonding
to clad carbon-manganese steels with erosionresistant alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1016
Exponential distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253, 260
Extension ladders
side rails distortion of aluminum alloys . . . . . 1048–
1049
Extensometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .702
Extent of reentrant regions (folds)
of fracture surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .545
External and longitudinal crack
characteristics and crack growth mechanism . . .100
classification scheme by Greek letters . . . . . . . . . . . 99
External loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .276
External mixing crack
characteristics and crack growth mechanism . . .100
classification scheme by Greek letters . . . . . . . . . . . 99
External pipelines
prevention approach for corrosion in industrial
facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
External shearing crack
characteristics and crack growth mechanism . . .100
classification scheme by Greek letters . . . . . . . . . . . 99
External shrinkage
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
Extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) . . . . . . 883, 884
as binding agents for copper ions in microbially
induced corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
Extraction replica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520, 522
Extreme value distribution (EVD) . . .253, 254, 265
Extrusion(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
central bursting (chevron cracking) . . . . . . . 511, 512
discontinuities, types of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
fretting and surface tears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .924
imperfections causing fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .615
plastic buckling of aluminum alloys . . . .1048–1049
Extrusion debonding
in squeeze casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131
Extrusion molding
of nylon parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025
Extrusion segregation
in squeeze casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
Extrusion-type defects
in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92, 93
Eyebolt
stress concentration at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .472
Eye connectors for pontoons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113, 114
Eye protection
federal and state regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
F
FAA Advisory Circulars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274
availability on Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274
Fabric
as polymer reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1033–1035
Fabricability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Fabrication characteristics
as criteria for materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Fabric-reinforced polymer composites
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1033–1035
adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
FAC. See Failure assessment curve.
Face-centered cubic (fcc) materials
cleavage fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .589
deformation behavior (Ashby) map . . . . . . 684, 685
ductile-to-brittle transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .684
flow strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1049–1050
fracture mechanism maps, general shifts . . . . . . .571
hydrogen embrittlement and intergranular
fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
incomplete fusion fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .644
overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .678–679, 680
temperature effect on toughness and
ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684, 685
tensile elongation increase as temperature
decreases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .596
transgranular cleavage with environmentallyassisted cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .674
yield strength vs. temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
Faceted fracture surface
microscale fractographic implication . . . . . . . . . . .560
Factorial design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258
Factor-of-safety approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
FAD. See Failure assessment diagram.
Failed part, use of term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .317
Fail-safe design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Fail-safe methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
Failsafe Network, Inc., Operation
Failsafe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316, 332
five “Ps” to be documented and recorded to freeze
evidence at failure scene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327
Failsafe system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .332
Fail safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
Failure(s)
categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17–19, 20
cause levels defined by Failsafe Network . . . . . .316
causes of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56, 324
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 324, 1066
definition, for failure investigator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227
definition, industrial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227
effects of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333
of expected performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .324
factors causing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333
frequency of causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
functional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .324
historic structural of 20th century, and impact on
life assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228
time distribution of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Failure analysis. See also Failure investigation. . . 3–
23, 315–323
abnormal conditions present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394–395
analyzing of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334, 339
approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316–317, 333
background data assembly . . . . . . . . . . .333, 334–335
of cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1002–1004
of ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369–370
checklist and report for a simple part . . . . . . . . . .319
chemical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334, 337
codes of ethics for engineers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322–323
communication skills development . . . . . . . . . . . . .321
complexity categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .318
convergent-beam electron diffraction
technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6, 24, 315, 371, 418
depth and scope of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .317
design as cause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7–9
and design inadequacies identified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
design review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .386
dye-penetrant inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336
education and training importance . . .315–316, 318
electron microprobe analysis . . . . . . . .334, 337, 338
electron microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338
energy-dispersive microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . 336, 337
error avoidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318–319
feedback to product evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20, 22
following the Federal Rules of Evidence . . . . . . .393
follow-up on recommendations . . . . . .334, 340–341
formulating conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413–414
fractography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333, 334, 335, 337
fracture mechanics analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15, 16–17
fracture mechanics application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
fracture mechanics use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .480
guidelines for conducting an investigation . . . 416–
417
interdisciplinary approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .319
knowledge requirements for analysts . . . . . 322–323
laboratory investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15, 16
light microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336, 337, 338, 339
of liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . 862–863
litigation projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .319
logical approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
macroetching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337
macroscopic examination . . . . . . . . . . . .334, 335, 336
magnetic-particle inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336
manufacturing/installation defects . . . . . . . . . . . 11–13
material defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–11
mechanical properties, determination . . . .334, 337–
338
metallographic examination . . . . . . . . .334, 336, 338
metallography, macrofractography, and
microfractography skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322
microfractography . . . . . . . . .333, 337, 338, 339, 340
microhardness testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334, 338
objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317–318
open-mind/open-toolbox approach . .319–320, 322
people interviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15–16
physical causes and time of occurrence . . . . . . . .318
pitfalls in investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .319
planning and preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318–321
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367–369
practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321–323
preservation of evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . .334, 339–340
preservation of fracture surfaces . . . . . . . . . . 397–398
principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316–317
procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321–323, 333–341
questions to be asked . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
radiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336
relation to design and production of a
component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
replication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337
report preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334, 339
report preparation and writing . . . . . . . . . . . . 414–416
reports required during detailed design . . . . . . . . . . 31
root-cause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .318
root-cause analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 7
scanning Auger microprobe analysis . . . . . . . . . . .337
scanning electron microscopy 336, 337, 338, 339
scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318–319
selection of appropriate approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . .317
service life anomalies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13, 14, 15
simulation testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .334, 338–339
of solid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . 862–863
sources of input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393
steps in investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437, 438
steps in performing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333–334
steps in process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343
stress analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15, 16
structured decision-making and problemsolving methods for larger scale
investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319, 320
test protocol example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .321
T-junction procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .395
transmission electron microscopy . . .337, 338, 339
ultrasonic examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336
visual examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333, 335–337
wavelength-dispersive analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338
wreckage analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394–395
x-ray diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337
x-ray techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334, 338
Failure analysis report, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415–416
Failure assessment (interpolation formula) . . . . .243
Failure assessment curve (FAC) . . . . . .243, 244–246
Failure assessment diagram (FAD) . . 241, 243–249,
266, 267, 480
construction improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246
for weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
Failure assessment point
(FAP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243, 244, 245, 248
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
Failure cascades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Failure consequences
definition in reliability-centered maintenance . . . 62
Failure criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .289
Failure development period. See P-F interval.
Failure effect
definition in reliability-centered maintenance . . . 62
Failure investigation. See also Failure
analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324–332
benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325
corrective actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328, 331
definition in reliability-centered maintenance . . . 62
documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . .327, 328, 329, 330, 331
eyewitness statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326, 327
failure mode assessment chart . . . . . . . . . . . . 328, 329
field investigation kit contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .326
five “Ps” at failure scene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327
investigator, role of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234–238
Kepner-Tregoe (KT) method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
Operation Failsafe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .332
PROACT software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331–332
problems and mistakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
problem-solving process, four-step . . . . . . . . . . . . .325
purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325
root-cause analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327–328
specifications (ASTM) relevant to . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327
statistics kept in searchable database . . . . . . . . . . .325
steps to organization of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325–331
Technical Plan for Resolution chart . . . . . . 328, 330
Failure management policy
definition in reliability-centered maintenance . . . 62
Failure mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235, 386
determination of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235, 393
time-dependent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .386
Failure mode(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61, 63–64
definition in reliability-centered maintenance . . . 62
effect, and criticality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
of engineering ceramics and bearing steel . . . . .960
relationships with material properties . . . . . . . . . . . 36
of rolling-contact fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960–963
Failure Mode Assessment (FMA) chart 328, 329,
331
Failure model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254–255
Failure Mode/Mechanism Distributions 1997 (FMD
97) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) . . . . 19,
27, 45, 50–59, 76, 332
automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57–58
corrective action recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . 55–56
detailed fault analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53, 55
to determine physical causes and time of
occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .318
development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
failure cause model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56–57, 58
failure consequences identified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
and failure modes, effects, and criticality analysis
compared . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
failure types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
fault equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56, 58
foreseeable manner of defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
functional fault analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54, 55, 56, 58
ground rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
interface failure mode analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56, 58
interface fault analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54–55
iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
library materials to be developed for . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
logistics support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
maintainability engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
planning for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
process methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
process overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50–53
project management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52–53
ranking and classification system for failures . . . 55
reliability engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
role in design process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
stop valve of hot water heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51–53
system hazard analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
systems engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
tailored to meet reliability-centered maintenance
goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62–64
testing capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
usefulness for larger scale investigations . . . . . . .320
worksheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50, 53
Failure modes, effects, and criticality analysis
(FMECA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50, 76
Failure origins
in arc welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169–191
determination of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
related to arc welding methods . . . . . . . . . . . 185–186
Failure prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19–22
corrective actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
effort prioritization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19, 20
failure modes and effects analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
industry associations standardizing corretive
actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
by materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
performance specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
thorough periodic field inspections, of ski chair lift
grip components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10, 11
properties of materials for consideration . . . . . . . . 21
safety factors and reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20–21
Failure prevention and analysis, education and
communication importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333
Failure simulation testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .419
Failure strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1032
Failure structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
Failure wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347, 348, 349
usefulness for larger scale investigations . . . . . . .320
Falling slag damage
as boiler tube damage mechanism on failure
wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
as damage mechanism for boiler tubing . . . . . . . .347
Falling slag erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .876
Falling weight impact test, for polymers . . . . . . . .445
False Brinelling. See also Brinelling. . . . . . . 922, 923
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
in rolling-element bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 935–936
and true Brinelling compared . . . . . . . . . . . . . 935, 936
Fan marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .612
in cleavage fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572, 573
near fracture origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398, 399
Fan pattern microscale fractographic
implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
Fan shafts
fatigue failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705–706
fatigue life prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705–706
FAP. See Failure assessment point.
Faraday’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763, 764
Fastener nuts, liquid metal induced
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863, 865
Fast fracture, region of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .479
Fast overload fracture, characteristic patterns in
cylindrical components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632, 633
Fatigue. See also Contact fatigue; Corrosion fatigue;
Creep fatigue; Crystallographic fatigue;
Fatigue failure; High cycle fatigue; Highgrowth-rate fatigue; Intergranular fatigue;
Low-cycle fatigue; Peeling fatigue; Stresscorrosion fatigue; Subcase fatigue; Thermal
fatigue; Ultimate strength; Yield strength.
cantilever loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .710
causing service failures of welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
characteristics of failure mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
of composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638–639
contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722–726
crack center of curvature direction . . . . . . . 631, 633
crack growth rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702–704
crack-growth threshold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703–704
crack initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576, 577–578, 706
crack initiation, macroscopic appearances . . . . 627,
628, 629, 631–633
crack-initiation, threshold . . . . . . 703–704, 716–717
crack propagation . . . 577–580, 629–633, 702–704,
708–709
environmentally assisted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .704
knowledge required for failure analyst . . . . . .322
threshold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .542, 703–704
weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163
cyclic loading, subcritical cracking . . . . . . . 478–479
as damage mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344
as damage mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .628, 1066
effect of elevated temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .718
effect of load frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .718
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Index / 1113
effect of material condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718–721
from elevated temperatures in gas turbines . . . 291,
292, 296
examination methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345, 672
features mistaken for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634, 635
final fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .630
final overload fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .632, 633–634
fractography of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627–639
fracture mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .563
fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576–581, 582, 583
in high-temperature environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . .875
influencing intergranular fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .642
initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627, 628–629, 631–633
initiation, driving force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .631
intergranular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644–645
microscopic features mistaken for . . . . . . . . 637–638
microstructural features associated with . . . . . . . .563
multiple-site damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228, 235, 236
notch factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .716
notch sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .716
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368, 638–637, 654, 655
processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628–630
reversed bending, shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .712
rods subjected to torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630, 633
rotational bending shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . .712–713, 714
shaft of steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579, 581
stages of process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .706
subcase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .723, 725–726
subsurface crack initiation by rolling
contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628, 632
suburface fractures shown by metallographic
examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .366
subsurface initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627, 628, 632
surface crack initiation, sliding plus rolling
contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628, 632
surface magnification possible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .672
surfaces from crack growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .562
torsional, shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713–715
unidirectional bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710–711
unidirectional bending bolt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .711
weldment low-carbon steel plate . . . .171–172, 173
of weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
in weldments, and joint design . . . . . . . . . . . 163–167
Fatigue crack growth rate, da/dN. See also Paris
Law.
and crack propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577, 578
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
at intermediate stress intensity range . . . . . 584–585
temperature effect in gas turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . .291
variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .276
Fatigue cracking
and cold forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
in corrosive environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .721
of knuckle pin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720, 721
propagation direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
with shot peening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222
stress concentration effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .716
Fatigue/damage-tolerance life assessment . . . . . 237,
239
Fatigue failure
of aircraft compressor disks . . . . . . . . .264–265, 266
aircraft F-111 wing box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228, 231
alternating (reversed) bending, stationary
shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711–712
of axle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .562
and casting design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133–134
of connecting end of forged rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85–86
damage tolerance criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .702
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
design-life methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .700
of ductile iron piston of gun-recoil
mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141–142, 143
effect of loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708–710
effect of stress concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . 715–717
fan shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705–706
fatigue crack growth rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702–704
finite-life criterion (e-N curves) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .702
gas turbine blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .346
infinite-life criterion (S-N curves) . . . . . . . . 700–702
influencing variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .700
long-life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576–577
mean stress effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .700
origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627, 628
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
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1114 / Index
Fatigue failure (continued)
pin in guy wire of Loran tower . . . . . . . . . . . 334–335
polycarbonate plumbing fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
polyvinyl chloride, pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .524
of René 80 turbine blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .739
of solenoid valve of stainless steel . . . . . . . 235–238
stage II striations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .522
in steel valve springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87, 88
welded cooling tower pipe of steel . . . . . . . 168–169
welded headers for superheated water, steel pipes
and elbows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165–166
of welded steel shaft for amusement ride . . . . 175–
176, 177
welded tubular posts in carrier vehicle of
steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173–174, 176
welded water-wall tube of steel . . . . . . . . . . . 176, 177
weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163–167
wing skin spar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232, 233
of wire clips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447, 449
Fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576–581, 582, 583
bolt by unidirectional bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .711
characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .706–708, 709
of ductile iron stuffing box . . . . . . . . . .136–137, 138
factors needed for beach marks presence . . . . . .633
features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
final fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708, 709
gear tooth of steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366, 367
gray iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523, 524
growth mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578, 579
at high stress intensity range . . . 580–281, 583, 578
at low stress intensity range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578
macroscopic appearance . . 627, 628, 629, 630–635
maraging steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523, 524
of medium-carbon steel heavy-duty axle
housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
microfractography used for examination . . . . . . 354,
355
microscopic appearance in metals . . . . . . . . 635–638
reversed bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576, 577
of shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707–711
shaft from tube-bending machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .711
of stainless steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523, 524
of stainless steel mixer blade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8–9
steel roller with banding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .720
thermal fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736–737
of valve springs of steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87, 88
wires in electrostatic precipitator at paper
plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774–775
Fatigue life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .718
cyclic frequency under fluctuating stress . . . . . . .718
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
macropitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .723
oxide film effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
prediction of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704–706
reduced by cracks caused by wear . . . . . . . . . . . . .901
residual stress effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .491
of torque link bolt on fixed-nose landing
gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
Fatigue-life assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276–287
damage-tolerance approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281–282
safe-life approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281–282
Fatigue limit (endurance limit) . . . . . . 700, 701, 702,
703
alloying element effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .718
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
and high-cycle fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
Fatigue notch factor . . . . . . . . 276, 277–278, 286, 716
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
of torque link bolt material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
Fatigue notch sensitivity
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .716, 1066
Fatigue origins, located using low
magnifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .630
Fatigue properties, relationship with various failure
modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35, 36
Fatigue ratio, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
Fatigue strength
alloy segregation effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719–720
banding effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .720
of castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
and cavitation resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
cold working effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718–719
as criteria for materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
decarburization effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .719
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
effect of heat treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718–719
eutectic melting effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .719
flakes effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .720
gas porosity effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .719
inclusions effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718, 719
internal bursts effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .719
manufacturing processes effect on . . . . . . . . 720–721
and microcracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
overheating effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .719
quench crack effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .719
shrinkage porosity effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .719
Fatigue strength coefficient, in liquid-impact
erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1016
Fatigue striations . . . . .237, 239, 346, 480–481, 580,
582, 634–636
counts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .480
cyclic brittle cleavage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579, 581
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
and fatigue crack propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . 708, 709
indicative of fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
in initial propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .707
and intergranular fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .644
at intermediate stress intensity range . . . . . . . . . . .579
on polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .368
presence and visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .561
spacing estimation in fracture surfaces . . . .17, 481,
550–551, 585
in stainless steel solenoid valve . . . . . . . . . . 235–238
Fatigue testing
of ductile iron pistons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445–446
Fatigue wear
contact fatigue terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .722
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
FATT. See Fracture appearance transition
temperature.
Fatty acid methyl ester analysis, to investigate
mirobial populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
Fault equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50, 56, 58
Fault equivalent failure modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Fault hazard analysis (FHA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27, 76
Fault Identifier Number (FIN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Fault system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Fault-tolerant systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Fault-tree analysis (FTA) . . . . 14–15, 27, 50, 56–58,
76, 262, 263, 267, 327, 328, 331
symbols used in construction of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
foreseeable manner of defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
usefulness for larger scale investigations . . . . . . .320
FEA. See Finite-element analysis method.
Feature exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .421
Federal Aviation Administration, AC 33.14
circular, titanium rotor design and fracture
probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264, 266
Federal Rules of Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393
Feedwater pressure tube, denickelification . . . . . 788,
789
Ferric chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .750
causing intergranular corrosion in sensitized
austenitic stainless steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .779
intergranular corrosion evaluation test . . . . . . . . .781
Ferricyanide tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .886
Ferrite
atomic volume of ferrous alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
in cast irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
in cast steel equalizer beams with cold shut . . 122,
123
in corrosion-resistant castings . . . . . . . . . . . . 147–148
crystal structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
in gray iron paper-drier head with cold shut . . 121,
122
as transformational product in steel . . . . . 192, 193,
194, 195, 196
Ferrite and carbides
atomic volume of ferrous alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
volume changes of carbon steels due to phase
transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194, 195
Ferrite bands, in steel lifting eye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Ferrite caps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139, 140
Ferrite fingers
in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91–92
in ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Ferrite stringers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615, 681
Ferroalloys, as source causing gas porosity in cast
irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
Ferrous carbonate, formation in microbially
induced corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .882
Ferrules for electric fuses, stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .854
FFS. See Fitness-for-service practice.
FHA. See Fault hazard analysis.
Fiber, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
Fibering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .584, 612, 681
from stringers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .582
Fiber-optic illuminator, as light source for viewing
crazes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .652
Fiber-optic lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353
Fiber-reinforced composite, definition . . . . . . . . . 1066
Fiber-reinforced polymers (FRP). See also
Polymers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029, 1030
in dissimilar metal pair, fretting damage . . . . . 928–
929
Fiber stress, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
Fibrils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651
and crazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656–657
Fibrous fracture, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
Fibrous overload fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .634
Fibrous structure, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
Field composition checkers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .429
Field emission microscope, higher
resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524–525
Field failure report sheet or checklist . . . . . . . . . .393
Field inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .371
Field investigation kit, contents of . . . . . . . . . . . . . .326
Field metallography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345, 513–514
Filament burnout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .522
Filiform corrosion, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
Fillet scab, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Fillet shape, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
Fillet shrinkage, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
Fillet vein, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Fillet welds
bevel-groove welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162, 163
weldment porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172
Fill-flash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .421
Film carbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216, 217, 218
removed by grinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220
Filming amine, as corrosion inhibitor . . . . . . . . . . . .885
Film photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .420, 425–426
Filtering processes, as root cause of forgings
defects, rationale, resolution, and corrective
action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327, 329, 330, 331
Filters, for failure analysis photography . . . . . . . . . .412
Filtration unit, environmental stress cracking of
nylon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456, 457
FIN. See Fault Indentifier Number.
Final design reviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75–76
Final fast fracture, of stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .836
Final fast overload fracture zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .628
Fine-grained steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
Fine grinding, guidelines for semiautomatic
preparation of structural ceramics . . . . . . . . .362
Fine polishing, guidelines for semiautomatic
preparation of structural ceramics . . . . . . . . .362
Fingerprint residue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .436
and stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . .834, 858–859
Finishing characteristics, as criteria for materials
selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Finite-element analysis (FEA) . . . . . 16, 27, 28, 377–
379, 380, 461, 561
of chip package and PCB designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385
to compute local stresses for Monte Carlo
sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258
computer software program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380
to determine stresses on ship’s service turbine
generator casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .741
development of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380–381
to evaluation net-section instability failures . . . .401
general-purpose software programs . . . . . . . . . . . .381
of pressure vessel hatch cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
to quantify stres state of U-tube failure . . 388–389
for stress analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .399
for stress origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .467
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
structural analysis techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .381
for x-ray diffraction measurement location
selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488, 489
Finite element model
in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380–389
of hot corrosion of gas turbine last-stage
bucket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .872
of stress concentrations in still cargo tiedown
sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496
Finite-element program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
Finite width magnification factor . . . . . . . . . 705–706
Finned tube in generator air cooler unit, stresscorrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855–856
Finning, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Fins
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
in ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Fire, effect on fracture surface and failure
analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
Fireclays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803, 804
Fire cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697–698
Fire damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
Fireside corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .874
of boiler tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .305
of tubing, superheater and reheater . .309, 347, 350
of waterwall tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347, 350
Fireside corrosion fatigue
as boiler tube damage mechanism on failure
wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
as damage mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349, 350
Fireside dew point corrosion, as boiler tube damage
mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
Fireside oxidation
as boiler tube damage mechanism on failure
wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
as damage mechanism for boiler tubing . . . . . . . .347
Fireside wastage, as damage mechanism for boiler
tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
First-order bounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .262
First-order reliability method (FORM) . . . . . . . . .257
First-passage problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .262
First-second-order reliability method . . . . . . . . . . .250
Fishbone diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14, 16
Fisheye. See also Flake. . . . . . . . . . . 404, 811, 814, 815
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179, 1066
from hydrogen impurity in low-alloy steel
castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169, 179–180, 181, 182
Fishmouth fracture, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
Fit, of product or system, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Fitness-for-purpose analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
of incomplete fusion and incomplete
penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178
for weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
Fitness for service (FFS) analysis . . 157, 239, 240–
241
API 579, for pressure vessels . . . . . . . .265, 266, 267
safety check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .266
500 to 700 ⬚C embrittlement, definition . . . . . . . 1061
Fitting rust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922, 935
Five whys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–15
Flake(s). See also Fisheye. . . . . . . . 197, 811, 814, 815
contact fatigue terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .722
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
as discontinuity for forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
as discontinuity for plate and sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
effect on fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .720
Flake carbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216, 218
Flame cutting
effect on residual stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84–85
to remove fracture specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
to section specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501
Flame hardening, to reduce stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . .717
Flame impingement, of tool steel powder
metallurgy die . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510, 511
Flame system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Flanged compression test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Flanges, failure assessment diagrams . . . . . . . 248–249
Flange-to-pipe assembly, fatigue fracture of
steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165–166
Flash geometry, of forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Flash photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .419
Flash temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1028
Flash welding, failure origins related to . . . . 187, 188
Flaskless resin sand molding, in shape-casting
processes classification scheme . . . . . . . . . . .124
Flat-face tensile fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596–597
Flat fracture on fracture surface, macroscale
fractographic implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
Flat-washer testing apparatus, description of
rolling contact fatigue test method . . . . . . . .944
Flaw
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5, 269
in ingots, surface from preliminary reduction . . . 83
machining of ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668–669
manufacturing, vs. manufacturing
imperfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346–347
welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346–347
in wrought products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81–82
Flaw aspect ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .705
Flaw response approach, to life assessment . . . . .271
Flaw shape factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .705
Flaw size, inspectable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270, 273
Flexural testing, of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .445
Flight-by-flight stress spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
Flight profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
Flight simulation software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377
Floodlighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .419
Flow. See also Creep; Plastic deformation; Yield.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
Flow-assisted corrosion. See also Erosioncorrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348
Flow gases, abrasive erosion by fly ash . . . . . . . . . .997
Flow-induced vibration, causing vibration fatigue
cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .875
Flow instability, as cavitation mechanism . . . . . .1003,
1005
Flow lines
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
as discontinuity in semisolid casting . . . . . 127–129
Flow localization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Flow marks, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Flow softening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Flow strength, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049
Flow stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245
of extra-hard hammers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .981
and necking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .618, 619–620
and strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600–601
Flow-through defects, in forgings . . . . . . . . .92–93, 94
Flow-through slurry test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .990
Fluid flow, in pressure die castings . . . . . . . . . 126, 127
Fluidity, of slag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
Fluidized bed, heat transfer rate of quenching
medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210
Fluidside corrosion, as damage mechanism for
boiler tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
Fluorescence analysis, in failure analysis . . . . . . . .338
Fluorescent magnetic-particle inspection, to study
surface condition of castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
Fluorescent penetrant inspection
automated inspection installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
of silicon nitride bearing balls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .957
ultraviolet lighting use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425
Fluoride, stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . 834, 856
Fluoride ions, causing stress-corrosion cracking in
sensitized austenitic stainless steel . . . . . . . .831
Fluorinated hydrocarbons, stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .857
Fluorocarbon coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .841
Fluoropolymers, impact wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .970
Fluosilicic acid, environment causing stresscorrosion cracking of nickel and nickel-base
alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .848
Flutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613, 918
microscale fractographic implication . . . . . . . . . . .560
on transgranular fracture surface, microscale
fractographic implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
Fluting, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
Flux cored arc welding
failure origins related to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
weldment includions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172
Fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
and weldment inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172, 173
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185–186
Flux inclusions, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
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Index / 1115
Fly ash corrosion, as damage mechanism for boiler
tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
Fly ash erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .876
as boiler tube damage mechanism on failure
wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
Flywheel method, of welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
FMA. See Failure Mode Assessment chart.
FMEA. See Failure modes and effects analysis.
FMECA. See Failure modes, effects, and criticality
analysis.
Focus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .517
FOD. See Foreign object damage.
Fog quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213
Fold
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
as discontinuity in semisolid casting . . . . . . . . . . .127
in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
of fracture surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .545
F-111 Aircraft No. 94 failure . . . 228, 231, 232, 239
Foreign object damage (FOD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300
of gas turbine superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292
of turbine blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296
Foreign object debris, as root cause of forgings
defects, rationale, resolution, and corrective
action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327, 329, 330, 331
Foreseeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Forge burst, as distortion factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
Forged lug, stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . .828
Forging
aluminum, minimum web thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
and imperfections causing fractures . . . . . .614–615,
617
magnesium, minimum web thickness . . . . . . . . . . . 32
microstructure, cracking in reaustenitized
zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511, 512
pitman arm with material quality problem . . . . .509
steel, minimum web thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Forging/bulk forming, compatibility with various
materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Forging bursts, in ingot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Forging folds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614, 617
Forging load, of forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Forging process, as root cause of forgings defects,
rationale, resolution, and corrective
action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327, 329, 330, 331
Forgings
anisotropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94–95
defects in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90–97
discontinuities, types of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
fatigue propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629, 632
grain flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94–95
heating control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
thermal effects and heat treatment . . . . . . . . . . . 95–97
Forging strain direction, as root cause of forgings
defects, rationale, resolution, and corrective
action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327, 329, 330, 331
Forging strain rate, as root cause of forgings
defects, rationale, resolution, and corrective
action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327, 329, 330, 331
Forging temperatures, as root cause of forgings
defects, rationale, resolution, and corrective
action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327, 329, 330, 331
FORM. See First-order reliability method.
Form, of product or system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Formal numerical unfolding procedure . . . . . . . .546
FORM analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257, 265
Forman equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279, 286
Formic acid, causing intergranular corrosion in
sensitized austenitic stainless steels . . . . . . .779
Forming, compatibility with various materials . . . . 33
FORM process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .266
FORM/SORM analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257–258
FORTRAN routines, for random variable generation
and statistical functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
Fouling condition monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 891, 892
400–500 ⬚C (750–930 ⬚F) embrittlement
causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
effect in ferrous alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .692
steels susceptible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
475 ⬚C (885 ⬚F) embrittlement. See also 400 to 500
⬚C (750 to 930 ⬚F) embrittlement. . . . . . . . . .692
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1061
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
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1116 / Index
Fourier space methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .495
Fourier transform infrared (spectroscopy)
(FTIR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
analysis depth and area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
detection limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
ease of use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
information evaluated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
infrared spectrum of plasticized plastic
obtained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .797
of lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .413
of nylon hinges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458, 459
of polybutadiene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447, 449
of polycarbonate ophthalmic lenses . . . . . . . . . . . .654
of polymeric materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437–439
properties measured . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
property derived from polymer analysis . . . . . . . .359
use in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
Four-point bend testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486, 666
for determining x-ray elastic constants . . . . . . . . .486
before x-ray diffraction residual stress
analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
Fractal dimension (Ds) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .547
Fractal dimension of fracture profile . . . . . . . . . . .544
Fractal dimension of the line (D) . . . . . . . . . . 543, 544
Fractal dimension of the surfaces (Ds) . . . . 543–545
Fractional creep life consumed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
Fractional factorial design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258
Fraction of fracture profile length through a
phase or constituent of interest (Pf) . . . . 538,
543
Fractography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320, 353–354, 499
of alloy steel ski chair lift grip components . . . . . 11
of ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .370
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559, 662, 1067
development of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559–561
of elevated-temperature fractures of piping and
tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .289
to establish fatigue striation spacing or crack arrest
profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
to examine cracks in service-run gas turbine
blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344
in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . 333, 334, 335, 337–340
of fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627–639
of fracture features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .397
of fracture surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
knowledge required for failure analysts . . . . . . . .322
for life assessment purposes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
macroscale features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559, 560
of metal-induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .865
microscale features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
of multiple-site damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235, 236
of pin in guy wire of toran tower . . . . . . . . . 334–335
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .655
providing crack size for final fracture . . . . . . . . . .480
purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
quantitative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538–554
to reveal dimpled intergranular fractures . . . . . . .644
scanning electron microscopy application . . . . 522–
523
scanning electron microscopy for failure
analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
of spalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982–985
of stainless steel solenoid valve cracks . . . 235–238
to study weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662–664
temperature effect on ductility of steel . . .605–606,
609
of thrust reverser aluminum fitting . . . . . . . 237, 239
of welded cast steel crosshead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
Fracture. See also Crack; Fracture origin.
analysis, steps in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393
conchoidal, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
crack arrest marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
as damage mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
as failure category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17–18
features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657–659
hackle region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .658
macroscopic features . . . . . . . . . . . 559, 560, 561–563
mechanisms of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587–595, 596, 597
microscale features . . . . . . . . 559, 560, 563–564, 565
mirror zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657–658
mist region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .658
mixed-mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .473
modeling with fracture mechanics . . . . . . . . 581–585
modes for polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655–657
parabolic markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659–660
path influenced by microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . .564
process types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
rib markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
rock candy, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
root cause resulting in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
secondary cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
of sheet metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
surface selection and preservation . . . . . . . . 397–398
Wallner lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657, 658
Fracture appearance transition temperature
(FATT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .685
Fracture assessment, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
Fracture locus concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
Fracture markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664–665
of ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664–665
Fracture mechanics. See also Linear elastic fracture
mechanics. . . . . .15–17, 27, 28, 230, 270–271,
379, 474–482, 561, 686–687
to analyze rolling-contact fatigue . . . . . . . . . 958–959
application to fractography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .482
of casing of ship service turbine generator . . . 742–
743
concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475–476
conditions for structural failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .475
of crack growth (monotonic loads) . . . . . . . 582–584
crack-growth rates under cyclic loading . . . . . . . .703
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
development of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . 16–17, 322, 401, 480
linear elastic fracture mechanics . . . . . . . . . . 475–478
methodology for pressure vessel hatch cover
design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287
software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .379
subcritical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478–479, 480
variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278–280
Fracture mechanism maps . . . . . . . . . . . .569, 570–571
Fracture mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370, 664, 666–667
Fracture mode index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .543
Fracture modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400–401, 665–667
Fracture origin . . . . . . . 657, 658, 662–663, 664, 667
of ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .657, 667–670
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657, 662
failure analysis for investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .397
and fracture toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .666
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
from sequence of fractures determined . . . . . . . . .395
thermal shock in ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .667
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160, 161
Fracture path through different constituents or
phases, fraction of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .538
Fracture profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500, 538, 552
angular orientation distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .542
correlated with microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .543
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
digitization of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539, 540
fractal characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543–545
generated from fracture of tensile test specimen of
low-alloy steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539, 540
generated from fracture of tensile test specimen of
metal-matrix composite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539, 540
geometric attributes estimation . . . . . . . . . . . 540–545
metallographic technique for generation of . . . .539
nondestructive generation methods . . . . . . . 539–540
orientation distribution function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .542
overlaps, extent of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542–543
replica technique for generation of . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
roughness parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541–542
Fracture profilometry, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .538
Fracture ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240, 241, 243, 244, 246
Fracture strength, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049
Fracture stress, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
Fracture surfaces(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566–568
anisotropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538, 541
area fraction of features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .548
crystallography electron backscatter
diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .553
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
discoloration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
fatigue striation spacing estimation . . . . . . . 550–551
feature average size and shape . . . . . . . . . . . 549–550
final-fracture zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .708
fractal behavior of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .547
fractal dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .538
information interpreted from . . . . . . . . .561–564, 565
orientation, macroscale fractographic
implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
reflectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
roughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .538, 560, 562
roughness parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547, 548
of stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . .835–836, 837
three-dimensional reconstruction . . . . . . . . . 551–554
Fracture surface photography
diffuse lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422, 424
fiber optic lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .422, 423, 424
fluorescent lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .422, 423, 424
ring lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422, 423
side lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .421–422, 423
tent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422, 427
ultraviolet lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422, 425
Fracture surface topography analysis (FRASTA)
using confocal scanning microscopy . . . 551,
553
Fracture test, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
Fracture toughness. See also Crack extension force;
Crack tip opening displacement (CTOD); Jintegral; Stress-intensity factor. . . . . .278–279,
478, 686
and abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .913
conditions for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .566
as criteria for materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
and fracture origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .666
influenced by microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476, 564
Irwin’s expression for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .582
and residual stress effect on crack-growth
rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
vs. section thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
specification in purchase agreement . . . . . . . . . . . .344
strain rate effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680, 681
tempering effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195, 200
Fracture toughness tests, to determine constraint
factor X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245
Fragmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910, 912, 913, 914
of ingot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Frame averaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .517
Francis turbine, cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013
FRASTA. See Fracture surface topography analysis
using confocal scanning microscopy.
Free-body diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .468
Free carbides, formation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
Free enthalpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801, 805
Free ferrite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .583
in cast irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
with decarburization of steel spring . . . . . . . . . . . .510
of hardened alloy steel coil spring . . . . . . . . 509, 510
Free-machining steel
electroless nickel plating of mounted
specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503–504
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781–782
Free-surface cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99–100, 101
Free-surface fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
workability diagram for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
working limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
Free surfaces, fatigue fracture initiation . . . . . . . . . .631
Free volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651
Freezing, gross gas evolution in molds . . . . . . . . . . .116
Freon, and stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . .859
Frequency
effect on cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1010
of fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .926
Frequency diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
Fretting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357, 909
alumina oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .929
of aluminum sheets in stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .923
in aluminum-steel riveted joint . . . . . . . . . . . 922–923
amplitude of slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .924–925, 926
aqueous electrolytes effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 930–931
of bearings of automobiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .923
cathodic protection effect on steel ropes . . . . . . .931
characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408–409
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
of cobalt-iron-molybdenum-silicon-boron
alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .928
contact resistance vs. number of cycles . . . . . . . .933
with corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .922
crossed-cylinder arrangement . . . . . . . .927, 931, 932
damage, fatigue crack at a rivet hole . . . . . . . . . . .923
damage incurred . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922–923
as damage mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . .349
debris effect on wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .929
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .922, 1067
delamination in region produced by metal-to-metal
contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .933
of electrical contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .923
environmental effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929–932
as fatigue failure origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .706
gold plating for separable connectors . . . . . . . . . .926
hardness vs. amplitude of slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .928
high-purity aluminum cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .924
high-temperature effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931–932
humidity effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .930
impact fretting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .927
iron-chromium-nickel-tungsten amorphous
alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .930
iron-silicon-boron alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .928
locked-coil track strand wire rope
construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923, 924
low-temperature effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931–932
material properties related to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
material selection to reduce effect of . . . . . . . . . . .928
measurement of wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .932
in mechanical components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922–924
mild steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .926
orthopedic devices . . . . . . . . 924, 930, 931, 934–935
oxide debris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .933
in oxidizing or nonoxidizing materials . . . . . . . . .922
percentage of wear failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
of polymer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .929
prevention of damage due to . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933–934
procedures for minimization of . . . . . . . . . . . 408–409
and pyrophoric fretting debris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .923
in rolling-element bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 935–937
shot peening of steel reducing friction
coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .927
sintered alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .929
sites for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .922
specific wear rate vs. amplitude of slip . . . . . . . . .925
and stacking fault energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .928
of steam and gas turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .923
in steam generators and heat exchangers . . . . . . .923
of titanium alloy, ion implantation effect . . . . . . .931
vacuum effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .930
vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .927
wear failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922–937
wear mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932–933
wear scar depth vs. compressive and tensile
residual stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .928
zirconia oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .929
Fretting corrosion. See also Fretting.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .922, 1067
Fretting damage, damage manifestation . . . . . . . . .901
Fretting fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559, 922, 928
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
Fretting wear. See also Fretting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .909
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .922
modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .903
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023
Friction, in elastomeric wear mechanism . . . . . .1021,
1023
Frictional heat, effect on railroad rails . . . . . 512, 514
Friction coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1036, 1038
for rolling-contact fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 944–945
and wear particle size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .958
Friction oxidation. See Fretting.
Friction welding, failure origins related to . . . . . 188–
189
Frosting, contact fatigue terminology . . . . . . . . . . . .722
FRP. See Fiber-reinforced polymers.
FTA. See Fault-tree analysis.
FTIR. See Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy.
Fugacity, of molten salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
Full-mold sand casting, in shape-casting processes
classification scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Full-profile methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
Full-scale testing of components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238
Fuming nitric acid
causing stress-corrosion cracking in
high-strength aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
pure titanium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
Function
definition in reliability-centered maintenance . . . 62
definition, of product or system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
loss of, as failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Functional block diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Functional ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .800
Functional failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62, 63, 70
definition in reliability-centered maintenance . . . 62
Functional failure mode models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Functional fault analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54, 55, 56, 58
Fungal mycelia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .891
Furan, as corrosion-resistant coating . . . . . . . . . . . . .769
Furnace atmosphere, tool steel heat treatment
failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510, 511
Furnaces
distortion related to heating and atmosphere
control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201–202, 204, 205
ethylene-pyrolysis, and corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .870
glass-melting, refractories for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .804
hydrogen-reformer, and carbon deposits . . . . . . .870
Furrows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .953
Fused chloride salt
causing stress-corrosion cracking in
titanium alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
zirconium alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
Fused salts, corroding technical ceramics . . 804, 805
Fuse-holder clips, liquid metal induced
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .865
Fusion. See also Incomplete fusion.
as casting defect, during heat treatment . . . . . . . .110
as welding defect of castings, lack of . . . . . . . . . .152
in weldments, incomplete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167–168
in weldments, lack of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157
Fusion-line cracks, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
Fusion welding
to clad carbon-manganese steels with erosionresistant alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1016
role in embrittlement and overload failures . . 698–
699
G
Galling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559, 901, 909
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408, 1067
from incompatibility of metals in sliding wear . . . 7
in pressure die casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
Gallionella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .889
Gallium
as embrittling metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862
as liquid embrittler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
Galvanic cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .761, 762, 768
Galvanic character, as criteria for materials
selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Galvanic corrosion . . . 337, 755, 761–767, 768, 777
contributing factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .766
as defect resulting from electroplating . . . . . . . . . . 81
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
features observed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .356
helicopter tail rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .766
materials properties related to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
prediction from polarization behavior . . . . . . . . . .764
of water pipe joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .356
Galvanic corrosion cell, as electrochemical
monitoring method of microbially induced
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .892
Galvanic couple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763, 766, 767, 859
and grinding in corrosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .992
and intergranular stress-corrosion cracking . . . .648
between minerals and grinding media . . . . . . . . . .990
sulfate-reducing bacteria involvement . . . . 882, 883
Galvanic currents measurement screening
tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .765
Galvanic protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .755–757, 764
from corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405
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Index / 1117
Galvanic series of metals and alloys in
seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762–763
Galvanized steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .764
for corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .759
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785
intermetallic compound embrittlement . . . . . . . . .694
Galvanodynamic polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
Galvanostatic polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
Gamma function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253
Gamma-irradiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024
Gamma-prime formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .346
of turbine blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .291
Gamma-prime overaging, of nickel-base
superalloys used for gas turbine blades . . 294,
295
Gamma-prime phase, of gas turbine blades,
microstructure examined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .298
Gamma-prime precipitation
in nickel-base superalloy casting for gas
turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .365
of nickel-base superalloys used for gas turbine
blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
Gamma-prime structures, in gas turbine blades,
roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346, 347
Gangue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
Gas, as discontinuity for castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Gas carburizing
carbides formed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
and intergranular fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
Gas chromatography (GC) analysis . . . . . . 404, 797
to analyze microbially induced corrosion
deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .892
of corrosion products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
for polymeric analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
Gas chromatography mass spectroscopy (GC/
MS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .797
for polymeric analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
Gaseous chlorine, causing stress-corrosion cracking
in high-strength, low-alloy steels . . . . . . . . . .831
Gaseous hydrogen, causing stress-corrosion
cracking in steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
Gaseous hydrogen bromide (HBr), causing stresscorrosion cracking in high-strength, low-alloy
steels (rapid crack growth) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
Gaseous hydrogen chloride (HCl), causing stresscorrosion cracking in high-strength, low-alloy
steels (rapid crack growth) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
Gaseous iodine, causing stress-corrosion cracking in
zirconium alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
Gaseous water, causing stress-corrosion cracking in
high-strength aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . . .831
Gaseous water-oxygen-hydrogen (H2O-O2-H2),
causing stress-corrosion cracking in highstrength uranium alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
Gas hole(s). See also Gas porosity.
causes during casting solidification . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
Gas internal pipelines, prevention approach for
corrosion in industrial facilities . . . . . . . . . . .893
Gas lens collect body, of welding torch . . . . . . . . . .783
Gas metal arc welding
failure origins related to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
porosity in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170, 171
weldment inadequate penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177
weldment inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172, 173
weldment incomplete fusion and inadequate
penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178
weldment underfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175, 177
Gas porosity. See also Porosity. . . . . . . . . . . . . 115, 116
in aluminum alloy castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
in castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .614
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104, 1067
as discontinuity in semisolid casting . . . . . 128, 131
effect on fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .719
in magnesium alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549, 550
in pressure die castings . . . . . . . . 126–127, 128, 129
subsurface feature as cause for rejection . . . . . . .156
surface feature as cause for rejection . . . . . . . . . . .156
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170, 186, 189
Gas runs, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
Gas tungsten arc welding
failure origins related to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
and intergranular corrosion of welds . . . . . 782–783
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
www.asminternational.org
1118 / Index
Gas tungsten arc welding (continued)
nickel alloy with alloy steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167–168
stainless steel elbow assembly, brittle
fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163–164
weldment inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172, 173
Gas turbine blades
coating life prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303–304
elevated temperatures for applications . . . . . . . . .729
intergranular stress-corrosion cracking of U-700
nickel alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
life assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295–296
life assessment methods for elevated-temperature
failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289–311
low-cycle fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344
materials used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729
remaining life assessment . . . . . . . . . . . .238, 239–240
Gas turbine components, land-based alloys used for
blades, vanes, and nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296
Gas turbine engines
brittle fracture of hot-gas casing . . . . . . . . . . 363, 364
component operating conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296
microstructure of casting with gamma-prime
particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .365
Gas-turbine inner-combustion-chamber case
assembly, brittle fracture of welded nickelbase alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164, 165
Gas turbine last-stage bucket, high-temperature
corrosion of Udimet 500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .872
Gas turbine piping, life assessment methods for
elevated temperature failures . . . . . . . . 289–311
Gas turbines, elevated-temperature life-limiting
failure mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289–291
Gas turbine transition duct, high-temperature
corrosion of IN-617 panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .870
Gas turbine tubing and piping
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .289
life assessment methods for elevated-temperature
failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289–311
Gate
broken casting at, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
number effect on shrinkage porosity . . . . . . . . . . .113
Gate valve stem, forging defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235
Gating
and cold shut prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
and shrinkage porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
GC. See Gas chromatography.
GC/MS. See Gas chromatography mass
spectroscopy.
GDS. See Glow discharge spectrophotometer; Glow
discharge spectroscopy.
Gear(s)
axle, of automobiles, load conditions . . . . . . . . . . .710
cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004, 1005
contact fatigue, macropitted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723, 724
contact fatigue terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .722
in-service load effects on residual stress . . . . . . .494
liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . .865
micropitting (frosting) failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .724
power-transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .981
quench selection to reduce distortion . . . . . . . . . . .207
residual stress effect on tooth pitch diameter . .494
stress range of fatigue limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .491
worm, decohesive rupture of manganese
bronze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .676
Gearboxes, cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . . . 1004, 1005
Gear socket assembly, liquid metal induced
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864, 865
Gear teeth
contact fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .722
distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198, 202
fatigue fracture in steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366, 367
hardness testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360, 361
macropitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .723
microsegregation in microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
rolling-contact fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 942–943
subcase fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723, 725
subsurface fatigue crack formed by rolling
contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628, 632
Gear wheels
of polyoxymethylene, wear failure . . . . . . . . . . . 1026
small spur, grinding cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221
Gel permeation chromatography (GPC)
of PET jacket of transportation assemblies . . . . .452
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444–445
properties measured . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
property derived from polymer analysis . . . . . . . .359
use in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
General attack, features observed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .356
General corrosion. See also Uniform
corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337, 347
as damage mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . .349
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
Generalized Willenborg Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
General oxidation, of low-alloy steel castings . . .145
Geological studies, of soil or abrasive minerals in
wear failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .413
Geometrical features, retirement-for-cause
inspection system probability of detection
curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
Geometrical imperfections, of weldments . . . . . . .158
Geometric correction factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .476
for fracture toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .582, 583, 585
Geometric factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .477
Geometric stress raisers
contact fatigue mode and controlling factors . . .725
and fatigue initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .631
Gerber’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .701
Gerber’s parabola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .701
mean stress effect on alternating stress
amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .701
Germanium
as embrittling agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .691
as grain-boundary embrittler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
Glancing impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 977–978
Glass
brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .664
centrifugal casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
as corrosion-resistant coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758, 769
erosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .995
fretting wear of microscope slide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .929
indentation and impact damage . . . . . . . . . . . 667–668
Glass coatings, as corrosion-resistant coatings . . .758
Glass fibers, for polymer reinforcement . . . . . . . .1025,
1026, 1030, 1031, 1032, 1033, 1038, 1040
Glass plate
brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .662
thermal shock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .667
Glass transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .444
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .441
Glass transition temperature
and cryogenic applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .684
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .441
effect on polymeric materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568, 569
glassy thermoplastic mechanical instability . . 1023
of polycarbonate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .457
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798, 799
Glassy polymer, modulus vs. temperature . . . . . . . .799
Glassy thermoplastics, wear failures . . . . . . . . . . . 1023
Glazed ceramics, processing defects as fracture
origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .670
Glazed porcelain, brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .670
Glaze oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .931
Glazing
to affect penetration of refractories and structural
ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .806
contact fatigue terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .722
Glide. See Slip.
Glissile dislocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .589
Global design teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Gloves
clean room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
powder-free . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
Glow discharge spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430, 431
Glow discharge spectrophotometer (GDS),
specimen size requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .430
Glutaraldehyde, as biocidal agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .894
GNU Scientific Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
Goethite, as corrosion products in pipeline
excavations and laboratory soil box
tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
Gold
as embrittling metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862
fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .934
galvanic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .767
standard emf series value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .763
Gold alloys
electrodeposited to prevent fretting damage . . . .934
environments subjecting alloy to selective
leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785
Gold plating, for adhesive wear mitigation . . . . . .408
Gold sponge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788, 790
Goniometer alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .485
Goodman relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .700
Gouges, visible, macroscale fractographic
implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
Gouging abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907–908, 919–920
GPC. See Gel permeation chromatography.
Grain
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
shape change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .561
Grain boundary, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
Grain-boundary corrosion. See Intergranular
corrosion; Corrosion and interdendritic
corrosion.
Grain-boundary denudation. See also Precipitatefree zone (PFZ).
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
Grain-boundary liquation, definition . . . . . . . . . . 1067
Grain-boundary segregation, of nickel-base
superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .874
Grain-boundary separations, in stainless
steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523, 524
Grain-boundary strengthening, of nickel-base
superalloys used for gas turbine blades . . .294
Grain-boundary triple points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .593
Grain-corner cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575
Grain flow, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
Grain growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338
composition effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
effect of cold forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
of electroslag welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
Grain pullout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .962
Grain refinement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
Grain shape, cold forming effect . . . . . . . . . . . 101–102
Grain size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217–218, 219
characterization comparison (ASTM) . . . . . . . . . .218
cold forming effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
effect on ductile-brittle transition temperature of
mild steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684, 685
effect on ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .598
effect on internal oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . .680, 681–682
and fatigue crack propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .630
larger, effect on fracture path and fracture
toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .564
Grain storage bin, brittle fracture by bolt
hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .616, 618, 619
Granular fracture. See also Fibrous fracture; Silky
fracture.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
Graphite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137–138
and galvanic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762, 766
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
in gray iron paper-drier head . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121–122
for impressed-current anodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .756
nodularity of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141–142, 143
non-nodular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141, 142
normal flake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135, 137
type B rosette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135, 137
type D in gray iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
vermicular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142, 143
Graphite flakes
on cast iron fracture surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608
in truck transmission housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675, 676
Graphite corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786–787, 788, 789
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
of pipe for fire protection system water
supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787, 788
Graphitization. See also Graphite corrosion. . . . 695,
874
as aging reaction causing corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . .874
as boiler tube damage mechanism on failure
wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
as damage mechanism
for boiler tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
on failure wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
of DLHC film during rolling contact fatigue
test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
effect in ferrous alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
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ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693–694
vs. graphitic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .787
in situ, and creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .730
of steel alloys used for gas turbine tubes and
piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292, 293
steels susceptible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
Gravity casting
of aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149–150
in shape-casting processes classification
scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Gravity die casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124–125
in shape-casting processes classification
scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Gray iron
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916–919
casting stresses fracture in crankcases . . . .135–136,
137, 138
centrifugal casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132, 133
cold shut in paper-drier head . . . . . . . .120–122, 123
cracking due to microporosity, cylinder
head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112–113
environments subjecting alloy to selective
leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785
fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523, 524
fatigue indistinguishable macroscopically from
overload fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .633
fracture
loaded in bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608, 612
loaded in tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608, 612
graphitic corrosion of pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787, 788
grinding cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221
hypereutectic, permanent-mold casting
material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
mold-wall deficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
notch sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
transgranular cleavage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675, 676
Gray staining, contact fatigue terminology . . . . . .722
Greases, as lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410, 411
“Green Death” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .775
Green rot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .868
Green sand casting, characteristics of process . . .124
Green sand molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
in shape-casting processes classification
scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
and surface finish of casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
Greigite, as corrosion products in pipeline
excavations and laboratory soil box
tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
GRI. See Gas Research Institute.
Griffith equation, plasticity-based . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .740
Griffith’s criterion for brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . .588
Griffith’s model for brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . .588
Grinding
abusive, and tempering of die . . . . . . .511–512, 513
burn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152, 220, 221
causing corrosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989–990
of ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362, 363
distortion due to residual stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
effect on tensile residual-stress field . . . . . . . . . . . .491
and fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .720
grit sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
guidelines for semiautomatic preparation of
structural ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362
in metallographic examination . . . . . 503, 504, 505–
506
planar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506, 507
pressure-sensitive-adhesive (PSA)-backed SiC
grinding paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
to remove surface oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
to remove undesired metallurgical products . . . .220
temperature distribution within surface . . . . . . . . .220
Grinding abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .908
Grinding burns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152, 220, 221
Grinding cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221, 720
in camshaft of gray iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221
as defect resulting from machining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Grinding marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .953
Grinding plates, adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . 916–919
Grinding wear. See Abrasive wear.
Grips, embrittlement of acrylonitrile-butadienestyrene resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447, 448
Grit sizes, for grinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
Grooves, microscale fractographic implication . . .560
Grooving wear. See Abrasive wear.
Grossmann number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206, 209, 210
Gross yielding
loading types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
material properties related to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
material selection criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
operating temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
stress types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Ground-coat enamels, as corrosion-resistant
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .758
Growth twin. See Annealing twin.
Gull wings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665, 666
Gunite application method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .759
Gun-recoil mechanism, piston of, fatigue
fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141–142, 143
Guy wires, fatigue failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334–335
H
Hackle (glassy materials, ceramics). See also Mist
hackle; Shear hackle; Twist hackle; and Wake
hackle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .370
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
Hackle lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657, 658
Hackle marks (ceramics, glassy materials) . . . . .573
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
in polycarbonate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .457
on polyethylene chemical storage vessel . . . . . . .453
Hackle region, in polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657, 658
Hadfield steels
casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146, 147, 148, 149
maximum erosion rate dependence in cavitation
erosion on combined parameter . . . . . . . . . 1016
Hafnium, content effect in refractory coatings . . .878
Hafnium nitride
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945–946
as physical vapor deposition coating
material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
Haigh diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700, 701
Hairline crack. See Flake.
Half-penny crack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .667
Halide ions, stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . .833
Halides
in aqueous solutions, causing stress-corrosion
cracking in austenitic stainless steels . . . . . .831
in aqueous solutions, causing stress-corrosion
cracking in high-strength aluminum
alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
in aqueous solutions, causing stress-corrosion
cracking in high-strength steels . . . . . . . . . . .831
Hall-Petch relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .598
Halophiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .881
Halos. See also Fisheye. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
Hammer impact tester (HIT) . . 976, 977–978, 986–
987
Hammers
ball-peen . . . . . . . . . . . . 975–978, 979, 983, 985, 986
double-face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .986
extra-hard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .981
nail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .978, 979, 986
sledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 976, 977, 981, 987
spalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975–978
Stanley “rim-tempered” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .978
striking/struck tool specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .987
tinner’s-setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .978, 979, 986
Hammer weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .978
Hanawalt method, in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . .338
Handbook: Maintenance Evaluation and Program
Development (MSG-1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Hand Tools Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978, 980
Hard alpha defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264, 265
Hard-coating anodizing, for corrosion
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .759
Hardenability, as criteria for materials selection . . 32
Hardenable steel, tempering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195, 199
Hardened steels, and residual stress effects . . . . . .493
Hard facings, to resist corrosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . .992
Hardness
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919–920
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Index / 1119
of cast carbon-molybdenum steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
as criteria for materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1067–1068
effect on abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911, 913
of engineering ceramics and bearing steel . . . . .960
relationship with various failure modes . . . . .35, 36
Hardness testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289, 821
in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .402
life assessment technique for elevated-temperature
exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
by microindentation and nanoindentation
methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360–361
of power plant piping and tubing . . . . . . . . . 304–305
of worn surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .413
Hard spots, as casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
Hard steel, impact wear coefficient values . . . . . . .971
Harm, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Hartmann lines. See Lüders lines.
Hat cracks, of weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
Hazard
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48, 72
legal distinction from risk and danger . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Hazard analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45, 76
foreseeable manner of defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Hazardous material, disposal of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
HAZ burning. See Liquation cracking.
HAZ cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .695
HB. See Brinell hardness number.
HCF. See High-cycle fatigue.
HDPE. See High-density polyethylene.
Heat, as degradation source for polymers . . 653–654
Heat-affected zone
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
size and metallographic examination . . . . . . . . . . .402
of steel mold for centrifugal casting . . . . . . . . . . . .132
Heat-checked die, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Heat checking. See also Thermal fatigue cracking.
in permanent-mold castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124, 125
in pressure die castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127, 130
Heat-damage discoloration assessment . . . . . . . . .240
Heat-deflection temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .443
Heater tube, stress rupture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733, 734
Heat exchanges, impact fretting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .927
Heat exchangers, prevention approach for corrosion
in industrial facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
Heat exchanger tubes
crevice corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .777
erosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .998
pitting corrosion of copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356, 357
pitting corrosion of stainless steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . .356
Heat flow, in pressure die castings . . . . . . . . . . 126, 127
Heathcote slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .941
Heating control, and distortion . . 201–202, 204, 205
Heat-resistant materials, characteristics of
engineering polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
Heat-resistant steels
centrifugal castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
creep embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .695
Heat-resisting alloys, creep onset temperature . . .729
Heat-resisting chromium-nickel alloys, sigmaphase embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512, 513
Heat tinting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887–888
Heat treatment
defects resulting from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
effects on residual stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494–495
hydrogen as protective atmosphere, as hydrogen
source for hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . .819
manufacturing/installation anomalies . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
minimum recommended material removal to
prevent surface seam and nonmetallic stringer
problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204, 206
as root cause of forgings defects, rationale,
resolution, and corrective action . . . 327, 329,
330, 331
temperature effect on residual stress of iron
alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .495
Heavy-duty axle housing, fatigue fracture . . . . . . .119
Heavy phosphate (manganese phosphate) coatings,
for corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .759
Heavy striking tools, striking/struck tool
specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .987
Helical spring, torsional fatigue failure of boroncontaining alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630, 633
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ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
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1120 / Index
Helical tensile fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561, 562
Helicopter main rotor bolt, forging defects from
nonmetallic inclusions in steel . . . . .89–90, 91
Helicopter rotors, liquid-droplet erosion
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015
Helicopter tail rotor, galvanic corrosion . . . . . . . . .766
Helium, heat transfer rate of quenching
medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210
Hematite, as corrosion products in pipeline
excavations and laboratory soil box
tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
Herringbone pattern. See Chevron pattern.
Herringbone porosity, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
Hertzian cones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .668
Hertzian crack. See Percussion cone.
Hertzian fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .910
theory of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .957
Hertzian impact site, in glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .668
Hertzian stress. See Contact (Hertzian) stress.
Hertzian theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .467
Hertz theory of elastic contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .957
Heuristic stress-analysis skill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322
Hexagonal close-packed materials
ductility reduction in ductile-brittle transition
temperature region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .599
cleavage fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587, 589, 590
overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .678–679, 680
temperature effect on toughness and
ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684–685
HIC. See Hydrogen-induced cracking.
Hidden consequences of failure modes . . . . . . . . . . 67
Hidden consequences of hidden failures . . . . . . . . . 70
Hidden failure, definition in reliability-centered
maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Hidden function, definition in reliability-centered
maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
High-activity aluminide coatings . . . . . . . . . . 876–877
High-alloy irons, centrifugal casting . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
High-alloy steels, tempering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
High-carbon steels
distortion failure of automotive valve
spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1050–1051
environments subjecting alloy to selective
leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785
mitigating abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
tempering and retained austenite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
High-chromium alloy steel, erosive wear . . . . . . . .997
High-chromium stainless steels, workability
behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
High-chromium white cast iron, mitigating erosive
wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
High-cycle fatigue (HCF) . . . . . . . . . . . . .491–192, 709
as damage mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . .349
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
as elevated-temperature failure in gas
turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .289, 291, 296
fatigue life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .718
and fatigue limit (endurance limit) . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
and intergranular fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .644
loading types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
material properties related to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
material selection criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
operating temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
and residual stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
stainless steel gas turbine blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341
stress types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
weldment porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
High-density polyethylene (HDPE)
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
creep modulus vs. temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .652
distortion of chemical storage vessel . . . . . 453–454
ductile fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .797
specific wear rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
High-electron-emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .518
High-frequency induction welding, failure origins
related to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191
High-frequency vibratory tests, for evaluating
cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006
High-growth-rate fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637, 638
High homologous temperature (TH) . . . . . . 564, 569
High-impact polystyrene (HIPS)
ductile fracture behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .655
notch sensitivity and brittle fractures . . . . . . . . . . .657
High-magnification optical microscopy, as
fractography technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .662
High-manganese steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681, 682
overaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .694
High-molecular-weight amines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .750
High-molecular-weight polymers
fracture resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .652
thermal degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797–798
High-nickel alloys
causes of stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
environments subjecting alloy to selective
leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785
environment systems exhibiting stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .823
High-pressure die casting, in shape-casting
processes classification scheme . . . . . . . . . . .124
High-pressure impact mechanism, as cavitation
mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
High pressure molding defect, casting . . . . . . . . . .108
High-silicon alloys, case debonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131
High-silicon cast irons, for impressed-current
anodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .756
High-spatial-resolution secondary electron
micrographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528, 530
High-speed digital videocamera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .427
High-speed four-ball testing apparatus, description
of rolling contact fatigue test method . . . . .944
High-speed steel
as chemical vapor deposition substrate
material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
as physical vapor deposition substrate
material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
tempering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
High-speed videography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .424
High-strength and temperature-resistant
materials, characteristics of engineering
polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
High-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels . . . 246–247
causes of stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
ductile crack nucleation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .591
rapid crack growth, causes of stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
stress-relief embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .691
tempered-martensite embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . .692
High-strength steels
accelerated hydrogen entry, causes of stresscorrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
accelerated hydrogen-induced cracking, causes of
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228, 231
causes of stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
ductile crack nucleation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .591
ductile overload fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673–674
environment systems exhibiting stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
hydrogen content effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . 646, 647, 812, 813
hydrogen-induced cracking, causes of stresscorrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
initiation sites for cracking, causes of stresscorrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . 646, 832, 833, 835
High-stress abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .908, 919, 920
High-stress/low-cycle rolling-contact fatigue,
network carbide concentration effect . . . . . .216
High temperature, effect on fatigue strength . . . .718
High-temperature corrosion
in low-alloy steel castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145–146
of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .870, 871, 872
of Udimet 500 gas turbine last-stage bucket . . .872
High-temperature corrosion-related
failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868–878
aging reactions as mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . 874–875
Babbitt metal, lining of bronze cylinder of friction
bearing of locomotive drive axle . . . . 335–336
brace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320
carbon-nitrogen interaction as mechanism . . . . .870
carburization as mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868, 869
chloridation as mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872, 873
environmental cracking as mechanism . . . 875–876
environments for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .868
erosion-corrosion as mechanism of . . . . . . . . . . . . .876
factors affecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .868
hot corrosion as mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871–873
hydrogen interactions as mechanism . . . . . . . . . . .873
mechanisms induced by molten salts or
metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .868
metal dusting as mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868–869
by molten metal corrosion as mechanism . . . . 873–
874
molten salts as mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .874
nitridation as mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869–870
overload failures affected by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .686
oxidation mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868, 869
protective coatings for resistance . . . . . . . . . 876–878
stress-rupture failures as mechanism of . . . . . . . .876
sulfidation as mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870–871
High-temperature crack growth methods . . . . . .289
life assessment technique for elevated-temperature
exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
of power plant piping and tubing . . . .304, 309–310
High-temperature creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343
of gas turbine components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290–291
High-temperature curing silicones, as corrosionresistant coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .758
High-temperature life assessment . . . .238, 239–240
High-temperature oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
High-temperature processes, causing corrosive
wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .990
High-temperature service, design
considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231–232
High-temperature transformation products
(HTTP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
High-velocity flow tests, for evaluating cavitation
erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006
High-velocity oxyfuel (HVOF)
coating material, thickness, roughness, and
average hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .950, 951, 954
contact stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .950
rolling contact fatigue life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .950
rolling contact fatigue tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .950
substrate material and hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .950
tungsten carbide coatings to minimize liquiddroplet impingement damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
Hildebrand solubility parameter . . . . . . . . . . 796–797
Hill criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461, 473
Hill’s anisotropic yield criterion . . . . . . . . . . . 597, 602
Hill yield criterion, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
Hindered contraction, as casting defect . . . . . . . . .110
Hinges, brittle fracture of nylon . . . . . . . . . . . . 457–459
HIP. See Hot isostatic pressing.
HIPS. See High-impact polystyrene.
Histograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
History, failures and impact on life assessment
methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228
HIT. See Hammer impact tester.
Hit/miss approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
to life assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
HK. See Knoop hardness number.
Hold-down clamps, distortion failure of steel . . 1052
Holding tank coupling, stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Hold time, in thermomechanical fatigue . . . . . . . . .744
Hold-time fatigue, as damage mechanism on failure
wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
Hole drilling
for measuring and studying residual
stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
with strain gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .467
Holidays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .769
in galvanic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
“Holloman behavior.” See Strain hardening/strainhardening exponent.
Holloman relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .617–618, 619
Holographic interferometry, to measure fretting
wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .932
Holography, in preliminary laboratory
examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
Homogenization
to eliminate microsegregation in ingots . . . . . . . . . 83
of ingot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
prior to hot working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Homologous temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . .569, 570, 571
Honing, to remove surface oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
Hook, service condition failure, sigma-phase
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512, 513
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
Hook cracks, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191
Hooke’s law. See also Modulus of elasticity.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
for homogenous and isotropic material . . . . . . . . .467
Hoop stress
distribution beneath notch root of notched-bar
specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .597
of thin-walled pressure vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
Hoppers on trucks, stress-corrosion cracking . . .841
Horizontal spectrometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338
Hot box resin sand molding, in shape-casting
processes classification scheme . . . . . . . . . . .124
Hot chamber die casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125–126
in shape-casting processes classification
scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Hot corrosion
location on failure wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
as mechanism for high-temperature
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871–873
molten salts involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .874
of nickel-base superalloys used for gas turbine
blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294, 295, 296
overlay coatings for resistance to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
of thermal barrier coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
of turbine blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .291
type 1, high-temperature hot corrosion . . . 871–872
type 2, low-temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .872
Hot crack. See also Hot shortness; Solidification
shrinkage crack. . . . . . . . . . . 118–119, 686, 691
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104, 118
in pressure die castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126–127
in tube weldment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .698
in weldment . . . . 170, 179, 184–185, 186, 188, 190
Hot-dip coatings, for corrosion resistance . . . . . . .759
Hot-dip galvanizing
and liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . .866
and strain-age embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
Hot dry chloride salts, stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .857
Hot extrusion, compatibility with various
materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Hot-face temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .803
Hot forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Hot gas corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .803
Hot gases, corrosion of technical
ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804, 805
Hot isostatically pressed silicon nitride, ring crack
initiation load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .957
Hot isostatic pressing
of gas turbine blades, and weakened
structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .346
to rejuvenate turbine blades after creep void
formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .299
Hot pressed silicon nitride
brittle fracture due to defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669–670
rolling-contact fatigue studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .959
Hot rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
minimum web thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Hot-salt cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .857
Hot short, as root cause of forgings defects,
rationale, resolution, and corrective
action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327, 329, 330, 331
Hot shortness. See also Hot cracking. . . 98, 118–119
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
Hot strength, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
Hot tear. See also Liquation cracking. . . . . . 82, 117–
119, 595
in aluminum alloy castings . . . . 149, 150, 151, 152
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
in corrosion-resistant castings . . . . . . . . . . . . 147, 148
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104, 118, 1068
as discontinuity in semisolid
casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128, 131
and fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
of permanent-mold castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
in squeeze casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130–131
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
Hot torsion failure, locomotive drive
axle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335–336
Hot-wall effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .770
Hot-wall failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .770
Hot water heaters
failure modes and effects analysis, of stop
valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50–53
relief valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Hot working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
to correct segregation in ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
metallurgical defects in cast or wrought grain
structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
and plastic deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Housings from electrical appliance, environmental
stress cracking of polycarbonate/PET . . . 450–
451, 453
HR. See Rockwell hardness number.
HSc. See Scleroscope hardness number.
HSd. See Scleroscope hardness number.
HSe factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031
HSLA. See High-strength low-alloy steels.
HTTP. See High-temperature transformation
products.
Huey test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .773
Human error, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Human factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74–75, 76
Humidity
causing fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .930
causing stress-corrosion cracking . . . 826–827, 830,
850, 856
effect on polymer wear failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025
HV. See Vickers hardness number.
HVOF. See High-velocity oxyfuel.
Hybrid ball bearings, rolling-contact fatigue . . . .959
Hybrid composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029
adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1040–1041
Hydraulic-pressure propagation crack paths . .723
Hydride formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .809, 814, 816
Hydrocarbon contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .436
Hydrochloric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .749
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838, 857
20%, intergranular corrosion evaluation test . . .781
Hydrodynamic intensity, and erosive wear . . . . . .998
Hydrodynamic mass transport, reaction with
refractories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .878
Hydrofluoric acid, causing stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779, 838
Hydroforming, of diesel fuel injection control
sleeve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Hydrogen
as cause of gas porosity in metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
content effect on delayed hydrogen stress
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .819
content effect on ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87–88, 89
detection of, and hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . 429,
431
effect on mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
entrapment in weldment and porosity . . . 170, 171,
183
grain-boundary absorption and intergranular
fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
heat transfer rate of quenching medium . . . . . . . .210
high content as defect in ingot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
as impurity for low-alloy steel castings . . 144, 145
permeation and enhancement due to microbial
involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .884
pick up reduced in welded joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167
presence effect on microcracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
standard emf series value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .763
Hydrogenase assay, to investigate microbial
populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
Hydrogenase enzyme, activity assessed in
microbially-induced corrosion . . . . . . . 892, 893
Hydrogen attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695–696, 815–816
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .809
metals affected and conditions for . . . . . . . . . . . . . .809
pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .816
of steel alloys used for gas turbine tubes and
piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293–294
Hydrogen blistering, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
Hydrogen bond, bond energy in various
materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
Hydrogen charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .696
Hydrogen chloride, causing stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857, 859
Hydrogen content, as root cause of forgings defects,
rationale, resolution, and corrective
action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327, 329, 330, 331
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Index / 1121
Hydrogen cracks, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157
Hydrogen damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344, 751, 873
aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .817
aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .817
as boiler tube damage mechanism on failure
wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
characteristics of boiler waterwall damage
mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347, 348
copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .817
copper alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .817
as damage mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . .349
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695–697
fracture origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .813
fracture surface deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .813
hydride formation as cause of cracking . . . . . . . .816
laboratory tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813–814
manifestation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .807
mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .809
of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816–817
of precision bolt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .816
of stainless steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .816
tantalum and tantalum alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .818
thorium and thorium alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .818
titanium and titanium alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817–818
types of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .809
uranium and uranium alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .818
zirconium and zirconium alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .818
Hydrogen embrittlement. See also Hydrogeninduced delayed cracking. . . . . 343, 522, 810–
811, 816
of aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646–647, 648
analysis of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818–822
aqueous environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .812
of cap screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696–697
causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
in commodity-grade steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818–822
controlling factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811–812
as defect resulting from electroplating . . . . . . . . . . 81
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
detection of hydrogen in steels . . . . . . . . . . . 429, 431
diagnosis of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820–822
early-service fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818–819
effect in ferrous alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695–697
environmental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811–813
environments containing hydrogen
sulfide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812–813
factors affecting delayed hydrogen stress
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819–820
from high moisture content in furnace . . . . . . . . .202
hydrogen reaction embrittlement . . . . . . . . . 814–816
hydrogen stress cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810–811
influencing intergranular fracture . . 642, 645, 646–
647
of ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
and intergranular stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646–647
internal reversible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .810
of iron aluminide coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .878
loading types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
material properties related to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
material selection criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
metals affected and conditions for . . . . . . . . . . . . . .809
mushroom-head closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813, 814
of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816–817
nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811, 812
operating temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
preservice fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818–819
refinery vessel plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 814, 815
steels susceptible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
with stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . 837, 846
stress types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
temperature dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .811
tensile ductility loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .810
threshold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .563
types of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .810
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169, 179
Hydrogen environmental embrittlement . . 811–813
Hydrogen evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .749
Hydrogen flakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
in ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87, 88, 89
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
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1122 / Index
Hydrogen gas (H2)
environment causing stress-corrosion cracking of
nickel and nickel-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . .848
hydrogen embrittlement of storage
containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .813
Hydrogen-induced blistering . . . 809, 814–815, 839
metals affected and conditions for . . . . . . . . . . . . . .809
Hydrogen-induced cold cracking, of
weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181–183, 184
Hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .884
causing service failures of welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
as defect resulting from welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
in low-carbon steel pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .366
of welded castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
Hydrogen-induced cracks, in weldments . . . . . . . 170,
179, 181–183, 184
Hydrogen-induced delayed cracking. See also
Hydrogen embrittlement; Static fatigue.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
Hydrogen interactions, as mechanism for hightemperature corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .873
Hydrogen porosity
in aluminum alloy castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
as root cause of forgings defects, rationale,
resolution, and corrective action . . . 327, 329,
330, 331
Hydrogen pressure theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809–810
Hydrogen reaction embrittlement . . . . . . . . . 814–816
Hydrogen-reformer furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869, 870
Hydrogen stress cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .839
nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811, 812
similarity to metal-induced embrittlement . . . . . .861
and stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .847
Hydrogen sulfide
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .697
as damaging substance in atmospheric
environments for stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
effect on crack growth rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .884
gas, causing stress-corrosion cracking in highstrength low-alloys steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
in microbially-induced corrosion of stainless
steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
Hydrolysis, of polymers . . . .439, 444, 456, 797, 798
Hydroperoxy radical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .798
Hydrostatic modulus. See Bulk modulus of
elasticity.
Hydrostatic pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194, 196
Hydrostatic stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .466
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
Hydrostatic stress tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .482
Hydrostatic testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .834
for stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .827
Hydrotesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .834
of zinc-primed stainless steel piping . . . . . . . . . . .866
Hypereutectic irons, graphite formation . . . . . . . . .137
Hypereutectoid steels, retained austenite role in
delayed cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .364
Hypochlorites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .773
Hypoeutectic irons, carbide formation . . . . . . . . . . .137
I
I-beam, chemical segregation as failure cause . . . . 84
“Icebox” rivets, aerospace applications . . . . . . . . .684
ICP. See Inductively coupled photospectroscopy;
Inductively coupled plasma testing.
Identification marking, effect on fatigue
strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .721
IDL (computer software program) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
IF. See Incomplete fusion.
IG fracture. See Intergranular fracture.
IG stress-corrosion cracking. See Intergranular
stress-corrosion cracking.
Image analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .538
Image manipulation software packages . . . . . . . .539
Image processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551
Image resolution, in digital
photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420–421
Impact
as damage mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . .349
effect on ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .370
Impact analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385–386
Impact bruise. See Percussion cone.
Impact damage, in ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667–668
Impact energy
as criteria for materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
relationship with various failure modes . . . . .35, 36
Impact extrusion, compatibility with various
materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Impact fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .922
Impact load, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
Impact modifiers
effect on nylon 6/6 performance variation . . . . .447
in polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .459
Impact motion, operational variations . . . . . . . . . . .902
Impact strength. See Impact energy.
Impact testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .684
of gas turbine components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300–301
of notched specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .605
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .445
Impact wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965–973
angle of contact for ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .969
automotive engine inlet valve and seat
wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971–973
of ceramic coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969–970
of ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 968–970
coefficient, nondimensional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .971
compound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .965
contact stress influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 967–968
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .965
lubrication effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 967–968
mechanisms of material removal . . . . . . . . . 966–967
modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .971
modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .965
normal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .965
normal stress influence on ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . .969
percussive impact of large bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . .971
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .970
relative humidity influence on ceramics . . . . . . . .969
residual stresses from machining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .969
of sintered reaction-bonded silicon nitrides . . . .969
sliding velocity influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 967–968
tangential stress and shear influence on
ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .969
testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 970–971
wear debris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 968–969
Impeller, mixed-mode cracking of ductile iron . . .677
Impeller vane, cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . .1016–1017
Imperfection(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473–474
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103, 269, 1068
geometric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473–474
material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473–474
Impingement, particle size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .995
Impingement angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .912
Impingement attack. See also Erosioncorrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .755, 791–792
copper alloy tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .999
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
elbow of pipe of malleable iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .792
Impingement jet tests, for evaluating cavitation
erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006
Importance sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250, 262
computer software programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
in gas turbine rotor damage tolerance
analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .264
Impressed-current protection . . . . . . . .755, 756, 757
Improper structure, as defect resulting from
welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Impurity inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683–684
content effect on hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . .820
IMSL (computer software program) . . . . . . . . . . .267
Inadequate penetration (IP) (lack of penetration)
subsurface feature as cause for rejection . . . . . . .156
in weldments . . 169, 170, 171, 174, 176–178, 179,
180, 186, 187, 190
Incinerator liner, sulfidation of nickel alloy . . . 870–
871
Incipient melting
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
of tool steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502, 503
Inclined ball-on-disk testing apparatus, description
of rolling contact fatigue test method . . . . .944
Inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120, 338
in Al-Li metal-matrix composite . . . . . . . . . 548, 549
blacking, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
in corrosion-resistant castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
and debonding in metals . . . . . . . . . . . . .571, 572, 628
as defect resulting from welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104, 1068
detection by ultrasonic inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . .396
as discontinuity for castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
as discontinuity for forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
dross . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
dross (flux), as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
in ductile fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .591
effect on fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .719
entrapped mold materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
as flaw in rolled bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
flux, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
and fracture markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .665
fracture modeling by continuum mechanics . . . .581
as fracture origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662–663
intentional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .682
and intergranular fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .564
and macropitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .723
metallic, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
nitrides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116, 117
nonmetallic, in ingot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88–90, 91
nonmetallic, in twistdrill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
origin, contact fatigue mode and controlling
factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .725
in overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683–684
oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112, 116, 117
of polybutadiene in acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene
resin handle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447, 449
refractories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111, 116–117
sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111, 116–117
silicate, in stainless steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509, 510
slag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111, 116–117
solid particles in ceramics . . . . . . . . . . .665, 669–670
subsurface feature as cause for rejection . . . . . . .156
sulfides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116, 117
in weldments . . 169, 171, 172–174, 175, 176, 186,
187, 189, 190
Inclusion shape-control methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Inclusions or structural anomalies, as casting
defects in ICFTA classification scheme . . 104,
111–112, 116–117, 118
Incoherent boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .683
Incomplete casting, as casting defects in ICFTA
classification scheme . . . . . . . . . . .104, 109–110
Incomplete fusion (IF) (formerly lack of fusion)
subsurface feature as cause for rejection . . . . . . .156
in weldments . . 169, 170, 171, 174, 176–178, 179,
180, 185, 186, 188, 190
Incorrect dimensions or shape, as casting defects in
ICFTA classification scheme . . .104, 110–111
Incubation stage, of cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . 1003
Indentation or impact, contact damage of
ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667–668
Indentations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
Indigenous inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116, 117
Indirect examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498–499
Indium
as embrittling metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862
as liquid embrittler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
as molten metal corrodent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .873
Induction hardening
and fatigue initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627, 632
to minimize warping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
Induction period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .971
Inductively coupled photospectroscopy (ICP), of
lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .413
Inductively coupled plasma spectrometer, for wet
chemical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) testing . . . . 431–
432
Industrial refractories, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .800
Inelastic cyclic buckling, as distortion failure 1056
Inert gas flushing, to remove gases from cast
iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
Inert gas sputtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .530
Inertia, polar moment of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .469
Infrared spectrophotometry, of corrosion
products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
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ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
Infrared (IR) spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
property derived from polymer analysis . . . . . . . .359
Infrared spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .438
Ingot
defects from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82–90
nonmetallic inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88–90, 91
Ingot drop speed, as root cause of forgings defects,
rationale, resolution, and corrective
action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327, 329, 330, 331
Ingot pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82–83
Initial capability, definition in reliability-centered
maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Initial crack size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255
Initial examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .371
Initial flaw size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281
Initial pitting, contact fatigue terminology . . . . . . .722
Injection molding
and brittle fracture of PVC water-filter
housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .660
compatibility with various materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Injury, probability of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Inlet valve recession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 972, 973
Inoculation process, for ductile iron . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
Inorganic glass, brittle fracture behavior . . . . . . . . .656
Inquiry engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .332
Insert cold shut, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
Inserts, to prevent fretting damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .934
In-service inspection (ISI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273, 274
Inspectable flaw size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
Inspection. See also Inspection interval.
to benchmark time span over which cracking
occurred . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
of coating application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .758
in-service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273, 274
manufacturing/installation anomalies . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
metric of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
preservice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273
of sites susceptible to velocity affected
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .791
for uniform corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770–771
of wastewater tunnel structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .755
Inspection interval. See also Inspection. . . . . . . . . .273
for aluminum pressurized fuselage . . . . . . . 285–286
determination of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281
ways to increase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273, 274
Inspection pigs, for stress-corrosion cracking in
pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .840
Inspection programs
periodic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21–22
U.S. government-required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Instantaneous crack size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
Instant film photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425–426
Insulating materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .800
Integrated product development (IPD) team
concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27, 29
Intensive quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213–214
Interaction volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .520
Interactive digital image analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
Interactive image analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .543
Interactive model generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .381
Intercrystalline. See Intergranular.
Interdendritic corrosion. See also Corrosion.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
Interdiffusion
between coating and substrate, and corrosion
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .875
between thin films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .530
Interface, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
Interface failure mode analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56, 58
Interface fault analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54–55
Interface with other design software . . . . . . . . . . . .381
Interference color fringes, in polymers . . . . . . . . . .657
Interference contrast, as ceramographic etching
procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362
Interference fringes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539–540
at fracture origin on brittle fracture surface . . . .657
Interferometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539–540
Intergranular, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
Intergranular brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .677
causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642–643
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .642
examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .643
of valve seats of resulfurized steel . . . . . . . . . . . . .677
Intergranular carbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216, 217
Intergranular corrosion. See also Interdendritic
corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . 337, 751, 761, 777–785
and aging reactions at high temperatures . . . . . 874–
875
of aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .784
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
of chromium-bearing corrosion-resistant
castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
of copper alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784–785
in corrosion-resistant castings . . . . . . .148–149, 150
as damage mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . .349
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
magnesium alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .784
and manganese sulfide stringer-type
inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .782
of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783–784
polarization behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .778
ship hull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .778
stainless steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777–783
test methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .779, 780, 781
valve in soda-dispensing system . . . . . . . . . . 781–782
of weld in wastewater vaporizer . . . . . . . . . . 782–783
of zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785
Intergranular cracking
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
of gas turbine blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302
from hydrogen in nickel-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . .873
with stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .825
Intergranular creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575–576
Intergranular creep fracture . . .566, 571, 575–576,
733–734
rounded “r-type” cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575
wedge “w-type” cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575
Intergranular embrittlement, indicative of brittle
fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
Intergranular fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637, 644–645
in carburized steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644–645
Intergranular fissuring, with hydrogen attack of
steel alloys for gas turbines . . . . . . . . . 293, 294
Intergranular (IG) fracture. See also Transgranular
fracture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343, 574–576, 641–649
alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .666
in bending with ductile fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .605
brittle, causes of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
in brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400–401
of carbon steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500–501, 502
causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645, 646
of ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .666
classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641–642
creep damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .733
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
dimples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .564
examples (situations) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
factors causing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564, 576
grain-boundary precipitates effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
grain boundary weakening or embrittlement
mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .641
with hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813, 814
impurity-induced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
indication of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .561
mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .642
nickel-baseprecipitation-hardening alloy . . . . . . .338
overload failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675–677
preferential cracking near grain boundaries . . . .564
quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .694
situations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575
of steam generator tube of nickel alloy . . 648–649
of steels due to grain-boundary precipitates . . 645–
646
stress rupture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .734
with tempered-martensite embrittlement . . . . . . .692
and temper embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691–692
Intergranular networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138–139
Intergranular (IG) stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .522, 647–648
of aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .852
brass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521, 524
conditions for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
EPR technique for susceptibility evaluation . . . .779
of gas turbine blades of nickel alloy . . . . . . . . . . .647
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Index / 1123
hoppers on trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .841
microbial involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884, 888
of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849, 850
of U-tubes of steam generator . . . . . . . . . . . . 388–389
welded pipe in Kamyr continuous pulp
digester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .840
weldment in sulfur recovery unit . . . . . . . . . 840–841
Intergranular with dimpled grain boundaries,
microscale fractographic implication . . . . . .560
Intergranular with smooth grain boundaries,
microscale fractographic implication . . . . . .560
Interim design reviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75–76
Intermetallic(s)
in aluminum alloy castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150
in austenitic manganese steel castings . . . . 147, 149
as base material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
in corrosion-resistant castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
as high-temperature coatings resisting
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .878
phase precipitation effect on stress rupture . . . 734–
735
Intermetallic compound embrittlement
causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
effect in ferrous alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .694
steels susceptible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
Internal and longitudinal crack
characteristics and crack growth mechanism . . .100
classification scheme by Greek letters . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Internal and transverse crack
characteristics and crack growth mechanism . . .100
classification scheme by Greek letters . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Internal bursts
effect on fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .719
in ingot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Internal concavity, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
Internal crack in drawing
characteristics and crack growth mechanism . . .100
classification scheme by Greek letters . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Internal crack in extrusion
characteristics and crack growth mechanism . . .100
classification scheme by Greek letters . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Internal crack in two directional extrusion
characteristics and crack growth mechanism . . .100
classification scheme by Greek letters . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Internal crack in two directional free extrusion
characteristics and crack growth mechanism . . .100
classification scheme by Greek letters . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Internal deposit buildup, as boiler tube damage
mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
Internal deposit/corrosion product buildup, as
damage mechanism for boiler tubing . . . . .347
Internal fractographic techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .538
Internal loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .276
Internal mixing crack, classification scheme by
Greek letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Internal oxidation
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1068–1069
in forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509
maximum acceptable depth for carburized gear
relative to case depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
removed by grinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220
Internal pipelines, prevention approach for
corrosion in industrial facilities . . . . . . . . . . .893
Internal pressure, of thin-walled pressure
vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
Internal quantitative fractography . . . . . . . . 538–539
Internal reversible hydrogen embrittlement . . .810
Internal shrinkage, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . .106
Internal state variables-based predictive fracture
models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .538
Internal sweating, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
The International Journal of Pressure Vessels and
Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
International Maritime Organization, banning of
tributyl-tin as antifoulant in marine
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .894
International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) 9000 registration procedures . . . . .322
International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) 9001 registration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Internet web sites, corrosion data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .752
Interrupted pour, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
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ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
www.asminternational.org
1124 / Index
Interrupted quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212–213, 214
Interstitial elements, and stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
Interstitial-free steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
Interval tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .701
Intracrystalline. See Transgranular.
Intrinsic viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .452
of PET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .452
Intrinsic viscosity testing, of PET jacket . . . . . . . .452
Invasive penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .800
Invention, vs. design concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Inventory, of parts at failure or wreckage . . . . . . . .394
Inverse chill, in cast irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
Inverse function method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259
Inverse rule of mixtures (IROM) . . . . . .1029, 1030,
1040
Investigation of failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234–238
on-site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393–394
Investment casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
characteristics of process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
compatibility with various materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
steel, minimum web thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Inward diffusion, of coatings for gas turbine
blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303, 304
Iodide ions, stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . .857
Ion beam deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
coating material, thickness, roughness, and
hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
contact stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
rolling contact fatigue life, ⳯ 106 cycles . . . . . .946
rolling contact fatigue tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
substrate material and hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
Ion etching, as ceramographic etching
procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362
Ionic bond, bond energy in various materials . . . .650
Ionic sputtering
coating material, thickness, roughness, and
hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
contact stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
rolling contact fatigue life ⳯ 106 cycles . . . . . . .946
rolling contact fatigue tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
substrate material and hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
Ion implantation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .759
to prevent fretting damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933, 934
Ion-microprobe analysis, of corrosion
products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
Ion-microprobe analyzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
Ion plating
coating material, thickness, roughness, and
hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
contact stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
magnetron sputtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
to prevent fretting damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .934
rolling contact fatigue life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
rolling contact fatigue tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
substrate material and hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
Ion transfer, and galvanic corrosion . . . . . . 765, 766
IP. See Incomplete penetration.
IPD. See Integrated product development team
concept.
IR. See Infrared spectroscopy.
Iridium, cleavage fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .589
IROM. See Inverse rule of mixtures.
Iron
bond energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
casting imperfections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003
cavitation erosion, incubation time . . . . . . . . . . . 1004
cleavage of fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572, 573
contaminant particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .525
content effect on nitridation
susceptibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869–870
in deposits from microbially-induced corrosion
sites in stainless steel cooling water
systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .889
in dissimilar metal pair, fretting damage . . . . . . .928
erosion rate in mineral oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007
fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .930
galvanic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .767
maximum erosion rate dependence in cavitation
erosion on combined parameter . . . . . . . . . 1016
metal penetration in castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119–120
microbially-induced corrosion, failure analysis
of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885–887
oxidation potential in endothermic gas . . . . . . . . .214
qualitative chemical testing for materials
identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
removed from alloys by selective leaching . . . . .785
standard emf series value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .763
tongues on fracture surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572, 590
uniform corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769, 770
x-ray elemental composition map made with
electron microprobe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .865
Iron aluminides, as high-temperature coatings
resisting corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876, 878
Iron-base alloys
creep onset temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729
die casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125, 126
heat treatment temperature effect on residual
stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .495
metal dusting attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
Iron-base heat-resisting alloys
cold forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
for warm gas turbine engine components . . . . . .296
Iron-carbon carbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .735
Iron-chromium alloys
environments subjecting alloy to selective
leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .823
Iron-chromium-molybdenum alloys, cleavage
cracking at mechanical twins . . . . . . . . . . . . . .572
Iron-chromium-nickel alloys (caustic cracking),
causes of stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . .831
Iron-chromium-nickel-tungsten amorphous alloy,
fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .930
Iron containing sulfur, workability behavior . . . . . 98
Iron-molybdenum alloys, twinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . .589
Iron-nickel-base heat-resisting alloys, for warm gas
turbine engine components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296
Iron-nickel-base superalloys. See Superalloys.
Iron oxides, as corrosion products in pipeline
excavations and laboratory soil box
tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
Iron oxidizers, in cooling systems drawing on
natural waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .889
Iron-oxidizing bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884, 889
mechanism and indicators for microbially-induced
corrosion scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .889
Iron phosphate coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .822
for corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .759
Iron reducers, in cooling systems drawing on
natural waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .889
Iron-silicon-boron alloys, fretting wear . . . . . . . . . .928
Iron sulfide
in black microbially-induced corrosion
products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
galvanic couple with sulfate reducing
bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882, 883
Iron sulfide/sulfate-reducing bacteria, microbiallyinduced corrosion under disbonded polyolefin
tape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
Iron sulfides, as corrosion products in pipeline
excavations and laboratory soil box
tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
Irregular contraction, as casting defect . . . . . . . . .110
ISI. See In-service inspection.
ISO. See International Organization for Standards.
Isoelectric point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .931
ISO 9000 International Standards for Quality
Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Isopropyl alcohol, stress-corrosion cracking . . . 858–
859
Isotactic polypropylene, functioning both as fiber
and as plastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
Isothermal cooling curves, interpretation of, in
failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322
Isothermal diagram, and carbide formation . . . . 735,
736
Isothermal heat dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
Isothermal mode of wear, of polymers . . . . . . . . 1024
Isothermal ratcheting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1056
Isothermal transformation diagrams. See also
Time-temperature-transformation
diagrams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192–193
Iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
guided . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Izod test
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
for polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .445
J
Jack cylinder, mixed-mode fracture of steel . . . 687–
688
Jaws castings, shrinkage porosity failure . . . . . . . . .114
Jaw-type rock crusher wear plates, abrasive
wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915, 916
Jet-engine turbine blade, creep behavior . . . . . . . .731
Jet erosion, variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .902
Jet pump beams, stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . .850
Jewelry-striking die, heat-treatment-related
failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510, 511
J-integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244, 246, 476
criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479–480
Joint(s)
crevice corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .775
types of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161–162
welded, defects and discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . .157
Joint design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
Joint flash, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
JPEG digital camera file format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .420
J-R curve. See R-curve.
K
K. See also Bulk modulus of elasticity; Stressintensity factor.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
Kc. See also Plane-stress fracture toughness.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
KI. See also Opening mode of deformation.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
KIc. See also Plane-strain fracture toughness.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
KId, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
KI stress-corrosion cracking, definition . . . . . . . 1074
Kmat. See Linear elastic fracture toughness.
KQ, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
Kt. See Stress-concentration factor.
Kth, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
KII, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
KIII, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
Kepner Tregoe (KT) method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
usefulness for larger scaled investigations . . . . .320
Keyhole effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
Key variable standard operating procedures
(KVSOP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .807
Killed steels, hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . .815
Kiln, high-temperature corrosion of nickel
alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871, 872
Kirchoff’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .763
Kish graphite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
Kish tracks, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
Kitagawa diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .703
Klebsiella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .891
K-level electron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .530
KLL Auger electron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .530
Knee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .656
Knifeline attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .780
Knoop hardness number (HK), definition . . . . 1069
Knoop hardness test, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
Knoop indenter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360, 361
Knoop microindentation hardness testing . . . . . 360,
361
Knuckle pin, fatigue cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720, 721
Koistinen and Marburger equation . . . . . . . . . . . . .211
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253
Koshal (linear) design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258
Kraft liquor, stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . .840
KT. See Kepner-Tregoe method.
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
KVSOP. See Key variable standard operating
procedure.
K-zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580–581
L
Laboratory
portable, components of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
preliminary examination procedures . . . . . . . . . . . .406
Laboratory investigations, for failure
analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15, 16
Lack of fusion (LOF). See also Incomplete fusion.
in weldments . . 169, 170, 171, 174, 176–178, 179,
180
Lack of penetration (LOP). See also Incomplete
penetration.
in weldments . . 169, 170, 171, 174, 176–178, 179,
180
Lactic acid, causing intergranular corrosion in
sensitized austenitic stainless steels . . . . . . .779
Ladder
fiberglass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74–75
human factors and liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74–75
Ladle analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .430
Ladle calcium treatments, effect on fracture
toughness of steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .477
Lambda crack
characteristics and crack growth mechanism . . .100
workability behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Lamellar tears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .682
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
in weldments . . 157, 158, 161, 167, 169, 170, 171,
173, 180–181, 182
Lamination(s)
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
as discontinuity for plate and sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
in ingot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83, 90
radiographic inspection not used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .396
Lance. See Fatigue striation; Striation.
Laning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .997
Lanthanum, addition improving oxidation
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .868
Lanthanum hexaboride, as electron source for
scanning electron microscopy . . . . . . 516, 517,
521, 524
Lap(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81, 82, 615
as casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108, 123
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
as discontinuity for forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
as discontinuity in semisolid casting . . . . . . . . . . .127
distortion from stress raisers . . . . . . . . .204–205, 207
as flaw in rolled bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
in forging of ski chair lift grip components . . . . 10,
11
in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91, 92, 93
in ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Lap joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162, 163, 164
Large-grained regions, in ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . .669
Larson-Miller parameter (LMP) . . . . 298, 299–300,
301, 732
for boiler tube characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .305
Laser beam welding, failure origins related
to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190–191
Laser confocal scanning microscopy . . . . . . 551, 553
Laser profilometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
Laser surface modification, for cavitation erosion
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1006–1007, 1008
Laser surface processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759, 760
Latch assemblies, brittle fracture of
polyacetal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454–456
Lath martensite, microcracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
Laves phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .734
formation at elevated temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . .874
Lawn mower blades, brittle fracture of lawn mower
blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681–682
Law of normal tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .664
LCF. See Low-cycle fatigue.
Leaching. See Selective leaching.
Lead
in base metal, and weldment porosity . . . . . . . . . .170
causing liquid metal induced embrittlement . . 865–
866
as embrittling metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862
galvanic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .767
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
and hot corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .872
liquid, environment causing stress-corrosion
cracking of nickel and nickel-base
alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .848
polishing with embedding damage . . . . . . . 506, 507
qualitative chemical testing for materials
identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
standard emf series value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .763
sulfuric acid corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .770
uniform corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .768
x-ray elemental composition map made with
electron microprobe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .865
Lead alloys
die casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
for impressed-current anodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .756
Lead chloride/iron chloride, causing chloridation of
carbon steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .873
Lead ions in aqueous solutions, causing stresscorrosion cracking in high-nickel alloys . .831
Lead print technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337
Lead time to failure. See P-F interval.
Lead-tin solders, as molten metal corrodent . . . . .873
Leaf spring, fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .430
Leakage failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337
Leak-before-break concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161, 231
Leakers, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
Least-squares estimators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254
Leathery polymer, modulus vs. temperature . . . . .799
Ledges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .519
LEFM. See Linear elastic fracture mechanics.
Leg, of weldment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162, 163
Length
measured . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .543
yardstick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543, 547
Lepidocrosite, as corrosion products in pipeline
excavations and laboratory soil box
tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
Levels of indenture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51, 52
Levels of resolution, engineering design
process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41, 42
LFR. See Life fraction rule.
Liberty warships. See World War II Liberty ships.
Life
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227, 289
limiting factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232–234
requirements effects on detailed design . . . . . . . . . 33
Life assessment
elevated temperature exposure . . . . . . .238, 239–240
elevated-temperature failure mechanisms . . . . 289–
310
fatigue/damage-tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237, 239
fitness for service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240–241
historic structural failures’ impact on . . . . . . . . . .228
model validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237, 238
probabilistic analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241–242
strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269–270, 271
Life-cycle considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31, 48
Life-cycle management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Life expectancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325
Life-fraction rule (LFR) . . . . . . . . 240, 289, 298–299
life assessment technique for elevated-temperature
exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
of power plant piping and tubing . . . .304, 306–308
for reheater and superheater tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . .309
Lifting eye, failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36, 37
Light, as degradation source for polymers 653–654
Light-beam profile technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .540
Lighting, in photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .421
backlighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .421
copystand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .421
direct, then oblique of wreckage or failure . . . . .395
fiber optic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353, 421
flash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .421
fracture surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .421–425, 426
macrophotography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425
natural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .421
Light microscope
bright-filled illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .499
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Index / 1125
capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .499
dark-field illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .499
depth-of-field limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .499
for fine-structure examination and
identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .499
as indispensable tool for failure analyst . . 498, 499
Light microscopy
in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336, 337, 338, 339
as fractography technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .662
of microstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509–512, 513, 514
nickel plating to enhance edge retention of
fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499, 500
in preliminary laboratory examination . . . . . . . . .406
purposes for use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .498
of taper sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501
of wear damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
Light optical microscope, for macroscopic
examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353
Light profile microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539, 540
Lime
formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
melting point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
Limit analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474–475
and distortion failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1047–1048
Limit state . . . . . . . . 252, 254–255, 256, 257, 262, 266
Limit state function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256–257
Limit theorems
lower bound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474–475
upper bound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474–475
Lineal average dimple size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
Lineal profile roughness parameter (RL) . . . . . . 541,
543, 544
Lineal vertical section profile roughness
parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .544, 545–546
Linear congruential random number
generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
Linear-damage law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .701
Linear elastic behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655–656
Linear elastic fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
Linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM). See
also Stress-intensity factor. . . . 230, 246, 475–
478, 480, 686–687
brittle fracture criterion in tensile crack opening
mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .656
conditions for analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
Linear elastic fracture toughness (Kmat), of the
component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
Linear elastic stress intensity factor (KI) . . . . . . 245,
246
Linear fracture path preference index Qi . . . . . .543
Linear polarization resistance, as electrochemical
monitoring method used for microbiallyinduced corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .892
Linear profile roughness parameter using length
of non-overlapped portion of vertical
section fracture profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .547
Linear rule of mixtures (LROM) . . . . . .1029, 1030,
1040
Linear sliding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023
Linear superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478
Linear wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021
Line broadening, of x-ray diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . .495
Line-pipe steels, hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . .815
Liners, to resist corrosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .992
Line scans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .532
Linings
elastomer in slurry piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
nonmetallic, for corrosion protection . . . . . 758–759
rubber in slurry piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
Liquation cracks
subsurface feature as cause for rejection . . . . . . .156
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170,184
Liquid corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .803
Liquid-droplet erosion . . . . . . . . . . . .1013, 1014–1015
manifestations of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015
Liquid-droplet impingement
characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
material changes for mitigation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
procedure for mitigation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
Liquid-droplet impingement
testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007, 1008–1009, 1010
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
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1126 / Index
Liquid hand soap, stress-corrosion cracking . . . 858–
859
Liquid impact erosion . . . . . . . . .997–998, 1013–1017
damage mitigation and repair . . . . . . . . . . .1016–1017
fatigue as failure mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015
materials selection for resistance . . . . . . .1015–1016
Liquid impingement erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997–998
cause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .995
stainless steel steam turbine blade . . . . . . . . . . . . . .998
Liquid metal embrittlement. See Liquid metal
induced embrittlement.
Liquid-metal forging. See Squeeze casting.
Liquid-metal-induced embrittlement (formerly
liquid-metal embrittlement) (LMIE) . . . . 18,
366, 694, 697–698,
751, 873–874
of alloy steel and cadmium . . . . . . . . . .863, 864, 865
alloy steel and copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865, 866
alloy steel and lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865–866
alloy steel and zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .866
aluminum-mercury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863–864
of carbon steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500–501, 502
of carbon steel and cadmium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .865
carbon steel and copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865, 866
carbon steel and lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865–866
carbon steel and zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .866
causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
copper alloy rupture discs . . . . . . . . . . .862, 864–865
copper-induced in carbon steel . . . . . . . . . . . 367, 369
copper-mercury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862, 864–865
as damage mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . .349
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .861, 1069
effect in ferrous alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697–698
failure analysis of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862–863
forms of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .861
influencing intergranular fracture . . . . . . . . . 642, 645
and intergranular fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645, 646
of locomotive axle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .366–367, 368
metals shown to cause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862
service failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862, 863–866
similarity to stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . .861
stainless steel and copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .866
stainless steel and zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .866
steels susceptible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
subcritical crack growth rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .861
titanium-cadmium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .866
trough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .861
zinc-induced, in stainless steel . . . . . . . . . . . . 367, 369
Liquid-penetrant inspection
contaminating surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .751
of corrosion surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .752
description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
description, advantages and limitations . . 395–396
to detect pores in castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
for failure analysis and investigation . . . .336, 395–
396
of fatigued brittle fracture of forged rod . . . .85, 86
flaw size range with 90% probability of
detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
of liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . .866
in preliminary laboratory examination . . . . . . . . .406
residues from testing affecting accident
investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .374
of secondary cracks in fractured surfaces . . . . . .398
of solid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . .865
of stainless steel solenoid valve cracks . . . 235, 236
of steel repair welded pump impellers . . . . . . . . .153
for stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .837
to study defects in malleable irons . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
to study surface condition of castings . . . . . . . . . .120
uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
of welded inlet header . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166
of weldment microfissures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180
of weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
weldment undercuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
Liquid shrinkage, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
Lithium
as embrittling metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862
as liquid embrittler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
liquid, environment causing stress-corrosion
cracking of nickel and nickel-base
alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .848
as molten metal corrodent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .873
Lithium hydroxides (LiOH)
causing stress-corrosion cracking in carbon
steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
causing stress-corrosion cracking in Fe-Cr-Ni
alloys (caustic cracking) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
Litigation
evidence destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393
mishandling of failed material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .340
sectioning of fracture surface as evidence . . . . . .398
L-level electron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .530
LMIE. See Liquid metal induced embrittlement.
LMP. See Larson-Miller parameter.
Load and resistance factor design (LRFD) . . . . .250
Load cycles, increment of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .585
Load distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467–468
Load factor exceedance diagram . . . . . . . . . . 280–281
Loading
external and internal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .276
in-plane shear (mode II) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .574
mechanical, and overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . .686
modes of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .278
opening mode (mode I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .574
operational variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .902
reversed or partially reversed bending . .576, 577–
578
rotating bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .577
strain path changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620–621
torsional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713–715
types of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Loading mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .276
Loading rate, effect on fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
Load path, change in truck kingpin assembly . . 45
Load variation method (LVM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .361
Local effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Localized chemistry variation, as root cause of
forgings defects, rationale, resolution, and
corrective action . . . . . . . . . . 327, 329, 330, 331
Localized corrosion
from aging reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .874
and grinding, role in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .992
stainless steel sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528, 530, 534
Localized overheating, of steel mold for centrifugal
castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
Local necking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597, 599, 601–602, 621
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
Local strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .581
Local stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .581
Locomotive axle, liquid metal embrittlement . . 366–
367, 368
Locomotive drive axle, Babbitt metal lining of
bronze cylinder of friction bearing,
overheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335–336
LOF. See Lack of fusion.
Logic gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56, 57
Logistics support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Lognormal distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252, 253, 265
Lognormal format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256, 257
Longitudinal cracks, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
Longitudinal direction. See also Normal direction;
Transverse direction.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
Long-life regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .702
Long-term overheating (creep rupture), as damage
mechanism for boiler tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
Loose metal, of sheet metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
LOP. See Lack of penetration.
Loran signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
Loran tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339–340
pin in guy wire, fatigue failure . . . . . . . . . . . 334–335
Loss modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .443, 444, 445
Lost foam casting, characteristics of process . . . .124
Lost wax slurry casting, in shape-castings processes
classification scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Low-activity aluminide coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .876
Low-alloy quenched-and-tempered steel
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915, 916
gouging abrasion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .908
Low-alloy steels
aluminum nitride embrittlement in castings . . . .145
casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140–146
casting failures due to composition . . . . . . . 144–145
cavitation erosion in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
connector casting, shrinkage porosity effect . . 113,
114
creep onset temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729
ductile crack nucleation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .591
fatigue failure, shear lips and chevron
marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630, 633
fractal dimension of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .547
fracture profile generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539, 540
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
strength-hardness correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980, 981
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838–843
workability behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Low-angle boundary. See Grain boundary.
Low-angle light scattering, property derived from
polymer analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
Low-carbon steel
carbide changes with elevated temperature . . 291–
292, 293
carbon potential vs. dewpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
ductile fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
hydrogen-induced cracking in pipeline . . . . . . . . .366
nickel-plate fractures, light micrograph . . 499, 500
quasi-cleavage fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . .607–608, 611
quenched-and-tempered, cleavage fracture
microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498, 499
rolling and fractures resulting . . . . . . . . . . . . 615, 617
unstable rapid fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .679
weldment fatigue fracture in plate . . .171–172, 173
Low-cycle fatigue (LCF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .491–492, 709
as damage mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . .349
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
as elevated-temperature failure in gas
turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .289, 291, 296
fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .577
fatigue life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .718
of gas turbine blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .346
intergranular fracture as mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . .644
loading types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
material properties related to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
material selection criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
nickel-base superalloy service-run gas turbine
blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344
operating temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
stress-types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
and thermal fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .736
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE), isothermal
transfer wear behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024
Low-electron-emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .518
Low-hardenability steels, quenching medium . . .207
Low-magnification optical microscopy, as
fractography technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .662
Low-melting-point phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Low-nutrient bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753, 754
Low-power optical microscopy, to examine wear
scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .902
Low pressure casting, in shape-casting processes
classification scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Low-pressure die casting, in shape-casting
processes classification scheme . . . . . . . . . . .124
Low-pressure microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .524
Low-strength steels, causes of stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
Low-stress abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .908
Low temperature (dew point) fireside corrosion, as
damage mechanism for boiler tubing . . . . .347
LRFD. See Load and resistance factor design.
LROM. See Linear rule of mixtures.
Lubricants. See also Lubrication. . . . . . . . . . . 410–411
additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
and adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .909
analysis in wear failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410–411
biodegradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .881
contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
with corrosion inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
effect on polymer wear failures . . . . . . . .1024–1025
effect on reinforced polymers . . 1028, 1031, 1036,
1038
extreme-pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
failures due to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410–411
filtration or absorption devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
greases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410, 411
of high-strength screws, ductile overload
failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673–674
incompatibility for polycarbonate/PET appliance
housings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450–451
micropitting role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .724
oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410–411
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
for polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035
to prevent fretting damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .934
prevention of failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
as protection against and encouragement for
microbial growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .885
as protection from corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405
for rolling-element bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945, 946
saponification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .834
transition temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
Lubricating efficiency factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1038
Lubrication. See also Lubricants.
and adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
to combat abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
dry film (solid-film) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
effect on impact wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 967–968
elastohydrodynamic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
hydrodynamic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
hydrostatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
operational variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .902
thin-film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
Lubrication breakdown, as damage mechanism on
failure wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
Lubricity, as criteria for materials selection . . . . . . . 32
Lüders lines (bands) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101, 620, 622, 690
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
Lug
forged, stress-corrosion cracking failure . . . . . . .828
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .852
Lundberg-Palmgren, theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 944, 945
Lustrous carbon films, as casting defect . . . . . . . . .112
LVM. See Load variation method.
M
Machine rod, fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631, 633
Machining
causing distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205, 209
of ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .370
compatibility with various materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
defects resulting from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
distortion due to residual stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
distortion from stress raisers . . . . . . . . .204–205, 206
and fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .720
and fracture origins of ceramics . . . . . . . . . . 668–669
as root cause of forgings defects, rationale,
resolution, and corrective action . . . 327, 329,
330, 331
Machining coolant, as root cause of forgings
defects, rationale, resolution, and corrective
action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327, 329, 330, 331
Machining feeds, as root cause of forgings defects,
rationale, resolution, and corrective
action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327, 329, 330, 331
Machining from stock, compatibility with various
materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Machining marks (normal to axis of component),
macroscale fractographic implication . . . . .560
Machining oils, stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . .834
Machining speeds, as root cause of forgings defects,
rationale, resolution, and corrective
action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327, 329, 330, 331
Machining tear, as root cause of forgings defects,
rationale, resolution, and corrective
action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327, 329, 330, 331
Mackinawite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .884
as corrosion products in pipeline excavations and
laboratory soil box tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
McQuad-Ehn test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .364
Macroetching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .511–512, 513
in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337
of forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
to identify unsoundness in ingot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
to reveal chemical segregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
to reveal dendritic structure of ingot or
casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118
Macrofissures, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180
Macrofractography. See Fractography.
Macroinclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
Macrophotography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419, 425
Macropitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723–724
contact fatigue terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .722
fatigue life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .723
geometric stress concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . 723–724
point surface origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723, 724
subsurface-origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723, 726
surface-origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723–724
Macroporosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104, 112, 113
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
Macroscopic, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
Macroscopic examination . . . . . . . . . . . . .334, 335, 336
of fracture surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398–399
Macroscopic plastic flow and instability . . 617–621
Macrosegregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118
in ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Macroshrinkage
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
Macrostructure, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
Maghemite, as corrosion products in pipeline
excavations and laboratory soil box
tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
Magnaflux inspection, prior to heat treatment . . .204
Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800, 801, 803–804
formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
melting point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
Magnesia-dolomite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
Magnesium
cavitation erosion, incubation time . . . . . . . . . . . 1004
cleavage plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .574
compatibility with various manufacturing
processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
content effect on galvanic corrosion of
alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .766
content effect on intergranular fracture of
aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
content effect on intergranular stress-corrosion
cracking of aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . .648
fracture mechanism map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
liquid embrittlers of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
maximum erosion rate dependence in cavitation
erosion on combined parameter . . . . . . . . . 1016
standard emf series value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .763
Magnesium alloys
centrifugal casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
compatibility with various manufacturing
processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
containing zinc, workability behavior . . . . . . . . . . . 98
die casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
environment systems exhibiting stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .784
permanent-mold casting material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
pitting corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .775
as sacrificial anodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .756
squeeze casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 856–857
uniform corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .767
warm forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
workability behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Magnesium alloys, specific types
AM60
ultimate tensile strength vs. gas porosity
voids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549, 550
AM60A
composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
AS41A
composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
AZ alloys
www.asminternational.org
Index / 1127
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .856
AZ31B
galvanic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .766
AZ80-F
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .856
AZ91B
composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
AZ91C-T6
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .856
QE 22A-T6
overload failure with rapid unstable
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .680
ZE10
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .856
ZK60
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .856
Magnesium chloride, stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824, 825, 836, 837,
847, 848–849, 857
Magnesium fluoride, fracture of disks due to biaxial
flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662, 663
Magnesium hydride, formation in aluminum alloys
and intergranular stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .648
Magnesium oxide
bond energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
fracture mechanism map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
Magnesium-silicate inclusions, in tire-mold
castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117, 118
Magnetic characteristics, as criteria for materials
selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Magnetic particle inspection
of alloy steel ski chair lift grip
components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10, 11
of casting defect fracture due to
cold shut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120, 121
of cast steel crosshead of industrial
compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
of corrosion surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .752
description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
description, advantages and limitations . . . . . . . .395
of double-face hammers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .986
effect on fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . .720–721, 722
to evaluate tension springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .689
in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336, 395
flaw size range with 90% probability of
detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
of forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
in preliminary laboratory examination . . . . . . . . .406
residues from testing affecting accident
investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .374
of steam turbine rotor disc with stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .842
for stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .837
to study defects in malleable irons . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
to study gray iron crankcases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
to study surface condition of castings . . . . . . . . . .120
uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
of welded tubular posts in carrier vehicle . . . . . .174
weldment inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176
of weldment incomplete penetration . . . . . . . . . . .177
of weldment microfissures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180
of weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
weldments in headers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165, 166
weldment undercuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
Magnetite, as corrosion products in pipeline
excavations and laboratory soil box
tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
Magnetomechanical damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015
Magnetron sputtering, coating material, thickness,
roughness, and hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
contact stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
rolling contact fatigue life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
rolling contact fatigue tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
substrate material and hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
Magnification, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
Maintainability engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Maintenance
defects due to improper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72–73
improper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325
improper, as life-limiting factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
Maintenance and repair, provision of . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
www.asminternational.org
1128 / Index
Maintenance cleaning damage
as boiler tube damage mechanism on failure
wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
as damage mechanism for boiler tubing . . . . . . . .347
Maintenance plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Maleic anhydride, causing intergranular corrosion in
sensitized austenitic stainless steels . . . . . . .779
Malleability. See also Ductility.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
Malleable iron
applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140–141
fatigue failures of rocker lever of diesel
engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140, 141
graphite content effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
impingement corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .792
Malleableizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
Management systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3–4
Manganese
addition to nickel alloys and sulfidation
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .870
alloying element effect on ductile-brittle transition
temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .684
content effect on alloy steel temper
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
content effect on internal oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . .214
content effect on quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
content effect on retained austenite
formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207
content effect on sigma-phase embrittlement . .693
in deposits from microbially-induced corrosion
sites in stainless steel cooling water
systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .889
effect on hydrogen embrittlement resistance in
high-strength steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
effect on molybdenum microsegregation . . . . . . .219
as embrittling agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691, 692
as embrittling impurity in low-alloy steel
castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144
forming dispersoids to slow down crack
growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
microbially produced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .883
microsegregation affected by sulfur . . . . . . . . . . . .219
microsegregation susceptibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
oxidation potential in endothermic gas . . . . . . . . .214
Manganese bronze
cast, cavitation erosion in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
decohesive rupture of worm gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .676
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
Manganese-molybdenum steels, three-dimensional
fracture surface reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . .553
Manganese oxidizers, mechanism and indicators for
microbially-induced corrosion scenario . . .889
Manganese-oxidizing bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .884
Manganese phosphate coatings, for corrosion
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .759
Manganese selenide (MnSe) inclusions, causing
stress-corrosion cracking in high-strength
steels (initiation sites for cracking) . . . . . . . .831
Manganese steels
erosion rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .931
gouging abrasion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907–908
Manganese sulfide inclusions . . . . . . . . .117, 353, 363
causing brittle overload fracture in cast steel
brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683–684
causing stress-corrosion cracking in high-strength
steels (initiation sites for cracking) . . . . . . . .831
and debonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591, 592
formation in steel ingot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88, 89
formation with microsegregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
fracture initiation at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .593
as grain-boundary precipitate in overheated
steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
by hydrogen-induced cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .815
and intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .782
precipitation detection by metallography . . . . . . .401
in steel lifting eye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
in tapered-ring sprocket locking device . . . . . . 9, 10
transverse splitting in fracture surface . . . . 612, 617
void sheet fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .624
Manufacture, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Manufacturing
as cause of imperfections . . . . . .613–616, 617, 618,
619
effect on fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720–721
Manufacturing flaw (or defect) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72, 561
vs. manufacturing imperfection . . . . . . . . . . . 614, 617
as root cause resulting in failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Manufacturing imperfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .561
vs. manufacturing flaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614, 617
Maraging steel
ductile fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .598–599, 602
fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523, 524
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824, 843
stress-corrosion cracking of stud . . . . . . . . . 631, 633
thermal embrittlement by titanium carbonitrides
and intergranular fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
Marcasite, as corrosion products in pipeline
excavations and laboratory soil box
tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
Marine environment, thermal barrier coatings and
hot corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
Marine paints, antifoulants, past and present . . . .894
Marketing defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Marquenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212, 214
modified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212, 214
Marring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .901
Martempering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212, 214
to minimize cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
to minimize distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
Martensite. See also Tempered martensite. . . . . . .928
atomic volume of ferrous alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
carbon content vs. lattice parameters . . . . . 193, 194
crystal structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
in nickel-chromium steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211, 213
as transformational product in steel . . . . . 192, 193,
194, 195, 196
volume changes of carbon steels due to phase
transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194, 195
Martensite finish (Mf) temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
Martensite start (Ms) temperature . . . . . . . . 192, 193
and cracking tendency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
hydrostatic pressure effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194, 196
Martensitic steels, abrasive wear mode
identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919–920
Massive carbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216, 217
Massive voids, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189, 190
Mass loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .771
with intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778–779
Mass spectrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
Mass spectroscopy (MS)
properties measured . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
property derived from polymer analysis . . . . . . . .359
use in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
Mass-to-change ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .533
Material coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
Material crack tip opening displacement
toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245
Material defect, as root cause resulting in
failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Material flaws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346–347
Material imperfections, as damage mechanism for
boiler tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
Material property charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Materials
causing overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677–678
operational variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .902
Materials engineer, expertise of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
Materials failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380
Materials-first approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27, 29
Materials/metallurgical failure analysis . . . . . . . .386
Materials Properties Council, Program PSF
(computer program) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .266
Materials safety data sheet (MSDS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24–39
during concept design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29–31
as corrosion prevention method in industrial
facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
criteria related to failure mechanisms, loading,
stress, and operating temperatures . . . . . . . . . 35
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
in design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
and failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35–36
for failure prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34–35
four-level approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
improper, examples of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36–38
material properties considered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Material stressors
chemical stressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
electrical stressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
electrochemical stressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
mechanical stressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
radiation stressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
thermal stressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Material wear factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .971
MATHCAD (computer software program) . . . 267,
482
MATHEMATICA (computer software
program) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
MATLAB (computer software program) . . . . . . .267
Matrix, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
Matrix of direction cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .483
Maximum allowable design stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .656
Maximum bending moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .474
Maximum distortion theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .473
Maximum likelihood analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253, 271
Maximum normal stress criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . .461
Maximum normal stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .464
Maximum profile depths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .530
Maximum shear stress . . . . . . . . . . 464, 465, 466, 482
of beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470
normals to planes of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .482
Maximum shear stress theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .473
Maximum strength. See Ultimate strength.
Maximum stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
Maximum stress-intensity factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
Maximum stress-intensity factor of overload . .283
Maximum stress intensity for the current
cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
Maximum subsurface shear stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . .467
McClintock’s void nucleation model . . . . . . . . . . . .623
MEA/DEA. See Monoethanolamine and
diethanolamine solutions.
MEADEP (computer software program) . . . . . . .267
Mean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252, 256, 260
Mean free path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403
Mean stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280–281, 700
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .277
Mean value first-order second-moment analysis
(MVFOSM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250, 255, 256, 257
Mean value solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258
Measurable impact wear models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .971
Measurable wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .971
Mechanical (cold) cracks
as casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104, 1069
Mechanical defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228, 232
Mechanical engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Mechanical Engineering Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .251
Mechanical fatigue, resulting in fatigue damage
mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344
Mechanical fatigue cycles, as life-limiting
factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
Mechanical hinges, brittle fracture of nylon . . . 457–
459
Mechanical properties
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
determination in failure analysis . . . . .334, 337–338
inverse relationships with physical properties . . . 32
Mechanical spectroscopy, property derived from
polymer analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
Mechanical testing
of casting defect fracture due to cold shut . . . . .121
of overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .687
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445–446
properties measured . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
use in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
Mechanical twinning. See Deformation twinning.
Mechanical twins (deformation twins)
with brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
in commercial-purity titanium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
in metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .572
Mechanical wear, of slurry-handling
equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .992
Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343
Mechatronic misting device, and Legionnaire’s
Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
Medart roll, wear failure of steel . . . . . . . . . . . 512, 513
Median crack, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
Medical devices, mixed-mode cracking of tool
steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677, 678
Medium-carbon steels
annealed, fatigue striations not resolved . . . . . . . .636
brittle fracture of forged rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85–86
environments subjecting alloy to selective
leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785
fatigue failure of crank pin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628, 632
fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119, 631, 633
fold in forging causing cracking . . . . . . . . . . 614, 617
quenched-and-tempered, fatigue fracture showing
striations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .636
quenching, and distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196, 201
tempering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195, 199
X-pattern, crack propagation and resolved tensile
stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630, 633
Medium-strength steels, causes of stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
Medium-strength steels (accelerated hydrogeninduced cracking), causes of stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
Melt flow index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .445
Melt flow rate (MFR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .445, 449, 452
of high-density polyethylene chemical storage
vessel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .454
of polyacetal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .455
of polycarbonate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .457
of polyethylene terephthalate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .452
properties measured . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
use in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
Melt forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
from impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982, 984
as damage mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . .349
during heat treatment, as casting defect . . . . . . . .110
Melting point
as criteria for materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
of semicrystalline polymer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440–441
Melt-through, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169–174
MEMS. See Microelectro-mechanical systems.
Mercurials, removed as antifoulant in marine
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .894
Mercurous nitrate test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .854
Mercury
bond energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
causing liquid metal induced
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .863–864, 865
as embrittling metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862
induced failures of aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . .862
as liquid embrittler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
liquid, environment causing stress-corrosion
cracking of nickel and nickel-base
alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .848
standard emf series value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .763
Metabolic activity, method used for inspection,
growth and activity assays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
Metabolites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .884
Metal deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749, 750
Metal depositors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
Metal dusting, as mechanism for high-temperature
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868–869
Metal flow rate, as root cause of forgings defects,
rationale, resolution, and corrective
action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327, 329, 330, 331
Metal impingement, of permanent-mold
castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
Metal-induced embrittlement, definition . . . . . . . .861
Metal ion deposition, and galvanic corrosion . . . .766
Metal-ion reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749, 750
Metallic bond, bond energy in various
materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
Metallic coatings, for corrosion resistance . . . . . . 759,
764
Metallic inclusions
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172–174
Metallic materials
bonding and crystallinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
deformation and fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569–572
Metallic projections, as casting defects in
International Committee of Foundry
Technical Associations classification
scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104, 105, 119–120
Metallographic examination (metallography)
of alloy steel ski chair lift grip components . . . . . 11
of casting defect fracture due to cold shut . . . . .121
of casting defects in ductile iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
central force mode for automatic grinder/
polisher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .504
of corrosion surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .752
edge preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503–505
equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498–499
etching . . . .500, 501, 503, 504, 505, 506, 507, 509,
510, 511, 512, 513, 514
to examine cracks in service-run gas turbine
blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344
in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . 334, 336, 338, 401–402
of failure modes, instantaneous and
progressive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
fatigue brittle fracture of forged rod . . . . . . . . . 85–86
of fatigue fracture of stainless steel liner for
expansion joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165
field metallography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513–514
fracture mode identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .672
of gas turbine blades with low-cycle fatigue . . .346
of gray iron crankcases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135
of gray iron cylinder block casting . . . . . . . 134, 136
grinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503, 504, 505–506
of hot tears in aluminum alloy castings . . . . . . . .150
knowledge required for failure analysts . . . . . . . .322
of liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . .866
for macroscopic examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353
of metal-induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . 863, 864
mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502–503, 504, 505
of nodular iron crankshaft main-bearing
journal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139, 140
polishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503, 504, 505, 506–508
preparation and examination of specimens in
failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 361–362, 501–508
sectioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501–502, 503
sectioning of turbine blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297–298
of solid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . .865
of spalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982–985
specimen orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .402
of stress-corrosion cracking damage . . . . . . . . . . .838
techniques in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498–514
of wear failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .413
of weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159–160
Metal loss, rate of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .882
Metallostatic head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
Metal-matrix composites
alumina fiber-reinforced with Al-Li alloy
matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .548
with alumina fibers in aluminum-alloy
matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540, 542
fracture profile generation, alumina fibers in
aluminum alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539, 540
linear profile roughness parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . .542
profile orientation distribution functions . . . . . . .542
profile structure factors for fracture profiles of
vertical sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .542
Metal mold reaction, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . .108
Metal-oxide attack, of low-alloy steel castings . .146
Metal penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119–120
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
Metal removal processes, manufacturing/installation
anomalies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Metals chemistry service provider, communication,
clues for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .429
Metal spinning, compatibility with various
materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Metalworking
improvements to mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . 81
manufacturing/installation anomalies . . . . . . . . 11–12
and stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828, 829
Methanol, stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . 834, 857,
858–859
Method of moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253, 254
Methyl alcohol, causing stress-corrosion cracking in
titanium alloys at various temperatures . . .857
Methylene chloride, stress-corrosion cracking . . .845
Methyl methacrylate, for mounting . . .502, 503, 504
MFR. See Melt flow rate.
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Index / 1129
MIC. See Microbially induced or influenced
corrosion.
Microbially induced or influenced corrosion
(MIC) . . . . . 18, 751, 753, 754, 768, 769, 787,
791, 881–894
admiralty brass condenser tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
aluminum alloy aircraft fuel tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . .891
of aluminum and its alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890–891
aluminum brass condenser tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
biocides for prevention and control . . . . . . . . . . . .894
brass piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
cathodic protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .885
cathodic protection for control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .754
cathodic protection for prevention . . . . . . . . 893–894
coatings, protective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .885
in cooling water piping system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
in cooling-water system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
in cooling water systems, factors for
diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887, 888
copper alloy condenser tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
of copper and its alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
in copper and its alloys, corrosion resistance . .890
corrosion inhibitors effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .885
cupronickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
depolarization mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882, 883
elements present in surface deposits in stainless
steel weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .889
and hydrostatic testing environment . . . . . . . . . . . .834
industrial sectors affected by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .881
industrial sites of problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885–887
lubricants for protection against . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .885
materials affected by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .881
materials selection and coatings for prevention and
control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .892
monitoring methods and probes . . . . . . . . . . 891–892
ozone treatment for control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .755
piping for storm sewer treatment system . . . . . . .753
preferential attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .888
sampling, analysis, and inspection of
conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892–893
site identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 886–887
in soil environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885–887
of stainless steel condenser tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .881
stainless steel welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .883
steel corrosion-resistant alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . 887–890
system design and operation for prevention . . . .892
Microbially produced manganese, corrosion
by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .883
Microbial metabolites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .883
Microbiological corrosion, as damage mechanism
on failure wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
Microchemical analysis
in chemical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .429, 432–436
procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357–358
Microcrack(s) (microcracking) . . . . . . 218, 219, 582,
652, 669
of abrasive particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .910
and chemical segregation of ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
as defect resulting from anodic hard coating . . . . 81
as defect resulting from carburizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
as defect resulting from nitriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
as defect resulting from surface hardening . . . . . . 81
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218, 1069
and delamination in impact wear . . . . . . . . . 967, 970
of diesel fuel injection control sleeve . . . . . . .12, 13
of extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511, 512
of forging die with chemical segregation . . . . . . . . 85
from hydrogen interactions with ferrous-base
alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .873
and micropitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .724
of nylon driving gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1026
in polycarbonate sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .654
in polymer composites . . . 1028, 1029, 1031, 1032,
1037, 1039, 1040
in polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .657
of polymers from organic chemicals . . . . . . . . . . .369
in refractories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801, 803
and rolling-contact fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .951
in steam drum nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232–233
of surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653, 654
in titanium aircraft engine compressor disk . . . .264
at twin intersections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .591
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179, 180, 182
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
www.asminternational.org
1130 / Index
Microcutting
of abrasive particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .910
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1028, 1029, 1033
Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), finite
element analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385
Microelectronics, finite element analysis for design
of components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385
Microfatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1028
Microfissures. See also Microcrack(s).
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
Micro-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
(Micro-FTIR)
of acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene grips . . 447, 448
acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene protective
covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .449
of high-density polyethylene chemical storage
vessel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .453
of nylon couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448, 450
of nylon filtration unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456
of nylon hinges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458, 459
of nylon wire clips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .447
of polyacetal latch assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .455
of polybutylene terephthalate automotive
sleeves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .448–449, 451
polycarbonate/PET appliance housings . . . 450–451
of polycarbonate switch housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .457
of polyethylene-terephthalate jacket of
transportation assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . 451–452
polyvinyl chloride plasticized tubing . . . . . 448, 451
Microfractography. See Fractography.
Micro-FTIR. See Micro-Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy.
Microhardness testing
in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .334, 338, 402
gas turbine blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .346
Microinclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
Microindendritic shrinkage, in aluminum alloy
castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
Microindentation hardness tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .364
Microindentation methods, for hardness
evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360–361
Microjets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013
causing cavitation erosion . . . . . . 1002, 1003, 1004,
1006
impingement mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .998
Microorganism identification, method used for
inspection, growth and activity assays . . . .893
Microorganisms, specific, method used for
inspection, growth and activity assays . . . .893
Microperforation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .814
Micropitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724–725
contact fatigue mode and controlling factors . . .725
contact fatigue terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .722
and rolling-contact fatigue . . . . . . . . . . .950, 951, 953
Microplowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1028, 1029
of abrasive particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .910
Micropolishing, during rolling-contact fatigue
test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948, 949
Micropores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
Microporosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104, 113
in aluminum alloy castings . . . . . . . . . .150, 151, 152
of aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104, 1069
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
Microscope, stereo zoom optical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .655
Microscopic, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
Microscopic examination
of fracture surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .399
of fretting damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .937
to investigate microbial populations . . . . . . . . . . . .893
in preliminary laboratory examination . . . . . . . . .406
Microscopic photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425–426
Microsegregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218–220
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118
in ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
in nickel-chromium steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218, 219
Microshrinkage
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
as discontinuity for castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Microshrinkage pores, in austenitic manganese steel
castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
Microslip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .941, 950, 951
Microspalling, contact fatigue terminology . . . . . .722
Microstructural evaluations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289, 298
life assessment technique for elevated-temperature
exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
of power plant piping and tubing . . . . . . . . . 304, 305
Microstructure
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1069–1070
effect on abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913–914
effect on fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681–684
effect on stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
influence on fracture path and fracture
toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .564
light microscopic evaluation . . . 509–512, 513, 514
and overload failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678–679
penultimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .561
Microtome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
Microvoid coalescence (MVC) . . . . . . . .563, 589, 641
in brittle overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .674
of casting fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608, 610
as cause for thin-arced arrest region failure . . . .568
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
dimpled, in hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . .813
with dimpled intergranular fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . .643
and dimples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .564
and ductile fracture . . . . . . . 473, 591–595, 596, 597
in ductile overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672, 673
ductile tearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587
indicative of ductile fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
manganese content effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
mixed mode fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .566
in polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651
in quasi-cleavage fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573
with tempered-martensite embrittlement . . . . . . .692
and wedge cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575
Microvoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523, 652
in ductile impact fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500
in polyimide films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .970
in polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651, 652, 656
in titanium aircraft engine compressor disk . . . .264
Microwelding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
Mild carbon steels
brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521, 523
ductile/brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522, 524
ductile fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521, 522, 523, 524
Mild steels
fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926, 931
grain size effect on ductile-brittle transition
temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684, 685
strain-aging, failure assessment diagram . . . . . . .244
as substrate material for thermally sprayed
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .950
torsion loading with strain path changed . . . . . . .608
Mindlin analysis of slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .924
Miner’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .701
Minimum commitment method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300
Minimum commitment parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . .299
Minimum creep rate. See also Creep rate.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
Minimum stress-intensity factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
Minimum web thickness, examples for different
materials and manufacturing
processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
“Minkowski sausage” method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .544
Mirror region (ceramics, glassy materials)
of cleavage fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
in polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .657
Mirror type stereometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .552
Mirror zone, in polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657–658
Misalignment, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . .158, 169, 190
Misrun(s)
as casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109, 120
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104, 1070
in permanent-mold castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124, 125
in pressure die castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
Missile coupling nuts, stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851–852
Mission segment by mission segment
spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281
Mission statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
Mist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370, 573
Mist hackle (ceramics, glass materials). See also
Bifurcation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664, 665
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
and uniaxial tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .666
Misting devices, mechatronic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Mist region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .657
in polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657, 658
Mixed inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757–758
Mixed metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1016–1017
Mixed-mode cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .671
austenitic stainless steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677, 678
ductile iron impeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .677
as overload failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677, 678
of tool steel medical device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677, 678
Mixed-mode fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566, 567
jack cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687–688
mild carbon steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522, 524
with stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .842
Mixer blades, ice cream drink, fatigue fracture of
stainless steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8–9
Mixing, mechanical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .965
MMH. See Monomethyl hydrazine
Modal analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .384
Mode. See also Crack-tip strain; Crack tip opening
displacement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371, 375, 376–379
aircraft flight simulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377
analytical/mathematical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .376
deterministic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .376
ductile plastic flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617–624
finite-element analysis methods . . . . . . . . . . 377–379
fracture mechanics software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .379
geometric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .376
illustrative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .376
limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377
to resolve wear failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .903
simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .376
stochastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .376
use in accident reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . 377–379
Models
analytical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .903
phenomenological . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .903
Modified alkyd resins, as corrosion-resistant
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .758
Modified-v (chi) geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .485
Modified Goodman line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700, 701
mean stress effect on alternating stress
amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .701
Modified polyphenylene oxide (PPO), creep
modulus vs. temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .652
Modulo function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
Modulus of elasticity (E) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .466
and buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
as criteria for materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
of engineering ceramics and bearing steel . . . . .960
of polymer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022
relationship with various failure modes . . . . .35, 36
Modulus of rigidity. See Shear modulus.
Modulus of rupture, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
Modulus of rupture in bending, definition . . . . 1070
Modulus of rupture in torsion, definition . . . . . 1070
Mohr-Coulomb model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .619
Mohr’s circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463, 464–465, 466
beam, stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470
to calculate principle and shear stresses . . . . . . . .489
for strain analysis of neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .597
strain of local necking in prismatic sections . . .621
for thin-walled pressure vessel stresses . . . . . . . .471
three-dimensional, with principal stresses . . . . . .465
for two-dimensional stress transformation . . . . .464
Moisture, causing stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826–827, 830, 850, 856
Moisture pickup, melting and refining molten
steel, as hydrogen source for hydrogen
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .819
Moisture-related degradation, of polymers . . . . .368
Mojave Power Station, hot reheat pipe
failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .306
Molasses tank failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228, 229, 230
Mold
cracked or broken, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . .105
defect, high pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
defect-related failures, die casting . . . . . . . . 127, 129
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
expansion during baking, as casting defect . . . .110
inclusion defect failure in stainless steel . . . . . . 509,
510
post-electric discharge machining fabricationrelated failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512, 513
Mold coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120, 125
Mold creep, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
Mold drop, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Mold element cutoff, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . .105
Mold erosion, of permanent-mold castings . . . . . . .125
Mold expansion, during baking, as casting
defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
Mold release agents, as residual chemical
contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .436
Mold-release compound, in weldments . . . . . . . . . .188
Mold-wall deficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119–120
Mold-wall movement, as casting defect . . . . . . . . .110
Molecular fluorescence spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . .359
Molecular scale voids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651
Molecular weight assessment methods, for
polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444–445
Molecular weight reduction, of polybutylene
terephthalate automotive sleeves . . . . . . . . . .449
Molten caustics, environment causing stresscorrosion cracking of nickel and nickel-base
alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .848
Molten metals. See also Liquid metal induced
embrittlement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
as corrosion mechanism for high-temperature
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873–874
Molten salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18, 801
as mechanism for high-temperature
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .874
Molybdates, as inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .757
Molybdenum
addition effect on alloy steel tempering . . . . . . . .195
addition to improve lead liquid metal induced
embrittlement resistance in nickel
alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873–874
cavitation erosion, incubation time . . . . . . . . . . . 1004
content effect on internal oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . .214
content effect on microbially-induced corrosion in
weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888–889
content effect on sigma-phase embrittlement . .693
content effect on stress-relief embrittlement . . .691
content reducing embrittlement
susceptibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .691
erosion rate in mineral oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007
maximum erosion rate dependence in cavitation
erosion on combined parameter . . . . . . . . . 1016
microsegregation affected by silicon and
manganese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
microsegregation susceptibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
oxidation potential in endothermic gas . . . . . . . . .214
as physical vapor deposition coating
material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
qualitative chemical testing for materials
identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
removed from alloys by selective leaching . . . . .785
as thermally sprayed coating material . . . . . . . . . .950
Molybdenum alloys containing oxides, workability
behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Molybdenum alloy steels, austempering . . . . . . . . .207
Molybdenum carbon carbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .735
Molybdenum disulfide, as lubricant . . . . . . . . 410, 934
Molybdenum trioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
Moment, in beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470
Moment-area method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382
Moment of inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470
Moments of the response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
Monel alloys
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405, 785
polishing with relief damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506, 507
weldment microfissures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180
Monitoring systems, for microbially-induced
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .891
Monkmon-Grant parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .298
Monoethanolamine (MEA)/diethanolamine (DEA)
cracking, stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . .839
Monoethanolamine (MEA) solution, stresscorrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .839
Monomethyl hydrazine (MMH)
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .859
Monte Carlo sampling . . . . 241–242, 250, 255, 257,
258, 259–262
computer software programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
flow diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
in gas turbine rotor damage tolerance
analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .264
generating a cumulative distribution
function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261
in importance sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .262
Moore-Evans method, to correct residual stresses
for stress relaxation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .489
Moore fatigue test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .702
Mössbauer spectrometry, of corrosion
products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
Most probable number, to investigate microbial
populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
Most probable point (MPP) . . . . . . . . . .257, 258, 266
Motor vehicles, accident reconstruction . . . . . . . . . .377
Mounting
ceramic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362
in metallographic examination . . . . . . 502–503, 504,
505
resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502–503, 504, 505
Mounting press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502, 504
MPP. See Most probable point.
MS. See Mass spectroscopy.
MSDS. See Materials safety data sheet.
MSG-1. See Handbook: Maintenance Evaluation and
Program Development.
MSG-2. See Airline/Manufacturer Maintenance
Program Planning Document.
Mud cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .564, 565, 638
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
Mullite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .804
Multiple bearing testing apparatus, description of
rolling contact fatigue test method . . . . . . . .944
Multiple failure, definition in reliability-centered
maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Multiple-linear regression computer program, for
fatigue life prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .705
Multiple-site damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228, 235, 236
Muntz metal, intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . .784
Mu phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734–735
formation at elevated temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . .874
Mushroom-head closure, hydrogen
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813, 814
Mushrooming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918, 919, 966, 967
around periphery of striking/struck hammer
face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979, 985
Mushy-freezing alloys, microporosity . . . . . . . . . . . .112
Mushy-state forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Mushy zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
MVC. See Microvoid coalescence.
MVFOSM. See Mean value first-order secondmoment analysis.
N
Nail hammers, spalling analysis . . . . . . .978, 979, 986
Nanoindentation methods, for hardness
evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360–361
Nanometer scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .361
NASA five-ball testing apparatus, description of
rolling contact fatigue test method . . . . . . . .944
NASGRO (computer software program) . . . . . . .283
National Bureau of Standards, study of direct and
indirect cost of fracture in U.S. . . . . . . . . . . .227
National Institute of Health image analysis
software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .552
National Institute of Standards and Technology,
“round robin” programs of chemical
analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
Natural aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403
Natural gas liquids (NGL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .863
Natural rubber
as corrosion-resistant coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .769
mechanical behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
wear resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022
Naval brass, galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . .762
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Index / 1131
ND. See Normal direction.
NDE. See Nondestructive evaluation.
NDI. See Nondestructive inspection.
NDT. See Nil ductility transition temperature;
Nondestructive testing.
NDTT. See Nil ductility transition temperature.
Near-eutectoid steel, intergranular fatigue . . . . . . .637
Near net shape manufacturing techniques . . . . . 32,
33, 44
Neat and short fiber reinforced composites . . 1028
Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
reduction in area at fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .618
Necking. See also Diffuse necking; Local
necking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651
in annealed vs. cold worked material . . . . . . . . . . .566
controlled by strain-hardening response of
materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .617
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18, 1070
diffuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597, 599, 601–602
and ductile fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600, 604
in ductile overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673, 674
and ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .596
in ligaments between particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .593
local . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597, 599, 601–602
local, in prismatic specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597, 621
in metallic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571
onset prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617, 618
plastic load-limit model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .624
in polymeric materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568, 569
postnecking strain-rate effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .621
tensile loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .468
in tensile testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .565
triaxial (tensile-hydrostatic) stress . . . . . . . . 596–597
Necking down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290
Necking strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601, 602
Necklace porosity, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190
Neck liner, stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . .845
Negative strain hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Negligence, as legal theory for products liability
lawsuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Nelson diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .816
Neoprene coatings
for corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
to resist cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .999
NER. See Normalized erosion resistance.
NESSUS (computer software program) . . . . . . . .267
Net P-F interval, definition in reliability-centered
maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Net-section fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .582
Net-section instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401, 686
failures due to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .475
Net section plastic deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .656
Net shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Net softening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .601
Network carbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216, 217, 218
Neuber method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .282
Neuber’s rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302
Neumann bands. See also Mechanical twin
(deformation twin).
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
Neutral axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471, 474
Neutron diffraction
to measure subsurface residual stress
locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .489
for measuring and studying residual
stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
Neutron embrittlement. See also Radiation.
damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
effect in ferrous alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .697
steels susceptible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
Newman equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279, 285
Next-level effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
NGL. See Natural gas liquids.
Nickel
alloying element effect on ductile-brittle transition
temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .684
causing liquid or solid metal induced
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862
cavitation erosion, incubation time . . . . . . . . . . . 1004
compatibility with various manufacturing
processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
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1132 / Index
Nickel (continued)
content effect on alloy steel temper
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
content effect on internal oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . .214
content effect on low-alloy steel
carburization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
content effect on retained austenite
formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207
content effect on sigma-phase embrittlement . .693
in dissimilar metal pair, fretting damage . . . . . . .928
effect on sulfide stress cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .813
effect on time-to-fracture of copper by stresscorrosion cracking in ammoniacal
atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .853
effect on weldment hot cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
enhancing embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .691
erosion rate in mineral oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007
fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .930
galvanic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762, 767
maximum erosion rate dependence in cavitation
erosion on combined parameter . . . . . . . . . 1016
microsegregation susceptibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
oxidation potential in endothermic gas . . . . . . . . .214
pure, hydrogen embrittlement environment . . . .817
qualitative chemical testing for materials
identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
removed from alloys by selective leaching . . . . .785
standard emf series value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .763
Nickel aluminides
as high-temperature coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876–877
as high-temperature coatings resisting
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .878
Nickel-aluminum bronze
dealuminification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787–788
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
Nickel-base alloys. See also Superalloys.
brittle fracture of weldment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164, 165
centrifugal casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
chloridation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .873
compatibility with various manufacturing
processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
elevated-temperature fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .291
erosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .997
fatigue failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302–303, 304
galvanic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762, 767
green rot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .868
high-temperature corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871, 872
hydrogen damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816–817
hydrogen interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .873
Inconel, corrosion of . . . . . . . . . . . 871, 872, 873, 884
Inconel, distortion failure of small volute
springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783–784
intergranular fracture of steam generator
tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648–649
intergranular stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . 646,
647–648
liquid metal embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .873
metal dusting attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
microbially-induced corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .884
Monel, corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405, 785
nitridation attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869–870
piping, leak-before-break concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
pitting corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .775
sensitization of, and stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .849
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . 832, 848–850, 875
sulfidation of incinerator liner . . . . . . . . . . . . 870–871
uniform corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .769
weldment failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167–168
Nickel-base alloys, specific types
N02200 (Alloy 200, Nickel 200)
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783, 784
local and diffuse necking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597, 599
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .849
N02201 (Alloy 201, Nickel 201)
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .784
N02270 (Alloy 270, Nickel 270)
as reference material for cavitation erosion
testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1008, 1009
N06110 (Allcorr)
intergranular corrosion evaluation tests and
acceptance criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .781
N8025
microbially-induced corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .889
N8028
microbially-induced corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .889
N08904 (904L)
intergranular corrosion evaluation tests and
acceptance criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .781
Ni-18Cr
sulfidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .870
Ni-28Cr
sulfidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .870
80Ni-20Cr
creep behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .730
70Ni-30Cu
intergranular fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
S-590
elongation related to rupture life . . . . . . . . . . . . .732
stress rupture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .732
Nickel-base heat-resisting alloys. See also
Superalloys.
creep onset temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729
defects in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90–91
Monel, polishing with relief damage . . . . . 506, 507
stress-rupture ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732–733
for warm and hot gas turbine engine
components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296
Nickel-base superalloys. See Superalloys.
Nickel-boron-silicon-chromium-iron-carbon, as
thermally sprayed coating material . . . . . . . .950
Nickel-chromium alloys, cavitation erosion in
seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .931
localized corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .767
Nickel-chromium-iron-silicon-boron alloys, as
coatings to prevent vibratory
cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017
Nickel-chromium-molybdenum steels, spalling
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980, 981
Nickel-chromium-molybdenum-vanadium alloys,
stress-relief embrittlement of welded
tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .691
Nickel-chromium-silicon-boron alloys, to repair
cavitation damage in hydroturbines . . . . . 1017
Nickel-chromium steels
microcracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218, 219
microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211, 213
Nickel-copper alloys
cavitation erosion in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
environments subjecting alloy to selective
leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785
Nickel-copper-aluminum alloy, cavitation erosion in
seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
Nickel in some acids, removed from alloys by
selective leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785
Nickel-molybdenum alloys
environments subjecting alloy to selective
leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785
markings mistaken for fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .638
Nickel-molybdenum-chromium alloys, cavitation
erosion in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
Nickel plating
for cavitation erosion resistance . . . . . . . 1006, 1008
of decarburized alloy steel coil spring
specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .510
electroless, for metallographic examination . . . 512,
513
electroless, of carbon steel for metallographic
examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503, 504
to enhance edge retention of fracture . . . . . 499–500
erosion rate of metallic coatings in 3% NaCl
aqueous solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1008
of tool steel for metallographic examination . . 502,
503
of wear failure surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .413
Nickel silver, galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . .762
Nickel steels, centrifugal casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
Nickel-titanium alloys
erosion rate in 3.5% NaCl aqueous solution 1006
erosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1016
liquid-impact erosion and low-cycle fatigue
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1016
substituted for Stellite to lower weight . . . . . . . 1016
Nickel-titanium alloys/steel, erosion rate in
vibratory cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1016
Nicks, visible, macroscale fractographic
implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
Ni-Hard, erosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .997
Nil ductility transition temperature (NDT or
NDTT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .685
and brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
increased by neutron embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . .697
Nimonic alloys, overaging effect on rupture
life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .734
Niobia, addition improving oxidation
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .868
Niobium
content effect on sigma-phase embrittlement . .693
microsegregation susceptibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
Niobium alloys, workability behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Ni-Resist liners, for cavitation erosion
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
Ni-SFA, erosion rate in 3.5% NaCl aqueous
solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006
Nitrate-reducing bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
Nitrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .773
in aqueous solution, causing stress-corrosion
cracking in carbon steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . .828, 839, 853
Nitration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .439
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .439
Nitric acid
causing intergranular corrosion in sensitized
austenitic stainless steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .779
concentrated, intergranular corrosion evaluation
test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .781
intergranular corrosion evaluation test . . . . . . . . .781
red fuming, causing stress-corrosion cracking in
titanium alloys at various temperatures . . .857
Nitridation
of gas turbine blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302
as mechanism for high-temperature
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869–870
Nitride case-hardened steel, mitigating erosive
wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
Nitrides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .783
causing crack nucleation in high-strength lowalloy steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .593
inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116, 117, 172, 173, 591
in ingot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Nitriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503, 504
for adhesive wear mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
of chuck jaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513–514
defects resulting from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
medium-carbon alloy steel crank pin, and
fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .628
to minimize warping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
to prevent fretting damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933, 934
to reduce stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .717
of twistdrill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Nitrites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .992
as inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .757
Nitrogen
as alloying species in metal, causing accelerated
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
as alloying species in metal, causing stresscorrosion cracking in copper alloys (in
presence of aerated aqueous NH3) . . . . . . . .831
as alloying species in metal, causing stresscorrosion cracking in stainless steels (in
presence of Cl–) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
as cause of gas porosity in metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
effect on mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
heat transfer rate of quenching medium . . . . . . . .210
as impurity for low-alloy steel castings . . . . . . . .144
Nitrogen diffusion, effect on chemical
analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .430
Nitrogen group, stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . .833
Nitrogen oxide
causing stress-corrosion cracking in titanium
alloys at various temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . .857
as damaging substance in atmospheric
environments for stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
liquid, causing stress-corrosion cracking in highstrength titanium alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
with moisture, causing stress-corrosion cracking in
copper alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857–858
Nitrogen oxidizers, in cooling systems drawing on
natural waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .889
NMR. See Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.
Noble metals, galvanic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .767
Nodes, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .378
Nodular iron
carbon flotation failures of crankshaft mainbearing journal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139, 140
centrifugal casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
Nodularity of graphite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141–142, 143
Nomarski differential interference contrast (DIC),
of mounted metal specimen . . . . . . . . . 503, 505
Nominal pipe size (NPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .863
Nominal strength. See Ultimate strength.
Nominal value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .266
Nonabrasive sliding wear, wear morphology . . . .904
Nonabrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .902
causes of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .902
operational attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .902
subcategories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .902
Nondestructive evaluation (NDE). See also
Nondestructive inspection; Nondestructive
testing. . . . . . . . . . 237, 238–239, 269, 395–397.
of cold shut in gray iron
paper-drier head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121–122, 123
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
guidelines and steps for monitoring turbine
operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .297
implementation guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274
measurement techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . .269, 270, 271
role as quantified by probability of detection in
fully probabilistic life management . . . . . . 273,
274
role in damage tolerant approach . . . .270–273, 274
technique employed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238
Nondestructive inspection (NDI). See also
Nondestructive evaluation; Nondestructive
testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237, 238–239, 395–397
method chosen to determine inspection
interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .276
Nondestructive methods, for fracture profile
generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539–540
Nondestructive testing (NDT). See also
Nondestructive evaluation; Nondestructive
inspection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238–239, 269
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
to detect hot cracks or lamellar tears . . . . . . . . . . .170
in preliminary laboratory examination . . . . . . . . .406
relative nondestruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316–317
of weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Non-fill, as discontinuity in semisolid
casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127–128, 131
Nonlinear analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383–384
Nonlinear distortion energy criterion . . . . . . . . . . .461
Nonlinear elastic fracture mechanics . . . . . 479–480
Nonmetallic conductors, and galvanic
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .766
Nonmetallic inclusions
causing distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205, 207, 208
and debonding in metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571, 572
ductile fracture of steel lifting eye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
in helicopter main rotor bolt of steel . . . .89–90, 91
in ingot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83, 88–90, 91
and microsegregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
in permanent-mold castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
as root cause of forgings defects, rationale,
resolution, and corrective action . . . 327, 329,
330, 331
shape-control methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
in twistdrill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
in weldments . . 169, 171, 172–174, 175, 176, 183,
186
Nonmetallic materials, corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405
Nonoperational consequences,
definition in reliability-centered maintenance . . . 62
of failure modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Normal component of stress, definition . . . . . . . . .462
Normal direction (ND). See also Longitudinal
direction.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
labeling conventions for rolled sheet and
plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
Normal distribution function . . 252, 253, 254, 256,
264
Normal flight envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377
Normal format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .256
Normal impact wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .965
Normalized erosion resistance (NER) . . . . . . . . . 1010
Normalized steel, notch sensitivity vs. notch
radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .278
Normalizing, effect on grain size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
Normal stress, causing brittle cleavage
fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .588
Normal tension, law of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .664
Norton relation for creep-strain rate . . . . . . . . . . .309
Notch. See Stress concentration.
Notch acuity, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
Notch brittleness, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
Notch depth, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
Notched-bar stress-rupture tests . . . . . . . . . . 731–732
Notched-bar upset test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Notched parts, distortion and quenching . . . 198, 202
Notched tension test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .634
Notch effect, in castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
Notches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .465
Notching, stress concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .716
Notch radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277–278
Notch rupture strength, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
Notch sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .277–278, 718
of castings, and design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
and stress-rupture ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .732
of torque link bolt material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
Notch sensitivity factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277–278
Notch strength, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
Notch tensile strength. See Notch strength.
Nozzle, for zinc die casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127, 130
Nozzle geometry analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .388
NPS. See Nominal pipe size.
Nuclear engineering, probabilistic risk
assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252
Nuclear grade steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .844
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy
for polymeric analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
properties measured . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
property derived from polymer analysis . . . . . . . .359
use in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
Nucleation, in polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .657
Nucleic acid sequences, as basis for assays of
microbially-induced corrosion . . . . . . . 892–893
Null hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .699
Number of cycles for fatigue failure, correlated to
average striation spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551
Numerical integration, to find probability of
failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255
Numerical Recipes in FORTRAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
Numerical simulation programs, for failure modes
and effects analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57–58
Nuts, hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811, 812
Nylon
crack propagation and ductile fracture . . . . . . . . .654
creep modulus vs. temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .652
functioning both as fiber and as plastic . . . . . . . .650
hydrolysis of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .797
as semicrystalline thermoplastic . . . . . . . .1023–1024
solution viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .445
solvation effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .796
specific wear rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
stress crazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .652
wear failure of driving gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1026
Nylon 6
creep modulus vs. temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .652
friction coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025
relative resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
specific wear rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020, 1025
as tribological material over metals . . . .1025–1026
Nylon 6/6
brittle fracture of mechanical hinges . . . . . 457–459
as contaminant for couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448, 450
differential scanning calorimetry
thermogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .440
fatigue (relaxation) of wire clips . . . . . . . . . 447, 449
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy . . . . . . . .439
friction coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025
specific wear rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025
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Index / 1133
as tribological material over metals . . . .1025–1026
Nylon 6/12 resin, embrittlement of couplings . . . 448,
450
Nylon 11
friction coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025
specific wear rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020, 1025
as tribological material over metals . . . .1025–1026
Nylon 12 resin
environmental stress cracking of filtration
unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456, 457
glass-fiber- and mineral-reinforced . . . . . . . 456, 457
as tribological materials over metals . . .1025–1026
Nylon/polyethylene, wear failure of antifriction
bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025, 1026
O
Objective aperture, of scanning electron
microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .517
Oblique illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .663
Occam’s Razor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34, 76
Octahedral plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .465
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .465
Octahedral shear stress criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .461
OEMs. See Original equipment manufacturers.
OES. See Optical emission spectroscopy; Optical
emission spectrophotometer.
Off-dimension casting, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
OHA. See Operating hazard analysis.
Oil
circulated, heat transfer rate of quenching
medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210
as lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410–411
still, heat transfer rate of quenching medium . .210
Oil and gas refinery inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .758
Oil ash corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .874
Oil canning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
Oiliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
Oil internal pipelines, prevention approach for
corrosion in industrial facilities . . . . . . . . . . .893
Oil refineries, hydrogen-induced blistering . . . . . 814,
815
Oil sand molding, in shape-casting processes
classification scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Oil vapors, effect on polymer wear failures . . . . 1026
Oleamide, effect on polyethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025
X (omega) geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .485
On-condition task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65, 69
definition in reliability-centered maintenance . . . 62
One-body wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .965
{1,1,1} plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .465
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .465
One-step temper embrittlement. See also
Tempered-martensite embrittlement. . . . . . .692
One-time change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
definition in reliability-centered maintenance . . . 62
worth-doing criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Onsager’s formalism of Fick’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . .875
On-site examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405–406
On-site testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393–394
Open-die forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Open flakes, from hydrogen impurity in low-alloy
steel castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
Opening mode of deformation (KI),
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
Open shrinkage, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
Operating context, definition in reliability-centered
maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Operating hazard analysis (OHA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Operational consequences, definition in reliabilitycentered maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
for failure mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Operation Failsafe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .332
Operation history, determination of . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238
Operator-induced loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
Optical characteristics, as criteria for materials
selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
www.asminternational.org
1134 / Index
Optical emission spectrophotometer, specimen size
requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .430
Optical emission spectroscopy (OES) . . . . . 430, 431
Optical etching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .363
as ceramographic etching procedure . . . . . 362, 363
Optical light fractography
to examine glasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
Optical metallographic photography . . . . . 419, 426
Optical metallography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419, 426
Optical microscopy. See also Light microscopy.
of elevated-temperature fractures of piping and
tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .289
to examine turbine blades for creep voids . . . . . .298
to examine turbine blades for microstructural
instabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .298
Optical stereomicroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . .419, 425–426
Orange peel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .565, 598, 601
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
and cold forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
on sheet metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
ORAS (computer software program) . . . . . . . . . . .267
Organic chemicals, causing degradation of
polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368–369
Organic liquids, environment causing stresscorrosion cracking of nickel and nickel-base
alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .848
Orientation. See Crack plane orientation and growth
direction; Longitudinal direction; Normal
direction; Transverse direction.
Orientation distribution function of the fracture
profile (f(␣)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .542
Orientation distribution functions . . . . . . . . 542, 546
Orientation hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
Original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) . . .228
and failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
Orowan looping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .740
Orowan’s modification of the Griffith
model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588, 589
Orr, Sherby, and Dorn (OSD) parameter . . . . . 299,
300
Orthogonal shear stress reversal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .944
Orthopedic implants
fretting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924, 930, 931, 934–935
stress-corrosion cracking of stainless steel . . . . .366
Orthotropic material, elastic constants for . . . . . .467
OSD. See Orr, Sherby, and Dorn (OSD) parameter.
OSHA. See Occupational Safety and Health Act.
Osmometry
membrane, property derived from polymer
analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
vapor pressure, property derived from polymer
analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
Ostwald ripening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731, 741
Outer fiber stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470
Overaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .694
and stress rupture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .734
Overdesigning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228
to prevent failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227
Overfills
in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
in ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
of weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
Overheating
Babbitt metal, lining of bronze cylinder of friction
bearing of locomotive drive axle . . . . 335–336
causing fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .615
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
effect on fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .719
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .695
of forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
and intergranular fracture of steels . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
Overheating failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290
short-term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .876
Overlap(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .548
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
extent of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .538
in fracture profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542–543
of fracture surface, extent of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546–547
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169, 174, 176
Overlap at the weld toe, surface feature as cause for
rejection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
Overlap parameter (O) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546–547
Overlay coatings
as high-temperature coatings resisting
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
for hot corrosion resistance of turbine blades . .294
to resist cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000
rolling-contact fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945–949
thermal-mechanical fatigue life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302
Overload . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1047–1050
as damage mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . .349
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047
fracture mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .563
microstructural features associated with . . . . . . . .563
Overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401, 671–699
atomic structure influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678–679
blue brittleness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690–691
by brittle cracking mechanism, causing service
failures of welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
brittle overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .674
burning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .695
causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .671
creep embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .695
crystal structure influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678–679
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
degree of order effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678–679
ductile overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . .671–674, 675
ductility effect in crystalline materials . . . 679–680
environmentally induced embrittlement . . 695–699
400 to 500 ⬚C (750–930 ⬚F) embrittlement . . . . .692
fracture mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .671
fracture modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671, 672
fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .397
graphitization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693–694
hydrogen damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695–697
intergranular fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675–677
intermetallic compound embrittlement . . . . . . . . .694
interstitial or substitutional elements effects . . .681
laboratory fracture examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .699
liquid-metal-induced embrittlement . . . . . . 697–698
material factors as root cause . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677–678
mechanical loading effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .686
microstructure influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681–684
mixed-mode cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677,678
neutron embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .697
overaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .694
overheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .695
precipitation embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .694
quench-age embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694–695
reheat cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .691
service damage or alteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .689
sigma-phase embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692–693
solid-metal-induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . .698
strain-age embrittlement effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .697
stress-relief embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .691
temperature effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684–687
tempered martensite embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . .692
temper embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691–692
texture effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680–681
transgranular cleavage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .674–675, 676
welding role in embrittlement and overload
behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698–699
Overload fast fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .632, 633–634
Overload fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
fracture modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
monotonic, surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .562
Overloading
continuous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .480
as distortion failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1047–1050
Overload region, of fatigue fracture . . . . . . . 576, 578
Overstress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .708–709, 711
Overtemper burning, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220
Overtempering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .720
Overvoltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .520
Owner, definition in reliability-centered
maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Oxalic acid
causing intergranular corrosion in sensitized
austenitic stainless steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .779
intergranular corrosion evaluation test . . . . . . . . .781
Oxidation
causing beach marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707, 708
of ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .370
chromium addition effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
of coatings for gas turbine blades . . . . . . . . 303, 304
at crack tip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .579
as damage mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . .349
and decarburization causing distortion . . . 202, 204
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
depth measured for gas turbine blade surface
evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .298
effect on erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .997
factors governing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806–807
in fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576
in grain boundaries influencing intergranular
fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
and high-temperature corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . 868, 869
in hot crack vs. hot tear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
of hot tear of sand-cast steel axle housing . . . . .119
internal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214–215
of low-alloy steel castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145–146
of lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
of malleable iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140, 141
molybdenum addition effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
of nickel alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .870
of nickel-base superalloys used for gas turbine
blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
as pitting corrosion products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .775
of polymers . . . 405, 439, 441, 444, 456, 458, 459,
798
to prevent fretting damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .934
reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .749
for refractories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
and residual stress in hardened steels . . . . . . . . . .493
resistant materials or coatings for elevatedtemperature service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
stainless steel valve stems . . . . . . . . . . .200–201, 204
and thermomechanical fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .739
Udimet 520 nickel alloy gas turbine
blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302–303, 304
Oxidative wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .966
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1070–1071
in impact wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .966
mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902, 903
Oxide(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
clusters of particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .592
dissolution in bone screw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
entrapped, and cold shut in cast steel equalizer
beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122, 123
fluffy, in low-alloy steel castings . . . . . . . . . 145, 146
in ingot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
low-temperature, corroding technical
ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804, 805
removal prior to fractography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
Oxide dispersion-strengthened nickel-base alloys
elevated temperatures for engineering
applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729
Oxide entrapment, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
Oxide films
as casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117–118, 119
cracking from cyclic oxidation of chromia and
alumina oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .868
Oxide formation, and overload failure . . . . . . . . . . .681
Oxide inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116, 117, 591
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
in ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
in squeeze casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
subsurface feature as cause for rejection . . . . . . .156
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169, 172, 173–174
Oxide laps, in corrosion-resistant castings . . . . . . .147
Oxide print technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337
Oxide scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
Oxide-scale-based life prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .289
life assessment technique for elevated-temperature
exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
of power plant piping and tubing . . . .304, 308–309
Oxide skins, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
Oxidized fingernail on fracture surface, macroscale
fractographic implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
Oxidizing agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .750
Oxidizing gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .803
reaction with refractories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .878
Oxyacetylene cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
Oxycarbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
Oxygen
as damaging substance in atmospheric
environments for stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
dissolved in liquid H2O, causing stress-corrosion
cracking in sensitized stainless steels . . . . .831
effect on hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . .813
effect on mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
grain-boundary segregation and intergranular
brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643, 645
as impurity for low-alloy steel castings . . 144, 145
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .840
x-ray elemental composition map made with
electron microprobe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .865
Oxygen inhibitors. See also Antioxidants. . . . . . . .806
Oxygen reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749–750
Oxygen scavengers, and microbially induced
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .885
Oxynitrides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
Ozone, as biocidal agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .894
P
PA. See Polyamide.
Pack aluminizing process, diffusional growth
mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .876
Pack cementation, of aluminide coatings . . . . . . . .877
Pack codeposition, of aluminide coatings . . . . . . . .877
Packet size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .612
PACVD. See Plasma-assisted chemical vapor
deposition.
Painting, removal technique effect on chemical
analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .430
Palladium, standard emf series value . . . . . . . . . . . . .763
Palmgren-Miner cumulative damage rule . . . . . 277,
280, 284
PAN. See Polyacrylonitrile.
Paper-drier head, cold shut as
casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120–122, 123
Parabolic hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .617–618, 619
Parabolic markings, of polymers . . . . . . . . . . 659–660
Parallax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551, 552
Parallel structural systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262, 263
Parameter-based assessments . . 289, 298, 299–300
life assessment technique for elevated-temperature
exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
Parametric design and analysis . . . . . .27–28, 31, 33
Paris constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479, 584
Paris equation . . . . . . . . 285, 286, 478–479, 578, 584
Paris law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580, 584
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
exponent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .577, 578, 584
region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .479, 577, 578, 580, 708
Partial safety factors (PSFs) . . . . 251, 265, 266, 267
Particle erosion, variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .902
Particle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .628
Particle-matrix interface strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .592
Particle size factor, erosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .996
Particulate erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .997
Particulate-filled composites, adhesive wear . .1035,
1036–1037
Particulate-reinforced polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1029, 1030–1031
adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1035, 1036–1037
Parting. See also Dealloying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Parting line grain flow, as discontinuity for
forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Parts
configuration design risks, factors, and
questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
features designed to aid manufacturing and reduce
material cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
PASCC. See Polythionic acid stress-corrosion
cracking.
Passivating films, providing corrosion
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .884
Passivation, of stainless steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .534
Passive region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .750
Passivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .750–751, 767
and acid concentration effect on uniform
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .770
anodic protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .757
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .750
destruction by pitting corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .771
elements exhibiting effects of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .750
Pasty white iron (II) carbonate, as corrosion
products in pipeline excavations and
laboratory soil box tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
Patching with welds, to resist corrosive wear . . . .992
Pattern error, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
Pattern mounting error, as casting defect . . . . . . .110
PBI. See Polybenzimidazole.
PBT. See Polybutylene terephthalate.
PC. See Polycarbonate.
PCB. See Printed circuit board.
PCR. See Polymerase chain reaction.
PCVD. See Plasma chemical vapor deposition.
PDF. See Probability density function.
PDMS. See Polydimethyl siloxane.
PE. See Polyethylene.
Peak-to-trough height average value, in fracture
profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .542
Pearlite
atomic volume of ferrous alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
divorce of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291–292
in high-temperature transformation products . . .215
as transformational product in steel . . . . . 192, 193,
194, 195, 196
Pearson plot of crack-growth rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . .703
Pearson VII function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
Pebbles. See Orange peel.
PECVD. See Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor
deposition.
PEEK. See Polyetheretherketone.
PEEKK. See Polyetheretherketoneketone.
Peeling, contact fatigue terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . .722
Peeling fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724–725
Peening
distortion due to residual stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
to improve ground surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221
to remove surface oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
of weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
PEI. See Polyetherimide.
PEN. See Polyethernitrile.
Pencil glide, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Penetrant testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
Penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801, 802
factors governing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .806
of liquids in refractories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .802
rate of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .802
slag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .803
Pepper-pot pitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
Percent shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .604
Percussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .965
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .965
Percussion cone, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Percussion track tools, striking/struck tool
specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .987
Percussive wear. See Impact wear.
Performance-demonstration-based approach, to
life assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274
Performance factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Performance indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29, 35
Performance standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
Periclase
formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
melting point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
Permanent (metal cores) casting, in shape-casting
processes classification scheme . . . . . . . . . . .124
Permanent mold casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124–125
characteristics of process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
classification scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
and defect-related failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123–124
mold material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
pouring temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
in shape-casting processes classification
scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
variables affecting dimensional accuracy and
surface finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
Permanent molding, and surface finish of
casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
www.asminternational.org
Index / 1135
Permanent pattern casting, in shape-casting
processes classification scheme . . . . . . . . . . .124
Persistent slip bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .629
Persistent slip lines, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
PES. See Polyether sulfone.
PET. See Polyethylene terephthalate.
P-F interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
definition in reliability-centered maintenance . . . 62
PFA. See Probability of false alarms.
PFZs. See Precipitate-free zones.
pH
effect on microbially induced corrosion attack on
weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .888
and hydrogen damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .873
Phase diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .376
copper-lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367, 368
to design refractories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
interpretations of, in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . .322
Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338
Phase transformations, during heating and
cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192–195, 196, 197
Phenol formaldehyde
bonds of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
chemical changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
Phenol-formaldehyde cured rubber, characteristics
of engineering polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
Phenolic(s)
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
as corrosion-resistant coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .769
Phenolic linings, as corrosion-resistant
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .758
Phenolic resin
for mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502, 503, 504, 505
specific wear rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1020, 1022, 1023
Phenolic resin-aramid fiber composites, specific
wear rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022, 1023
Phenolic resin composites, specific wear
rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022
Phosphate conversion coatings
for corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .759
as hydrogen source for hydrogen
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .819
Phosphate corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344
as boiler tube damage mechanism on failure
wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
characteristics of boiler waterwall damage
mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347, 348
Phosphates, as inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .757
Phosphating
to prevent fretting damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .934
role in hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .820
Phosphides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
Phosphide sweat, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
Phosphonates, as inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757–758
Phosphoric acid
causing intergranular corrosion in sensitized
austenitic stainless steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .779
corrosion by, stainless steel valve in vending
machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Phosphorus
as alloying species in metal, causing accelerated
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
as alloying species in metal, causing stresscorrosion cracking in copper alloys (in
presence of aerated aqueous NH3) . . . . . . . .831
as alloying species in metal, causing stresscorrosion cracking in stainless steels (in
presence of Cl–) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
contaminating tension springs from phosphate
coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .689
content effect in structural steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
content effect on temper embrittlement . . 691, 692
content in intergranular fracture surfaces of
carburized steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644–645
effect on rupture ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .736
effect on time-to-fracture of copper by SCC in
ammoniacal atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .853
effect on weldment hot cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
as embrittling impurity in low-alloy steel
castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144
as grain-boundary embrittler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
grain-boundary segregation and intergranular
brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643, 645
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
www.asminternational.org
1136 / Index
Phosphorus (continued)
grain-boundary segregation causing intergranular
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
and hot corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .872
microsegregation susceptibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
in paper-drier head casting, cold shut defect . . 121,
122
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826–827
Phosphorus print technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337
Photodegradation, of polymers . . . . . . .653, 654, 798
Photodocuments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Photoelastic coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396–397
Photoelectron maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .532
Photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418–427
aperture selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .421
color calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405
digital photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420–421
digital scanners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .420
documentation in field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .418
documentation in laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .419
equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419–420
feature exposure selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .421
film photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .420
filter selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .421
fracture surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421–425
lighting considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .419
lighting types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .421
macroscopic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
magnification determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .419
on-site data collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
in preliminary visual examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . .395
shutter speed selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .421
specifications for field photographic
documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .418
Photolytic degradation, of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . .368
Photosynthetic metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .881
Phthalic anhydride (crude), causing intergranular
corrosion in sensitized austenitic stainless
steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .779
Physical aging, as polymer failure mechanism . . .368
Physical crack size (ap), definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Physical etching, as ceramographic etching
procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362, 363
Physical evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .317
Physical properties
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
inverse relationships with mechanical
properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Physical vapor deposition (PVD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .759
coatings, rolling-contact fatigue of . . . . . . . 945–949
to prevent fretting damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .934
PI. See Polyimide.
Pickling
and hydrogen stress cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .811
inhibited solutions to remove rust or scale . . . . .406
to remove heat-tinted scale from stainless
steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .888
Piece-part fault analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53, 55
Pigs (cleaning devices) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .894
Pilings, crevice corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .776
Pilot-plant operations, performance monitoring for
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
Pin, fatigue fracture in low-cycle fatigue . . . 631, 633
Pinholes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
as casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106, 115
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
surface, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
Pinion shafts, distortion of steel . . . . . . . . . . . . 202, 205
Pin-joint assembly, lug fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .395
Pin-loaded clevis, stress analysis . . . . . . . . . . . 471–472
Pinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682, 690
and neutron embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .697
Pin shear stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .472
Piobert lines. See Lüders lines.
Pipe. See also Pipelines; Piping; Tube; Tubing.
of fire protection system water supply, graphitic
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787, 788
hydrogen attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .816
hydrogen-induced cracking in low-carbon
steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .366
pitting corrosion, of carbon steel . . . . . . . . . 356, 357
in pressurized water reactor, stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827–828
stress-rupture failure of CrMo steel . . . . . . . . . . . .365
Pipe coupling, uniform corrosion of
copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768–769
Pipe (defect type)
in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
in ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86–87
Pipe elbow, impingement corrosion of malleable
iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .792
Pipelines
buried, impressed-current cathodic
protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756, 757
buried, preventive maintenance for . . . . . . . 754–755
carbonate/bicarbonate stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 839–840
erosion-corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771, 791
graphitic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786–787, 788, 789
hydrogen embrittlement from cathodic
protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .813
pitting corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .771
Pipe porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82–83
Pipe stress and pressure vessel analysis . . . . . . . .385
Pipe void, distortion from stress raisers . . . . 205, 207
Piping. See also Pipe; Pipelines; Tube; Tubing.
fabrication code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .780
life-limiting factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . 862, 863,
864, 866
microbially induced corrosion of brass . . . . . . . . .890
microbially induced corrosion of cupronickel
power station condenser tubing . . . . . . . . . . .890
outlet, stress-corrosion cracking by
chlorides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844–845
power-plant, leak-before-break concept . . . . . . . .231
pressure, and static stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
prevention approach for corrosion in industrial
facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
for storm sewer, pitting, and microbially induced
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .753
uniform corrosion of copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768, 769
velocity-affected corrosion, fire-sprinkler system
for saltwater ferry boat . . . . . . . . .789–790, 791
Piping finite element analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385
Piping for steam engines
elevated temperatures for applications . . . . . . . . .729
materials used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729
Piping in nuclear reactors
elevated temperatures for applications . . . . . . . . .729
materials used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729
Piston of gun-recoil mechanism, ductile iron fatigue
fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141–142, 143
Pitman arm forging, material quality
problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509
Pits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343, 519
as casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
formation by corrosion, as geometric stress
raisers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .634
in ingot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83, 90
Pitting. See also Etch pits. . . . . . . 337, 751, 753, 754,
761, 763, 765–766, 767–768, 771–775
aircraft freshwater tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773–774
as boiler tube damage mechanism on failure
wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .771
from contact fatigue on gear teeth . . . . . . . . 629, 632
contact fatigue terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .722
of copper tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353
of copper with microbially induced
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
damage mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343–344
as damage mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . .349
as defect resulting from electrolytic cleaning . . . 81
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
evaporator tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845, 846
failure reduction measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .777
features observed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .356
heat exchanger tube of copper . . . . . . . . . . . . 356, 357
heat exchanger tube of stainless steel . . . . . . . . . .356
as localized corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .874
from microbially induced corrosion . . . . . 882, 884,
886, 887, 888, 889
piping for storm sewer treatment system . . . . . . .753
of post-electrical discharge machining tool steel
mold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512, 513
reboiler bypass duct damper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .775
of steam turbine blade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774, 775
of steam turbine rotor disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .842
stirring fluid for control of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .755
subsurface-origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722–723
surface-origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .722
tubes in organic chemical plant condenser, potable
water effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772–773
and type 2 low-temperature hot corrosion . . . . . .872
and velocity-affected corrosion . . . . . .789–790, 791
wires in electrostatic precipitator at paper
plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774–775
Pitting factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .703
Pitting index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .775
Pitting resistance equivalent number
(PREN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .775
Pivotal hammer impact wear apparatus 970–971
Plague quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213
Plain carbon steels
austempering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207
uniform corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .769
Plaintiff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Planar grinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506, 507
Planar imperfections, of weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . .157
Planar slip, in stainless steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523, 524
Plane strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466, 467, 478, 656
deformation and fracture surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478
Plane-strain compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Plane-strain deformation, definition . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Plane strain flat fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .566
Plane-strain fracture toughness (KIc) . . . . 230, 243,
478, 480, 582, 656, 686, 687
crack tip opening displacement optimum
values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247, 248
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401, 476, 1071
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .657
relationship with various failure modes . . . . .35, 36
Plane-strain loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .466
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Plane-strain microvoid coalescence . . . . . . . 563, 566
Plane-strain slab compression tests . . . . . . . . . . . . .603
Plane stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467, 478
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
deformation and fracture surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478
Plane-stress fracture toughness (Kc) . . . . . 401, 480,
687
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401, 1071
Plane stress loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .466
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Plane stress slant fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .566
Plasma arc cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
Plasma arc welding, failure origins related to . . .186
Plasma-assisted chemical vapor deposition
(PACVD) coating material, thickness, and
hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
contact stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
fatigue life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
rolling contact fatigue tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
substrate material and hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
surface roughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
Plasma chemical vapor deposition (PCVD)
coating material, thickness, and hardness . . . . . .949
contact stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
fatigue life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
rolling contact fatigue tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
substrate material and hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
surface roughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition
(PECVD)
coating material, thickness, and hardness . . . . . .949
contact stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
fatigue life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
rolling contact fatigue tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
substrate material and hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
surface roughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
Plasma etching, as ceramographic etching
procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362, 363
Plasma spray, to prevent fretting damage . . . . . . . .934
Plaster casting, characteristics of process . . . . . . . .124
Plaster-mold casting, minimum web thickness . . . 32
Plaster slurry molding, in shape-casting processes
classification scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Plastic bags, additives in plastic transferring to
samples studied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
Plastic buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
by overloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1048–1049
Plastic collapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240, 241, 243
causing service failures of welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
Plastic deformation. See also Deformation, plastic.
defintion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Plasticity correction factor (q) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245
Plasticity interaction factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
Plasticization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796–797
degree increased by chemical attack . . . . . . . . . . .369
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .439
Plasticizer migration, from polyvinyl chloride . .796
Plasticizers, biological degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .885
Plastic limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .474
Plastic load-limit model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623, 624
Plastic portion of the fracture-resistance
energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .479
Plastic potential equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .461
Plastic strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565–566
effect on number of cycles to failure . . . . . . . . . . .491
Plastic zone . . . . . . 279, 282–283, 476, 477, 549, 611,
654
and crack-tip blunting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612, 616
creation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .476
creation with crack initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581–582
for fatigue initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .706
radius at crack tip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .583
size, calculation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283, 477, 566
vertical serial sectioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .553
Plate
brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352–353
discontinuities, types of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 814, 815
residual-stress map of welded plate . . . . . . . . . . . .489
Platen friction, and compression failure . . . . . . . . .603
Plate theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380
Plating
and cold forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
electroless nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512, 513
electroless nickel-phosphorus alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
and fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .720
hard chrome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
to preserve edge of specimen . . 502, 503, 504, 505
removal process effect on chemical analysis . . .430
Platinum
as addition to aluminide coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .934
galvanic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .767
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
sputter coating for polymers undergoing
SEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638, 639
standard emf series value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .763
Platinum alloys, environments subjecting alloy to
selective leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785
platinum aluminide diffusion coatings . . . . . . . . .877
Plexiglass, cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003
Plowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910, 912, 913, 914
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022
Plucking, of ceramic material in impact wear . . . .968
Plug quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213
PMMA. See Polymethylmethacrylate.
Pneumatic pumps, to fill castings, avoiding oxide
films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118
POD. See Probability of detection.
Point analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .520
Point-surface origin, contact fatigue mode and
controlling factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .725
Poisson distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253
Poisson’s ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .466
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763–764
Polarization break testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .771
Polarization curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763–764, 771, 778
Polarized light, as ceramographic etching
procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362
Polar moment of inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .469
Polishing
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507–508
attack polishing solution use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .507
central force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .507
of ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362, 363
cloths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506, 507
electrolytic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .508
four-step contemporary practice . . . . . . . . . . 507–508
guidelines for semiautomatic preparation of
structural ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362
mechanical systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .506
in metallographic examinatin . . . . . . . 503, 504, 505,
506–508
nonferrous metals with rigid grinding disc . . . . .508
post-electrical discharge machining, improperly
done . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512, 513
steels with a rigid grinding disc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .508
traditional method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507, 508
Poll (of hammer), definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .987
Polyacetal
brittle fracture of latch assemblies . . . . . . . . 454–456
differential scanning calorimetry
thermogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .440
Polyacrylonitrile (PAN)
based fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1038
relative resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
Polyakov rules, for quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210, 212
Polyamide (PA)
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
characteristics of engineering polymers . . . . . . . .359
ductile fracture behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .655
notch sensitivity and brittle fractures . . . . . . . . . . .657
solution viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .445
Polyamide 6 (PA 6), abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
Polyamide 11 (PA 11), abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . 1031
Polyamide 12 (PA12), erosion rate . . . . . . 1005, 1006
Polyamide 66 (PA 66)
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1039, 1040, 1041
Polybenzimidazole (PBI)
adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035, 1038
specific wear rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
wear resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022
Polybutylene, ductile fracture behavior . . . . . . . . . . .655
Polybutylene terephthalate (PBT)
creep modulus vs. temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .652
differential scanning calorimetry
thermogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .440
embrittlement of automotive sleeves . . . . .448–449,
451, 452
Polycarbonate (PC)
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
acetone solvent-induced cracking of metal-framed
ophthalmic lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .654
brittle fracture of electrical switch
housings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456–457, 458
crack propagation and ductile fracture . . . . . . . . .654
crack propagation and shear banding . . . . . 654, 655
craze formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568, 569
creep modulus vs. temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .652
deformation by shear banding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .652
differential scanning calorimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .441
ductile fracture behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .655
dynamic stress waves causing fracture . . . 634, 635
embrittlement, bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446, 447
environmentally induced cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . .654
fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638, 639
fatigue fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy . . . . . . . .439
fracture surface features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .657
as glassy thermoplastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023
isochronous creep plot of stress-strain behavior vs.
temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
mirror zone and mist region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .658
mist region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .658
notch sensitivity and brittle fractures . . . . . . . . . . .657
relative resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
shrinkage voids on field fracture surface . . . . . . .657
solvent effects on crazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
stress crazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .652
Wallner lines not caused by fatigue in
fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634, 635
Polycarbonate/PET, environmental stress cracking
of appliance housings . . . . . 450–451, 452, 453
Polycarbonate resin Lexan 101, Fourier transform
infrared radiation spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . .439
Polycrystalline, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Polydimethyl siloxane (PDMS) . . . . . . .532, 535, 536
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Index / 1137
Polyester
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
brittle fracture behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .656
as corrosion-resistant coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .769
hydrolysis of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .797
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1030, 1032, 1033
adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035, 1036, 1038, 1040
cohesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020, 1022
as glassy thermoplastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023
specific wear rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
Polyetheretherketoneketone (PEEKK), adhesive
wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035
Polyether-imide (PEI)
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030, 1031, 1033, 1034
adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1036, 1037, 1038
Polyethernitrile (PEN), adhesive wear . . 1035, 1038
Polyether sulfone (PES)
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1038
Polyethylene (PE)
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659, 797
characteristics of engineering polymers . . . . . . . .359
as coating to resist microbially induced
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .885
crack propagation and ductile fracture . . . . . . . . .654
crack propagation and failure mechanisms . . . . .654
crazing fibrils in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651
differential scanning calorimetry
thermogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .440
distortion of chemical storage vessel . . . . . 453–454
ductile fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .655, 659, 660
lubricants effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025
medium-density, fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .638
relative resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
rib markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
as semicrystalline thermoplastic . . . . . . . .1023–1024
solvation effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .796
specific wear rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
stress crazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .652
surface embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .798
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451–453
characteristics of engineering polymers . . . . . . . .359
crack propagation and ductile fracture . . . . . . . . .654
crystallization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .441
ductile fracture behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .655
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy . . . . . . . .439
notch sensitivity and brittle fractures . . . . . . . . . . .657
shear band formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .622
time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy
mass spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531, 533
x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy high-resolution
spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .529, 531, 534
Polyimide (PI)
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
ladder molecules, characteristics of engineering
polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
Polyisoprene
characteristics of engineering polymers . . . . . . . .359
fracture mechanism map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571
microstructure similar to natural rubber . . . . . . . .650
wear resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), to amplify
microbially induced corrosion material
present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
Polymeric-coated wires, for impressed-current
anodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .756
Polymer(s). See also Elastomers; Glassy
thermoplastics; Thermosets.
abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912–913
aging and degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441, 444
analysis methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
as base material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358, 359
brittle creep behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651
bulk wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1019, 1020, 1021
centrifugal casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
chemical attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .439
chemical contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .439
chemical exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .796
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
www.asminternational.org
1138 / Index
Polymer(s) (continued)
chemical wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019, 1020
coefficient of thermal expansion . . . . . . . . . . 442–443
cohesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1020, 1021, 1022
contamination determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .439
crack propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654–655
crazing as failure mechanism . . . . . . . .367–368, 369
creep modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .652
cross linking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .444
crystallinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441, 650
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
degradation . . . . . . . . . . 439, 441, 442, 444, 797–798
delamination wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019
differential scanning calorimetry . . . . . . . . . 439–441
in dissimilar metal pair, fretting damage . . . . . . .928
ductile creep behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651
ductile tearing mode of deformation . . . . . . . . . . .658
dynamic mechanical analysis . . . . . . . .443–444, 445
environmental effect on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796–799
environmental effects on
wear failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1024–1025
environmental stress cracking . . . . . . .439, 443, 653
environmental wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019
erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019
evaluation in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367–369
evolved gas analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .442
factors influencing performance . . . . . . . . . . 437, 438
factors initiating material removal during
wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025
fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .368, 638–639
fatigue wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy . . 437–439
fractography of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .655
fretting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .929, 1019
gel permeation chromatography . . . . . . . . . . 444–445
glass transition in amorphous plastics . . . . . . . . . .441
humidity effect on wear failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025
hydrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439, 44, 456, 797
impact resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .444
impact wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .970
interfacial wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1019–1022
after Izod impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .658
lubricant effects on wear failures . . . . . . .1024–1025
mechanical testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445–446
mechanical wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019
melt flow rate or melt flow index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .445
melting point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440–441
moisture-related degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .368
molded-in stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443, 444
molecular weight assessment methods . . . 444–445
organic chemicals causing degradation . . . 368–369
overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .679
oxidation . . . . . . .439, 441, 444, 456, 458, 459, 798
particulate-reinforced abrasive
wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1029, 1030–1031
photodegradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .798
photolytic degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .368
photooxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .439
physical aging as failure mechanism . . . . . . . . . . .368
plasticization . . . . . . . . . . . . 367, 439, 796–797, 1025
for repairing cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017
residual stress as failure mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . .368
solution viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .445
solvation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .439, 796–797
specific wear rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020, 1022
stress relaxation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
surface embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .798
swelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796–797
temperature effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798–799
thermal degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797–798
thermal oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .439
thermal stress as failure mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . .368
thermal wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019
thermogravimetric analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441–442
thermomechanical analysis . . . . . . . . . .442–443, 444
transfer wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019, 1020
viscoelasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
wear failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1019–1026
weight loss relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022
Polymer(s), reinforced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1028–1041
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1029–1035
adhesive (sliding) wear . . . . . . . . . .1034, 1035–1041
bidirectionally (BD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1033, 1034–1035
continuous unidirectional fiber, abrasive
wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1029, 1032, 1033
fabric composites, abrasive wear . . . . . . .1033–1035
fabric composites, adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
fillers for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1028
fracture toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1032
hybrid composites, adhesive wear . . . . . .1040–1041
particulate-filled composites, adhesives
wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1035, 1036–1037
short-fiber, abrasive wear . . . . . . . .1030, 1031–1033
short-fiber, adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1035, 1036,
1037–1038
tribological performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1028–1029
unidirectional fiber composites . . . . . . . . .1038–1040
Polymeric materials
bonding and crystallinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
deformation and fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . .568–569, 570
glass transition temperature effect . . . . . . . . 568, 569
multiaxial loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .619
neck formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
orientation hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
thermal softening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
uniaxial loading of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .619
Polymer(s) with continuous fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1029, 1030, 1033
brittle fracture behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656, 657
crazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .654
fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638, 639
fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023
as glassy thermoplastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023
mist region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .658
relative resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
specific wear rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
stress crazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .652
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) composites,
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029, 1030
Polymorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .681
Polyoxymethylene (POM)
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
microcracking due to ultraviolet exposure . . . . 653,
654
relative resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
wear failure of gear wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1026
wear volume relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022
Polyphenylene oxide (PPO)
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
relative resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS)
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1038
Polyphosphate-inhibitor treatments . . . . . . . 757–758
Polyphthalamide
crystallization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .441
differential scanning calorimetry
thermogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .440
Polypropylene (PP)
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
characteristics of engineering polymers . . . . . . . .359
as contaminant for couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448, 450
crack propagation and crazing . . . . . . . . . . . . 654, 655
creep modulus vs. temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .652
ductile fracture behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .655
isothermal transfer wear behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024
notch sensitivity and brittle fractures . . . . . . . . . . .657
as petri dishes for storing samples to be later
analyzed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
rapid overload fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634, 635
relative resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
rib marks not caused by fatigue in fracture . . . 634,
635
specific wear rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
stress crazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .652
Polystyrene (PS)
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
brittle fracture behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656, 657
crack propagation and initiation . . . . . . . . . . 654, 655
differential scanning calorimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .441
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy . . . . . . . .439
as glassy thermoplastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023
mist region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .658
as petri dishes for storing samples to be later
analyzed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
relative resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
shear banding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652, 653
specific wear rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
stress crazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .652
Polystyrene-acrylonitrile-butadrine, embrittlement
of grips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447, 448
Polysulfone (PSU)
crazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .654
differential scanning calorimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .441
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy . . . . . . . .439
relative resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
solvent effects on crazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1035, 1036, 1038
bronze-filled, for insert to prevent fretting
damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .934
as filler for nylon promoting wear
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025, 1026
fretting damage on steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .933
interfacial wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020, 1021
isothermal transfer wear behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024
as semicrystalline thermoplastic . . . . . . . .1023–1024
specific wear rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
temperature and pressure related to linear wear
with sliding speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021
wear rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024
Polytetrafluoroethylene composites, wear
rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024
Polytetrafluoroethylene-filled polyoxymethylene,
wear volume relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022
Polythionic acid (H2SnO6)
causing stress-corrosion cracking in sensitized
Inconel 600 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
causing stress-corrosion cracking in sensitized
stainless steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
environment causing stress-corrosion cracking of
nickel and nickel-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . .848
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844, 849
Polythionic acid stress-corrosion cracking
(PASCC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .844
Polytrifluorochloroethylene (PTFCE), abrasive
wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
Polyurethane (PU)
adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1039
moisture-cured, as corrosion-resistant
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .758
relative resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
Polyurethane paint, as coating to protect low-head
hydraulic machines from cavitation
erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .660
characteristics of engineering polymers . . . . . . . .359
as coating to resist microbially induced
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .885
ductile fracture behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .655
fatigue failure, pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .524
notch sensitivity and brittle fractures . . . . . . . . . . .657
parabolic markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
plasticization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .796
plasticizer migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .796
relative resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
solution viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .445
time-dependent isometric tensile creep curves for
unplasticized polymer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651
unplasticized, crazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .654
work material related failure of tubing . . . 448, 451
POM. See Polyoxymethylene.
Pontoons, floating-bridge, connector failure . . . . . 113,
114
Poor mold repair, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
Porcelain, glazed, brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .670
Porcelain enamels, as corrosion-resistant
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .758
Porcelain insulator
fracture markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .664
replica, fracture surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663, 664
Pore(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665, 669
in ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665,669
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81, 82, 104, 112–116, 593
in corrosion-resistant castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
as criteria for materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
as discontinuity for castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
in ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86–87
in permanent-mold castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
reduction by high pressure application . . . . . . . . .124
in refractories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801, 806
as source of steel cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205, 207
in squeeze casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
of technical ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .806
as welding defect of castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
in weldments . . 157–158, 169, 170–172, 173, 185,
186, 187, 188, 189–190
Portable laboratory, components of . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
Postcrystallization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1026
Postplating baking, and hydrogen embrittlement
prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820, 822
Postweld heat treat cracking. See Stress-relief
embrittlement.
Postweld heat treatment, of welded castings . . 152–
153
Potable water, and pitting corrosion . . . . . . . . 772–773
Potassium
in deposits from microbially induced corrosion
sites in stainless steel cooling water
systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .889
standard emf series value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .763
Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
causing stress-corrosion cracking in carbon
steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
causing stress-corrosion cracking in Fe-Cr-Ni
alloys (caustic cracking) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
Potassium pyrosulfates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .874
Potassium sulfate, as agent for hot corrosion . . . .872
Potential failure, definition in reliability-centered
maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Potential measurements screening tests . . . . . . . .765
Potentiodynamic polarization curves . . . . . 763–764
Potentiodynamic testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
Potentiostat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .763
Potentiostatic testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
Poultice corrosion, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Pourbaix diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755, 801
Poured short, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
Pouring temperature, of permanent-mold
castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
Powder-free gloves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
Powder-generation plants, processes used causing
corrosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .990
Power industry, design life of components . . . . . .229
Powder metallurgy constructs, intergranular brittle
fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .677
Powder metallurgy die, heat-treatment-related
failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510, 511
Powder metal products, nitridation attack from
ammonia environements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
Power plant gate-valve stem, stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847–848
Power plant piping and tubing
leak-before-break concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231, 232
life assessment methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304–310
Power plant waterwall tube, thermomechanical
fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .346
Power station condenser tubing
microbially induced corrosion
of aluminum brass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
of cupronickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
PP. See Polypropylene.
PPO. See Polyphenylene oxide.
PPS. See Polyphenylene sulfide.
Precious metals, for impressed-current anodes . .756
Precipitate-free zone(s) (PFZs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576
assisting creep embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .695
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
dimpled intergranular fractures observed . . . . . . 643,
645
Precipitates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338
Precipitating inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .757
Precipitation embrittlement
of austenitic manganese steels . . . . . . . . . . . . 147, 149
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .694
Precipitation-hardenable stainless steels,
workability behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Precision bolt, hydrogen damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .816
Precision saws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .502
blades for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .502
Predictable errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Prediction methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Prediction maintenance, in petrochemical and
chemical-processing industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Predominance diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
Preferential oxidation, of low-alloy steel
castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145, 146
Preferred orientation. See also Fiber; Texture.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Preheating, before austenitizing, to minimize
warping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
Preliminary design review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
PREN. See Pitting resistance equivalent number.
Preproduction review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Preservation
of evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .334, 339–340
of fracture surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397–398
Presputtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .530
Pressing and sintering (P/M), compatibility with
various materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Press quench system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197, 202, 213
Pressure, effect on cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . . 1010
Pressure die casting . . . . . . . . 125–127, 128, 129, 130
defect-related failures . . . . . 126–127, 128, 129, 130
and soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127
Pressure differential, acting on aircraft
fuselage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279, 284–285
Pressure-sensitive-adhesive (PSA)-backed
polishing cloths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
Pressure-sensitive-adhesive (PSA)-backed SiC
grinding paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
Pressure vessel(s)
brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
design codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
design parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229, 230
fabrication code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .780
life-limiting factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
root-cause analysis of failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
static stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857–859
thin-walled, stress analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
Pressure vessel hatch cover, fatigue failure . . . 286–
287
Pressure vessel plates, temper embrittlement . . . .692
Pressure vessels in nuclear reactors
elevated temperatures for applications . . . . . . . . .729
materials used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729
Pressurized cylindrical section, stress
analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .475
Preventive measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75–77
Primary backscattered electrons (BSE) . . 518–519
Primary creep. See also Transient creep.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Primary function(s), definition in reliabilitycentered maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Primary stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .462
Principal stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .482
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
values of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .464
Principal stress plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .464
Prior austenite grain boundaries
and intergranular fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
and intergranular fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
metallographic examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .364
microcracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
nitride present in chuck jaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513–514
quench cracking patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201, 204
Prior austenite grains, in brittle fracture
surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612, 616
Prior austenite grain size, determining retained
austenite volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211
Proactive maintenance, definition in reliabilitycentered maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
PROACT software package, root cause analysis
(RCA) automated process . . . . . . . . . . . 331–332
Probabilistic analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241–242
Probabilistic life assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250–267
computer software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
elements of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252
Probability, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252
www.asminternational.org
Index / 1139
Probability-based design codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .250
Probability-based structural design criteria, by
U.S. Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252
Probability density function (PDF)
centroid of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252
Probability of detection (POD) . . . . . . .270–271, 272
Probability of failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241, 255, 256
bounds on series system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .263
due to natural evolution of damage to a critical
value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
estimate of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
estimation of superset of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
Probability of false alarms (PFA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
Probability of fracture (PROF) computer
code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252
Probability of injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
acceptable level of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Probability parameter, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .543
Probability plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253–254
PROBAN (computer software program) . . . . . . .267
Probe current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .517
Probes based on nucleic-acid base sequences, to
investigate microbial populations . . . . . . . . .893
Problem solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Problem-solving model, steps in process . . . . . . . .4–5
Problem statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Process failure modes and effects analysis . . . . . . 52
Processing, and fracture origins of ceramics . . . 669–
670
Processing material flaws, as boiler tube damage
mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
Process piping, fabrication code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .780
Product development schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Products liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71–78
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
history of law code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
legal bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71–72
suits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .340
Products recall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
planning for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
PROF (computer software program). See also
Probability of fracture computer code. . . . .267
PROFES (computer software program) . . . . . . . .267
Profile configuration parameter (Rp) . . . . . . . . . . .541
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .541
Profile orientation distribution function . . . . . . . .542
Profile overlap parameter (Op) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .543
Profile structure factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545, 546
using orientation distribution function of
nonoverlapped element of fracture
profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .547
Profilometer traces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .565
Profilometry
to determine fretting damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .925
to measure fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .932
Profilometry-based quantitative
fractography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538, 539
PROFIT (computer software program) . . . . . . . .267
Program PSF (computer software program) . . .266
Progression marks, of stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .835
Projected image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .548
Projection welding, failure origins related to . . . .187
Proof loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403
Proof load testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
of polyacetal latch assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .455
Proof testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403
Proportional limit. See also Elastic limit.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Propulsion System Components program . . . . . .251
Protective coatings. See also Coatings.
biodegradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .881
for gas turbine blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .298
to prevent microbially induced corrosion . . . . . .893
to resist microbially induced corrosion . . . . . . . . .885
Protective covers, brittle fracture of ABS
resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .449–450, 452
Protective device, definition in reliability-centered
maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Protective system, definition in reliability-centered
maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Protein, lipopolysaccharide, nucleic acid analysis,
to investigate microbial populations . . . . . .893
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
www.asminternational.org
1140 / Index
Prototype function review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Prototype review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Prototype testing, to determine optimal wear
properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
PS. See Polystyrene.
PSA. See Pressure-sensitive-adhesive backed SiC
grinding paper; Pressure-sensitive-adhesive
backed polishing cloths.
Pseudomonads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .891
in microbially induced corrosion of stainless
steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
Pseudomonas (NCMB 2021) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .891
PSFs. See Partial safety factors.
PSU. See Polysulfone.
PTFCE. See Polytrifluorochloroethylene.
PTFE. See Polytetrafluoroethylene.
PU. See Polyurethane.
Pugh’s method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Pull cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209, 211
Pulldowns, as casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
Pullout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1030, 1039, 1040
of graphite particles in cast iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
Pull stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209, 211
Pulse-echo ultrasonic inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
Pulse-echo ultrasonic instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
Pulverization . . 1033–1034, 1035, 1038, 1039, 1040
of fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031
Pump impeller from nuclear plant, brittle fracture
of steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152, 153
Pump impellers
of cast iron, shrinkage porosity failure . . .114–115,
116
of CF-8M, erosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .999
Punch, austenitization inadequate for tool
steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509, 510
Pure ductile tearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623, 624
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Pure shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .469
Push cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209, 211
Push stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209, 211
Push-up, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
PVC. See Polyvinyl chloride.
PVD. See Physical vapor deposition.
Pyrite, as corrosion products in pipeline excavations
and laboratory soil box tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
Q
QELS. See Quasi-elastic light scattering.
Quadruple mass spectrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358
Qualification testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .298
Quantitative fractography, definition . . . . . . . . . . . .538
information from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538–554
Qualitative stress-analysis skill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322
Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3–4
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Quality assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
and failure modes and effects analysis . . . . . . . . . . 52
Quality bend fatigue curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173, 176
Quality control, as damage mechanism for boiler
tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
Quality management techniques, to look for
potential failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Quantity, effect on materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Quasi-adiabatic heat dissipation . . . . . . . 1020, 1021
Quasi-adiabatic interfacial wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021
Quasi-cleavage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353, 675
Quasi-cleavage cracking, from hydrogen in nickelbase alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .873
Quasi-cleavage fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1071–1072
Quasi-elastic light scattering (QELS), property
derived form polymer analysis . . . . . . . . . . . .359
Quasi-static tensile tests, at elevated
temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575
Quaternary ammonium salts, as biocidal
agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .894
Quench-age embrittlement,
causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
effect in ferrous alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
steels susceptible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
Quench aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
Quench-and-tempered low-alloy steel, spalling
resistance and mechanical properties . . . . . .980
Quenchants
aqueous polymer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207
flow direction effect on distortion . . . . . . . . 208, 211
liquid vaporizable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
selection and severity . . . . . . . . . . 205–207, 209, 210
uniformity and quench cracking . . . . 207–208, 210,
211
Quenchant temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210–211
Quench crack(s) . . . . . .208–210, 211, 595, 642, 686,
984–985, 986
and austenitizing temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201, 204
carbon equivalent effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208, 211
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
as defect resulting from heat treatment . . . . . . . . . . 81
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
design corrections to reduce possibility . .198–199,
203
effect on fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .719
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694–695
in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92, 96–97
and hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .821
and quenchant uniformity . . . . . . 207–208, 210, 211
as root cause of forgings defects, rationale,
resolution, and corrective action . . . 327, 329,
330, 331
shaft hardening over a cross hole . . . . . . . . . 198, 202
of tool steel roll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509–510, 511
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
Quench distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
Quenched-and-tempered steels
critical section thicknesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .477
fatigue fracture of pin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631, 633
notch sensitivity vs. notch radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .278
strain rate sensitivity in bend failures . . . . . . . . . .606
Quenching
contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
die system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197, 201
and distortion . . . . . . . 196–197, 198, 201, 202, 1053
effect on microcracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
foaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
heat transfer rates for quenching media . . . . . . . .210
interrupted techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212–213, 214
methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213–214
notched parts, and distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198, 202
Polyakov rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210, 212
press system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197, 202
quenchant selection and severity . . . 205–207, 209,
210
quenchant uniformity, and
quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . 207–208, 210, 211
restraint techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213
subcritical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
Quench severity, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206
Quench system design, and distortion . . . . .196–197,
201
R
Rachinger correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
Radial marks. See also Chevron pattern. . . . . . . . 397,
562–563, 587, 601, 605, 719, 934
in brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .674
in casting fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608,610, 612, 613
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
in ductile fracture . . . . . . . . .598, 599, 602, 603, 604
in fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576, 577
near fibrous zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601, 605
macroscale fractographic implication . . . . . . . . . . .560
Radial shear. See Radial marks.
Radial shear marks. See Radial marks.
Radial stress, distribution beneath notch root of
notched-bar specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .597
Radiation, as environment contributing to damage
mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347–348
Radiation damage. See also Neutron
embrittlement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
Radiation embrittlement, influencing intergranular
fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
Radiographic inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
of casting defect fracture due to cold shut . . . . .120
of cast iron pipe with graphitic corrosion . . . . . 787,
788
of corrosion surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .752
description, advantages and limitations 270, 395,
396
to detect tungsten inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
for failure analysis and investigations . . . 336, 395,
396
flaw size range with 90% probability of
detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
in preliminary laboratory examination . . . . . . . . .406
uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
of welding defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
of weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159, 165, 173, 177, 180
Radius of beam curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470
Rail car couplers, brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
Railroad percussion tools, spalling of . . . . . . . . . . .977
Railroad rails, service condition failure due to
frictional heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512, 514
Railway tank car, brittle fracture of steel
weldment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
Rain-flow method, for cycle counting . . . . . . . . . . . .281
Raining
in centrifugal casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
Raised core, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Raised pit, as flaw in rolled bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Raised sand, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Raman techniques
analysis depth and area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
detection limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
ease of use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
information evaluated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
Ramaway, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
Ramming, soft or insufficient, as casting
defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
Ramoff, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
Random number generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
Random sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .250
Random variable (RV)
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252
generation of values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259–260
in Monte Carlo sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259
Range-pair-range method for cycle counting . .281
Rankine criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .461
Rapping of pattern, excess, as casting defect . . .110
RAPTOR (computer software program) . . . . . . .267
Ratcheting, as distortion failure . . . . . . . . . .1055–1056
Ratchet marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .346, 627, 632
characteristic patterns in cylindrical
components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632, 633
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
and fatigue crack propagation . . . . . . 708, 710, 711,
712, 713
in fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576, 577–578, 631
at intermediate stress intensity range . . . . . . . . . . .579
in low-alloy steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
macroscale fractographic implication . . . . . . . . . . .560
with rotating-bending fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713, 714
Ratner-Lancaster plots (relation) . . . . . . 1023, 1031
of cohesive wear of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022
Rattail
as casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108, 120
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104, 1072
from mold-wall deficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
Rayleigh distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253
RBSN. See Reaction bonded silicon nitride.
RCA. See Root-cause analysis.
RCF. See Rolling-contact fatigue.
RCM. See Reliability-centered maintenance.
RCS. See Reaction control system.
R-curve. See also J-R curve.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
RCW. See Rolling-contact wear.
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
RD. See Rolling direction.
Reaction-bonded silicon nitride (RBSN) . . . . . . . .805
brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669–670
Reaction control system (RCS) . . . . . . . . . . . . 857–858
Reaction control system oxidizer pressure vessels,
stress corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . 857–858
Reactive aldehydes, as biocidal agent . . . . . . . . . . . .894
Reactive elements, as addition to aluminide
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
Reactive gas fluxing, of aluminum alloy
castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150
Reactive magnetron sputtering
coating material, thickness, roughness, and
hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
contact stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
rolling contact fatigue life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
rolling contact fatigue tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
substrate material and hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
Reactive metals, galvanic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . .767
Reactive sputtering
coating material, thickness, roughness, and
hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
contact stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
rolling contact fatigue life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
rolling contact fatigue tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
substrate material and hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
Reactor skirts in nuclear reactors
elevated temperatures for applications . . . . . . . . .729
materials used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729
Real area of contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926–927
Real space methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .495
Reaustenitized zones, of forging, cracking . . . . . 511,
512
Rebar, welded, casting fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608, 613
Reboiler bypass duct damper, pitting
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .775
Recession value of wear volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .973
Recirculation inlet nozzle of reactor vessel, stress
corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849–850
Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76–77
Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338
Recrystallization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338, 549
and alpha-phase formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .693
of aluminum alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553, 554
of polymer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .441
and stress rupture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .734
Recrystallization anneal, and cold forming with
sensitization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101, 102
Recrystallization temperature, and equicohesion
temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .686
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .441
Recycled slurry test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .990
Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
feasibility of, and materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Red brass, galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . .762
Redesign, vs. maintenance in reliability-centered
maintenance review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
“Red mud” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .922
Redox potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
as electrochemical monitoring method used for
microbially induced corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . .892
Redox reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801, 869
microbial metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .881
Reduced surface energy theory . . . . . . . . . . . 809, 810
Reducing gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .803
reaction with refractories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .878
Reduction
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
for refractories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
Reduction in area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732, 733
of cast carbon-molybdenum steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
in ductile fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587
of ductile vs. brittle fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .565
of metallic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
of neck at fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .618
of quenched and tempered low-alloy steel . . . . .980
for single crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .597
as temperature decrease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .596
and true logarithmic tensile strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . .596
Reduction in grain boundary
influencing intergranular fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
Reduction of area. See Reduction in area.
Reduction reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .749
Redundant design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Redundant subsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Reentrant regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .548
extent of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546–547
Reentrant segments, in fracture profiles . . . 542–543
Referee test methods, in chemical analysis . . . . . 429,
430–431
Refinery vessel plate, hydrogen
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 814, 815
Reformer applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
Refractories
analysis strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .805
basic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803–804
black . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .806
carbon-bonded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
corrosion by dusts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .803
corrosion by gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .803
corrosion resistance based on maximum
temperature criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .803
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .800
fireclay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803, 804
fusion-cast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
high-alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803, 804
high-alumina with clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803, 804
as high-temperature coatings resisting
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877–878
inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116–117
installation and maintenance procedures . . . . . . .807
material selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805–807
prevention of corrosion failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .805
process control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .807
silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803, 804
silicon carbide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801, 803, 804
zircon-zirconia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801, 803, 804
Refractory alloys, creep onset temperature . . . . . .729
Refractory body-centered cubic metals, fracture
mechanism maps, general shifts . . . . . . . . . . .571
Refractory chromites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
Refractory coating inclusions, as casting
defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
Refractory linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .800
Refractory materials, corrosion failure . . . . 800–804
Refractory metals
compatibility with various manufacturing
processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
creep onset temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729
Refractory oxides, fracture mechanism maps,
general shifts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571
Refrigeration, reducing retained austenite in
steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211
Regulations, eye protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Rehardening burn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220–221
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220
Reheat cracking. See Stress-relief embrittlement.
Reheater tubes, oxide-scale-based life
prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308–309
Reinforced concrete, corrosion by hydrogen sulfide
gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .755
Reinforced polymers. See Polymers, reinforced.
Reinforcing rod, microstructure using replicating
tape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513, 514
Reinforcing steel, corrosion by hydrogen sulfide
gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .755
Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
and failure prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
usefulness of approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Reliability block diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262, 267
Reliability-centered maintenance
(RCM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21, 60–70
computer software role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
consequences of failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66–67
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
failure effects and intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
failure management policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64–66
failure management policy selection . . . . . . . . 67–68
history and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60–61
implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
managing and resourcing the process . . . . . . . 68–70
process asset functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
process, questions asked . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
scheduled tasks as failure management
policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64–66
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Index / 1141
technical feasibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66–67
unscheduled policies as failure management
policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64, 66
Reliability engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Reliability function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
Reliability logic diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51, 53
Relief valve of hot water heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Remaining life assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228, 281,
296, 298–302
for solenoid valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237–238
Remaining-life/inspection interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . .741
Remelting, for chemical analysis specimens . . . . .430
Reoxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
Repairs, and distortion failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054
Repair welds, on corrosion-resistant castings, and
service failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
Repeatability, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .488
Repeated-cycle deformation wear
mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902, 903
Replacement time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281
Replica(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .513–514, 663
acetate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
acetate tape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
of corrosion fatigue fracture-surface
deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721–722
creep damage assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731, 732
examination with scanning electron
microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498, 499
examination with transmission electron
microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498, 499
made in on-site investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
optical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513–514
photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
procedure for fracture surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . 397–398
room-temperature-vulcanized (RTV) rubber . . .394
of wear failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
Replica metallography
post-EPR to confirm EPR results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .779
Replica technique, for fracture profile
generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
Replication
in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337, 338
of fatigue fracture surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .340
of steam piping systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
Report preparation, in failure analysis . . . . 334, 339
Reproducibility, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .488
Residual life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273
Residual strength analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .480
Residual stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462, 467
in amorphous polymer resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443, 444
and average roughness (Ra) surface . . . . . . 486, 487
in castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134–135, 136
causes as knowledge required for failure
analyst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322
in ceramics, and crack branching . . . . . . . . . 369–370
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
and distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1052–1053
in ductile iron stuffing box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
failure causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .484
and fatigue fracture of weldments with
undercuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176
flame cutting effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84–85
grinding process effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493–494
heat treatment effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494–495
heat treatment temperature effect of iron
alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .495
and high-cycle fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
impact wear affected by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .969
in-service loads effects on near-surface stress
states in gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .494
in limit analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .475
and manufacturing imperfections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .613
during marquenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212
measurement by x-ray diffraction in failure
analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484–496
in overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687, 688
of polycarbonate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .457
in polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368, 454
quasi-static loading of components . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
and quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
during reheating and quenching, metallurgical
sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196, 200
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
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Residual stress (continued)
size change caused by heat treatment of prismatic
parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194–195, 198
in steel after shot peening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927–928
in steel cargo tiedown sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496
and stress concentration in fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . .717
and stress-corrosion cracking . . 825, 827, 828, 830
and stress intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481–482
and tempering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195, 199
of weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
Residual stress analysis
description, advantages and limitations . . . . . . . .396
for failure analysis and investigations . . . . . . . . . .396
Resin-bonded sand casting, characteristics of
process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Resin sand molding, in shape-casting processes
classification scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Resistance butt welding, failure origins related
to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
Resistance seam welding, failure origins related
to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
Resistance spot welding, failure origins related
to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
Resistance welding, failure origins related to . . 187–
188
Resolidification, and shrinkage cavities . . . . . . . . . .615
Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .517, 518, 522
levels of, in engineering design process . . . . .41, 42
Response surface evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
Response surface method (RSM), . . . .250, 258–259
Response variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
Restraint cracks, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188
Restraint fixturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213
Restraint quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213
Resulfurized steels, intergranular brittle fracture of
valve seats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .677
Resulfurized steels, workability behavior . . . . . . . . . 98
Retained austenite
carbon content influence on formation . . . 210, 212
carbon content vs. lattice parameters . . . . . 193, 194
in carburized track wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510, 511
conversion to martensite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211, 213
cryogenically cooled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210
dimensional changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194–195
and dimensional variation with tempering . . . . 195,
198
and distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201
effect on compressive stresses and
effect on steel properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211–212
formation, factors affected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
formation with austempering processes . . . . . . . .207
in metallographic examinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .364
in nickel-chromium steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211, 213
in overaustenized tool steel . . . . . . . . . .509–510, 511
volume changes of carbon steels due to phase
transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194, 195
Retardation effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282–283
Retirement-for-Cause (RFC) inspection
systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271–272
Reverse elastoplastic loading mode . . . . . . . . . . . . .492
Reverse sample genome probing, to investigate
microbial populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
Reverse temper embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .695
Rework, of coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152–154
Reynolds slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .941
RFC. See Retirement-for-Cause inspection system.
RGDs. See Rigid grinding discs.
Rheocasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127
Rhodium, cleavage fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .589
Rib-mark(s). See also Arrest lines; Beach marks.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
not caused by fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634, 635
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
Ridged fracture, microscale fractographic
implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
Ridge marks, in tensile fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .634
Ridge patterns, in casting fractures . . .608, 612, 613
Ridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632, 634
from torsional stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .714
Rigid grinding discs (RGDs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .504
polishing practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .508
Rigid polyvinyl chloride, creep modulus vs.
temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .652
Rimmed steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
Lüders lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
Rim-tempered hammers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .978
Ring cracks, of silicon nitride bearing balls . . . . . .957
Ring gears, dimension limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202, 205
Ring-on-ring flexure test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .666
Ring-on-ring test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662, 663
apparatus, description of rolling contact fatigue
test method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .944
Ripple mark. See Wallner line.
Riser, broken casting at, as casting defect . . . . . . . .110
Risering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
and cold shut prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
and shrinkage porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
Risk
acceptable level of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48, 72, 263
legal distinction from hazard and danger . . . . . . . . 72
Risk analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .250, 262, 263
to target chemical treatments preventing
microbially induced corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . .894
Risk and hazard analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28, 29
Risk assessment in design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Risk-benefit analysis, factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Risk-informed (or risk-based) approach, to life
assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274
River lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .521, 523, 563, 611, 612
with brittle fracture 563, 564, 572–573, 674, 400
and stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .836
and tongues in cleavage and structure . . . . . . . . . .590
in transgranular cleavage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .674
River markings, on polycarbonate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .457
on polyethylene chemical storage vessel . . . . . . .453
River marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .612
with brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
River pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370, 397
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
microscale fractographic implication . . . . . . . . . . .560
Riveted joints, crevice corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .775
Rock candy fracture 145, 353, 605, 642, 836, 837
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
intergranular brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .677
Rocker levers of diesel engines, fatigue failures
with spiking defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140, 141
Rockwell hardness number (HR), definition . . 1072
Rockwell hardness test, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
Rockwell superficial hardness test,
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
Rods
brittle fracture of medium-carbon steel . . . . . . 85–86
torsional fatigue failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630, 633
Roll, quench cracking of tool steel . . . . .509–510, 511
Roll burst, as distortion factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
Rolled-in scale
in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
in ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Roller, fatigue fracture with banding . . . . . . . . . . . . .720
Rolling
direction of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
imperfections causing fractures . . . . . . . . . . . 615, 617
Rolling-contact fatigue (RCF)
carbide structure affected by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
of ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957–963
characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
of chemical vapor deposition coatings . . . . . . . . .949
crack propagation to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958–959
damage classification system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .942
as damage mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . .349
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 941, 957
delamination failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960, 962
design factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946–947
failure modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .941
failure origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .941
failure theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .943
initiation site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
life prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945, 946
material removal in failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .941
mechanisms for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
rolling-contact wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962–963
spalling fatigue failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960–962
in steel, characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 942–943
stress risers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 941, 942
testing . . . . . . . . . . 943, 944, 948, 949, 951, 959–962
of thermal spray coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949–954
tribometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .943
of vapor-deposited coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945–949
Rolling contact fatigue test machines . . . . . 959–960
ball-on-plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .959–960, 961
ball-on-rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .960, 961, 963
contacting ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .960
disc-on-rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960, 960
five-ball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .959
modified four-ball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .944, 959, 962
ring-on-disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .962
Rolling-contact wear (RCW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .941
Rolling direction (RD), labeling conventions for
rolled sheet and plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
Rolling-element bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 941–942
fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 935–937
life prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945, 946
Rolling four-ball testing apparatus, description of
rolling contact fatigue test method . . . . . . . .944
Rolling motion, operational variations . . . . . . . . . . .902
Rolling scratches, deformed, macroscale
fractographic implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
Room-temperature aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
Room-temperature-vulcanized (RTV) rubber, for
replicas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
Root cause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235, 316, 318, 386
determination in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393
determination of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4–5, 325, 559
of distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1056–1057
imperfection as cause of failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .561
stress analysis part of procedure for
determining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .473
of unacceptable stress concentrators . . . . . . . . . . . .460
of weldment failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
Root-cause analysis (RCA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 7, 318,
388, 399–400
assembly errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325
charting methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–15
design deficiencies effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
design errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325
examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 7
fabrication/manufacturing errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325
in failure investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327–328
levels of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
of lunar command modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .324
responsibility assignments for failures . . . . . . . . . . . 7
of sprocket locking device failure . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 10
techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
usefulness for larger scale investigations . . . . . . .320
Root cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158, 161
Root porosity, in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190
ROOTS Investigative Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .332
Rosette. See Radial marks.
Rotary swaging, compatibility with various
materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Rotating-bending fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579, 581
of drive shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .712–713, 714
shaft failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
in shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712, 713
Rotating disk tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1007, 1008–1009
Rotating journal, life assessment of overheating
damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239, 240
Rotational molding, compatibility with various
materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Rotors, temper embrittlement at elevated
temperature of steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .293
Rotors for steam engines, elevated temperatures for
applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729
materials used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729
Rotor shafts, torsional-fatigue fracture . . . . . 714–715
Roughness,
of casting fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608, 612
and crack propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .562
of fracture profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541–542
of fracture surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .541, 545–546
of fracture surface, and crack initiation . . 562–563
severe, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
surface, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
of torsion loaded surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606–607
variable of fracture edge, macroscale fractographic
implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
Roughness-induced crack closure stress
intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .542
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
Roughness of non-overlapped regions of fracture
surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .547
Roughness parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .541
Rounded “r-type” cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575–576
R-ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277, 279, 283, 285, 286, 481
R6 failure assessment diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244
R6 criteria (Great Britain) . . . . . 240, 241, 243, 246
R6 curve (interpolation formula) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
R6 curve option 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246
RSM. See Response-surface method.
RTV rubber. See Room-temperature vulcanized
rubber.
Rubber
aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405
in nylon 6/6 hinges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458, 459
Rubbery polymer, modulus versus
temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .799
Rubbing
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
effect on fracture surface and failure
analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
general, macroscale fractographic
implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
localized, macroscale fractographic
implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
Rub marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
Rules of mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . 1029, 1030–1031, 1040
Runout, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
Run-repair-replace decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
Run-to-failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66, 67
definition in reliability-centered maintenance . . . 62
Rupture
as damage mechanism for boiler tubing . . . . . . . .347
in ingot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Rupture disc, liquid metal induced
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862, 864–865
Rupture ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .695
Rupture life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729, 732
Rupture stress, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
Rust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .934
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
on fractured drive shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .713
as product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .750
removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
in steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .768
on steel pilings crevice corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .776
Rusting
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188
of aircraft freshwater tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .773
and cold forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101–102
Rutherford scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .518
RV. See Random variable.
S
Sacrificial-anode protection . . . . . . . . . . .755–756, 757
Safe, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Safe-end on reactor nozzle, stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849–850
Safe-life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45, 281
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
design methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .700
principal testing data description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .700
Safe-life approach . . . . . . . . . 231, 269, 270, 281–282,
283–284, 286
scatter factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
service life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
Safe structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
Safety, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
effect on materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Safety consequences
definition in reliability-centered maintenance . . . 62
for failure mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Safety factor . . .20–21, 22, 230, 241, 250, 281, 460,
490
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 1048
design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .686
of design of Yankee dryer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387
and design stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473, 477
for distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1048–1049
and fracture stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .482
of shotgun barrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1051
of U-tube of steam generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .388
of weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
Safety factor on load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
Safety glasses
acetone solvent-induced cracking . . . . . . . . 653–654
to prevent eye injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Safety hazards
at accident senses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .373
spalling of hammers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979–980
Safety index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250, 255, 256, 266
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .256
generalized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257–258
Safety limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273
Safety margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273
Safety standard, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Salt bath, heat transfer rate of quenching
medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210
Salt melt etching, of ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362
Salt-spray test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .773
Sample current, x-ray elemental composition map
made with electron microprobe . . . . . . . . . . .865
Sample mean, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .251
Sample removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
Sample size
and crack plane curvature of castings . . . . 611, 615
effect on bending failure of notched sample . . 606,
610
Sample standard deviation, definition . . . . . . . . . . .251
Sampling
corrosion products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .751
in failure analysis investigation . . . . . . . . . . . 393–394
lubricants, for wear failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
metallurgical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359–360
on-site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405–406
for stress-corrosion cracking damage . . . . . . . . . . .835
Sampling error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548, 549
SAN. See Styrene-acrylonitrile.
Sand
inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116–117
raised, as casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Sand casting
compatibility with various materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
for steel, minimum web thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Sand hole
as casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104, 1072
Sand inclusions, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
Saponification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
Saturation value of profile roughness
parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .544
Saw blade, residual-stress map of steel . . . . . . . . . . .489
SC. See Single crystal alloys.
Scab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
as casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109, 120
corner, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104, 1072
expansion, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
fillet, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
in ingot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83, 90
from mold-wall deficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
Scabbing, contact fatigue terminology . . . . . . . . . . .722
Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18, 338
formation, and sulfidizing environment . . . . . . . .870
growth rate affected by high temperature . . . . . .868
in low-alloy steel castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
oxide, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
size indication, in photographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
Scale marker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .351
Scaling (metallic oxidation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
of refractory walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .803
Scandia
as addition to thermal barrier coatings for hot
corrosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
Scanning Auger microprobe analysis . . . . . . . . . . .529
in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337
of liquid metal induced embrittlement by
mercury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .865
Scanning Auger microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .529
Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
www.asminternational.org
Index / 1143
advantages over transmission electron
microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560–561
development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
to examine cleavage fractures or replicas of
fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498, 499
to examine fatigue fractures in metals . . . . 635–636
in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336
for macroscopic examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353
for microscopic examination of fracture
surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .399
Scanning electron microscope (SEM)-based
quantitative fractographic methods . . . . .538
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .538
Scanning electron microscope fractography . . .538
of metal-induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862
to study fatigue fracture of ductile iron . . 142, 143
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) . . . . 419, 426,
516–526, 655
accelerating voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .525
of alloy steel ski chair lift grip components . . . . . 11
cold-field-emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516, 517
component systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516–521
depth of field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
development of technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
electron-optical column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516–518
electron source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
environmental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
to examine cracks in service-run gas turbine
blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344
to examine wear scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .902
in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336, 337, 338, 339
of failure modes, instantaneous and
progressive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
as fractography technique . . . . . . . . . . . .522–523, 662
fracture mode identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .672
high-resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
high-vacuum, conventional imaging mode . . . . .516
image dependence on microscope type and
operating parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524–525
line scan mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .540
of liquid-metal embrittlement . . . . . . . .367, 368, 369
low- or variable-pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
of nonmetallic specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362
properties measured . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
property derived from polymer analysis . . . . . . . .359
purchasing decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .526
quantitative fractography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547–551
sample insertion port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .521
sample preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521–522
Schottky gun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
signal detection and display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518–520
stereo-pair imaging-based methods . .539, 551–553
thermal-field-emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
for three-dimensional surface maps . . . . . . . . . . . .565
use in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
vacuum source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
vacuum system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520–521
of wear damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) quantitative
fractography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547–551
number density of features in fracture
surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547–548
Scanning potentiostat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .763
Scars, as casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Scatter factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
SCC. See Stress-corrosion cracking.
SCF. See Stress-corrosion fatigue.
SCFs. See Stress concentration factors.
Scheduled, definition in reliability-centered
maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Scheduled discard, definition in reliability-centered
maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Scheduled discard tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65, 69
Scheduled restoration task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65, 69
definition in reliability-centered maintenance . . . 62
Scheduled tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64–66
worth-doing criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Schmid’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .588
Scientific method, steps in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Scleroscope hardness number (HSc or HSd),
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
Scleroscope hardness test, definition . . . . . . . . . . 1072
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
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1144 / Index
Score marks, of steel mold for centrifugal
casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
Scoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .909
and cold forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408, 1072
Scrap value, effect on materials selection . . . . . . . . . 34
Scratching. See also Plowing.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
Scratching abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .908
Scratching damage maps, for polymethyl
methacrylate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023
Screwdriver, stress analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .475
Screws, ductile overload failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673–674
Scuffing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .909
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408, 1072
Sealing and hydraulic circuit systems, cavitation
erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007
Seam(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81, 82, 615
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108, 112
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104, 1072–1073
as discontinuity for extrusions and drawn
products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
distortion from stress raisers . . . . . . . . .204–205, 207
as flaw in rolled bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91, 93, 95
in ingot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Season cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .853
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Seawater
causing intergraular corrosion in sensitized
austenitic stainless steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .779
causing stress-corrosion cracking in titanium
alloys at various temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . .857
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . .851–852, 857
Secant modulus. See also Modulus of elasticity.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Secondary crack
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
on fracture surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
Secondary creep. See also Creep.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Secondary electron imaging (SEI) mode . . . . . . .432
Secondary electrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518, 519
Secondary functions, definition in reliabilitycentered maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Secondary ion maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .533
Secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) . . . . . 357,
358
for polymeric analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
Secondary stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .462
Second-order bounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .262
Second-order reliability method (SORM) . . . . . .257
Second phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118
in ductile fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .591
Sectioning
of fracture surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
in metallographic examination . . . . . . .501–502, 503
tools used for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
Section modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470
Section size
of cast irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137, 138
effect on casting design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
of low-alloy steel castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144
Se factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031
Segregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338
Segregation
in as-cast products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429, 430
and casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118
in centrifugal casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83, 1073
as discontinuity for castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
as discontinuity for forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
in gray iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
Segregation banding, in centrifugal casting . . . . .132
SEI. See Secondary electron imaging.
Seismic analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .388
Seismic finite element dynamic analysis . . 384–385
Seizure
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
failure by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Selective leaching. See also Decarburization;
Denickelification; Dezincification; and
Graphitic corrosion. . . . . . 337, 751, 752, 755,
761, 785–788
dealloying mechanisms . . . . . . . . 768, 785, 788, 790
dealloying of noble metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788, 790
dealuminification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .787–788, 789
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
denickelification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788, 789
desiliconification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .788
destannification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .788
dezincification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785–786, 787
graphitic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786–787, 788, 789
Selective quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213, 214
Selenium
in base metal and weldment porosity . . . . . . . . . . .170
as embrittling agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .691
as grain-boundary embrittler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
grain-boundary segregation and intergranular
brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .643
Self-equilibrating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .467
SEM. See Scanning electron microscope; Scanning
electron microscopy.
Semicentrifugal casting, in shape-casting processes
classification scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Semicrystalline thermoplastics . . . . . . . . . 1023, 1024
wear volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024
Semipermanent (sand cores) casting, in shapecasting processes classification scheme . . .124
Semiquantitative emission spectrography . . . . . .404
Semisolid casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124, 127–129, 131
defect-related failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127–129, 131
Semisolid forging. See Semisolid casting.
Semisolid metalworking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Semisolid processing. See Semisolid casting.
Sensitivity analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249, 376, 377
Sensitization
cold forming and stress corrosion cracking
vulnerability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
of corrosion-resistant casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292, 1073
and intergranular corrosion of stainless
steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778–783
and intergranular (IG) fracture of stainless
steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
of stainless steel castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
of stainless steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .780
of steel alloys used for gas turbine tubes and
piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291, 292
and stress corrosion cracking . . . . . . . .828, 832, 833
Serial sectioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .538, 551, 553
vertical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553, 554
Series structural system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262–263
Service damage, effect on overload failure . . . . . .689
Service environment(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30, 344
Service life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 8
appropriate operating conditions, maintenance and
inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
failure due to anomalies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13, 14, 15
loss of, as failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
in safe-life approach, definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
surface condition effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
Service life anomaly, as root cause resulting in
failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Service propulsion system (SPS) . . . . . . . . . . 857–859
Service propulsion system fuel tanks, stress
corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858–859
Sessile dislocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .589
747 Maintenance Steering Group (MSG) . . . . . . . 61
SFRPs. See Short-fiber reinforced polymers.
Shaft
brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352–353
fatigue failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579, 581, 631, 633
fatigue fracture from rotating bending
fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631, 633
fatigue fracture of steel . . . 707–708, 709, 710–711
liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . .865
rotating bending fatigue failure . . . . . . . . . . . 631, 633
from rotor, torsional-fatigue fracture . . . . . 714–715
from tube-bending machine, fatigue fracture . . .711
Shaft hardening over a cross hole, design and
distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198, 202
Shakeout, early, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
distortion on quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
Shape-casting processes, classification
scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Shape distortion, of sheet metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
Shark’s teeth. See also Striation.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Sharp undercut at the weld toe, surface feature as
cause for rejection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
Shatter crack. See Flake.
Shear bands. See also Adiabatic shear bands; Sheardeformation bands; Slip lines.
and abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .920
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
in ductile overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .672
and ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595–596
formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568, 621–622
in metallic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571
in polycarbonate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654, 655
in polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652, 653
Shear component of stress, definition . . . . . . . . . . .462
Shear cracks, in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Shear-deformation bands. See also Shear bands;
Slip lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652, 653
Shear fasteners, liquid metal induced
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .866
Shear force, of beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470
Shear fracture. See also Shear stress.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Shear hackle, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Shearing crack
characteristics and crack growth mechanism . . .100
classification scheme by Greek letters . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Shearing failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
Shear ledges. See Radial marks.
Shear lip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473, 566–567, 589
in bending tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .604
in brittle sample, and impact energy . . . . . . . . . . .605
in casting fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .607, 610, 614
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
depth related to plane-stress plastic zone size and
fracture toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .583
in ductile fracture . . .400, 598, 599–600, 601, 604,
605
in ductile overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .673
of fatigue failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630, 633
on fracture surface macroscale fractographic
implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
and fracture toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .477
in overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687, 688
in unnotched specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .601
width on plate specimens to estimate stress for
fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .583
Shear localization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .600
Shear modulus (G) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .466
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Shear pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .460
Shear planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600, 604
Shear-related defects, in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92–93
Shear strain, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Shear strain rate, of carbon and low alloy
steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980, 981
Shear strength
as criteria for materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Shear stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035
causing permanent deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .588
components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .463
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .462, 1073
subsurface fatigue crack initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .628
Shear yielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .658
Shear yield strength, relationship with various
failure modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35, 36
Sheet, discontinuities, types of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Sheet forming, problems encountered . . . . . . 100–101
Sheet metal forming, compatibility with various
materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Sheet metalworking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Shelf, in ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Shell casting (steel), minimum web thickness . . . . 32
Shelling
contact fatigue terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .722
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .975
Shell molding, and surface finish of casting . . . . . .120
Shell resin sand molding, in shape-casting processes
classification scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Sherardizing, to prevent fretting damage . . . . . . . .933
Sherlock Holmes Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343, 344, 347
Shielded metal arc welding
failure origins related to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
headers for superheated water . . . . . . . . . . . . 165–166
weldment inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172, 173
weldment incomplete fusion and in-phase . . . . 178,
180
weldment porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
Shift, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
Shifted core, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
Shift factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1021–1022
Ship hull, intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .778
Ship service turbine generator casings,
thermomechanical fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . 741–745
Shock load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364, 394
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Shock waves, causing cavitation erosion . . . . . . . 1002
Short-fiber reinforced polymers (SFRPs)
abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1030, 1031–1033
adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035, 1036, 1037–1038
composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1028, 1029
Short-term overheat, as boiler tube damage
mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
Short-term overheating (stress rupture), as
damage mechanism for boiler tubing . . . . .347
Shot blasting, to remove surface oxides . . . . . . . . . .215
Shotcreting application method, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .759
Shotgun barrel, deformation failure of steel . . . 1051
Shot peening, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221–222, 927
and compressive residual stresses levels in steel
automotive springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .492
to correct decarburization effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
distortion due to residual stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
effect on manufactured components . . . . . . . . . . . .494
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .688
effect on tensile residual-stress field . . . . . . 490–491
effect on Waspaloy rotating bend
fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492–493
to increase compressive stresses by work
hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211–212
to increase fatigue strength of rotor shaft . . . . . .715
of malleable irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
to minimize fretting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
to prevent fretting damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .933
recovery of internal oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
and rolling-contact fatigue deformation . . . . . . . .953
stress gradients affected by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .494
for stress reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .717
Shrinkage. See also Casting shrinkage. . . . . . . . . . . . 81
allowance, improper, as casting defect . . . . . . . . .110
axial, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
blind, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
centerline, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
core, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
corner, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
in corrosion-resistant castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
dispersed, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
fillet, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
of gray iron crankcases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
internal, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
in malleable irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
open or external, as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
of permanent-mold castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
Shrinkage cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
in carbon steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509
in castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .614
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Shrinkage gaps, between specimen and
mount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502, 503, 504, 505
Shrinkage porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113–116, 120, 593
in aluminum alloy castings . . . . . . . . . . . . .149, 150, 151
of aluminum pressure vessel hatch cover . . . . . . . . .287
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106, 613, 614
in casting fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608, 613
and cold shut in cast steel equalizer beams . . . 122,
123
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104, 1073
as discontinuity in semisolid casting . . . . . 128, 131
effect on fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .719
and fracture from manufacturing
imperfections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .613
and overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683–684
in pressure die castings . . . . . . . . 126–127, 128, 129
as root cause of forgings defects, rationale,
resolution, and corrective action . . . 327, 329,
330, 331
of welded cast steel crosshead . . . . . . . . . . . . 153, 154
of weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
Shrinkage voids
in casting fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608
in polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .657
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
Shut-off valve of the stress ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
Shutter speed, in photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .421
Sialons (Silicon-aluminum oxynitride) . . . . . . . . . .806
Side lighting of fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .419
Siderite, as corrosion products in pipeline
excavations and laboratory soil box
tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
Sigma phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734–735
in austenitic manganese steel castings . . . . 147, 149
of beta - NiAl coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .876
in corrosion-resistant castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
formation at elevated temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . .874
transformed from delta ferrite . . . . . . . . . . . . 500, 501
Sigma phase embrittlement
causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
of chromium-nickel alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512, 513
effect in ferrous alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692–693
of stainless steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500, 501
steels susceptible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
Sigma-phase formation, of steel alloys used for gas
turbine tubes and piping . . . . . . . .291, 292, 293
Signal-to-noise ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .518
Signature block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415–416
Silica
formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
melting point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .840
thermal stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
Silicate(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .802
formation in steel ingot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Silicate glasses, fracture markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .664
Silicate inclusions
by hydrogen-induced cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .815
in stainless steel mold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509, 510
Silicon
addition to nickel alloys and sulfidation
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .870
bond energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
in chromium-silicon aluminide coatings . . . . . . . .877
content effect on internal oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . .214
content effect on sigma-phase embrittlement . .693
in deposits from microbially induced corrosion
sites in stainless steel cooling water
systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .889
effect on molybdenum microsegregation . . . . . . .219
effect on time-to-fracture of copper by stress
corrosion cracking in ammoniacal
atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .853
effect on weldment hot cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
as embrittling agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .691
as embrittling impurity in low-alloy steel
castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144
enhancing embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691, 692
as grain-boundary embrittler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
grain-boundary segregation causing intergranular
stress corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
microsegregation susceptibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
oxidation potential in endothermic gas . . . . . . . . .214
removed from alloys by selective leaching . . . . .785
as surface contaminant on powder-free
gloves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
Silicon alloys
case debonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131
hypereutectic, grain refinement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150
Silicon-aluminum oxynitrides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
Silicon bronze
environments subjecting alloy to selective
leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785
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galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .784
Silicon carbide (SiC)
for abrasive particles for cutting wheels . . . . . . . .502
ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .800
as chemical vapor deposition coating
material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .960
elastic modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .960
erosion rate of ceramics with different grain size
in ion-exchanged water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007
failure mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .960
as filler for polymer composites . . . . . . . 1035, 1036
formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .960
melting point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
reaction bonded, corrosion resistance to fused
salts, alkalis, and low-melting oxides . . . . .805
reaction bonded, corrosion resistance to various
hot gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .805
refractoriness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800, 805
toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .960
Silicon carbide-titanium carbide graphite
as chemical vapor deposition substrate
material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
Silicon deoxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
Silicon nitride (Si3N4)
bending as fracture mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .666
ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .800
density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .960
elastic modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .960
erosion rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005, 1007
failure mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .960
as filler for polymer composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1036
formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .960
hot pressed, corrosion resistance to various hot
gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .805
impact cracking of bearing balls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .957
impact wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .969
melting point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
plasma etching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .363
reaction bonded, corrosion resistance to various
hot gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .805
refractoriness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .805
toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .960
uniaxial tension, rod fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663, 666
Silicon nitride (Si3N4) and M50 bearing steel
as physical vapor deposition substrate
material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
Silicon steel laminations
porosity in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
Silky fracture
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Siloxane
as surface contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
Silver
in dissimilar metal pair, fretting damage . . . . . . .928
as embrittling metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862
environments subjecting alloy to selective
leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785
fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .930
galvanic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .767
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
high-purity, ductile fracture and void
nucleation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .593
liquid embrittlers of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
removed from alloys by selective leaching . . . . .785
standard emf series value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .763
uniform corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .768
Silver brazing alloys
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
Silver chloride
degrading nylon resin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456
Silver or magic bullet theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328, 331
Silver plating
for adhesive wear mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
Simons (silicon-magnesium oxynitride) . . . . . . . . .806
SIMS. See Secondary ion mass spectroscopy.
Simulated-service testing . . 334, 338–339, 404–405,
407, 752
for corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406, 407
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
www.asminternational.org
1146 / Index
Simulated-service testing (continued)
determined by tribological aspect number . . . . . 902,
903
for intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .779
for stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .838
Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .376
Simulation programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377
Single-crystal (SC) alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .682
for gas turbine components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296
Single-crystal cleavage models . . . . . . . . . . . . 588–589
Single-cycle deformation
wear mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902–903
Sink marks
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Sintered alumina
fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .929
Sintered reaction-bonded silicon nitride (SRBSN)
impact wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .969
Sintered silicon carbide
brittle fracture due to defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669–670
Sioux City incident, titanium fan disk
defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228, 232
Situation-Filter-Outcome Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .332
Six Sigma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3–4, 5, 10
Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
distortion on quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
effect on ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .597
Size exclusion chromatography. See Gel permeation
chromatography.
Sketch, three-dimensional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Ski chair lift grip components
brittle fracture of alloy steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10, 11
Skimming techniques
to prevent inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
Skin-dry sand molding
in shape-casting processes classification
scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Skin passing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338
Slabbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .803
Slack quench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
Slag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
trapped, as welding defect of castings . . . . . . . . . .152
Slag blowholes
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106, 111
Slagging resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .803
Slag inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116, 117
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108, 111
subsurface feature as cause for rejection . . . . . . .156
in welded cast steel crosshead . . . . . . . . . . . . 153, 154
in weldments . . 157–158, 169, 170, 171, 172–173,
174, 175, 176
Slant fracture. See also Shear lip. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587
in castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .607, 610, 614
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
SLC. See Sustained load cracking.
Sledge hammers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 976, 977, 981, 987
Sliding
direction of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
negative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .413
Sliding abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908–909
Sliding contact wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .909
Sliding distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022
of polymer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022
Sliding motion
operational variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .902
Sliding speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1021, 1022, 1032
Sliding velocity
effect on impact wear failures . . . . . . . . . . . . 967–968
Sliding wear
causing corrosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .989
damage manifestation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .901
mechanism of steel couple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902, 903
Sliding wear tests, high-speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .967
Slime formers
in microbiologically induced corrosion of stainless
steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
Slime-forming organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .884
Slimers
in cooling systems drawing on natural
waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .889
microbially induced corrosion morphology
products, and deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .888
Slip. See also Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568, 587–588, 922
amplitude of, and fretting wear . . . . . .924–925, 926
in crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .589
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
duplex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .589
in metallic materials . . . . . . . . . . . 569, 570, 571, 572
in overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679–680
Slip band(s),
and intergranular fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .644
Slip band deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .593
Slip-band density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .739
Slip deformation mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .563
Slip lines. See Shear bands; Shear-deformation
bands.
Slipping time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .971
Slip plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579, 581
Slip system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679, 680
Slit-island(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544, 547
Slit-island method, for measuring fractal
dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544, 547
Slit-lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544, 547
Sliver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
as flaw in rolled bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
in ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83, 90
Slow crack growth procedure for monolithic
structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273
Slow loading bend testing
of notched specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .605
Slow strain rate embrittlement. See also Internal
reversible hydrogen embrittlement. . . . . . . .810
Slurry abrasives
angle of attack, and corrosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . .991
density of, and corrosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . 990–991
hardness of, and corrosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .991
hydrodynamics effect on corrosive wear . . . . . . .991
impingement on two-body
corrosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 990–991
shape of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .990
size of and corrosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .991
solids concentration, and corrosive wear . . . . . . .991
velocity, and corrosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .991
Slurry conditioning
to resist corrosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .992
Slurry erosion
variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .902
Slurry handling
causing corrosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .989
Slurry parameters
to resist corrosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .992
Slurry tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .990
Slush casting
in shape-casting processes classification
scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
SMAC (computer program)
for analyzing motor vehicle accidents . . . . . . . . . .377
Small-angle x-ray diffraction
property derived from polymer analysis . . . . . . . .359
Small-crack growth rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .703
Small-scale yielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .477
Smearing
fracture surface with torsion loading . . . . . 607, 610
SMIE. See Solid metal induced embrittlement.
Smooth-bar rotating beam tests
of ductile iron pistons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
Smooth-bar stress-rupture tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .731
S-N curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .491
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
S-N diagram. See S-N curve.
S-N method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700–702
Snowmobile
throttle and braking design and human factors . . 74
Snowthrower adapters
brittle overload failure of zinc alloy . . . . . . . . . . . .683
Soaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
Society for the Advancement of Science in
Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .321
Society of Automotive Engineers
publishes range of allowed concentrations and
residual elements in metal
compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .430
Soda-lime glass
brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521, 523
cleavage fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573
Soderberg line
mean stress effect on alternating stress
amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .701
Soderberg’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .701
Sodium
alloying effect on aluminum-silicon alloys . . . . .118
as embrittling metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862
as liquid embrittler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
standard emf series value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .763
as surface contaminant on powder-free
gloves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
Sodium chloride (NaCl)
bond energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
causing chloridation of carbon steel . . . . . . . . . . . .873
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . 825, 844, 849, 851–
852, 856
Sodium chromate
as additon to cooling water for cavitation erosion
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
causing stress-corrosion cracking in carbon
steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
causing stress-corrosion cracking in Fe-Cr-Ni
alloys (caustic cracking) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . 823, 824, 833, 838,
839, 840, 844, 849, 857
Sodium hypochlorite solution
causing pitting corrosion of stainless steel
tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773–774
Sodium pyrosulfates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .874
Sodium sulfate
as agent causing hot corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . 871, 872
corroding technical ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804, 805
Sodium tetrathionate solution
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .849
Sodium thiosulfate solutions
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .849
Softening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .803
Soft steel
impact wear coefficient values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .971
Software fault analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
SOHIC. See Stress-oriented hydrogen-induced
cracking.
Sohnke’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587–588
Soil environments
microbiologically induced corrosion of steel and
iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885–887
pitting corrosion and sampling requirement . . . .356
Soil oxidation reduction potential
factors correlating with sulfate-reducing bacteria
(SRB) numbers for buried pipeline sites . .886
Soil resistivity
factors correlating with sulfate-reducing bacteria
(SRB) numbers for buried pipeline sites . .886
Soil water content
factors correlating with sulfate-reducing bacteria
(SRB) numbers for buried pipeline sites . .886
Soldering
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
in die castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127
Solenoid valve
fatigue fracture of stainless steel . . . . . . . . . 235–238
Solgasmix computer code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
Solidification, accelerated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118
Solidification cracks
subsurface feature as cause for rejection . . . . . . .156
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157, 167, 170, 184
Solidification modeling
to predict microporosity areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
Solidification rate
increase effect on thermal gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
Solidification shrinkage
of aluminum alloy castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Solidification shrinkage crack
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Solid impingement erosion
cause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .995
Solid-metal-induced embrittlement (SMIE) . . . 694,
751
of alloy steel and cadmium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .865
alloy steel and tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .865
of carbon steel and cadmium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .865
carbon steel and tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .865
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .861
effect in ferrous alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .698
failure analysis of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862–863
influencing intergranular fracture . . . .642, 645, 646
and intergranular (IG) fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
metals shown to cause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862
rate and time to failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862
service failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862, 863–866
steels susceptible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
titanium-cadmium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .866
Solid modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .381
Solid-particle erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
Solid refractory material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801
Solid rocket booster (SRB) failure on space shuttle
Challenger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Solid shrinkage
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Solid-solution reactions
to introduce precipitates for strengthening . . . . .874
Solid-solution strengthening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681, 684
of nickel-base superalloys used for gas turbine
blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
Solubility parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796–797
Solution annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403
Solution conditioning
to resist corrosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .992
Solution etching
as ceramographic etching procedure . . . . . 362, 363
Solution heat treatments
to control intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .875
Solution viscosity
properties measured . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
use in failure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .446
Solvation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796–797
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .439
Solvent-crazing phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652–653
Solvent-induced failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
Solvents
and crazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652–653
Somat 2100 data acquisition system . . . . . . . . . . . .977
Sonic waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .665
Sootblower corrosion
as damage mechanism for boiler tubing . . . . . . . .347
Sootblower erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .876
as boiler tube damage mechanism on failure
wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
SORM. See Second-order reliability method.
Source code, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
Sour gas
hydrogen-induced cracking in pipe wall . . . . . . .815
Souring of environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .884
“Sour service” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .884
Spacecraft separation springs
solid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . .865
Spall
in rolling contact fatigue test machine . . . . . . . . .959
Spall cavities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .982, 983, 984, 985, 986
Spalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197, 801, 802–803
of aluminide coatings, platinum effect . . . . . . . . .877
Burn’s field tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975, 978
cavities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .982, 983, 984, 985, 986
of centrifugal castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132, 133
in ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .961
chemical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802–803
chromium-molybdenum steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .978
of coatings for gas turbine blades . . . . . . . . 303, 304
contact fatigue terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .722
as damage mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . .349
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .975, 1073
by fatigue of forged roll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629, 632
fractography of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982–985
from impact events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975–988
in impact wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 966, 967
metallography of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982–985
and oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .868
by quench crack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .984–985, 986
of refractory coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .878
as rolling contact fatigue failure mode of thermal
spray cermet and ceramic coatings . . . . . . . .951
striking/struck tool impact geometries . . . . 977, 978
of striking tools, testing and analysis
methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975–978
structural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802–803
by temper embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .985
of thermal barrier coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877
tool geometry considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .978
valve seating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .972
Spalling fatigue
of thermal sprayed coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .953
Spalling fatigue failure
of rolling-contact fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960–961
Spangles
and cold forming of zinc-coated steel sheet . . . .102
Spatter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
in ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
surface feature as cause for rejection . . . . . . . . . . .156
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169, 175, 177, 187, 190
Specifications
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
in design process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
effect on materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Specific-iron effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831, 833
Specificity
of metal-induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862
Specific strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Specific wear rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .929
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020, 1022
Spectrochemical analysis
of fretting damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .937
Spectrographic analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
of gray-iron cylinder head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
Spectrophotometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
Spectrum load effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282–283
Spherical stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .466
Spherical stress tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .482
Spheroidal carbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
Spheroidization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693, 695
Spikes
as casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
in malleable irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140, 141
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189, 190
Spinodal decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .692
Splash zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .776
Splash-zone corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .776
Splay
in polycarbonate switch housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .457
Splined shafts
fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .712
Splits
in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Spoilation of evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .375
Spool-type hydraulic valve distortion failure of
steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1053–1054
Spot-check test kits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
Spot testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
Spray quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213, 214
Spreadsheet programs
in failure investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328, 329, 330
Spring(s)
stress analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .472
types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .472
Springback
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
of sheet metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
Spring index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .472
Spring wire
fatigue fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .707
Sprocket drive wheel
ductile fracture of aluminum alloy
castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151–152
SPS. See Service propulsion system.
Sputter coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521, 522
Sputtered reflected layers
as ceramographic etching procedure . . . . . . . . . . .362
Sputtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
to apply coatings to polymers for SEM . . . . . . . .638
Sputtering, for vapor-depositing coatings . . . . . . . .759
Sputter rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530, 531
Square joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163
Squeeze casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127, 129–131
defect-related failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127, 129–131
in shape-casting processes classification
scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
SRB. See Sulfate-reducing bacteria.
SRBSN. See Sintered reaction-bonded silicon nitride.
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Index / 1147
SRFs. See Strength-reduction factors.
SSC. See Sulfide-stress cracking.
SSTG. See Ship service turbine generator casings.
Stabilizers, chemical additive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .798
Stacking-fault energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .909
and fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578
and fretting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .928
Stainless steels
aging reactions as cause of corrosion . . . . . . . . . .874
brittle fracture by fatigue of welded liner for
bellows-type expansion joint . . . . . . . . 164–165
brittle fracture of gas turbine hot-gas casing . . 363,
364
cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1013–1014
centrifugal casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
chloridation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .873
chloride stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . .755
cold forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
cold shut in casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
compatibility with various manufacturing
processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
corrosion-resistant alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 889–890
crevice corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775–776
distortion failure of cantilever beams . . . . . . . . . 1049
distortion failures of Belleville washers . . . . . . 1052
ductile overload fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674, 675
elastic crack-tip opening displacement . . . 244–245
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .692
erosive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .998
fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235–238
fatigue fracture of mixer blades for ice cream
drink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8–9
fatigue fracture of weldment
inlet header . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166–167
as fiber reinforcement for unidirectional polymer
composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1038
fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927, 930, 931, 934–935
galvanic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762, 767
green rot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .868
heat-tinted zones, microbially induced
corrosion of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887–888
heat treating failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200–201, 204
high-chromium, and 400 to 500 ⬚C (750 to 930 ⬚F)
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .692
hydrogen damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .816
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777–783
liquid-droplet erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015
liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . 866, 873
localized corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .767
maraging, erosion rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
metal dusting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
microbially induced corrosion . . . . . . .881, 883, 884
nitridation attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869–870
overaging effect on rupture life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .734
as overlays to resist liquid impingement
erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .998
passivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .534
piping, leak-before-break concept . . . . . . . . 231, 232
pitting corrosion . . . . 356, 771–772, 772–773, 774–
775
in presence of chloride ions, causes of stresscorrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
sensitized, causes of stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . 831, 834, 844, 846, 847–848
sigma-phase embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692–693
silicate inclusion defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509, 510
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . 366, 827–828, 832
uniform corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .768
welded elbow assembly failure . . . . . . . . . . . 163–164
weldment hot cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
weldments, microbially induced
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887–889
workability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
zinc-induced liquid metal embrittlement . . . . . . 367,
369
Stainless steels, austenitic
casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146–147, 148, 149
causes of stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
causing liquid or solid metal induced
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862
cavitation erosion in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
cleavage fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .589
composition control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
www.asminternational.org
1148 / Index
Stainless steels, austenitic (continued)
ductile fracture of diesel fuel injection control
sleeve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12–13
environment systems exhibiting stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
fatigue fracture at low stacking fault energy . . .578
fatigue fracture of mixer blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8–9
forged extrusion, high-energy-rate . . . . . . . . . . .97, 98
fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .931
hardness vs. amplitude of slip in fretting . . . . . . .928
hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .813
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777–783
intergranular fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .644
intergraunlar stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . .647
microbially induced corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .884
mitigating adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
mixed-mode cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677, 678
polishing with relief damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506, 507
sensitization at elevated temperatures . . . . 874–875
sensitized causes of stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
sensitized, intergranular creep facture . . . . . . . . . .576
stress-corrrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . 824, 825, 832,
843–846, 875
substances in atmospheric environments causing
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
uniform corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .769
weldment ductility-dip cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
Stainless steels, austenitic, specific types
S20100, oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
S20200, oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
S21800 (Nitronic 60), adhesive wear
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
S30100, oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
S30200 (18-8)
crystallographic fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636–637
distortion failure of cantilever beams . . . . . . 1049
erosion rate of metallic coatings in 3% NaCl
aqueous solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1008
fatigue fracture showing striations . . . . . . . . . . .635
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .780
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
scale effect on distortion . . . . . . . . . .202–203, 206
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824, 825
S30300
ductile overload fracture of wire . . . . . . . 674, 675
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781–782
valve in vending machine, citric and phosphoric
acid corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
S30400
cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1003, 1013, 1014
chloride stress-corrosion cracking . . . . .340–341,
823, 824
crevice corrosion of tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .776
erosion rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1005, 1006, 1007
fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523, 524
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
hydrogen embrittlement and intergranular
fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
intergranlar corrosion . . 778, 779–780, 781, 782
liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . .866
microbially induced corrosion . . . .883, 888, 889
microvoid coalescence on fracture face . . . . .500
for nitric acid storage and shipping
containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .770
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
sensitization at elevated temperatures . . 292, 874
sensitized fracture, light micrograph . . . . . . . . .500
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . 38, 500, 824, 825,
827–828, 831, 834, 843, 844
stretch zone width correlation with fracture
toughness, elastic modulus normalized . . .584
transgranular fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500, 501
S30403 (304L)
denickelification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .788
erosion rate in vibratory
erosion rate in vibratory cavitation . . . . . . . . 1016
hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647, 813
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780, 781
intergranular fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . .866
microbially induced corrosion . . . . . . . . . 889, 890
microbially induced corrosion of welds . . . . 883,
889
microbially induced or influenced corrosion,
condenser tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .881
pickling to remove heat-tinted scale . . . . . . . . .888
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . 824, 825, 831, 843
vibratory cavitation behavior compared to NiCr-Fe-Si-B coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017
S30409 (304H)
maximum metal temperatures for hightemperature boiler tube materials . . . . . . . . .304
maximum-use temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .693
S30500, stress-corrosion cracking in boiling
magnesium chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .825
S30800
chloride stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . 823, 824
microbially induced corrosion in
weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888, 889
type 308L, pickling to remove heat-tinted
scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .888
S30900
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .780
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
S30908 (type 309S)
hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .813
intergranular corrosion evaluation tests and
acceptance criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .781
S31000
hydrogen embrittlement and intergranular
fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .780
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . .824, 825, 835
S31200, sigma phase embrittlement of fractured
surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500, 501
S31400, stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . 824, 825
S31600
chloride-induced stress-corrosion cracking . .490
creep damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365, 366
crevice corrosion tray deck . . . . . . . . . . . . 775–776
elevated-temperature ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .733
elevated-temperature fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .291
elevated temperatures for engineering
applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729
fatigue fracture of solenoid valve . . . . . . 235–238
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780, 781
maximum erosion rate dependence in cavitation
erosion on combined parameter . . . . . . . . . 1016
microbially induced cracking in
weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888, 889
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
pitting corrosion of tubes . . . . . . . . .356, 772–773
as reference material for cavitation erosion
testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1008, 1009
seawater causing corrosion in piping . .789–790,
791
sensitization at elevated temperatures . . . . . . . .292
stress-corrosion cracking . . . 366, 825, 836, 837,
843–846
S31603 (316L)
erosion rate in 3.5% NaCl aqueous
solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1008
fretting wear of orthopedic implants . . . 930, 931
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780, 781
intergranular stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . 823,
824
laser surface modification for cavitation erosion
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007, 1008
liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . .866
microbially induced corrosion . . . 883, 884, 888,
889
overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .678
pickling to remove heat-tinted scale . . . . . . . . .888
pitting and microbially induced corrosion of
storm sewer piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .753
pitting corrosion of wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774–775
residual-stress map of welded plate . . . . . . . . . .489
seawater causing corrosion in piping . .789–790,
791
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . 826–527, 835, 836
type 316LR, fretting wear of bone plate for
orthopedic implants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934–935
S31700
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780, 781
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
S31703 (317L)
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780, 781
microbially induced corrosion in
weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .888
for wires for electrostatic precipitator at paper
plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .774
S32100
brittle fracture of gas turbine hot-gas
casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363, 364
brittle fracture of weldments . . . . . . . . . . . 163–165
carbide precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363, 364
elevated-temperature service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780, 781
intergranular creep fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . 575, 576
liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . .866
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
pitting corrosion of aircraft freshwater
tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773–774
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . .830, 843, 844
zinc-induced liquid metal embrittlement . . . . 367,
369
SA-213 grade TP 321H, intergranular creep
fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576
S33000, oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
S34700
crevice corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .777
elevated-temperature service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292
fatigue fracture of welded
inlet header . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166–167
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780, 781
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
sigma-phase formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292, 293
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . .825, 843, 844
S34709 (type 347H), maximum metal
temperatures for high-temperature boiler tube
materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .304
type 347L, stress-corrosion cracking in boiling
magnesium chloride
18-12, erosion rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
RA85H, sulfidation resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .871
Stainless steels, duplex
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .780
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846–847
V-notched, bending failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .605
Stainless steel, duplex, specific types
S32550, intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .780
S32900, intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .780
25-6, erosion rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005, 1016
Stainless steels, ferritic
causing liquid or solid metal induced
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .780, 782–783
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846–847
Stainless steels, ferritic, specific types
S40500, oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
S40900, high-frequency induction welding . . . .191
S43000
banding and chemical segregation of ingot . . 83,
84
corrosion fatigue of wires around insulators in
wet scrubbing systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340–341
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780, 781
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
S44200, oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
S44600 (Sea-Cure)
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780, 781
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .846
S44626 (26-1S), intergranular corrosion evaluation
tests and acceptance criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .781
S44660 (Sea-Cure/Sc-1), intergranular
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .780
S44700 (29-4), intergranular corrosion
evaluation tests and acceptance criteria . . . . . . . . . . .781
S44726 (E-Brite 26-1), intergranular
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780, 781, 782–783
S44735 (AL 29-4C), stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .846
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
S44800 (29-4-2)
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780, 781
13-4, erosion rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
Stainless steels, martensitic
causing liquid or solid metal induced
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .862
mitigating adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .875
Stainless steels, martensitic, specific types
S40300
erosive wear of steam turbine blade . . . . . . . . .998
microbially induced corrosion . . . . . . . . . 889, 890
microstructure showing distortion from a
seam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204, 207
pitting corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .774
quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200, 204
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .825
S41000
defect-related failure, cold shut in aircraft fuelcontrol lever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
fatigue failure of gas turbine blades . . . . . . . . .341
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825, 827
S41600
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
S42000
microstructure, silicate inclusion defect . . . . 509,
510
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
S43100
hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813, 814
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .825
S44000, oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
S44004 (440C)
as chemical vapor deposition substrate
material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .949
as physical vapor deposition substrate
material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
as substrate material for thermally sprayed
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .950
Stainless steels, precipitation-hardened
cavitation erosion in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .812
mitigating adhesive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847–848
Stainless steels, precipitation-hardened, specific
types
S13800 (PH13-8Mo), stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .848
S15700 (PH15-7Mo), solution-treating temperature
effect on Ms temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
S17400 (17-4PH) (type 630)
counterface material having impact wear . . . 967,
968
hydrogen damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .816
liquid-droplet erosion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . 1015
pitting corrosion of steam-turbine
blade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774–775
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847–848
stress intensity range effect on fatigue fracture
mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578
S17700 (17-7PH) (type 631)
distortion failure of Belleville washers . . . . 1052
solution-treating temperature effect on Ms
temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
S35000 (AM-350), solution-treating temperature
effect on Ms temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
S35500 (AM-355), solution-treating temperature
effect on Ms temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
Standard deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256, 260
Standardization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Standardization of designs, effect on materials
selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Standards
categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19–20
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Standards and specifications, specific types . . . .386
by manufacturers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .386
for piping and pressure vessel design . . . . . . . . . .385
proof testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403
Aerospace Material Specification (AMS) (of SAE)
2770, quench media selection . . . . . . . 206–207
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
B173.3–1991, heavy striking tools . . . . . . . 985,
986, 987
ANSI B209.1–1991, chisels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .987
ANSI B209.3–1990, wood splitting wedges . . .987
ANSI/American Gear Manufacturers Association,
microcracks, grade 3 quality limitations . .218
ANSI/AGMA 1010-E96, nomenclature for fatigue
damage modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .722
ANSI/AGMA 2001-C95, decarburization
limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215, 216
ANSI/American Welding Society B.4.0, “Standard
Methods for Mechanical Testing of
Welds” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
ANSI/HTI B 173.3, hammer-testing
procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .976
American Petroleum Institute (API) . . . . .579, 1104
acceptance criteria for steel welds . . . . . . . . . . .170
fitness-for-service assessment
methodology . . .160, 240–241, 251, 265, 266,
267
American Railway Engineering and Maintenanceof-Way Association (AREMA), percussion
track tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .987
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) IX approach, flaw size fitness-forservice assessment methodology . . . . . . . . . .160
American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) A 143, hot dip galvanized structural
steel products, embrittlement prevention and
detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .811
ASTM A 213, tube manufacturing by seamless
process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .772
ASTM A 262 (A, B, and C), corrosion-screening
tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 770, 780, 781
ASTM A 300, Charpy V-notch requirements . .161
ASTM 370, dimensions of test bars for heat
determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144
ASTM A 763-S, intergranular corrosion evaluation
test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .781
ASTM B 41, elevated-temperature service of zinc
anodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785
ASTM B 154, fuse requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .854
ASTM D 638, tensile testing of polymers . . . . .445
ASTM D 790, flexural testing of polymers . . . .445
ASTM D 1193, reagent water specification . . 1007
ASTM D 1238, melt flow rate determination in
polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .445
ASTM D 1243, solution viscosity
determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .445
ASTM D 3029, falling weight impact testing of
polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .445
ASTM D 5045, polymer linear elastic fracture
mechanics properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .656
ASTM E 23, pendulum impact test . . . . . . . . . . 1063
ASTM E 139, life fraction rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .298
ASTM E 178, “Practice for Dealing with Outlying
Observations” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .753
ASTM E 381, macroetching for macroscopic
examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84, 337
ASTM E 399, material property toughness
determination . . . .476, 582, 1064, 1071, 1074
ASTM E 468, “Presentation of Constant
Amplitude Fatigue Test Results for Metallic
Materials” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .702
ASTM E 606, strain-controlled fatigue
testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .702
ASTM E 620, “Standard Practice for Reporting
Opinions of Technical Experts” . . . . . 327, 394
ASTM E 647, fatigue-crack-growth threshold
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .703
ASTM E 678, “Standard Practice for Evaluation of
Technical Data” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327, 394, 418
ASTM E 860, “Standard Practice for Examining
and Testing Items That Are or May Become
Involved in Litigation” . . . 327, 394, 418, 419
ASTM E 915, x-ray diffraction instrumentation
alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .486
ASTM E 1020, “Standard Practice for Reporting
Incidents” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327, 394, 418
ASTM E 1150-87, fatigue definition . . . . . . . . . . .628
ASTM E 1188, “Standard Practice for Collection
and Preservation of Information and Physical
Items by a Technical Investigator” . . 327, 418
www.asminternational.org
Index / 1149
ASTM E 1426, x-ray elastic constant
determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .486
ASTM E 1823, definition of terminology and
misinterpreted terms . . . . . . . .1061, 1067, 1069
ASTM F 519, “Standard Test Method for
Mechanical Hydrogen Embrittlement
Evaluation of Plating Processes and Service
Environments” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .811
ASTM F 746, evaluation of material for suitable
surgical implant use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .777
ASTM F 1459, “Standard Test Method for
Determination of the Susceptibility of
Metallic Materials to Gaseous Hydrogen
Embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .811
ASTM F 1940, “Standard Test Method for Process
Control Verification to Prevent Hydrogen
Embrittlement in Plated or Coated
Fasteners” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .811
ASTM G 1, evaluation of uniform corrosion
damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .771
ASTM G 3, electrochemical testing
guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
ASTM G 5, method for generating
potentiodynamic polarization curves . . . . . .763
ASTM G 16, “Applying Statistics to Analysis of
Corrosion Data” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .753
ASTM G 28 (A-B), intergranular corrosion
evaluation test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .781
ASTM G 32, vibratory tests for cavitation
erosion . . . . . . . . 1004, 1007–1008, 1009, 1016
ASTM G 46, evaluation of severity of pitting
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .773
ASTM G 50, tensile strength loss test . . . . . . . . . .771
ASTM G 59, electrochemical test methods . . . .771
ASTM G 67, weight-loss test method for
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . .778, 781, 784
ASTM G 73, cavitation and erosion evaluation
test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1007, 1008–1009
ASTM G 82, galvanic series creation . . . . . . . . . .763
ASTM G 89, jaw crusher wear plates . . . . . . . . . .915
ASTM G 108, electrochemical potentio-kinetic
reactivation (EPR) technique to evaluate
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779, 780
ASTM G 142
“Standard Test Method for Determination of
Susceptibility of Metals to Embrittlement in
Hydrogen-Containing Environments at High
Pressure, High Temperature, or Both” . . . .811
British Standards Institute (BS) 876-1949, hammer
hardness specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975, 978
BS 876-1981, hammer hardness
specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .985, 986, 987
BS 1490, sprocket drive wheel . . . . . . . . . . . 151–152
BS 7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
BS 7608:1993, flaw size fitness-for-service
assessment methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
BS 7910:1999, flaw size fitness-for-service
assessment methodology, current fracture
criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160, 243, 244, 246, 247
BS PD 6493:1991, flaw size fitness-for-service
assessment methodology . . . . . . .160, 241, 243
Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB) R 6,
flaw size fitness-for-service assessment
methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
Deformation plasticity failure assessment diagram,
flaw size fitness-for-service assessment
methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) GE J and
crack tip opening displacement (CTOD)
estimation scheme, flaw size fitness-forservice assessment methodology . . . . . . . . . .160
German DIN steel 17200, as substrate material for
thermally sprayed coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .950
GGG-H-86C-1963, hammers . . . . . . . .985–986, 987
International Institute of Welding (IIW) approach,
flaw size fitness-for-service assessment
methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
International Standards Organization ISO 63365.2, decarburization limits . . . . . . . . . . . 215, 216
Japanese Industrial Standards JIS G 4105, as
substrate material for thermally sprayed
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .950
MF0004-018, fluids contacting titanium in space
design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .859
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
www.asminternational.org
1150 / Index
Standards and specifications, specific types
(continued)
Military specifications, MIL-F-18372, failure
modes and effects analysis procedure . . . . . . 50
MIL-P-26539, reaction control system oxidizer
pressure vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .858
MIL-STD-1530 (MIL-HDBX-1530), ASIP and
aircraft design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274
MIL-STD 1629 (ships), failure modes and effects
analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50, 56
MIL-STD-1783 (MIL-HDBK-1783), ENSIP . . .274
NACE International, surface preparation for
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .758
NACE standard MR-01, “Sulfide-Stress-CrackingResistance Metallic Material for Oil-Field
Equipment” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .813
NACE standard RP-01-70, avoidance of
polythionic acid stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .844
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), SAE J
1739, FMEA worksheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
SAE JA 1011, “Evaluation Criteria for ReliabilityCentered Maintenance (RCM)
Processes” . . 61–62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69
SAE-MIL-H-6088, conductivity
measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403
Steel Structures Painting Council, surface
preparation for coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .758
Swedish Standards Institute, surface preparation
for coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .758
Welding Engineering Society (WES) 2805, flaw
size fitness-for-service assessment
methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
Stanley rim-tempered hammers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .978
Star. See Radial marks.
State of the art, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Statically indeterminate structure . . . . . . . . 382, 383
Static fatigue. See also Hydrogen-induced delayed
cracking.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Static loading, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Statics equilibrium equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .463
Static stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .700
in pressure vessels and pressure piping . . . . . . . .234
Static yield strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .701
Steadite, in paper-drier head casting, cold shut
defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121, 122
Steady-rate creep. See Creep.
Steady stage, of cavitation erosion . . . . . . 1003, 1006
Steady-state analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .384
Steam, environment causing SCC of nickel and
nickel-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .848
Steam-air decoking, to burn away carbon or coke
deposits on furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .870
Steam bubbles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
Steam-condensate tubing, SCC . . . . . . . . . . . . 845–846
Steam drum nozzle, weldment, brittle fracture in
steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232–233
Steam erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876, 999
Steam generators, U-tubes,
corrosion failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388–389
Steam generator tube, intergranular fracture of
Inconel 600 nickel-base alloy . . . . . . . 648–649
Steam impingement
as boiler tube damage mechanism on failure
wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
as damage mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349, 350
as damage mechanism for boiler tubing . . . . . . . .347
Steam tube, uniform corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .770
Steam turbine blade
liquid-droplet erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014
liquid impingement erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .998
pitting corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774–775
Steam turbine components, stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .840
Steam turbine rotor disc, stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841–842
Stearamide, effect on polyethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025
Steel(s)
aluminum-killed, and intergranular fracture . . . .646
brittle fracture . . . . . . . 142–143, 144, 152, 153–154
carburizing of track wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510, 511
casting imperfections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
Charpy V-notch upper-shelf energies of shape
controlled steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89, 90
for cool gas turbine engine components . . . . . . . .296
cooling with transformation . . . 194–195, 197, 198
cooling without transformation . . . . . . . . . . . 194, 197
corrosion-resistant castings defects . .147–149, 150
crystal structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193, 194
density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .960
dispersoids effect on fracture path and fracture
toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .564
in dissimilar metal pair, fretting damage . . . . . . .928
distortion failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1052, 1053–1055
elastic crack tip opening displacement . . . 244–245
elastic modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .960
failure mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .960
fatigue failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173–174, 176
fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 88, 175–176, 177
fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .933, 936–937
galvanic corrosion . . .767 grade/condition selection
and distortion avoidance 199–200, 205
hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .960
heat treatment effect on residual stress in coil
springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494–495
impact wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 967, 971
large particles, effect on fracture path and fracture
toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .564
liquid embrittlers of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
for marine ropes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .931
microbially induced corrosion, failure analysis
of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885–890
phase transformations . . . . . . . . . . 192–195, 196, 197
residual-stress map of saw blade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .489
resulfurized, microsegregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
seam defect in rolled bar forging . . . . . . . . . . . .93, 94
shot peening to reduce friction coefficient in
fretting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .927
sliding wear mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902, 903
structural component material behavior . . . . . . . .282
temper embrittlement at elevated
temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .293
toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .960
uniform corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .768, 769, 770
weldments, cracking of . . . . . . . . 158–159, 161, 169
Steels, specific types
1010
electron beam welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
1015, internal oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214–215
1018, decarburization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215, 216
1020
cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013
erosion wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996, 997
inelastic cyclic buckling of cylindrical
specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1056
shear fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .600, 604, 605
shear-lip formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599, 604
1022, banding from chemical segregation in
ingot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
1025, fatigue failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173–174, 176
1030
brace fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320
microstructure with distortion from scale . . . 204,
207
1035
carburizing-related failure of track wheel . . 510,
511
pin in guy wire of Loran tower . . . . . . . . 334–335
10B35, stretch zone width correlation with fracture
toughness, elastic modulus normalized . . .584
1037, quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
1038
burning from overheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201, 204
pipe defect in ingot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
1040
austenitization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201, 204
fatigue fracture of weldment . . . . . .175–176, 177
quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
shot peened, residual stresses present . . . . . . . .493
1041
chemical segregation in ingot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
torsional-fatigue fracture of shaft . . . . . . 708, 709
1042
fatigue fracture with radial marks . . . . . . . . . . . .577
fatigue fracture with ratchet marks . . . . . . . . . .577
1045
continuous cooling transformation
diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
microstructure showing distortion from a
lap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204, 207
microstructure showing nonuniform quenching
effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208, 210
mixed-mode fracture of jack cylinder 687–688
quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
spalling tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .978
spheroidized, fracture mechanism map . . . . . .571
time-temperature-transformation diagram . . .192
1046, fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576, 577
1060
adiabatic shear bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .982
austenitization effect on grain size . . . . . 218, 219
spalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 976, 978
transformation shear bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982, 983
1070
composition range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .204
distortion failure of hold-down clamps . . . . 1052
hardness vs. heat treatment temperature . . . . .495
heat treatment temperature effect on residual
stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .495
quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200, 204
XRD peak integral breadth vs. heat treat
temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .495
1072, spalling tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .978
1075, spalling tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .978
1080
austempering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213
light profile microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .540
spalling tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .978
1095, scale effect on distortion . . . . . .202–203, 206
1117, distortion failure of spool-type hydraulic
valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1053–1054
1137, quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
1138, deformation failure of shotgun barrel . . 1051
1141
quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
1144 (G11440)
ductile fracture of tapered-ring sprocket locking
device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 10
lifting eye, ductile fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36, 37
microsegregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
microsegregation and stringer inclusions . . . .219
quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
1215, microstructure of nitrided specimen in 4
mounting resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503, 504
1340, quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
1345, quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
1410, impact wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 967, 968
1536, quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
1541
chevrons indicative of fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .562
quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
1552, spalling tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .978
2330, constant-life diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .701
3310, shrinkage porosity of jaws casting . . . . . . .114
4037, hydrogen embrittlement of cap
screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696–697
4100, alloy depletion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
4118
microstructure showing distortion from
machining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204, 206
as physical vapor deposition substrate
material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
4130
constant-life diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .701
fatigue-crack-growth rate in sodium chloride
solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .704
fatigue failure of aircraft torque link on bolt
fixed-nose landing gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283–284
fatigue fracture of steel shaft . . . . . . . . . . . 707–708
hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .812
localized overheating of pipe permanent
mold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132, 133
seam defect in rolled bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93, 94
S-N curve for notched steel sheet . . . . . . . . . . . .284
4140
alloy depletion promoting cracking . . . . . . . . . .215
banding of tempered martensite . . 219, 220 4140
debonding of MnS particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .592
distortion failure of aircraft-wind slat
track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
distortion failure of gas-nitrided drive-gear
assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1054–1055
etching for metallographic examination . . . . .364
fatigue fracture with tire tracks . . . . . . . . 354, 355
fretting wear of freon-compressor
shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936–937
liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . 863, 865
maximum erosion rate dependence in cavitation
erosion on combined parameter . . . . . . . . . 1016
microstructure showing distortion . . . . . 204, 206
microstructure showing distortion from
machining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204, 206
oxidation and decarburization due to excessive
heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202, 204
quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
subsurface cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219, 220
tempered martensite with quench cracking from
overheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202, 205
transverse cracks (splitting) at MnS
stringers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612, 617
for welded tubular posts in carrier
vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173–174, 176
4142
microstructure showing distortion . . . . . 204, 206
4150
bending failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .605
brittle fracture, smaller facets . . . . . . . . . . 612, 616
debonding at infusion-matrix interface . . . . . 571,
572
dual-dimple size of particles and
debonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .592
fatigue fracture of drive shaft . . . . .712–713, 714
microstructure replica of nitrided chuck
jaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513–514
quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
radial marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599, 603
4300
alloy depletion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
4320
intergranular fatigue fracture in gas-carburized
steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
4330
liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . 864, 865
4340
constant-life diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .701
ductile fracture on shear planes and void sheet
formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593, 594
fatigue-crack-initiation cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .716
fatigue-crack-initiation threshold . . . . . . . . . . . . .717
fatigue fracture of rotor shaft . . . . . . . . . . 714–715
fracture mechanics applied to
fractography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .482
fracture profile from tensile fracture . . . . . . . . .544
hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .812
intergranular SCC and hydrogen
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
microstructure showing quench cracking . . . 207,
210
mud cracks on fracture surface . . . . . . . . 564, 565
notched round specimen fracture surfaces . . 597,
598
rolling and directionality effect on
fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615, 617
spalling tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978, 987
stress-corrosion cracking, beach marks
present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .708
temperature effect on ductility . . . .605–606, 609
torsion loading for ductile fracture . . . . . . . . . . .606
4485
microstructure, wear failure of medart
roll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512, 513
4615
microstructure, central bursting (chevron
cracking) of extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511, 512
4817
fatigue fracture of shaft, with beach
marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579, 581
5160H (spring steel)
decarburization in coil spring . . . . . . . . . . 509, 510
52100
fretting wear of raceways of rings on
automotive front-wheel bearing . . . . . . . . . . .936
hardness vs. heat treatment temperature . . . . .495
hydrogen bake of bearings in aerospace
applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .324
microcracking susceptibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
as physical vapor deposition substrate
material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
XRD peak integral breadth vs. heat treatment
temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .495
6150
fatigue fracture of valve springs . . . . . . . . . .87, 88
8600
alloy depletion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
8620
grinding cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221
microcracking susceptibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
microstructure of mounted specimen,
decarburization evident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .503
quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207
8630
constant-life diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .701
microstructure having porosity causing
distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205, 207
microstructure showing distortion from a
seam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204, 207
8740
hydrogen embrittlement of nuts . . . . . . . . 811, 812
9254
solid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . .865
9260
spalling of sledge hammers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .981
spalling tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .978
9300 (0.25C-0.98Mn-3.52Ni-1.34Cr- . . . . 0.24Mo)
weldment brittle fracture by . . . . . . . . . . . . 178, 180
A20/A 20m
railway tank car steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
A27, grade 65-35
composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
A27, grade 70-40
carbon-manganese steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013
A36
Charpy impact valves for crack
propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .605
fatigue-crack-growth rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .704
fatigue-crack-initiation cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .716
fatigue crack-initiation threshold . . . . . . . . . . . . .717
A48, grade 105-85
brittle fracture of welded crosshead of industrial
compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153–154
A53
fatigue fracture of weldment . . . . . . . . . . . 168–169
A105
brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232–233
A105, grade II
fatigue fracture of welded flanges and
elbow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165–166
A106
hydrogen attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .816
maximum-use temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .693
A106, grade B
fatigue fracture of welded pipe . . . . . . . . 165–166
pipe connecting two bellows joints . . . . 164–165
A148, grade 105-85
cold shut in truck equalizer beams . . . . . 122–123
A148, grade 135/125
brittle overload fracture of brackets . . . . 683–684
A148, grade 150-125
shrinkage porosity failure of connector for
pontoons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113, 114
A178, grade A
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
A192
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
A209, grade T-1A
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
A210, grade A
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
A212, grade B
brittle fracture of weldments in railway tank
car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
A213, grade T-11
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
A213, grade T-22
creep embrittlement of superheater tube . . . . .695
www.asminternational.org
Index / 1151
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
A213, grade T-91
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
A216, grade WCB
carbon steel for turbines and pumps . . . . . . . 1013
A226
fatigue fracture of weldment . . . . . . . . . . . 176, 177
A245 (A570 and A611)
stress-corrosion cracking of hoppers on
trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .841
A283, grades A, B, C and D
carbon steel for turbines and pumps . . . . . . . 1013
A285, grade C
hydrogen-induced blistering in plate . . . 814, 815
A293
fatigue failure of fan shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . 705–706
A302-B
fatigue-crack-growth rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .704
A356, grade 6
brittle fracture and stress-corrosion cracking of
turbine casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142–143, 144
A470 Class 4
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841–842
A514
corrosive wear of slurry abrasives . . . . . . . . . . .990
A516
inclusion shape control in rolled plate . . . . . . . . 89
A516, grade 60
carbon steel for turbines and pumps . . . . . . . 1013
A516, grade 70
replacing A212, grade B steel for
applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
A517-F
fatigue-crack-initiation cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .716
fatigue-crack-initiation threshold . . . . . . . . . . . . .717
A533 grade B
impact fracture toughness vs. temperature . . 680,
681
A533B
stretch zone width correlation with fracture
toughness, elastic modulus normalized . . .584
A537-A
fatigue-crack-growth rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .704
fatigue-crack-initiation cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .716
fatigue-crack-initiation threshold . . . . . . . . . . . . .717
A572, grade 42, type 2
welding defect failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
A572 grade 50
failure assessment diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248
A574
hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696–697
A633C
manganese sulfide inclusions and brittle
fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89, 91
A710
ductile crack growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593, 594
0.1% C steel
ductile crack nucleation, and debonding . . . . .592
pitting corrosion of pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356, 357
0.15% C, 1% Mn, 0.75 Cr, 0.85% Ni
quenching, and distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196, 201
0.2% carbon
brittle fracture by bolt hole in grain storage
bin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .616, 618, 619
0.21C-0.77Mn
brittle fracture in weldment by lamellar
tearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181, 182
0.30-0.50 wt% C low-alloy
mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .980
0.65C-1Si-3Ni
spalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978, 987
carbon-Mo (T1)
maximum metal temperatures for hightemperature boiler tube materials . . . . . . . . .304
1% C steel
distortion from nonmetallic inclusions . . . . . . 205,
207
1.15C-12.8Mn-0.50Si (13% Mn)
brittle fracture of chain link . . . . . . .146–147, 148
0.5Cr-0.5Mo
maximum-use temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .693
0.5Cr-0.5Mo-0.25V
creep behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .730
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
www.asminternational.org
1152 / Index
Steels, specific types (continued)
1Cr-0.5Mo
residual life prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .299
1CrMoV
elevated-temperature failure by temper
embrittlement, rotors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .293
1Cr-Mo-V
elevated-temperature fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .291
CrMoV (brittle)
expected life in accelerated test based on
LFR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
expended life fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
CrMoV (ductile)
expected life in accelerated test based on
LFR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
expended life fraction . . . . . . . . . 307 1.2Cr-0.5Mo
maximum-use temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .693
11⁄4Cr-1⁄2Mo
creep cavitation damage of power plant piping
and tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .306
creep-fatigue crack growth rate vs. stressintensity factor range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309, 310
elevated-temperature ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .733
hardness vs. Larson-Miller parameter . . . . . . .305
1.25Cr-0.5Mo (T11)
maximum metal temperatures for hightemperature boiler tube materials . . . . . . . . .304
1.25Cr-0.5Mo-Si
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
2Cr-1Mo
stress-rupture behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735, 736
temper embrittlement of pressure vessel
plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .692
2.25Cr-1Mo
carbide formation in isothermal diagram . . . 735,
736
carbides in microstructure vs. Larson-Miller
parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .305
crack initiation life as function of strain
range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .745
cross-weld stress-rupture data for pipe seam
weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
dimpled intergranular fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .643
elevated-temperature fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .291
expected life in accelerated test based on
LFR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
expended life fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
hardness vs. Larson-Miller parameter . . . . . . .305
hold time effect on fatigue crack growth rate
properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .744
Larson-Miller rupture parameter plot vs.
stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .299
maximum metal temperatures for hightemperature boiler tube materials . . . . . . . . .304
maximum-use temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .693
oxide-scale-based life prediction of
tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308–309
thermomechanical fatigue in ship service turbine
generator (SSTG) casings . . . . . . . . . . . 741–745
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
7Cr-Mo
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
9Cr-1Mo
hardness vs. Larson-Miller parameter . . . . . . .305
maximum metal temperatures for hightemperature boiler tube materials . . . . . . . . .304
maximum-use temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .693
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
oxidation resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
stress-rupture behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735, 736
9Cr-1Mo-V
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
15CrV6
volume changes during phase
transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200
DIN 17CrNiMo6
Fatigue crack in gear tooth . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366, 367
25% Cr-12% Ni
microstructure, sigma-phase embrittlement of
hook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512, 513
34CrNiMo6
brittle fracture of ski chair lift grip
components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
41CrMo4
cavitation erosion. incubation time . . . . . . . . 1004
100Cr6
as physical vapor deposition substrate
material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .946
tempering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195, 198
Fe-0.25C-1Mn-0.40Cr-0.35Mo
fatigue fracture of heavy-duty axle
housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
Fe-3.25Si
tongues and cleavage fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .590
Fe-4Ni
fatigue fracture, cyclic brittle cleavage . . . . . .579
intergranular fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .644
fatigue fracture, cyclic cleavage . . . . . . . 579, 581
austenitic 12%Mn
gouging abrasion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .907
NiCrMoV
stress corrosion cracking of steam turbine
components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .840
3% Ni-Cr carburized steel carbide formations at
quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216, 217
4%Ni
carbide formations in microstructure . . 216, 218
4% Ni-C-Cr carburized steel
carbides formed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216, 217
10Ni
fatigue-crack-growth rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .704
12Ni
fatigue-crack-growth rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .704
AISI 01
hardness vs. heat treatment temperature . . . . .495
heat treatment temperature effect on residual
stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .495
XRD peak integral breadth vs. heat treatment
temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .495
CPM-10V
impact wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .967
50CV4
phase transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194, 196
D6AC
high-cycle fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .580–581, 583
intergranular fracture and high-cycle
fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .644
stress intensity vs. time to failure . . . . . . 479, 480
E4340
forging defect (pipe) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87, 88
forging defects of nonmetallic inclusions in
helicopter main rotor bolt . . . . . . . . . .89–90, 91
E6010
weldment fisheyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179, 182
E7018
weldment fisheyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179, 181
E11018
weldment fisheyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179, 182
EN-24
stress intensity range effect on fatigue fracture
mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578
F-255
erosion rate in vibratory cavitation . . . . . . . . 1016
alloy HH, type II heat-resistant alloy
precipitation embrittlement at elevated
temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147, 149
HK-40 (26Cr-20Ni)
carbon-nitrogen interaction for corrosion . . . .870
HL-40 (30Cr-20Ni)
carbon-nitrogen interaction for corrosion . . . .870
HY-80
fatigue-crack-growth rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .704
fatigue-crack-initiation cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .716
fatigue-crack-initiation threshold . . . . . . . . . . . . .717
HY-100
shear banding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593, 595
HY-130
fatigue-crack-growth rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .704
fatigue-crack-initiation cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .716
fatigue-crack-initiation threshold . . . . . . . . . . . . .717
JIS S38C
tempering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195, 199
JIS S45C
selective quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213, 214
as substrate material for thermally sprayed
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .950
JIS SCM440
distortion from improper leading . . . . . . 202, 205
JIS SNCM 439
tempering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195, 199
300 M
stress intensity range effect on fatigue fracture
mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578
90MnV8
volume changes during phase
transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200
RQT 701
corrosion fatigue and microbially induced
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .884
Schedule 80 low-carbon steel
stress corrosion cracking of pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . .840
vanadium HSLA (0.1% carbon)
fatigue striations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580, 582
X120Mn12
cavitation erosion, incubation time . . . . . . . . 1004
XC45
erosion rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
XC68
erosion rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
SAE grade 5
dimple-rupture fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .673
grade 8 high-strength steel
ductile overload fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673–674
grade 11L17
intergranular brittle fracture of valve seats . .677
136 lb/yd rail
microstructure, service condition failure . . . . 512,
514
Step fracture. See Fatigue striation; Striation.
Steps
as discontinuity for extrusions and drawn
products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Stepwise cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .815
Stereocamera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426, 427
Stereographic pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .663
Stereological relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538, 539
Stereomicroscope
to examine damaged surface before and after
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
low-power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .498
Stereomicroscopic photography . . . . . .419, 425–426
Stereomicroscopy
of alloy steel ski chair lift grip components . . . . . 11
of corrosion surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .752
for macroscopic examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353
Stereo-pair based imaging . . . . . . . . . . . .538, 552–553
Stereo-photogrammetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550, 551, 552
Stereophotography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .419, 426–427
Stereo zoom optical microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .655
Steric hindrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
Steven and Haynes equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210, 212
Sticker, as casting effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Sticking, in squeeze casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131
Sticking to molds/cores, of permanent-mold
castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
Stochastic model, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .376
Stop/starts, of weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
Storage modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .443–444, 445
Storage tanks, prevention approach for corrosion in
industrial facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
Straightening, and fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .720
Strain
accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .617
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
postnecking rate effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .621
Strain-age embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403
by bolt hole in steel grain storage bin . . . 616, 618,
619
causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1073–1074
effect in ferrous alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
from nitrogen in low-alloy steel castings . . . . . . .145
steels susceptible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
Strain aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
and brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
Strain energy release rate. See Crack extension
force.
Strainer for process steam line in chicken feed
plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
Strain hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .565, 582, 589
and cold forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
and ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .596
and necking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597, 617, 618, 619
and overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .689
unnotched specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .602
Strain-hardening coefficient, of extra-hard
hammers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .981
Strain-hardening exponent . . . . . 596, 617, 619, 987
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
Strain life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .702
Strain localization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621–623
parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .622
predictive model for onset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .622
Strain rate
and twinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589, 590
effect on ductility in overload failures . . . . . . . . .680
effect on fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .600
effect on fracture toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680, 681
Strain rate effects, in safety analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . .475
Strain-rate hardening . . . . . .565, 596, 597, 617, 619
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
and overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .689
postnecking effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .621
unnotched specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .602
strain rate hardening exponent (m) . . . . . . . 596, 987
Strain rate loading, and twinning or cleavage
fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .590
Strain-rate sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . 601, 605, 606, 618
Strain-rate sensitivity exponent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .987
Strain-rate sensitivity index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .987
Strain softening, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
Strain to fracture prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .592
Strap joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163
Strategic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Strauss test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
Stray-current corrosion, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
Stray currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753, 764, 768–769
Strength-reduction factors (SRFs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .922
Strength-stress integration domain . . . . . . . . . . . . .255
Strength-to-weight ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Stress(es)
allowable, for static service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047
in casing of ship service turbine
generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741–745
code-allowable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385
complex, with fatigue fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .717
of constant-amplitude loading cycle . . . . . . 276–277
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461–462, 1074
and distortion ratios from overloading . . . . . . . 1047
as environment contributing to damage
mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347–348
as life-limiting factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233–234
with liquid metal induced embrittlement . . . . . . .697
mode II, and fatigue crack propagation . . . . . . . .958
molded-in, in polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443, 444
in overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687–689
during reheating and quenching, metallurgical
sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196, 200
and stress-corrosion cracking in service . . 830–831
transformation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482–483
Stress alloying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .865
Stress amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700, 701
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
Stress analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686–687
application of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473–475
beam bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469–471
of casing of ship service turbine generator . . . . 741,
742
of common geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468–473
compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468, 469
critical locations for failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .474
to evaluate net-section instability failures . . . . . .401
in failure analysis investigation . . . 15, 16, 399–400
failure criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .473
fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461–468
internally pressurized cylindrical section . . . . . . .475
limit analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474–475
mechanics of material approach . . . . .468, 469, 470
pin-loaded clevis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471–472
screwdriver used as a pry-bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .475
shear and bending moment diagram
approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470
springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .472
strain rate effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .475
stress concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472–473
tensile bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .468
theory of elasticity approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468, 469
torsion bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .469
Stress at fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .657
Stress components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .462
Stress concentration. See also
Stress raisers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .472–473, 717
and crack propagation with component
failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
effect of stress raisers on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715–716
effect on fatigue cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .716
factor . . . . . 158, 163, 233, 277–278, 382, 472–473,
496, 716–717
fatigue failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715–717
as life-limiting factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233–234
residual stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .717
of rolling-contact fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 941, 952
for stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828–830
stress-intensity expression at sharp notch . . . . . .716
and stress reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .717
Stress concentration factor . . . . .277–278, 472–473,
716–717
with beam theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382
and crack propagation with component
failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .716, 1074
as design consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
disalignment of weld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163
due to misalignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
for fatigue crack initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .706
Stress concentrators
for forging burst in ingots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
in glasses and/or ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .667
nonmetallic inclusions in ingot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Stress-corrosion cracking (SCC). See also
Corrosion. . . . . . .337, 343, 490–491, 751, 761,
765–766, 768, 823–859.
air conditioning absorber tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .855
by air contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .833
aircraft actuator barrel lug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .852
of aircraft attachment bolt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .848
aircraft hinge bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851, 852
aircraft strap-type clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828, 829
aircraft undercarriage leg forgings . . . . . . . . 852–853
by alcohol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .857, 858–859
of alpha-brasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .835
aluminum alloys . . . .825, 832, 833, 834, 835, 836,
850–853
by amines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833, 839
by ammonia . . . 823, 824, 829, 831, 832, 833, 839,
853–856
by ammoniacal copper sulfate solution . . . . . . . . .853
from ammonia released by algal biomass decay in
brass condenser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
by ammonium nitrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .828, 839, 841
analysis of failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834–835
by atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832, 833, 856
beach marks present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631, 633
by benzene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .859
as boiler tube damage mechanism on failure
wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
brasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823, 825, 832, 835, 836, 837
by bromide ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .857
by calcium chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .849
by carbonate/bicarbonate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 839–840
by carbonates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .840
by carbon dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .840
of carbon steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838–843
causing service failures of welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .823–824, 825
chemical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 837–838
by chlorides . . . 823, 824, 825, 829, 830, 832, 833,
834, 835, 840, 841–842, 843–849, 850,
851–852, 856, 857
by chlorinated solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . .857, 858–859
by citrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .853
from coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .834
contact-finger retainers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828–830
controlling factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811, 812
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copper and copper alloys . . . . . . . . . . . 828–830, 832,
853–856
in corrosion-resistant castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
of corrosion-resistant steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .833
of coupling nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851–852
crack branching . . . . .835, 843, 844, 845, 846, 852,
856
crack growth rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .825
crack initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .824–825, 836
crack propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401, 824–825
crystal structure effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
as damage mechanism for boiler tubing . . . . . . . .347
as damage mechanism on failure wheel . . . . . . . .349
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
by diethanolamine (DEA) solutions . . . . . . . . . . . .839
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697–698
environments . . 832–833, 843–844, 848–849, 853,
856, 857
evaporation tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845, 846
ferrules for electric fuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .854
by fingerprints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .834, 858–859
finned tube in generator air cooler unit . . . 855–856
by fluoride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834, 856
by fluorinated hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .857
forged lug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .828
by Freon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .859
by halide ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .833
of high-nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .823
of high-strength steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833, 835
in high-temperature environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . .875
hoppers on trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .841
by hot dry chloride salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .857
by hydrochloric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838, 857
by hydrofluoric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .838
by hydrogen chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857, 859
and hydrogen stress cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .847
influencing intergranular fracture . . . . . . . . . 642, 645
inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838–839
and integranular stress-corrosion cracking . . . 646–
647
by iodide ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .857
of iron-chromium alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .823
by isopropyl alcohol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858–859
jet pump beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .850
by kraft liquor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .840
by liquid hand soap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858–859
loading types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
of low-alloy steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838–843
by lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .834
by machining oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .834
macroscopic examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .836
magnesium alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 856–857
by magnesium chloride . . 824, 825, 836, 837, 847,
848–849, 857
manufacturing sources as root cause . . . . . 826–827
of maraging steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824, 843
materials properties related to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
materials selection criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
mechanisms of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .826
metallographic analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .838
metal susceptibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831–832
by metalworking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828, 829
by methanol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834, 857, 858–859
by methylene chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .845
microscopic examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836–837
microstructure effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
with mixed-mode fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .842
by moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826–827, 830, 850, 856
monoethanolamine DEA (MEA/DEA)
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .839
by monoethanolamine (MEA) solutions . . . . . . . .839
by monomethyl hydrazine (MMH) . . . . . . . . . . . . .859
near-neutral pH, microbial involvement . . . . . . . .884
neck liner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .845
of nickel-base alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832, 848–850
by nitrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .828, 839, 853
by nitrogen group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .833
by nitrogen tetroxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857–858
on-site examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .835
operating temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
orthopedic implant of stainless steel . . . . . . . . . . . .366
outlet piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844–845
by oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .840
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
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1154 / Index
Stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) (continued)
by phosphorus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826–827
pipe in pressurized-water reactor . . . . . . . . . 827–828
by polythionic acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844, 849
preservice environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834–835
pressure vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857–859
reaction control system oxidizer pressure
vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857–858
reduction methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .875
and residual stresses . . . . . . . . . . . 825, 827, 828, 830
safe-end on reactor nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849–850
by seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .851–852, 857
and sensitization of nickel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .849
and sensitization of stainless steels . . . . . . 843, 844,
846, 847–848
service environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833–834
service propulsion system fuel tanks . . . . . 858–859
by silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .840
similarity to liquid metal induced
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .861
simulated-service tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .838
by sodium chloride . . 825, 844, 849, 851–852, 856
by sodium hydroxide . . . . 823, 824, 833, 838, 839,
840, 844, 849, 857
by sodium tetrathionate solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .849
by sodium thiosulfate solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .849
specific-ion effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831, 833
stainless steel holding tank coupling . . . . . . . . 37–38
of stainless steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
austenitic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824, 825, 832, 843–846
duplex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846–847
ferritic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846–847
martensitic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847–848
precipitation-hardened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847–848
steam-condensate tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845–846
steam turbine components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .840
steam turbine rotor disc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841–842
stress concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828–830
stresses in service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830–831
stress raisers for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .824
stress types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
in subcritical fracture mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .479
by sulfates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840, 853
by sulfur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .826–827, 833
by sulfur dioxide, moist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .853
by sulfuric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .838
by tartrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .853
thermal expansion effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .830
threshold stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .823–824, 825
titanium and titanium alloys . . . . .13, 832, 857–859
by toluene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826–827
transgranular, and flute formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .613
tube sheets of air compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854–855
valve stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847–848
by water, boiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .844, 849–850
by water, distilled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .859
by water-soluble coolant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .848
by water vapor . . . . . . . . . . . . 833, 847–848, 853, 854
wedging action of corrosion products . . . . 830–831
and welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827–828, 832, 847
by working fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .833
of zirconium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .834
Stress corrosion fatigue (SCF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479, 559
Stress corrosion threshold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .563
Stress crack
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104, 1074
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405, 651, 652
Stress cracking reagents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .797
Stress crazing, of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . .651, 652, 653
Stress cycle, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
Stress deviator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .482
Stress directors, in helicopter gearing . . . . . . . . . . . .460
Stress gradients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665, 667
in residual stress analysis by x-ray
diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .489
x-ray diffraction technique for characterization
of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .494
Stress-intensity
in ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .959
created by applied loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .476
as life-limiting factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233–234
Stress-intensity amplitude
during fatigue crack growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .545
of fracture surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .546
Stress-intensity factor (KI) . . . . . . . . . . . 230, 243, 247,
278–279, 283, 461, 477
controlling crack growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
at crack tip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .656
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
determination of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233–234
related to brittle fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .657
solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
stresses at crack tip quantified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
Stress-intensity factor range (DK),
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
Stress-intensity parameter, quantifying stress at a
crack tip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .686
Stress-intensity range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279, 703
of circular penetration in pressurized
fuselage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
fatigue crack propagagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577, 578
Stress-intensity threshold, of aluminum circular
penetration in pressurized fuselage . . . . . . . .285
Stress-intensity values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478
Stress invariants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .464
Stress-life variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276–278
Stress-mapping method, for x-ray diffraction
measurement location selection . . . . . 488–489
Stress maxima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .463
Stressor, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Stress-oriented hydrogen-induced cracking
(SOHIC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .884
Stress profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382
Stress raisers. See also Stress concentration. . . . .875
casting defects in malleable irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
and crack propagation with component
failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496
defects as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
as design deficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
and distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1050
and ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .595
effect on fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .720
effect on stress concentration and
distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715–716
fatigue crack as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .707
and fatigue failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
fractures at or near . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609–611, 614, 615
and fretting wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 935–936
from grinding of forged rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
inclusions as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
in large parts of fractured surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
notch-type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
perimeter of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210, 212
from prior machining laps and seams . . . .204–205,
206, 207
for quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209–210
and stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .836
surface seams in dirty steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
for torsional loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .714
weldment inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . 173–174, 176, 177
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170, 175
Stress range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .700
Stress ratio (A or R) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .700
cyclic loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
and distortion from overloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047
Stress relief
to prevent stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . .490
by tempering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195, 199
Stress-relief cracking, of weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
Stress-relief embrittlement
causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
effect in ferrous alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
effect on overload failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .691
steels susceptible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
welded tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .691
in weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157, 184
Stress-relief heat treatments
after cold forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
for weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
Stress risers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584, 656
and fatigue crack initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234, 577
infinite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .282
for rolling-contact fatigue failures . . . . . . . . 941, 942
Stress-rupture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731–733
aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .734
carbide reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735–736
creep-rupture embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .736
delayed transformation to equilibrium
phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .734
ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732–733
as elevated-temperature failure in gas turbine tubes
and pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289–290
fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .733–734, 735
in gas turbine engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .734
intermetallic-phase precipitation . . . . . . . . . . 734–735
metallurgical instabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734–736
order-disorder transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .734
overaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .734
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .734
precipitation, process interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .736
recrystallization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .734
slag-enhanced corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .734
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .734
trace element contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .734
transgranular-intergranular fracture transition . .734
Stress rupture failure
of boiler tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .305
as mechanism of high-temperature corrosion . .876
steam pipe of CrMo steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .365
Stress-rupture strength. See creep-rupture strength.
Stress-rupture tests
and intergranular creep fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575
of power plant piping and tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .304
Stress-sorption theory, of stress-corrosion crack
propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .826
Stress spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280–281
Stress state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .461
Stress-strain requiring foot correction . . . . . . . . . . . .403
Stress-strain diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17–18, 19
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
Stress-strain relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466–467
Stress tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .462, 463, 464, 465, 474
decomposition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .482
eigenvalves of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .482
Stress transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .463
Stress vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .462
Stress whitening, of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651, 652
Stress-whitening failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651
Stretcher strains. See Lüders lines.
Stretch zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .584, 612, 616
to calculate stress and material toughness . . . . . 612,
616
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
in fractured specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480, 481
width correlated to fracture toughness . . . . . . . . . .584
Striated. See also Striation.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
Striated fracture, microscale fractographic
implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
Striated structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .580
Striated surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .580
Striation. See also Fatigue striations; Striated. . . 708,
709
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
in stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . .835, 836–837
Striation spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .524
Strict liability, as legal theory for products liability
lawsuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Striking/struck tools, specifications . . . . . . . . 985, 986
Stringer. See also Inclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117, 118
definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1074–1075
in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
manganese sulfide in tapered-ring sprocket locking
device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 10
and subsurface cracking and
microsegregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
Strip necking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .582
Strip necking zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
Strip yield model, for crack retardation . . . . . . . . . .283
Strontium, alloying effect on aluminum-silicon
alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118
Structural ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .800
Structural foam molding, compatibility with
various materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Structural reliability analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261
Structural reliability theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .250
Structural steels, lateral expansion vs. Charpy
impact energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604, 608
© 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Handbook Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention (#06072G)
Strurel (computer software program) . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
Stud, stress-corrosion cracking of maraging
steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631, 633
Stuffing box, fatigue fracture . . . . . . . . . .136–137, 138
Stylus profilometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539, 540
Styrenated polyester, characteristics of engineering
polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
Styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN), brittle fracture
behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .656
Styrene-butadiene-styrene (triblock polymer),
characteristics of engineering polymers . . .359
Sub-boundary structure (subgrain structure). See
also Grain boundary.
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075
Subcase fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .723, 725–726
contact fatigue mode and controlling factors . . .725
contact fatigue terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .722
Subcritical annealing
to deter quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200
with supercarburizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
Subcritical fatigue crack growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .581
Subcritical fracture mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .480
Subcritical quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690
Subgrain, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075
Subgrain structure. See Sub-boundary structure.
Submerged arc welding
failure origins related to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185–186
weldment inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172
weldment porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
Submicron chipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .962
Subscale formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214–215
Subsurface
blowholes, as casting defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219, 220
fatigue cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022
fatigue initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627, 628, 632
rolling-contact fatigue in gear tooth . . . . . . . . . 942–943
weldment features as cause for rejection . . . . . . . . . .156
Subsurface corrosion. See Internal oxidation.
Subsurface-origin pitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722–723
Suck-in
as casting defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
in forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Suction, as cavitation mechanism . . . . . . . . 1003, 1004
Sugar liquor (pH 7), causing intergranular corrosion
in sensitized austenitic stainless steels . . . .779
Sulfate in groundwater, factors correlating with
sulfate-reducting bacteria (SRB) numbers for
buried pipeline sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .886
Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) . . . . . . . . . . 884, 891
ammonium bisulfite as nutrient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .885
in cooling systems drawing on natural
waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .889
corrosion mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882–883
identification basis for microbially induced
cracking site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887
mechanism and indicators for microbially induced
cracking scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .889
in microbially induced cracking of stainless
steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .890
microbially induced corrosion morphology
products, and deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .888
population correlation with soil conditions at
pipeline sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .886
in soil environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885–887
viable cell counts method used for assays . . . . . .893
Sulfate reductase assay, activity assessed in
MIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
Sulfate reduction
to investigate microbial populations . . . . . . . . . . . .893
method used for inspection, growth and activity
assays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .893
Sulfates, stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . 840, 853
Sulfidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343
for adhesive wear mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075
of low-alloy steel castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145, 146
as mechanism for high-temperature
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870–871
molten salts involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .874
nickel alloy incinerator liner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870–871
of nickel-base superalloys used for gas turbine
blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
Sulfide(s). See also Manganese sulfide inclusions.
formation during solidification of steel ingot . . . . 88
inclusions . . .37, 116, 117, 172–174, 219, 591, 592
Sulfide films, grain boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
Sulfide impurities in aqueous solutions, causing
stress-corrosion cracking in medium strength
to high-strength steels (accelerated hydrogeninduced cracking) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
Sulfide stress cracking (SSC) . . . . . . . . .812–813, 884
as damage mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075
location on failure wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348, 349
Sulfonation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .439
of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .439
Sulfur
in base metal, and weldment porosity . . . . . . . . . .170
content effect on structural steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
content effect on deformation of
polyisoprenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571
content effect or quench cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
in deposits from MIC sites in stainless steel
cooling water systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .889
effect on low-alloy steel castings . . . . . . . . . 144, 145
effect on manganese microsegregation . . . . . . . . .219
effect on rupture ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .736
effect on weldment hot cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
as grain-boundary embrittler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
grain-boundary segregation and IG brittle
fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .643
grain-boundary segregation causing intergranular
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
microsegregtion susceptibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
segregation, and weldment porosity . . . . . . . . . . . .171
segregation to core of steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .430
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . .826–827, 833
Sulfur dioxide
as damaging substance in atmospheric
environments for stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .832
effect on refractories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .803
moist, and stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . .853
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) gas with moisture, causing
stress-corrosion cracking in copper
alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .831
Sulfuric acid, causing stress-corrosion
cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .838
Sulfuric anodizing, for corrosion resistance . . . . .759
Sulfurous acid, environment causing stress-corrosion
cracking of nickel and nickel-base
alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .848
Sulfur oxidizers, in cooling systems drawing on
natural waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .889
Sulfur-oxidizing bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .881
Sulfur oxyanions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .884
Sulfur print technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337
Sulfur print test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84–85
Sulfur recovery unit weldment, intergranular stresscorrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840–841
Sulfur-reducing bacteria, in uniform
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768, 769
Superalloys
elevated temperatures for engineering
applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729
for gas turbine blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294–295
grain-boundary segregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .874
molten metal corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .874
weldment ductility-dip cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
workability behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Superalloys, specific types
K63198 (19-9DL)
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828, 829
K66286 (A-286)
cadmium plating surface treatment as
inappropriate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
hydrogen embrittlement environment . . . . . . . .817
N04400 (Alloy 400, Monel 400)
cavitation erosion in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
hydrochloric acid, corrosion by . . . . . . . . . . . . . .770
N05500 (Alloy K-500, Monel K-500)
cavitation erosion in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
galvanic series in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .762
hydrogen damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .817
hydrogen embrittlement environment . . . . . . . .817
www.asminternational.org
Index / 1155
N06002 (Alloy X, Alloy HX, Hastelloy X)
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
N06007 (Alloy G, ERNiCrMo-1, Hastelloy G)
hydrogen damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .817
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781, 783
pitting corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .775
N06050 (HX)
oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .869
N06110 (Allcorr)
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .781
N06455 (Alloy C-4, Hastelloy C-4)
cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1016
hydrogen embrittlement environment . . . . . . . .817
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .781
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .849
N06600 (Alloy 600, IN-600, Inconel 600)
galvanic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762, 767
hydrogen embrittlement environment . . . . . . . .817
intergranular corrosion . . . . . .388–389, 648, 783,
784
intergranular fracture of steam generator
tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648–649
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . .831, 849–850
N06601 (Alloy 601, IN-601, Inconel 601)
high-temperature corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871, 872
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .783
N06617 (Alloy 617, ERNiCrCoMo-1, Inconel 617,
IN-617)
high-temperature corrosion . . . . . . . .870, 871, 872
N06625 (Alloy 625, ERNiCrMo-3, Haynes 625,
IN-625, Inconel 625)
cavitation erosion in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
hydrogen damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .817
hydrogen embrittlement environment . . . . . . . .817
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781, 783
N06625
microbially induced corrosion in
weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .888
N06686 (Alloy 686, Inconel 686, 686 (CPT)
pitting corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .775
N06690 (Alloy 690, IN-690, Inconel 690)
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .781
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .849
sulfidation of incinerator liner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .870
N06985 (Alloy G-3, ERNiCrMo-9, Hastelloy G-3)
carbide precipitation of turbine blades . . . . . . 294,
295
hydrogen damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .817
intergranular corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781, 784
rotating bend fatigue testing, shot peening
effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492–493
stress-corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .849
N07001 (Waspaloy)
stress rupture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .735
thermomechanical fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .739
thermomechanical fatigue life model . . . . . . . .740
N07041 (Alloy R-41, Haynes R-41, René 41)
aging reactions as cause of corrosion . . . . . . . .874
N07041 (Alloy R-41, Haynes R-41, René 41)
molten metal corrosion as liquid metal
embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .874
N07500 (Udimet 500)
high-temperature corrosion
TMF life model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .740
turbine blade, vane, and nozzle land-based
applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296
N07718 (Alloy 718)
brittle fracture of welded gas-turbine innercombustion-chamber case assembly . . . . . 164,
165
N07718
cavitation erosion in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793
N07718 (IN-718, ErNiFeCr-2, IN-718, Inconel
718)
average asperity, height in fracture profile . . .542
crack-closure stress intensity vs. average
asperity height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .542
fatigue fracture shear regions, from deformation
twinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578, 579, 580
hot working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
hydrogen damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .